USMLE Step 2 CK Bible 2nd Ed
USMLE Step 2 CK Bible 2nd Ed
The
USMLE Step 2 CK
BIBLE
The Ultimate Step 2 CK Preparation Guide
Jeffrey Anderson, M.D.
The USMLE Step 2 CK BIBLE
2nd Edition
The USMLE Step 2 CK BIBLE
Copyright © 2010 Jeffrey Anderson, M.D. All rights reserved. No part of this book
may be used or reproduced in any manner whatsoever without written permission
except in the case of reprint in the context of reviews and personal education.
CONTENTS
FOREWORD
The USMLE Step 2 CK BIBLE is the culmination of over four
months of my own intense personal Step 2 CK preparation. This
document contains and all of the notes I made, all of the charts,
graphs, and images I put together to create the ultimate study
guide, and I guarantee it is more than enough to help you pass,
and if used properly can help you achieve a top score on the
Clinical Knowledge exam.
I used five different study guides as well as all of the notes I took
from working in the wards to put together this in-depth study
guide. This preparation guide contains the most up-to-date as
well as the most commonly asked clinical information, which
will help you score high on the Step 2 CK exam.
When I put this preparation guide together, I did so with my own
score in mind, and I made it so that I would have to study from
one source, and that’s exactly what you have here. If you study
hard and use the CK BIBLE, you will not only pass, you will do
very well.
Best of luck on the Step 2 CK exam…
Chapter 1
Surgery
TRAUMA
Trauma patients are managed using the ABCDE’s in the primary survey after a
traumatic incident.
A – Airway
• Ensure patient is immobilized and maintain airway with jaw thrust
• If airway cannot be established, insert 2 large bore needles into the
cricothyroid membrane
• Never perform tracheotomy in the field
• If patient is unconscious or you cannot establish an airway otherwise,
intubate the patient.
B ‐ Breathing
• Look for chest movement
• Listen for breathing sounds
• Observe the respiratory rate
• Look for life‐threatening injuries (tension pneumothorax, flail chest, open
pneumothorax)
C ‐ Circulation
• Placement of 2 large‐bore IV’s in the upper extremities
• If patient is in shock, place a central line in the patient
• Keep blood on stand‐by in case of hemorrhage
D ‐ Disability
• Assess the neurological status with the Glasgow coma scale
• Check all lab tests (blood, ETOH, electrolytes)
• Loss of consciousness
A loss of consciousness can be assessed with the mnemonic AEIOU TIPS
Alcohol, Epilepsy, Insulin, Overdose, Uremia, Trauma, Infection, Psychogenic, Stroke
E – Exposure
• Examine the skin (must remove all clothes)
In the secondary survey, perform the following:
• Check the Glasgow coma scale
• Check all orifices for trauma and/or injuries (bleeding)
• Perform checks using ultrasound, XRAY, CT
• Check for compartment syndrome
GLASGOW COMA SCALE
STATUS/FINDING POINTS
Eye Opening
Spontaneous 4
To Voice 3
To Stimulation 2
No Response 1
Verbal Response
Oriented 5
Confused 4
Incoherent 3
Incomprehensible 2
No Response 1
Motor Response
To Command 6
Localizes 5
Withdraws 4
Abnormal Flexion 3
Extension 2
No Response 1
A coma scale below 8 indicates severe neurologic injury
SHOCK
The type of shock can be diagnosed by checking the cardiac output (CO), the
pulmonary capillary wedge pressure (PCWP), and the peripheral vascular resistance
(PVR).
Differential Diagnosis of Shock
How to correct the different types of shock
Problem Initial Treatment
Hypovolemic Shock Decreased Preload 2 Large bore IV’s,
replace fluids
Cardiogenic Shock Cardiac Failure 02, dopamine and/or NE
Septic Shock Decreased PVR 02, NE, IV antibiotics
Recognizing Shock
In Chest trauma:
• The most common type of shock resulting from chest trauma is hypovolemic
• Patient will be pale, cold, and diaphoretic
• This patient is likely losing large amounts of blood, thus searching for source
of bleeding is imperative
• Pericardial tamponade can be a result of thoracic trauma, look for distended
neck veins
• In suspected pericardial tamponade, look for an enlarged heart on CXR,
perform cardiocentesis, look for electrical alternans on EKG
Management of shock:
• Control the site of bleeding
• Give fluids
• Prepare for an emergency laparotomy
** If a laparotomy isn’t warranted, simply resuscitate with fluids
HEAD TRAUMA
Epidural Hematoma
• There will be a history of trauma
• Sudden loss of consciousness followed by a lucid interval, then followed by
rapid deterioration
• Most commonly bleed is from the middle meningeal artery
Diagnosis:
• With a CT, looking for a lens‐shaped hematoma
Management:
• Emergency craniotomy essential because this is a deadly case within a few
hours
Subdural Hematoma
• Is a low‐pressure bleed coming from the bridging veins
• There is usually a history of head trauma with fluctuating consciousness
Diagnosis:
• CT showing crescent‐shaped bleed
Management:
• If there is midline displacement and signs of mass‐effect then do an
emergency craniotomy
• If symptoms are less severe, conservative management includes steroids
Diffuse Axonal Injury
• This type of injury occurs after an acceleration‐deceleration injury to the
head
• Patient is usually unconscious
• There is a terrible prognosis associated with this injury
Management:
• Lower ICP and prevent further injury
Basal Skull Fracture
• This presents with ecchymosis around eyes, behind the ears, or with CSF
leak from the nose
Diagnosis:
• CT scan of head and neck
Management:
• CSF rhinorrhea will stop on its own
• If facial palsy is present, give steroids
BURNS
1st degree and Seconddegree burns:
• Epidermis and superficial dermis
• Skin is painful, red, and blistered
• Treatment with ointments and/or pain relievers
Third and Fourth degree burns:
• Affects all layers + subcutaneous tissues
• Painless, dry, charred, and cracked skin
• Burns affecting all layers of the skin require surgical intervention
Treatment:
• Depending on severity, resuscitate with fluids
• Removal of eschars
• Do a CXR to rule out lung injuries
• Topical antibiotics after eschar removal
• Burns that cover more than 20% of the body require admission to a burn
center
SURGICAL ABDOMEN
The following illustrates the differential diagnosis for abdominal pain in the right
upper quadrant, right lower quadrant, left upper quadrant, left lower quadrant.
Right Upper Quadrant Conditions Differentiating
Hepatitis
• Presents with RUQ pain and/or tenderness
• Jaundice is most likely present
• Fever is present
• Perform an ultrasound to rule out other causes of pain
Cholecystitis
• RUQ pain and tenderness
• (+) Murphy’s sign (inspiratory arrest during palpation)
• Perform an ultrasound to detect gallstones, a thickened gallbladder wall, or
pericholecystic fluid
Choledocholithiasis
• RUQ pain that is worsened with the ingestion of fatty foods
• Jaundice is often present
• Perform an ultrasound to detect dilatation of the common bile duct
Biliary Cholic
• Constant epigastric and RUQ pain
• Perform an ultrasound to detect the presence of gallstones without any other
gallbladder‐related findings
Cholangitis
• A life‐threatening condition
• Presence of Charcot’s triad: Fever + Jaundice + RUQ pain
• If there is also hypotension and mental status changes, this qualifies as
Reynold’s pentad
• Perform and ultrasound and a CT to detect biliary duct dilatation due to
gallstone obstruction
• Confirm diagnosis with ERCP
Pneumonia
• Presence of pleuritic chest pain
• Perform a CXR, which will show pulmonary infiltrates
FitzHughCurtis Syndrome
• RUQ pain, fever
• There is going to be a history of salpingitis
• Caused by ascending Chlamydia or gonorrhea‐related salpingitis
• Perform an ultrasound which will show a normal gallbladder and biliary tree
with fluid around the liver and gallbladder
Right Lower Quadrant Conditions – Differentiating
Appendicitis
• Diffuse abdominal pain that localizes to the RLQ at McBurney’s point (2/3
distance from umbilicus to ASIS)
• Fever and diarrhea often present
• Abdominal xray or CT to solidify diagnosis
• Decision to remove is based on clinical presentation
Ectopic Pregnancy
• Presents with constant lower abdominal pain, crampy in nature
• Vaginal bleeding
• Tender adnexal mass
• Labs will show ⇑ hCG
Salpingitis
• Lower abdominal pain
• Purulent vaginal discharge
• Cervical motion tenderness
• Perform an ultrasound to detect the abscess, and a CT to rule out other
conditions
Meckel’s Diverticulitis
• Follows the 1‐10‐100 rule
• 1%‐2% prevalence
• 1‐10cm in length
• 50‐100 cm proximal to ileocecal valve
• Presents with GI bleed, small bowel obstruction (SBO)
• Technetium pertechnetate scan to detect
Yersinia Enterocolitis
• Presents similarly to appendicitis (fever, diarrhea, severe RLQ pain)
• XRAY will be negative
• Treat with aggressive antibiotic therapy
Ovarian Torsion
• Patient develops an acute onset of severe, unilateral pain
• Pain changes with movement
• Presence of a tender adnexal mass
• Ultrasound is done first
• Confirm with a laparoscopy
Pyelonephritis
• Classically presents with CVA tenderness, high fever, and shaking chills
• Best initial diagnostic test is a UA and Urine culture
Intussusception
• Seen most commonly in infants between 5 and 10 months of age
• Presence of currant jelly stool (mix of blood and mucus)
• Vomiting, intense crying
• Infants will often pull legs into the abdomen to relieve some pain
• Barium enema is used for both diagnosis and treatment
Left Upper Quadrant Conditions – Differentiating
Myocardial Infarction
• Crushing chest pain that radiates to the jaw, neck, left arm
• Nausea, diaphoresis is present
• Diagnosed by EKG, cardiac enzymes (CKMB, trop I)
Peptic Ulcer
• Presents as epigastric pain that is relieved by foods and/or antacids
• Perforations presents with acute and severe epigastric pain, may radiate to
shoulders (Phrenic nerve involvement)
• Diagnose with an upper GI endoscopy
Ruptured Spleen
• Usually a history of trauma
• Presence of Kehr’s sign (LUQ pain that radiates to the left shoulder)
• Diagnose with an abdominal CT
Left Lower Quadrant Conditions – Differentiating
• Similar to the RLQ conditions are: Ovarian torsion, Ectopic pregnancy, and
Salpingitis
Diverticulitis
• Patient has LLQ pain, fever, and urinary urgency
• Diagnose with a CT scan, which shows thickening of the large intestine wall
Sigmoid Volvulus
• Most commonly seen in an older patient
• Presents with constipation, distended abdomen, and abdominal pain
• Contrast enema to diagnose, will see the classic “bird’s beak”
Pyelonephritis
Classically presents with CVA tenderness, high fever, and shaking chills
Differential Diagnoses for Midline Conditions
GERD
• Epigastric/substernal burning pain
• Degree of pain changes with different positions (worse when patient is
supine)
• Diagnosis made with either a barium swallow, pH testing, or upper GI
endoscopy
Abdominal Aortic Aneurysm
• Asymptomatic usually until it ruptures
• If rupture occurs, patient experiences abdominal pain + shock
• There is usually a palpable pulsatile periumbilical mass
• Ultrasound done first (least invasive), but can visualize with an xray or CT of
the abdomen
Pancreatitis
• Epigastric pain that radiates to the back
• Nausea and vomiting are usually present
• Patient often has a history of alcoholism
Pancreatic Pseudocyst
• Is a result of pancreatitis
• Consider this if patient had pancreatitis that recurred and/or did not resolve
• Ultrasound will show a pseudocyst
Surgical Conditions of the Esophagus
Achalasia
• A condition where the lower esophageal sphincter fails to relax
Signs and Symptoms:
• Dysphagia to BOTH solid and liquid
• Regurgitation of food
Diagnosis:
• Best initial test its the Barium Swallow, which demonstrates narrowing of the
distal esophagus
• Most accurate test is esophageal manometry, which will demonstrate the lack
of peristalsis
Treatment:
• The best initial therapy is pneumatic dilation
• If pneumatic dilation is not successful, surgery should be performed
• If patient does not want surgery, can attempt to relax the LES with injection
of botulinum toxin
Esophageal Diverticula (Zenker’s diverticulum)
• Most common presentation is a patient with dyphagia that is accompanied by
terrible breath
• Pathology is related to the posterior pharyngeal constrictor muscles with
dilate, causing the diverticulum
Signs and Symptoms:
• Dysphagia
• Halitosis
Diagnosis:
• The best initial test is the barium swallow
Treatment:
• Surgical resection of the diverticula is the best initial treatment option
Cancer of the Esophagus
There are Squamous Cell Carcinoma and Adenocarcinoma
Common symptoms to both:
• Dysphagia to solids 1st, then to liquids 2nd
• Weight loss
• Heme (+) stool
• Anemia
• Hoarseness
Squamous Cell Carcinoma
• Is the 2nd MCC of esophageal cancer
• Related to chronic use of alcohol and tobacco
• Most commonly seen in the 6th decade of life and later
Adenocarcinoma
• Occurs in patients who have chronic GERD
• Chronic GERD leads to Barrett’s esophagus, which then leads to
Adenocarcinoma
Diagnosing:
• The best initial diagnostic test is an endoscopy
Treatment:
• The best initial treatment is surgical resection as long as there is no
metastasis
• Surgery should be followed with 5‐FU
Diffuse Esophageal Spasms
• Patient presents with severe chest pain
• Often times, they don’t fit the criteria for an MI, but should get the cardiac
enzymes and do EKG to rule out an MI
• Often comes after having a cold drink
Diagnosis:
• Manometry is the most accurate diagnostic test
Treatment:
• Calcium channel blockers and nitrates are the treatment option of choice
Mallory Weiss Tear
• Violent retching and/or vomiting causes sudden bleeding
• Most cases resolve spontaneously, if they don’t though give epinephrine to
constrict the blood vessels and stop the bleeding
Cancer of the Stomach
• Most cancers of the stomach are found to be malignant
• There is a link of stomach cancers to blood group A, which may indicate a
genetic predisposition to the condition
• Linitis plastica is a diffuse cancer that is fatal within months, and is the most
deadly form of gastric cancer
Signs and Symptoms for all:
• GI discomfort and/or pain
• Weight loss
• Anemia
• Anorexia
There is an ⇑ risk when there is:
• Low fiber consumption
• Excess nitrosamines in the diet (due to smoked meats)
• Excess salt intake in the diet
• Chronic gastritis
There are some classic findings in metastatic gastric cancer, they include:
Virchow’s node:
• Left supraclavicular node is hard
Krukenberg Tumor:
• The metastasis of gastric cancer bilaterally to the ovaries
• Ovaries are palpable in this case
• They are signet‐ring cells
Sister Mary Joseph sign:
• Hard nodule at the umbilicus due to metastasis
• Indicative of a very poor prognosis
Treatments:
• Surgery + chemotherapy
• Palliative care is often the only choice if too advanced
Hernias
Inguinal Hernias
• Is the most common type of hernia
• Men > women
Direct Inguinal Hernia:
• Protrudes directly through Hasselbach’s triangle (inferior epigastric artery,
rectus sheath, and inguinal ligament), medial to the inferior epigastric artery
Indirect Inguinal Hernia:
• More common than the direct hernia, passes laterally to the inferior
epigastric artery into the spermatic cord
Signs and Symptoms:
• Groin mass (intermittent) that protrudes with valsalva‐type maneuvers
Diagnosis:
• Must differentiate from a femoral hernia, which will herniated below the
inguinal ligament
• Diagnosis is based on clinical examination
Treatment:
• Surgical repair
Femoral Hernias
• Women > Men
• Have a greater risk of incarceration due to the way they herniated
• Diagnose clinically
• Surgical correction (do not delay due to risk of incarceration and subsequent
strangulation)
Visceral Hernias
• This type of hernia causes intestinal obstruction
Signs and Symptoms:
• Abdominal pain
• Obstipation (no flatulence)
Diagnosis:
• XRAY will show air‐fluid levels, no gas in rectum
• Differentiate from adhesions
Treatment:
• Surgical repair
Surgical Conditions of the Gallbladder
Gallstones (Cholelithiasis)
Seen mostly in women with the 4 F’s
1. Female
2. Fat
3. Forty
4. Fertile
• It isn’t the presence of gallstones that warrants intervention, but the possible
complications associated with them
• Ultrasound is the test of choice for identifying gallstones
Treatment:
• Asymptomatic gallstones require no intervention
• Chronic pain may require a cholecystectomy
• With an increased risk of cancer, such as in the case of a calcified gallbladder
wall, cholecystectomy may be warranted
Cholecystitis
• Is an infection of the gallbladder that is a result of an obstruction
• Common causes are: E. Coli, Enterobacter, Enterococcus, and Klebsiella
Note the shadow from the impacted stone.
Signs and Symptoms:
• Acute onset of right upper quadrant pain that is non‐remitting
• (+) Murphy’s sign – arrest of inspiration upon palpation
Diagnosis:
• Ultrasound to detect stones, a thickened wall, or fluid surrounding the GB
• Confirm with HIDA scan
• Labs show WBC’s >20,000, ⇑ Bilirubin, ⇑ AST/ALT
Treatment:
• Keep patient NPO, give IV fluids, and give antibiotics to cover gram (‐) rods
and anaerobes
• Do not give morphine for pain because it causes a spasm of the sphincter of
oddi
• If improvements are not seen, cholecystectomy may be warranted
Ascending Cholangitis
• Obstructed bile flow from an obstructed common bile duct leads to an
infection
• Presence of Charcot’s triad: RUQ, fever, jaundice is commonly seen
Diagnosis:
• Ultrasound to detect dilation
• An ERCP can be used after the preliminary US diagnosis
Treatment:
• NPO
• IV fluids
• Gram (‐) antibiotics
• ERCP for decompression of the biliary tree and for removal of the stones
Choledocholithiasis
• An obstruction of the common bile duct
Signs and Symptoms:
• Jaundice (obstructive)
• ⇑ Alkaline phosphatase
• ⇑ Conjugated bilirubin
Diagnosis:
• Ultrasound to detect CBD obstruction
Treatment:
• Cholecystectomy
Cancer of the GB
• Is a rare cancer that is associated with a history of gallstones
• Occurs later in life
• The MC primary tumor of the gallbladder is the adenocarcinoma
• Associated with Clonorchis sinensis infestation
• Has a grave prognosis, with most patients dying within 1yr of diagnosis
Signs and Symptoms:
• Sharp, colicky pain
Diagnosis:
• US or CT to detect the tumor
Treatment:
• Placement of bile duct stents
• Surgery as a palliative option, but is not curative
Surgical Conditions of the Pancreas
Pancreatitis
• Autodigestion of the pancreas by it’s own enzymes
• MCC is alcohol and gallstones
Signs and Symptoms:
• Severe epigastric pain that radiates to the back
• ⇑ Serum amylase and lipase
Diagnosis:
• Clinical suspicion + abdominal CT
• There may be discoloration of the flank (Grey Turner’s sign) and Cullen’s sign
(bluish discoloration of the periumbilicus)
Treatment:
• NPO, IV fluids, and Demerol for pain relief
• Be aware of the potential for alcohol withdrawal
Complication:
• There is a risk for abscesses, renal failure, duodenal obstruction, and
pancreatic pseudocysts
Pancreatic Pseudocyst
• Is a complication of chronic pancreatitis
• Results in a fluid collection within the pancreas that is encapsulated by a
fibrous capsule
Diagnosis:
• Ultrasound
• Abdominal CT
Treatment:
• Surgical drainage
• Creation of a fistula draining the cyst into the stomach
Complications:
• Infection followed by rupture can cause peritonitis
Endocrine Pancreas
• β‐cell hyperplasia causes an insulinoma
• α‐cell tumor causes hyperglucagonemia
Cancer of the Pancreas
• More common in African Americans/males/smokers
• May be more common in diabetics
• 90% are adenocarcinomas
• 60% arise from the head of the pancreas
Signs and Symptoms:
• Weight loss
• Painless jaundice
Diagnosis:
• ⇑ bilirubin, ⇑ alkaline phosphatase, ⇑CA19‐9
• CT scan
Treatment:
• Although usually a terminal diagnosis, can do a resection of the pancreas, or
Whipple’s procedure
• The 5yr survival rate is only 5%
Surgical Conditions of the Small Bowel
Small Bowel Obstruction
• SBO can be caused by a number of conditions
Causes:
• Peritoneal adhesions
• Hernias
• Crohn’s disease
• Meckel’s
• Gallstone ileus
• Abdominal inflammation
Signs and Symptoms:
• Nausea/vomiting
• Abdominal pain
• Abdominal cramps
• Tenderness/distention
• Hyperactive and high‐pitched bowel sounds
Diagnosis:
• Abdominal xray
• Air‐fluid levels on upright film
Small Bowel Obstruction (Supine View)
Small Bowel Obstruction (Upright View)
Treatment:
• NG tube decompression
• NPO
• IV fluids
• If only partially obstructed may be able to treat without surgery
• If surgery is required, must remove both obstruction and dead bowel
Neoplasm of the Small Bowel
• Most commonly is a leiomyoma, second MC is a carcinoid tumor (benign
types)
• Most common malignant types are: adenocarcinoma, carcinoid, lymphoma,
and sarcoma
• Biopsy required for diagnosis
• Treatment involves surgical resection along with LN’s and metastases
Surgical Conditions of the Large Bowel
Polyps
• Are neoplastic, hamartomas, or inflammatory
• Neoplastic polyps are MC adenomas
Adenomas can be classified as:
• Tubular (these have the smallest potential for malignancy)
• Tubulovillous
• Villous (these have the highest risk of malignancy)
Signs and Symptoms:
• MC presents with intermittent rectal bleeding
Diagnosis:
• Colonoscopy or sigmoidoscopy
Treatment:
• Polypectomy
Diverticular Disease
General Information:
• Up to half of the population has diverticula
• The risk increases after 50yr of age
• Only 1/10 people are symptomatic when diverticula are present
• A TRUE diverticula is rare, and includes full bowel wall herniation
• A FALSE diverticula is most common, and involves only a herniation of the
mucosa
• The MCC is a low‐fiber diet which causes an increased intramural pressure
(this is hypothesis)
Diverticulosis
• This is the presence of multiple false diverticula
Signs and Symptoms:
• Most people are asymptomatic, with diverticula found only on colonoscopy
or other visual procedures
• May have recurrent bouts of LLQ abdominal pain
• Changes in bowel habits is common
• Rarely, patient may present with lower GI hemorrhage
Diagnosis:
• Colonoscopy
• Barium enema can also be used for diagnosis
Treatment:
• If patient is asymptomatic, the only therapy should be to increase fiber and
decrease fat in the diet
• If patient has GI hemorrhage, circulatory therapy is warranted (IV fluids,
maintenance of hemodynamic stability)
Diverticulitis
• Inflammation of the diverticula due to infection
• There are many possible complications, such as abscess, extension into other
tissues, or peritonitis
Signs and Symptoms:
• LLQ pain
• Constipation OR diarrhea
• Bleeding
• Fever
• Anorexia
Diagnosis:
• CT demonstrating edema of the large intestine
• DO NOT perform a colonoscopy or barium enema in an acute case, this might
aggravate the problem
Complications:
• Perforation
• Abscesses
• Fistula formation
• Obstructions
Treatment:
• If there is an abscess, percutaneous drainage is required
• Most patients are managed well with fluids and antibiotics
• For perforation or obstruction, surgery is required
Obstruction of the Large Intestine
• Most common site of colon obstruction is the sigmoid colon
Common causes include:
• Adhesions
• Adenocarcinoma
• Volvulus
• Fecal impaction
Signs and Symptoms:
• Nausea/vomiting
• Abdominal pain with cramps
• Abdominal distention
Diagnosis:
• XRAY – showing a distended proximal colon, air‐fluid levels, and an absence
of gas in the rectum
Treatment:
• If there is severe pain, sepsis, free air, or signs of peritonitis there must be an
urgent laparotomy
• Laparotomy if cecal diameter is >12cm
Volvulus
• Twisting and rotation of the large intestine
• Can cause ischemia, gangrene, perforation
• The MC site is the sigmoid colon
• Occurs most commonly in older patients
Signs and Symptoms:
• High‐pitched bowel sounds
• Distention
• Tympany
Diagnosis:
• XRAY – “kidney bean” appearance (ie. Dilated loops of bowel with loss of
haustra)
• Barium enema showing a “bird’s beak” appearance – points to the site of
rotation of the bowel
Treatment:
• Sigmoidoscopy or colonoscopy acts as diagnosis and treatment
• If this doesn’t work, laparotomy is warranted
Cancer of the Colon
• Colon cancer is the 2nd MCC of cancer deaths
• Believed that a low‐fiber, high‐fat diet increases the risk
• There are many genetic factors that contribute to colon cancer, such as Lynch
syndrome and HNPCC
Lynch Syndrome:
• LS 1 is an autosomal dominant predisposition to colon cancer that is usually
right‐sided
• LS2 is the same as LS 1 with the addition of cancers outside the colon, such as
in the endometrium, stomach, pancreas, small bowel, and ovaries
Screening:
• Screening should start at 40yr in people with no risk factors
• If a family member has had cancer of the colon, screening should start 10yr
prior to when they were diagnosed (assuming this is less than 40yr)
• Should have yearly stool occult tests
• Colonoscopy every 10yr
• And a sigmoidoscopy every 3‐5yrs
Diagnosis:
• Obtain preoperative CEA (allows you to follow the progression or recession
of the disease)
• Endoscopy + barium enema
Treatment:
• Surgical resection + LN dissection
• If disease is metastatic, add 5‐FU to the post‐operative regimen
Followup:
• CEA levels every 3 months for 3 years
• Perform a colonoscopy at 6 and 12 months, then yearly for 5 years
• If a recurrence is suspected, a CT should be performed
Surgical Conditions of the Rectum and Anus
Hemorrhoids
• Varicosities of the hemorrhoidal plexus
• Often related to strenuous bowel movements
Signs and Symptoms:
• Bright red blood per rectum
• Itching
• Burning
• Palpable anal mass
• Internal hemorrhoids are NOT painful, while external hemorrhoids ARE
painful
Treatment:
• Usually self‐limiting
• Sitz bath
• Hemorrhoidal cream
• Stool softeners to relieve pain
Thrombosed Hemorrhoids
• These are not a true hemorrhoid, but are external hemorrhoidal veins of the
anal canal
• They are a painful bluish elevation that lie beneath the skin
Classifications:
• 1° hemorrhoids involve no prolapse
• 2° hemorrhoids classically prolapse with defecation but return without
manual reduction
• 3° hemorrhoids prolapse with either straining or defecation and require
manual reduction
• 4° hemorrhoids are not capable of being reduced
Treatment:
• Conservative therapies
• Sclerotherapy, rubber band ligation, and surgical hemorrhoidectomy
Anal Fissure
• A crack or tear in the anal canal
• Usually occurs after the passage of diarrhea or constipation
Signs and Symptoms:
• The most common presentation is the passage of a painful bowel movement
that is accompanied by bright red blood
Diagnosis:
• Perform an anoscopy to diagnose
Treatment:
• Bulking agents and stool softeners are usually all that is needed
• If fissures persist despite conservative measurements, a lateral internal
sphincterotomy may be required
Anal and Rectal Cancer
Anal Cancer:
• The most common form is squamous cell carcinoma
Signs and Symptoms:
• Anal bleeding, pain, and mucus upon evacuation
Diagnose:
• Biopsy
Treatment:
• Chemotherapy + Radiation
Rectal Cancer:
• Seen in males > females
Signs and Symptoms:
• Rectal bleeding, altered bowel habits, tenesmus, obstruction
Diagnosis:
• Colonoscopy
Treatment:
• Surgery that spares the sphincter
• If metastasis involved, addition of 5‐FU chemotherapy + radiation
NEUROSURGERY
Tumors of the Brain
• Often presents as a headache that is severe enough to awaken the patient
during the night
• Increased intracranial pressure causing nausea, vomiting, and Cushing’s
triad (Bradycardia, hypertension, and Cheyne‐Stokes respiration)
• Presence of focal deficits
• Often presents with a fixed, dilated pupil
Diagnosing a brain lesion:
• The most accurate diagnosis comes from biopsy
• With clinical suspicion a CT and/or MRI can often help make the diagnosis
Treatment:
• Excision is the best treatment for all tumors (except prolactinoma and
lymphoma)
• PROLACTINOMA – give bromocriptine to shrink it, then surgery if this
doesn’t work
• LYMPHOMA – radiation is the treatment of choice
• If there is metastasis of brain tumors, adjunct therapy is radiation
Differentiating between the different types of brain tumors
Glioblastoma Multiforme:
• The most common 1° CNS neoplasm
• Is large and irregular with a ring‐enhancing appearance
Meningioma:
• The 2nd MC 1° CNS neoplasm
• Grows slowly
• Benign
Retinoblastoma:
• Occurs in children and is often bilateral
• 40% of cases are familial while the rest are sporatic cases
Medulloblastoma:
• Common in children
• Found in the cerebellum/4th ventricle
Prolactinoma:
• Is the MC pituitary tumor
• Presents with many endocrine disturbances such as amenorrhea, impotence,
galactorrhea, and gynecomastia.
• The MC presenting symptoms is visual disturbance (bitemporal
hemianopsia)
Lymphoma:
• MC CNS tumor in AIDS patients
• An MRI shows a ring‐enhanced lesion
• Often confused with toxoplasmosis
Schwannoma:
• A tumor that affects the 8th cranial nerve
• Presents with tinnitus, loss of hearing, and increased intracranial pressure
Hydrocephalus
• An increase in CSF causes an enlargement of the ventricles
Signs and Symptoms:
• ⇑ ICP, ⇓ cognition
• Headache
• Focal neurological deficits
Diagnosis:
• A CT or MRI can show the dilation of ventricles
• A lumbar puncture can help determine the type of hydrocephalus
• If ICP is normal, it is a communicating hydrocephalus (presents with urinary
incontinence, dementia, and ataxia)
• If ICP is ⇑, it may be either communicating or non‐communicating
(Pseudotumor cerebri, congenital)
Treatment:
• If possible, treat the underlying cause
• If not possible, a shunt should be placed (usually drained into peritoneum)
Surgical Conditions of the Vascular System
Aneurysms
• Is a dilatation of an artery to greater than two times its normal diameter
• “True” aneurysms involve all 3 layers of the vessel, and are caused most
commonly by atherosclerosis and congenital disorders
• “False” aneurysms are covered only by the adventitia of the vessel, and are
most commonly caused by trauma
Signs and Symptoms:
• Gastric/epigastric discomfort
• Back pain
• Commonly in the abdomen (abdominal aorta aneurysms)
• Also commonly in the peripheral vessels
Complications:
• A rupture of an abdominal aneurysm is an emergency
• Presents with abdominal pain, a pulsatile abdominal mass, and severe
hypotension
Diagnosis:
• Ultrasound can help detect aneurysms
• CT is the best test to determine size
• The most accurate test is the aortogram
Treatment:
• Control blood pressure
• Reduce risk factors
• Surgery recommended if aneurysms are >5cm
Peripheral Vascular Disease (PVD)
• Due to atherosclerosis
Signs and Symptoms:
• Presents with claudication
• Patient may have smooth and shiny skin with a loss of hair in the affected
area
Diagnosis:
• Ankle:Brachial Index (ABI) is the best initial test – normal test is ≥ 0.9
• The most accurate test is an angiography
Treatment:
• Lifestyle modifications such as cessation of smoking and incorporation of
exercise
• Control lipids with an LDL <100
• Control blood pressure
• Daily aspirin
• Surgery is required if there is pain at rest, necrosis, intractable claudication,
and/or a non‐healing infection
Aortic Dissection
• Is a dissection of the thoracic aorta
• Presents with intense “tearing” pain that radiates to the back
• There is a difference in blood pressures between the right and left arm
Diagnosis:
• The best initial test is a CXR – showing a widening of the mediastinum
• The most accurate test is the CT angiography
Treatment:
• Urgent blood pressure control with β‐blockers followed by nitroprusside to
maintain a decreased blood pressure
• Urgent EKG and CXR
• Then get a TEE or CT
• Surgical correction is necessary, otherwise this is rapidly fatal.
Subclavian Steal Syndrome
• An occlusion of the subclavian artery leads to a decreased blood flow distal to
the obstruction
• The vertebral artery “steals” the blood due to retrograde flow
• Patient experiences claudication of the arm, nausea, syncope, and
supraclavicular bruit
Diagnose:
• Angiography
• Doppler ultrasound
• MRI
Treatment:
• Carotid‐subclavian bypass
Carotid Vascular Disease
• Is an atherosclerotic plaque in the carotid arteries
Signs and Symptoms:
• Patient may present with a TIA
• Amaurosis fugax (blindness in one eye)
• Carotid bruit
Diagnosis:
• Angiography
Treatment:
• Decrease the modifiable risk factors
• Aspirin
• Other anticoagulation medications
• Surgery is warranted if there is stenosis >70%, if patient has recurring TIA’s,
or if they have suffered from a previous cerebrovascular accident
Surgical Conditions of the Urinary System
Testicular Torsion
• Usually occurs in a younger patient
• Acute edema and severe testicular pain
• Patient usually experiences nausea and vomiting due to the degree of the
pain
• ABSENCE of the cremasteric reflex
• Presence of scrotal swelling
• Testicle may have a horizontal lie
Diagnosis:
• Ultrasound to assess arterial patency
• Upon elevation of the teste, the pain is not alleviated
Treatment:
• 1st step is to secure the circulation
• 2nd step is to evaluate the need for excision of the testicle if it is dead
Epididymitis
• Unilateral pain of the testicle
• Dysuria
• Painful and swollen epididymus
• Less common in prepubertal children as opposed to torsion
Diagnosis:
• Swab for Chlamydia and Gonorrhea
Treatment:
• NSAIDs and antibiotics
Prostate Cancer
• Obstructive symptoms
• Rock‐hard nodule in the prostate
Diagnosis:
• PSA
• Serum phosphatase
• Azotemia
• Transrectal ultrasound
Treatment:
• The only surgical requirement is a radical prostatectomy in very severe cases
– risk of incontinence and/or impotence
Orthopedic conditions requiring surgery
Knee Injuries
Include:
• Anterior cruciate ligament tears
• Posterior cruciate ligament tears
• Collateral ligament tears
• Meniscus tears
Anterior Cruciate Ligament tears:
• Injury history usually reveals a “pop” sound during the trauma
• The Lachman test (anterior drawer test) is used in the field to make a
diagnosis
• MRI is the test of choice to determine the severity of the injury
• Treatment is either with conservative measures, or if severe with
arthroscopic repair
Tear of the ACL with associated joint effusion
Posterior Cruciate Ligament tears:
• Injury usually occurs when the knee is flexed
• “Posterior dresser drawer sign”
• MRI is the test of choice to determine severity of the injury
• Treatment is either with conservative measures, or if severe with
arthroscopic repair
Tear of the PCL
Collateral Ligament tears:
• The MCL is the most commonly injured ligament
• Seen with a direct blow to the lateral knee
• Is commonly injured in conjunction with the injury to the ACL or PCL
• MRI to determine severity of the injury
• Knee brace
Tear of the MCL
Meniscus tears:
• Often seen in older patients and is due to degeneration
• Injury is most commonly seen in the medial meniscus and is much more
common in men
• Diagnose with McMurray’s test
• MRI to determine the severity of the injury
• Treatment is usually rest alone, if severe can treat with arthroscopic surgery
Medial meniscus tear
Shoulder Injuries
Rotator Cuff Injury
• Can range from mild tendonitis to severe tears
• Involve the Supraspinatus, Infraspinatus, Teres Minor, Subscapularis
Signs and Symptoms:
• Pain and tenderness of the deltoid with movement
• Pain over the anterior aspect of the humeral head
• Neer’s sign (+) – pain elicited when the arm is forcefully elevated forward
Diagnosis:
• Clinical suspicion
• MRI is used for confirmation
Treatment:
• NSAIDs
• Steroids injections
• For severe diseases that are not successfully treated with steroids,
arthroscopic surgery is helpful
Dislocation of the Shoulder
• Is most commonly an anterior dislocation
• Posterior dislocation seen when patient is electrocuted and/or experiences a
status epilepticus seizure
Anterior dislocation of the humerus
Signs and Symptoms:
• Immobility
• Extreme pain
Treatment:
• Traction‐countertraction techniques to put the bone back in the socket
• Immobilization period (2‐6 weeks)
Hip and Thigh Injuries
Dislocations
• Dislocations require emergency reduction under sedation
• Risk of injury to sciatic nerve
• Avascular necrosis is a severe complication
Femoral Neck Fracture
• Requires significant force for injury
• Produces severe pain of the hip/groin that is exacerbated with movement
• Leg is classically “externally” rotated
• Diagnose with xray
• Requires surgical reduction and internal fixation
Fracture of the left femoral neck
Wrist Injuries
Colles’ Fracture:
• This is a fracture to the distal radius
• Occurs after falling on an outstretched hand
• Diagnose with H & P and xray
• Treat with cast immobilization for 2‐4 wk
Colles’ fracture
Scaphoid Fracture:
• Almost always secondary to a fall
• Most commonly misdiagnosed as a sprained wrist
• Diagnosis is classically made when there is pain in the anatomic snuff box
• Manage with a thumb splint for 10 weeks
• Complication is avascular necrosis
Scaphoid Fracture
Carpal Tunnel Syndrome
• Presents with pain, numbness, tingling of the hands along the distribution of
the median nerve
Diagnosis:
• Pathognomonic sign is “Tinel’s Sign”, where tapping over the palmar aspect
of the wrist elicits shooting pains
• “Phalen’s test” is also diagnostic
Wrist Splints:
Treatment:
Holds the wrist
• Treat by avoidance of aggravating activity, use in a position of
wrist splints which hold the wrist in slight ‘slight
extension extension’
• Severe cases should first be managed with steroid
injection in the carpal tunnel, if no treatment surgery is performed
The Breast
Workup of a Breast Mass Algorithm (AAFP)
Cancer Risks
• The #1 risk factor for breast cancer is gender
(Female >>> Male) History of
• In women, age is the #1 factor for breast cancer Fibroadenoma
risk and/or
• Late menopause increases the risk of breast cancer Fibrocystic
(after 50yr) disease does not
• If less than 11yr at menarche, the risk of breast increase the risk
cancer is increased of getting breast
• If >30yr at first pregnancy, the risk for breast cancer
cancer increases
Family History and Breast Cancer:
• Only 5% of breast cancers are familial
• With a 1st degree relative being affected, the risk of cancer increases
• Autosomal dominant conditions with increased risk: BRCA‐1, BRCA‐2, Li‐
Fraumeni syndrome, Cowden’s disease, Peutz‐Jeghers
Tumors of the Breast
Mammogram
When to perform
• All women >40yr (controversial as to age to certain tests
start) should have yearly mammograms pertaining to breast
• Not effective in young patients because the masses:
breast tissue is too dense
A palpable mass that
Fibroadenoma feels cystic always
• The classic presentation is a firm, non‐tender, requires an ultrasound
mobile breast nodule first.
• Most commonly seen in teens and younger A palpable mass that
women doesn’t feel cystic
requires a FNA (after an
US or instead of an US).
Any FNA that reveals
bloody fluid requires
cytology.
Always do a
mammogram in patients
>40yr who present with
almost all pathologies of
the breast.
A biopsy is required
when a cyst recurs more
Diagnosis: than 2 times within 4
• Breast exam weeks, when there is
• FNA bloody fluid, when there
• Follow‐up clinical breast exam in 6 weeks are signs of
inflammatory breast
Treatment: disease, and when a
mass does not disappear
• Not required as this condition is not a cancer with FNA.
precursor and often disappears on its own
Fibrocystic Disease
• This presents with multiple/bilateral painful lumps in the breast that vary in
pain with the menstrual cycle
• Is the most commonly seen breast tumor in women between 35‐50yr of age
Diagnosis:
• Fine‐needle aspiration to drain fluid, and it will collapse after the FNA
Treatment:
• OCP’s can help prevent this from occurring
PreInvasive Breast Cancers
Include Ductal Carcinoma In Situ and Lobular Carcinoma In Situ
Ductal Carcinoma In Situ (DCIS)
• It’s presence increases the risk of invasive breast cancers
• Usually non‐palpable and seen on mammogram as irregularly shaped ductal
calcifications
• Will lead to invasive ductal carcinoma
Diagnosis:
• Histology shows puched‐out areas in ducts and haphazard cells along the
papillae
Treatment:
• Surgical excision ensuring clean margins
• Post‐operative radiation is recommended to decrease the risk of recurrence
(Can give Tamoxifen in addition to radiation or instead of radiation)
Lobular Carcinoma In Situ (LCIS)
• In contrast to DCIS, this is not precancerous, it does however increase the
risk of future invasive ductal carcinoma
Diagnosis:
• Hard to diagnose with mammogram
• Cannot be detected clinically
• The histology shows mucinous cells in the classic “saw‐tooth” pattern
Treatment:
• Tamoxifen alone is used for treatment
Invasive Breast Cancers
Treatment for all invasive cancers:
1. If lump is <5cm, Lumpectomy + radiation, may add chemo and adjuvant
therapy.
2. Perform sentinel node biopsy (preferred over an axillary node biopsy)
3. Test for estrogen/progesterone receptors and the HER2 protein
4. If tumor is >5cm, the treatment involves systemic therapy
Invasive Ductal Carcinoma
• Is the most common form of breast cancer, seen in almost 85% of all cases
• Is unilateral
• Metastasizes to the brain, liver, and bone
• Important prognosis factors are size of the tumor and the lymph node
involvement
Paget’s Disease of the Breast
• Presents with an erythematous and scaly lesion of the nipple that is pruritic.
Nipple may be inverted
• Nipple discharge common
Inflammatory Breast Cancer
• Less common
• Rapid growth/progression
• Early metastasis
• Red, swollen, pitted, and warm breast (peau d’orange)
Lobular Carcinoma
• Multifocal and within the same breast (usually)
• 20% of cases present as bilateral multifocal lesions
BRCA1 and BRCA2
Testing for these genes should be performed if there is a history of the following:
• Family history of early‐onset breast cancer
• Family history of male breast cancer
• Past history of breast and/or ovarian cancer in that patient
• Ashkenazi Jewish heritage
Chapter 2
Obstetrics
Terminologies
Gravidty = total number of pregnancies
Parity = number of births with a gestational age >24 weeks
Term delivery = delivery after 37 weeks of gestation
Premature delivery = delivery of infant between 20 and 37 weeks
The Uncomplicated Pregnancy
Diagnosing Pregnancy
The presence of amenorrhea and + urinary ß‐hCG suggests pregnancy.
Confirm pregnancy with the following:
• Presence of gestational sac [seen with transvaginal US at 4‐5 weeks. ß‐hCG
level approx 1500mIU/ml.]
• Fetal heart motion [seen by US between 5‐6 weeks.]
• Fetal heart sounds [heard with Doppler US at 8‐10 weeks.]
• Fetal movement [on examination after 20 weeks.]
Estimating date of confinement (EDC)
Use Nagele’s rule = Last Menstrual Period (LMP) + 7 days – 3 months + 1yr.
*Calculation accuracy depends on regular 28‐day cycles.
DRUG CATEGORIES DURING PREGNANCY
Category Description
A Medication has not shown an increase in risk for birth defects in
human studies.
B Animal studies have not demonstrated a risk, and there are no
adequate studies in humans, OR animal studies have shown a risk,
but the risk has not been seen in humans.
C Animal studies have shown adverse effects, but no studies are
available in humans, OR studies in humans and animals are not
available.
D Medications are associated with birth defects in humans; however,
potential benefits in rare cases may outweigh their known risks.
X Medications are contraindicated in human pregnancy because of
known fetal abnormalities that have been demonstrated in both
human and animal studies.
COMMON TERATOGENS IN PREGNANCY
Drug Birth Defect
Lithium Ebstein’s anomaly (singlechambered right side of heart).
Carbamazepine, Neural tube defects.
Valproate
Retinoid Acid CNS defects, craniofacial defects, cardiovascular defects.
ACE Inhibitors Decreased skull ossification, renal tubule dysgenesis,
renal failure in neonate.
Oral Neonatal hypoglycemia
hypoglycemics
Warfarin CNS & Skeletal defects
NSAIDs Necrotizing enterocolitis, constriction of ductus
arteriosis.
At first visit upon discover of pregnancy
Perform the following:
• Complete physical exam with pelvic and Pap smear.
• Culture for gonorrhea and Chlamydia
Labs include the following:
• CBC
• Blood type with Rh status
• UA with culture
• RPR for syphilis
• Rubella titer
• TB skin test
• Offer HIV test
Additional testing:
• Genetic testing if history indicates the need
• If pt not immune to rubella, DO NOT immunize (live virus).
Recommend:
• Folic acid
• Iron
• Multi‐vitamin
• 25‐35 lb weight gain during pregnancy
What to do during each trimester
1st trimester:
Should see patient every 4 weeks.
Assess:
• Weight gain/loss
• Blood pressure
• Edema
• Fundal height
• Urine for glucose and protein
• Estimation of gestational age by uterine size
2nd trimester:
Continue to see the patient every 4 weeks
Assess:
• At 12 weeks use Doppler US to evaluate fetal heart beat (each visit)
• Offer triple‐marker screen (ß‐hCG, estriol, α‐fetoprotein(AFP)) at 15‐18
weeks, [AFP decreased in Down’s syndrome], [AFP increased in multiple
gestation, neural tube defects, and duodenal atresia].
• Document quickening (fetal movement) at 17‐19 weeks and beyond.
• Amniocentesis if mother is >35yr or if history indicates (hx of miscarriages,
previous child with deficits, abnormal triple‐marker screen).
• Glucose screening at 24wk
• Repeat hematocrit at 25‐28wk
* The most
⇑ MS‐AFP:
common cause of
Neural tube defect (NTD), ventral inaccurate lab
wall defect, twin pregnancy, results is dating
placental bleeding, renal disease, error.
sacrococcygeal teratoma.
⇓ MS‐AFP:
Trisomy 21, Trisomy 18
SECOND TRIMESTER ROUTINE TESTS
The confirmatory test for diabetes in pregnancy is the 3hr 100g oral
glucose tolerance test (OGTT).
• Plasma glucose >125mg/dL at beginning of test = DM
• Abnormal plasma glucose is >140mg/dL at 1hr, >155mg/dL at 2hr, and
>180mg/dL at 3hr.
• If 1 post glucose load measurement is abnormal, impaired glucose
tolerance is the diagnosis.
• If 2 or more post glucose load measurements are abnormal, gestational
diabetes is the diagnosis.
The following antiemetics are safe to use during pregnancy:
• Doxylamine
• Metoclopramide
• Ondansetron
• Promethazine
• Pyridoxine
The Complicated Pregnancy
Bleeding after 20 weeks (late pregnancy)
Most common causes of late pregnancy vaginal bleeding are:
1. Abruptio placenta
2. Placenta previa
3. Vasa previa
4. Uterine rupture
* Never perform a digital or speculum exam in any patient with late vaginal bleeding
until a vaginal ultrasound has ruled out placenta previa
ABRUPTIO PLACENTA
• Sudden onset of severely painful vaginal bleeding in patient with history of
hypertension or trauma.
• Bleeding may be concealed, in which case there will be severe, constant pain
without the presence of blood.
• DIC is a feared complication
Management:
• Emergent C‐section if patient or fetus is deteriorating
• Admit and observe if bleeding has stopped, vitals and HR are stable, or fetus
is <34 weeks.
PLACENTA PREVIA
• Sudden onset of painless bleeding that occurs at rest or during activity
without warning.
• May include history of trauma, sexual activity, or pelvic exam before onset.
• Occurs when the placenta is implanted in lower uterine segment
• Best management is emergency C‐section.
3 forms of placenta previa:
1. Accreta – does not penetrate entire thickness of endometrium
2. Increta – extends further into the myometrium
3. Percreta – placenta penetrates entire myometrium to uterine serosa
VASA PREVIA
• A condition life‐threatening to the fetus.
• Occurs when vilamentous cord insertion results in umbilical vessels crossing
the placental membranes over the cervix. Membrane rupture causes tearing
of the fetal vessels, and blood loss is from the fetal circulation.
• Fetal bleeding and death occur rapidly.
Management:
Immediate C‐section.
Classic triad of vasa previa:
1. Rupture of membranes
2. Painless vaginal bleeding
3. Fetal bradycardia
• Emergency C‐section is always the first step in management
UTERINE RUPTURE
• Occurs when there’s a history of uterine scar with sudden‐onset of
abdominal pain and vaginal bleeding.
• Associated with a loss of electronic fetal HR, uterine contractions, and
recession of the fetal head.
Management:
Immediate surgery and delivery
Comparing Placenta Previa and Placental Abruption
Placenta Previa Placental Abruption
Abnormality Placenta implanted over Premature separation of
internal cervical os normally implanted
(completely or partially) placenta from decidua
Epidemiology ⇑ Risk grand multiparas ⇑ Risk preeclampsia,
and prior C‐section previous history of
abruption, ROM in a pt
with hydramnios, cocaine
use, cigarette smoking,
and trauma.
Time of onset 20‐30 weeks Any time after 20 weeks
Signs & Symptoms Sudden, painless bleeding Painful bleeding, can be
heavy and painful, with
frequent uterine
contractions
Diagnosis US Placenta in Clinical, based on
abnormal location presentation of painful
vaginal bleeding, frequent
contractions, and fetal
distress.
Treatment Hemodynamic support, Hemodynamic support,
expectant management, urgent C‐section or
delivery by C‐section vaginal induction if
when fetus is mature patient is stable and fetus
enough is not in distress
Complications Associated with a two‐fold ⇑ Risk of fetal hypoxia
increase in congenital and/or death, DIC may
malformations so occur as a result of
evaluations for fetal intravascular and
anomalies should be retroplacental
undertaken at diagnosis coagulation.
Hypertension in Pregnancy
Hypertension in pregnancy predisposes both the mother and fetus to serious
conditions. A BP of ≥ 140/90 during pregnancy can be classified as chronic
hypertension or gestational hypertension.
• Hypertension accompanied by signs and symptoms of end‐organ damage or
neurological sequelae is diagnosed as preeclampsia, eclampsia, or HELLP
syndrome.
• Sustained hypertension may cause fetal growth restriction and hypoxia, and
increase the risk of abruptio placenta.
Diagnosis:
• Elevated pregnancy before pregnancy or before 20 weeks gestation = chronic
hypertension
• Development of hypertension after 20 weeks gestation that returns to
normal baseline by 6 weeks post‐partum = gestational hypertension
• Presence of proteinuria and/or presence of warning signs = preeclampsia
Warning Signs of Preeclampsia:
Hallmark symptoms include:
• Headache
• Epigastric pain
• Visual changes/disturbances
Signs:
• Pulmonary edema
• Oliguria
Labs:
• Thrombocytopenia
• Elevated liver enzymes
Disease Characteristics
Preeclampsia • HTN (>140/90 or ⇑ systolic BP
>30 mmHg or diastolic BP >15
mmHg compared to previous BP).
• New onset proteinuria and/or
edema.
• Commonly around week 20
Severe Preeclampsia • SBP >160 mmHg or DBP >110
mmHg.
• Significant proteinuria (>1g/24hr
urine collection or >1+ on dip)
• CNS disturbances such as
headache or visual disturbance
• Pulmonary edema
• RUQ pain
Eclampsia • CONVULSIONS
• 25% occur before labor, 50%
during labor, 25% in first 72hr
post‐partum
Primiparas – are at greatest risk for eclampsia.
Chronic hypertension with superimposed preeclampsia – is diagnosed when there is
chronic hypertension with increasingly severe hypertension, proteinuria, and/or
warning signs.
Eclampsia – is the diagnosis when there is unexplained grand mal seizures in a
hypertensive and/or proteinuric in a woman in the last half of pregnancy. Seizures
are due to severe diffuse cerebral vasospasm, which cause cerebral perfusion
deficits and edema
HELLP syndrome – is diagnosis when there is Hemolysis, Elevated Liver enzymes,
and Low Platelets.
Treatment:
• BP goal is 140‐150 mmHg (systole) and 90‐100 mmHg (diastole).
• Don’t treat unless BP is >160/100 mmHg
Maintenance Therapy:
• First line therapy – Methyldopa
• Second line therapy ‐ β‐blockers such as labetalol
* β‐blocker use in pregnancy can cause IUGR
Acute elevation in BP:
• IV hydralazine or labetolol
Seizure management:
• Airway protection first
• IV Magnesium Sulfate bolus for seizure and infusion for continued
prophylaxis
• Induce labor is fetus is ≥36 weeks with mild preeclampsia and attempt
vaginal delivery with IV oxytocin if both mother and fetus are stable
HELLP Syndrome
• Occurs in up to 10% of preeclampsia patients
• Occurs in third trimester, may occur 2 days after delivery
• Risk factors include: whites, multigravids, older maternal age
Management:
• Immediate delivery at any gestational age
• IV corticosteroids if platelets are <100,000/mm^3 both antepartum and
postpartum, continuing until platelets are >100,000/mm^3 and liver
functions normalize
• Give platelet transfusion if platelets drop below 20,000/mm^3 or platelet
count less than 50,000/mm^3 if C‐section will be performed
• IV Magnesium Sulfate for seizure prophylaxis
• Steroids for fetal lung maturity.
Complications of HELLP:
• DIC
• Placental abruption
• Fetal death
• Hepatic rupture
• Ascites
Normal physiologic changes in pregnancy
There are many normal physiological changes that occur in pregnancy, these include
the following.
Hematological – pregnancy creates a state of hypercoagulability
• ⇑ clotting factor levels
• Venous stasis caused by uterine pressure on lower‐extremity veins
Anemia of Pregnancy:
• Between weeks 6‐30, plasma volume increases approximately 50%
• Red cell mass increases to a smaller degree, anemia due to 15% dilution
• Slight leukocytosis
• Platelets decrease slightly but still remain wnl.
Cardiac –
• CO ⇑ 50% (both HR and SV increase)
• ⇑ flow causes ⇑ S2 split with inspiration, distended neck veins, systolic
ejection murmur, and S3 gallop are normal findings.
• ⇓ PVR due to progesterone‐mediated smooth muscle relaxation
• BP ⇓ during first 6 months, then return to normal
Pulmonary –
• Mucosal hyperemia causes nasal stuffiness and nasal hypersecretion
• Diaphragm elevates due to uterus expansion
• Tidal volume and minute ventilation ⇑ 30‐40%
• Functional residual capacity and residual volume ⇓ 20%
• Hyperventilation that allows for a pressure gradient so maternal 02 can
transfer to fetus
• Respiratory rate, vital capacity, inspiratory reserve all remain unchanged.
GI –
• ⇓ GI motility
• ⇓ esophageal sphincter tone (leads to GERD)
• ⇑ alkaline phosphatase
• Hemorrhoids caused by constipation and ⇑ venous pressure due to enlarging
uterus compression on IVC
Renal –
• ⇓ bladder tone due to progesterone predisposes to urinary stasis and
UTI’s/pyelonephritis
• GFR ⇑ by 50%, thus glucose excretion without increased protein loss
• Serum creatinine and BUN decrease
Endocrine –
• ⇓ fasting glucose in mother due to fetal utilization
• ⇑ postprandial glucose in mother due to ⇑ insulin resistance
• At 9‐11 weeks the fetus produces its own insulin
• ⇑ maternal thyroid‐binding globulin (TBG) due to ⇑ estrogen, ⇑ total T3 and
T4 due to ⇑ TBG.
• ⇑ cortisol and cortisol‐binding globulin
Skin –
• Increased estrogen causes skin changes similar to those in liver disease
• Spider angiomas, palmar erythema
• Hyperpigmentation due to ⇑ estrogen and melanocyte‐stimulating hormone
Medical Complications in Pregnancy
Cardiac Abnormalities
• Heart disorders account for up to 10% of maternal obstetric deaths
• Women with very high‐risk disorders should be advised against pregnancy
due to increased risk of death
• Cardiovascular physiological changes may unmask and worsen underlying
conditions, seen maximally between 28‐34 weeks gestation.
Peripartum Cardiomyopathy
• From the 8th month until 5 months post‐partum, heart failure without
identifiable cause is possible
• Risk factors include multiparity, age over 30, history of multiple gestations,
and preeclampsia
• 5‐yr mortality rate is 50%
Managing specific cardiac conditions
Heart Failure:
• Loop diuretics, nitrates, and β ‐ blockers
• Digoxin may improve symptoms but does not improve outcome.
• Never use ACEI’s in pregnancy
Arrhythmias:
• Rate control as with non‐pregnant patients
• Never give warfarin or amiodarone
Endocarditis Prophylaxis:
• Same as in non‐pregnant patient
• Daily prophylaxis in patient with rheumatic heart disease
Valvular Disease:
• Regurgitant lesions do not require therapy
• Stenotic lesions have increased risk of maternal and fetal mortality
• Mitral stenosis has increased risk of pulmonary edema and Afib.
Hypercoagulable States
Pulmonary Embolus:
• The leading cause of maternal death in US
When to anticoagulate:
• Anticoagulate when DVT or PE in pregnancy
• Anticoagulate when Atrial Fibrillation is present with underlying heart
disease
• When patient has antiphospholipid syndrome
• When ejection fraction is <30%
The anticoagulant of choice is low molecular weight heparin (won’t cross placenta)
• Patients with a history of DVT or PE in a previous pregnancy should receive
prophylactic LMWH throughout the pregnancy, unfractionated heparin
during labor and delivery, and warfarin for 6 weeks postpartum.
Thyroid Disorders
• Hyperthyroidism in pregnancy causes fetal growth restriction and stillbirth
• Hypothyroidism in pregnancy can cause intellectual deficits and miscarriage
• β‐blockers are the DOC for symptoms due to hyperthyroidism
• Radioactive iodine never given in pregnancy
Grave’s Disease:
• Propylthiouracil (PTU) is DOC in pregnancy
• Methimazole is 2nd line drug
• PTU can cross the placenta and cause goiter + hypothyroidism.
• Maternal thyroid‐stimulating Ig’s and thyroid‐blocking Ig’s can cross the
placenta and cause fetal tachycardia, growth restriction, and goiter.
Diabetes in Pregnancy
• The target values for fasting blood sugar are between 90mg/dL and
120mg/dL 1hr after eating.
• Insulin‐dependent DM requires insulin and is safe through pregnancy
• Gestational DM is managed solely through diet
• Oral hypoglycemics are contraindicated and should also be avoided if
breastfeeding, since it can cause hypoglycemia.
Routine monitoring tests during pregnancy:
• Monthly sonograms HbA1c > 8.5 in the first
• Monthly biophysical profiles trimester is strongly
• HbA1c each trimester associated with congenital
• Triple marker screen at 16‐18 weeks malformations, especially
assessing NTD’s. neural tube defects!
• At 32 weeks start weekly non‐stress tests
and amniotic fluid index
• If gestational DM, do a 2hr 75g OGTT at 6‐12 weeks postpartum to see if
diabetes has resolved
Labor in the diabetic patients:
• Due to delayed fetal maturity, aim to deliver the baby at 40 weeks
• If there is poor glycemic control, induce labor at 39‐40 weeks if <4,500g.
• Check L/S ratio, if >2.5 and there is presence of phosphatidyl glycerol this
ensures lung maturity
• If baby is >4,500g, schedule a C‐section
• Ensure maternal glucose is between 80‐100mg/dL, this can be ensured with
D5 (5% dextrose)
• Insulin resistance decreases rapidly after delivery, so keep an eye on insulin
administration and maintain blood‐glucose levels with a sliding scale
Common neonatal problems in diabetic pregnancy:
• Hypoglycemia
• Hypocalcemia
• Polycythemia
• Hyperbilirubinemia
• Respiratory distress syndrome
Liver Disease
Intrahepatic Cholestasis of Pregnancy:
• A genetic condition most commonly seen in European women
Si/Sx Intractable nighttime pruritis of palms and soles of feet
Diagnosis up to 100x increase in serum bile acids
Treatment Ursodeoxycholic acid in treatment of choice. Antihistamines also
helpful
Acute Fatty Liver of Pregnancy:
• A rare condition caused by disordered metabolism of fatty acids by the fetal
mitochondria.
• Causes HTN, proteinuria, and edema that can mimic preeclampsia.
Diagnosis:
• ⇑ liver enzymes (ALT, AST, GGT)
• Hyperbilirubinemia
• DIC
• Hypoglycemia
• Increased serum ammonia
Treatment:
• Emergency situation requires ICU admission and aggressive IV fluids +
immediate delivery
Urinary Tract Infections, Bacteriuria, and Pyelonephritis
Ectopic Pregnancy/Tubal Pregnancy
The earlier the age of gestation the less there is a risk of complications.
1st trimester:
• D&C is the most common 1st trimester procedure.
• Give prophylactic antibiotics
• Perform under twilight anesthesia + paravertebral block
• Can perform medical abortion as an alternative to D&C with use of oral
mifepristone (progesterone antagonist), and oral misoprostol (prostaglandin
E1). * Must be performed within 63 of onset of amenorrhea.
Complications:
• Endometritis (rarely)
• Retained products of conception (POCs)
2nd trimester:
• D&C is the most common 2nd trimester procedure.
• For more advanced pregnancies, an “intact D&C” can be used.
Complications:
• Retained placenta is the most common immediate complication
• Cervical trauma/cervical insufficiency is the most common delayed
complication
Abortion
• Termination of pregnancy usually ≤ 20 weeks, spontaneously in 15% of all
pregnancies.
• Risk factors = ⇑ paternal age, conception within 3 months of live birth, ⇑
parity
• 50% are due to chromosomal abnormalities
• Vaginal bleeding in first half of pregnancy is presumed to be a threatened
abortion until proven otherwise
Ectopic Pregnancy:
• Implantation outside of the uterine cavity
• PID increases the risk
Risk factors:
• Previous ectopic pregnancy
• History of gonorrhea, Chlamydia, PID, salpingitis
• Advanced maternal age (>35)
• > 3 prior pregnancies
Differential dx of ectopic pregnancy:
• Ovarian torsion
• Endometriosis
• Surgical abdomen
• Abortion
• Salpingitis
• Ruptured ovarian cyst
Diagnosing:
• (+) β‐hCH + US to determine intra vs. extra uterine pregnancy
• Low progesterone level is suggestive of a non‐viable pregnancy that may be
located outside of the uterine cavity
Treatment:
• Laparoscopic removal, tubes usually heal on their own
• Methotrexate early, especially if size is <3.5cm in diameter + no cardiac
activity on US
• Rh negative women should receive RhoGAM
• Serial β‐hCH must be done to ensure success of termination
•
Types of Abortions
Disproportionate Fetal Growth
IUGR
• Diagnosed when fetal weight is <5‐10 percentile for gestational age or
<2,500g (5lb, 8oz.)
• Early sonogram is required if accurate dates are not known
Symmetric IUGR:
Fetal Causes:
• ⇓ growth potential
• US shows a ⇓ in all measurements
Etiology:
• TORCH infection
• Aneuploidy
• Structural anomalies such as: cardiac, neurological.
Ultrasound:
• ⇓ in all measurements (symmetric)
Diagnosing:
• Karyotype
• Screen for fetal infection
• Detailed sonogram
Asymmetric IUGR:
1. Maternal Causes:
• ⇓ placental perfusion
Etiology:
• Hypertension
• Malnutrition
• ETOH, tobacco, illicit drugs
Ultrasound:
• ⇓ abdomen measurements with normal head measurements
Diagnosing:
• Serial sonograms
• NST
• AFI (often ⇓, especially with severe uteroplacental insufficiency).
• Biophysical profile
2. Placental Causes:
• ⇓ placental perfusion
Etiology:
• Infarction
• Twin‐twin transfusion
• Abruption
• Velamentous cord insertion
Ultrasound:
• ⇓ abdomen measurements with normal head measurements
Diagnosing:
• Serial sonograms
• NST
• AFI (often ⇓, especially with severe uteroplacental insufficiency).
• Biophysical profile
Macrosomia
• Indicated by fetal weight >90‐95 percentile for gestation age or birth weight
of 4000‐4500g.
Risk Factors:
• Gestational Diabetes Mellitus
• Prolonged gestation
• Obesity
• Increased pregnancy weight gain
• Multiparity
• Male fetus
Complications:
Maternal injury during birth, post‐partum hemorrhage, emergency C‐section
Fetus shoulder dystocia, birth injury, asphyxia
Neonate hypoglycemia, Erb’s palsy
Management:
Elective Csection in diabetic if >4500g, or >5000g in non‐diabetic mother.
Fetal Assessment and Intrapartum Surveillance
The following must be assessed and observed closely during pregnancy:
• Fetal growth
• Fetal well‐being
• Tests of fetal maturity
• Intrapartum fetal assessment
• Isoimmunization
• Genetic testing
1. Fetal Growth
• US is most reliable tool for growth assessment
• Measure by fundal height, a deviation from expected fundal height during
weeks 18‐36 require repeat measurement and/or US
• Early pregnancy: Gestational sac + crown‐rump length correlate quite well
with gestational age
• Later pregnancy: 4 measurements done due to wide deviation of normal
range: 1‐ Biparietal diameter of skull 2‐ Abdominal circumference 3‐ Femur
length 4‐ Cerebellar diameter
2. Fetal wellbeing
• ≥ 4 movements per hr usually indicates fetal well‐being
Nonstress test (NST):
• Measures response of fetal heart rate to movement
• Normal NST when FHR ⇑ by 15 beats per minute for 15 sec following fetal
movement (2 of these accelerations within 20min considered to be normal)
• A non‐reactive NST requires further assessment
• NST has a high false‐positive rate, thus a repeat within 24hr is a good idea
Biophysical profile:
Measures:
• Fetal breathing
• Fetal breathing
• Fetal tone
• Qualitative amniotic fluid volume
• Reactive fetal heart rate
• All measures from 0‐2, a score of 8‐10 is normal, score of 6 requires further
evaluation, score of ≤ 4 usually requires immediate intervention
3. Tests of fetal maturity
• Since the respiratory system is last thing to develop in the fetus, decisions
regarding delivery are usually based on the maturity of this system
• Surfactant is still low all the way up to 33 weeks
• Lack of surfactant causes neonatal respiratory distress syndrome (RDS)
Testing fetal lung maturity:
• Lecithin : sphingomyelin ratio >2.0 is the safe ratio and suggests lung
maturity.
• Phosphatidylglycerol appears late in pregnancy and its presence indicates
fetal lung maturity.
NOTE: Sphingomyelin remains constant throughout pregnancy, while lecithin
only elevates when the fetal lungs become mature
4. Intrapartum fetal assessment
FHR monitoring:
• Normal FHR is 120‐160 BPM
• FHR >160 for ≥ 10 min considered tachycardia (MCC is maternal fever)
• FHR <120 for ≥ 10 min considered bradycardia (congenital heart block, fetal
anoxia, maternal treatment with β‐blockers
• FHR variability is a reliable indicator of fetal well‐being and is suggestive of
sufficient oxygenation of fetus.
• Decreased FHR variability is associated with fetal hypoxia, fetal tachycardia,
depressants, prolonged uterine contractions
Accelerations:
Early decelerations ‐ ⇓ FHR mirroring contraction, due to pressure on fetal head
(vagal nerve stimulation), is physiologic and not harmful to fetus.
Variable decelerations – don’t always coincide with uterine contraction,
characterized by rapid dip in HR followed by rapid return to baseline. Reflex‐
mediated and due to umbilical cord compression
Late decelerations – begin after contraction has started, dips after peak of
contraction, and returns to baseline after contraction is over. Viewed as dangerous
and is associated with placental insufficiency.
Causes:
• Placental abruption
• Pregnancy induced hypertension
• Maternal diabetes
• Maternal anemia
• Maternal sepsis
• Post‐term pregnancy
• Hyperstimulation of uterus
** Repetitive late decelerations require intervention
5. Isoimmunization
Following exposure to fetal red blood cell antigens, the mother can develop
maternal immunoglobulin antibodies (IgG). This can occur during birth or during
the pregnancy depending on certain problems throughout the pregnancy where
blood is mixed.
• Most commonly occurs when mother is Rh (‐) and fetus is Rh (+)
• IgG crosses placenta and can affect the fetus
• A significant transfer of antibodies can result in hydrops fetalis
• Fetal ascites and edema occur (liver makes too many RBC’s at the expense of
proteins, causing a ⇓ in oncotic pressure, resulting in fetal ascites and/or
edema.
• A maternal IgG titer ≥ 1.16 is sufficiently high to hurt the fetus
• The Kleihauer‐Betke test helps to identify fetal RBC’s in maternal blood.
Treatment/Avoidance:
• Give RhoGAM within 72hr of delivery to prevent an antibody response in the
mother.
• Given at 28 weeks as well, can further reduce risks by 0.2%
• Important to test father for Rh status, if he is Rh (+), administer RhoGAM
both at 28 weeks of gestation + at 72hr after delivery.
Other times maternalfetal blood can mix:
• During amniocentesis
• After an abortion
• After an ectopic pregnancy treatment
6. Genetic Testing
• 50%‐60% of spontaneous abortions due to chromosomal abnormalities
• 5% of stillbirths are due to chromosomal abnormalities
• 2%‐3% of couples with multiple miscarriages are caused by chromosomal
abnormalities
• 0.6% of live births have chromosomal abnormalities
When to do prenatal genetic testing?
• Advanced maternal age (most common) – Down’s syndrome is increased 10‐
fold when mother is 35‐45yr.
• Amniocentesis should be offered to all mothers with AMA
• When there is a prior child with chromosomal abnormalities
• When parent(s) have known chromosomal abnormalities
• When there has been an abnormal screening test
Labor and Delivery
1. Initial Presentation
• 85% of patients undergo spontaneous labor and delivery between 37 and 42
weeks
• Regular contractions every 5 minutes for at least 1hr, rupture of membranes,
significant bleeding, and/or ⇓ fetal movement are all reasons for visiting the
hospital
Initial Exam Upon Arrival:
• Auscultation of fetal heart tones
• Determination of fetal life (Leopold maneuver)
• Vaginal examination
2. Stages of Labor
Labor is divided into 3 stages:
Stage 1
• Interval between the onset of labor and full cervical dilation (10cm)
This stage further subdivided into two phases:
Latent phase = cervical effacement and early dilation
Active phase = rapid cervical dilation occurs when approximately at 3‐4cm
Stage 2
• Is the interval between complete dilation and the delivery of the infant
Stage 3
• Is the interval between delivery of the infant and delivery of the placenta
** There is a 4th stage, which lasts 2hr and is the period immediately after delivery of
the placenta, whereby there are many physiological changes
3. Management of Labor
During first stage:
• Continuous FHR monitoring
• Continuous monitoring of uterine activity with external tocodynamometer
and intrauterine pressure catheter
• Analgesia and/or anesthetic given, most commonly when reaching the active
stage of labor.
During second stage:
• At this stage maternal pushing can accelerate delivery
• Episiotomy done at this stage (if performed at all)
• Bulb and suction after delivery of the head
• Shoulders delivered after head
• Umbilical blood sent for ABO and Rh testing
During third stage:
• Delivery of placenta
During fourth stage:
• Evaluation of cervix, vagina, vulva, perineum, and urethral area for
lacerations and/or traumatic injury
4. Abnormal Labor
Dystocia = Difficult Labor
Dystocia is detected by evaluation three criteria, they are:
1. Power – referring to the strength, duration, and frequency of contractions.
• For cervical dilation to occur, there must be more than 3 contraction in 10
minutes
2. Passenger – referring to fetal weight + fetal lie + presentation + position
3. Passage –
• Pelvic diameter
• Ability of pelvic to accommodate passage of baby
• Distended organs or masses can hinder passage
section
Stage 2 – Descent Begins when <2hr if primi Second stage
10cm dilated. <1 hr if multi arrest:
Additional hour if Failure to deliver
Ends when baby given epidural within 2hr(P) or
is delivered 1hr(M)
Cause:
abnormality with
passenger, pelvis,
or power
Mgmt:
Fetal head not
engaged (do
emergency C
section)
Fetal head
engaged (forceps
or vacuum
extraction)
Stage 3 – Begins with baby <30 minutes Prolonged stage if
Expulsion delivery and ends placenta takes
with placental longer than 30
delivery minutes to
deliver.
Mgmt: IV
oxytocin, manual
removal.
Hysterectomy if
these fail.
Prolongation Disorders
Dystocia can be divided into prolonged latent phase and prolonged active phase
1. Prolonged latent phase
• Latent phase >20hr in primigravid or >14hr in multigravid
• May be due to ineffective uterine contractions, disproportion between pelvis
and fetus, and even excessive anesthesia
2. Prolonged active phase
• Considered prolonged when it lasts >12hr and/or the rate of cervical dilation
is <1.2cm/hr in a primigravid or <1.5cm/hr in multigravid.
• May be due to excessive anesthesia, ineffective contractions, disproportion
between pelvis and fetus, fetal malposition, rupture of membranes before
onset of active labor
• This can increase the risk of intrauterine infection and increased need for C‐
section
Arrest Disorders
An arrest disorder occurs when cervical dilation ceases during the active phase for ≥
2hr. Most commonly due to either cephalopelvic disproportion or ineffective
contraction of the uterus.
Management of Abnormal Labor
Labor induction = stimulation of uterine contractions before spontaneous onset of
labor
Augmentation of labor = stimulation of uterine contractions that began
spontaneously but have since become infrequent, weak, or both
Induction trial should be attempted only if cervix is prepared or “ripe”. Cervical
ripening via prostaglandin E2 gel.
Indications for induction:
• Suspected fetal compromise
• Fetal death
• Pregnancy induced hypertension
• Past date pregnancy
• Maternal medical complication
• Premature rupture of membranes (PROM)
Contraindications for induction:
• Placenta previa
• Active genital herpes
• Cord presentation
• Abnormal fetal lie
Risks of prolonged labor:
• Infection
• Exhaustion
• Lacerations
• Uterine atony with hemorrhage
Postpartum Hemorrhage
Uterine Atony:
• The most common cause of excessive postpartum bleeding
Management:
• Uterine massage and uterotonic agents (oxytocin, methylergonovine)
Laceration: Management with surgical repair
Retained Placenta:
• Treatment involves manual removal or uterine curettage
• Placenta accreta/increta/percreta is the diagnosis if the exam shows
placental villi infiltration
• Hysterectomy may be needed to control intractable bleeding
DIC: Most commonly associated with placental abruption, severe preeclampsia,
amniotic fluid embolism, or prolonged retention of a dead fetus.
Uterine Inversion:
• Suspect if a beefy‐appearing bleeding mass in the vagina and failure to
palpate the uterus.
• Manage with uterine replacement followed by IV oxytocin
Urinary Retention:
• May occur with hypotonic bladder
• Residual volume >250ml requires bethanecol
• If bethanecol fails manage with urinary catheterization for 2‐3 days
Premature Rupture of Membranes (PROM)
• Rupture of chorioamniotic membrane before the onset of labor
• Occurs in 10%‐15% of all pregnancies
• Labor usually follows in 90% of patients within 24hrs
• PROM at ≤ 26 wks of gestation is associated with pulmonary hypoplasia
Diagnosing:
• Perform vaginal exam with testing of non‐bloody fluid
• Nitrazine test: tests pH
• Fern test: amniotic fluid placed on slide, looking for branching fern leaf
pattern when slide dries
• US confirms diagnosis: finds oligohydramnios
Treatment:
• If an intrauterine infection is suspected, give broad‐spectrum antibiotics,
otherwise treat as a preterm labor.
Postpartum Contraception
Breastfeeding:
• Breastfeeding provides contraception for 3 months because of temporary
anovulation
Combined estrogenprogestin formulations:
• OCP, patch, or vaginal ring
• Not started until 3 weeks postpartum to prevent hypercaogulable state and
risk DVT
• Not used in breastfeeding women because they diminish lactation
Diaphragm and/or IUD placement:
• Deferred until 6 weeks post‐partum
Progestin contraception:
• Mini‐pill, Depo‐Provera
• Can be safely used while breastfeeding and started immediately after
pregnancy
Postpartum Fever
Postpartum Day # Most likely diagnosis
0 Atelectasis
1 UTI
23 Endometritis
45 Wound infection
56 Septic thrombophlebitis
721 Infectious mastitis
Perinatal Infections
1. Group B βHemolytic Streptococci (GBS)
• 30% of women have asymptomatic vaginal colonization with GBS
• Vertical transmission can cause pneumonia and sepsis of the neonate
within hours of birth
• Mortality rate is as high as 50%
Treatment:
• Intrapartum IV penicillin G
• In patient with PCN allergy, use IV clindamycin, erythromycin, or cefazolin
When are antibiotics given? When are antibiotics not given?
1. When GBS (+) urine, cervical, 1. With planned C‐section, when
or vaginal culture at any time there is no rupture of
in pregnancy. membranes.
2. Presence of high‐risk factors 2. Culture (‐) in this pregnancy
such as: but with (+) culture in previous
• Prolonged PROM pregnancy
• Preterm delivery
• Presence of maternal fever
• Any previous baby who
experienced GBS sepsis
2. Toxoplasmosis
• Caused by Toxoplasma gondii parasite
• Is most commonly caused by the handling of cat feces and/or litter during
pregnancy
• May be caused by drinking raw goat milk or eating raw meat
• Vertical transmission will only occur with primary infection of the mother
• Most serious infection results from infection in the first trimester
Symptoms:
• Most common presentation is a mononucleosis‐type syndrome + the
presence of a cat in the household
• On US, there may be intrauterine growth retardation
Prevention:
Classic congenital triad:
• Avoid handling cat feces, raw goat milk, and
undercooked meat 1. Hydrocephalus
• If infected, mother should take spiramycin to 2. Intracranial
prevent vertical transmission calcifications
3. Chorioretinitis
Treatment:
• After serologic confirmation, give pyrimethamine
and sulfadiazine.
3. Varicella
• Primary varicella infection in mother causes transplacental infection 25%‐
40% of the time.
• Greatest risk to fetus is posed if a rash appears in the mother from 5 days
antepartum and 2 days postpartum.
• A neonatal infection presents with limb hypoplasia, microcephaly,
microphthalmia, chorioretinitis, cataracts, and “zigzag” skin lesions
Preventing Varicella infection:
• Non‐pregnant women should receive vaccination
• Post‐exposure prophylaxis within 96hrs of exposure with VZV
immunoglobulin
Treatment:
• Maternal varicella – anti‐varicella antibodies to mother and neonate
• Congenital varicella – anti‐varicella antibodies + IV acyclovir to neonate
4. Rubella
• Vertical transmission occurs up to 70%‐90% of the time with primary
infection
• Neonate may present with congenital deafness, PDA, cataracts, mental
retardation, hepatosplenomegaly, thrombocytopenia, and a blueberry muffin
type rash.
• Adverse effects occur within first 10 weeks
RUBELLA:
Prevention: “Blueberry Muffin” rash
• Perform a first trimester screening Deafness
• Have mother avoid any infected individuals
• Immunize seronegative women after PDA
delivery
Cataracts
** There is no post‐exposure prophylaxis available
Retardation
Hepatosplenomegaly
Thrombocytopenia
5. Cytomegalovirus (CMV)
• Is the most common congenital virus in the USA.
• CMV is the most common cause of sensorineural deafness in children
• CMV is spread by body fluid secretions
• Most infections produce a mononucleosis‐like syndrome
• Approximately 10% of infants are symptomatic at birth
Symptoms in neonate:
• IUGR CMV
• Prematurity
• Microcephaly • IUGR
• Jaundice • Prematurity
• Petechiae • Microcephaly
• Hepatosplenomegaly • Jaundice
• Periventricular calcifications • Hepatosplenomegaly
• Chorioretinitis • Petechiae
• Pneumonitis • Periventricular
calcifications
Diagnosing CMV: • Chorioretinitis
• Pneumonitis
• Viral culture within 2 weeks of birth
• PCR
Prevention:
• Universal precautions with avoidance of body fluids
• Avoid transfusion with CMV‐positive blood
Treatment:
• Ganciclovir (prevents hearing loss but does not cure infection)
6. Herpes Simplex Virus (HSV)
A neonatal
• Contact with lesions is the most common cause infection acquired
of transmission during delivery has
• Greatest risk of infection in the 3rd trimester a 50% mortality
• 50% risk of transplacental infection with rate.
primary infection
Symptoms:
• Fever + malaise + diffuse genital lesions
• If infant survives, they may develop meningoencephalitis, mental retardation,
pneumonia, hepatosplenomegaly, jaundice, and petechiae.
Diagnosis:
• (+) HSV culture from vesicle fluid or ulcer or HSV PCR of maternal blood
Prevention
• A C‐section is mandatory if mother has active genital HSV lesions at time of
labor.
• It is contraindicated to use fetal scalp electrodes for monitoring; they
increase risk of HSV transmission.
• Avoid standard precautions such as sex with outbreak
Treatment:
• Acyclovir for primary infection during pregnancy
7. HIV
• The major route of vertical transmission is contact with infected genital
secretions at time of vaginal delivery.
• Without treatment vertical transmission rate is 25%‐30%
• Elective C‐section is most beneficial in women with low CD4+ counts and
high RNA viral loads (>1000).
• All neonates of HIV + mothers will test positive due to the transplacental
passage of IgG
Prevention and Treatment:
• Triple‐drug therapy starting at 14 weeks and continuing throughout the
pregnancy.
• IV intrapartum zidovudine (AZT)
• Give infant oral zidovudine for 6 weeks post‐delivery
• Prophylax infant for PCP with TMP‐SMX after the 6 weeks of zidovudine
therapy
• Schedule a C‐section at 38 weeks unless the viral load is <1000 viral
copies/ml
• Mother cannot breastfeed because HIV passes through breast milk
• Avoid all invasive procedures such as artificial ROM and fetal scalp
electrodes
8. Syphilis
• Transplacental infection is more likely in primary and secondary infection,
and less likely in tertiary infection
Earlyacquired (1st trimester) congenital syphilis includes the following symptoms:
• Hydrops fetalis
• Maculopapular or vesicular rash
• Large and swollen placenta
• Anemia, thrombocytopenia, and hepatosplenomegaly
• There is a 50% perinatal mortality rate
Lateacquired congenital syphilis is diagnosed after 2 years of age, includes the
following:
• Hutchinson teeth A Csection cannot
• “Saber” shins prevent vertical
• “Saddle” nose transmission of
• Deafness (CN8 palsy) syphilis. It will be
• “Mulberry” molars transmitted through
the placenta before
Diagnosis: birth.
• VDRL or RPR screen in first trimester
• Confirm a positive test with FTA‐ABS or MHA‐TP
Treatment:
• Benzathine penicillin IM (1 time for infected mothers)
• If PCN allergy: Desensitization followed by full dose benzathing PCN
After any (+) syphilis screen, FTA‐ABS or MHA‐TP is done as confirmatory tests.
9. Hepatitis B
• Neonatal infection from primary infection in the 3rd trimester or ingestion of
infected genital secretions
• 80% of infected neonates will develop chronic hepatitis
Prevention:
• Hep B infection is not an indication for C‐section
• Avoid invasive procedures
• After neonate receives immunization and hep B immunoglobulin, can be
breastfed
Immunization:
• HBsAg‐negative – give active immunization during pregnancy
• Postexposure prophylaxis for the mother – HBIG
Treatment:
• Hepatitis immunization + HBIG in neonate
• Chronic HBV can be treated with interferon or lamivudine
Contraindications to breastfeeding
• HIV
• Active TB
• Hep B (before infant is immunized)
• HSV
• Drug use/medications
• Drugs of abuse (except cigarettes, alcohol)
• Cytotoxic medications
• Conditions of infant that CI breast milk
• HTLV‐1
Chapter 3
Gynecology
Benign Gynecology
The Menstrual Cycle:
• At birth, there are approximately 1 million primordial follicles in the ovary,
each with an oocyte that is arrested in the prophase stage of meiosis.
• The process of ovulation signals the onset of puberty, which signals follicular
maturation.
• Ovulation occurs, and the dominant follicle becomes the corpus luteum,
which secretes progesterone to prepare the endometrium for possible
implantation.
• If the ovum is not fertilized, the corpus luteum undergoes involution, which
causes menstruation.
• The cycle is regulated by hypothalamic gonadotropin‐releasing hormone,
pituitary release of follicle‐stimulating hormones (FSH), luteinizing
hormones (LH), and the ovarian sex steroids estradiol and progesterone.
• An ⇑ or ⇓ in any of these hormones can cause dysfunction of the normal
menstrual cycle.
This graph demonstrates the process of all three phases of the menstrual cycle,
which hormones are in play, the development of the egg, and the days that
correspond to all events
Contraception:
Oral contraceptives that combine progestin and estrogen
• Estrogen suppresses FSH, which prevents selection and maturation of a
dominant follicle.
• Progestin works by suppressing LH, which inhibits ovulation. It also thickens
cervical mucosa, which further prevents the ability of semen to pass into the
uterus.
• Together, they inhibit pregnancy by thinning the endometrial lining and
resulting in light or misses menses.
Phasic vs. Monophasic Pills:
• Phasic pills vary the ratio of estrogen and progestin. This decreases the dose
of hormone given but it increases the risk of breakthrough bleeding
• Monophasic pills deliver a constant dose of estrogen and progestin
throughout the month
** Following cessation of OCP’s, fertilization usually resumes immediately. A small
percentage of users will experience a period of infertility, known as “postpill
amenorrhea”
Advantages and Disadvantages of OCP’s
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
• Reliable with failure rate of <1% • Must be taken daily close to the
• Protective against ovarian and same time
endometrial cancer • No STD protection
• Decreases incidence of PID and • Up to 30% breakthrough bleeding
ectopic pregnancies • May cause depression, weight
• Makes menses more predictable gain, hypertension, acne, bloating,
and less painful/lighter. and weight gain
Alternatives to OCP’s
• Progestin‐only pills “mini‐pills”
• Depo‐Provera IM injection lasts for 14 weeks
• Norplant subcutaneous implant lasts up to 5 years
• Intrauterine device device left in place for several years
• Emergency Contraception progestin/estrogen taken within 72hr
Pap Smear:
• Begin within 3 years of onset of sexual activity OR age 18 years (whichever
comes first).
• When 3 annual pap smears in a row are negative, can do every 2 years until
age 70.
• Patients with 1 sexual partner, 3 consecutive normal pap smears, and onset
of sexual activity after age 25 can be screened less frequently.
Pap Smear Classifications:
1. Intermediate smear: Atypical squamous cells of undetermined significance
(ASCUS)
2. Abnormal smears:
• Low grade squamous intraepithelial lesions (LSIL): HPV, mild dysplasia, or
carcinoma in situ 1 (CIS1)
• High grade squamous intraepithelial lesions (HSIL): moderate dysplasia,
severe dysplasia, CIS, CIN 2 or CIN 3
• Cancer: invasive cancers
Workup of an abnormal Pap
Vaginitis
• The most common presenting symptom is discharge
• Always rule out chemical or allergic causes
• 50% of cases are due to Gardnerella
• 25% due to Trichomonas
• 25% due to Candida
Differentiating between the different causes of vaginitis
Candida Albicans – note the pseudohyphae
Trichomonas – Motile Organisms
Gardnerella – Clue Cells (large epithelial cells covered with small bacteria)
Endometriosis
• Endometrial tissue outside of the uterus, most commonly found in the
ovaries.
• Affects approximately 1%‐2% of women
• Approximately 50% of infertile women have endometriosis
Signs & Symptoms:
• The 3 D’s Dyspareunia, Dysmenorrhea, Dyschezia
• May also have pelvic pain, infertility, pain on rectovaginal exam.
Diagnosis:
• Visualization via laparoscopy or laparotomy with histological confirmation.
Treatments:
1. NSAID’s first
2. OCP’s
3. Testosterone (Danazol – A/E: hirsutism, acne)
4. GnRH analog (gives best result but causes menopausal symptoms within 3‐6
months)
Recurrence after cessation of medical treatment is common, definitive treatment is
hysterectomy.
Reproductive Endocrinology
Amenorrhea
Primary woman has never menstruated
Secondary menstrual aged woman who has not menstruated in 6 months
• Most common cause of amenorrhea is pregnancy
• Every evaluation must by excluding pregnancy (urine β‐hCG)
• The most common cause of secondary amenorrhea is Asherman’s syndrome
(scarring of the uterine cavity after D&C)
• Hypothalamic deficiency is a cause of amenorrhea (excessive weight loss,
excessive exercise, psychogenic, drug use)
• Pituitary dysfunction: from ⇓ hypothalamic pulsatile release of GnRH or ⇓
pituitary release of FSH or LH
Ovarian dysfunction:
• Follicles are exhausted of FSH and/or LH OR are resistant to stimulation
Causes:
• Inherited disorders such as Turner’s syndrome
• Premature menopause
• Autoimmune ovarian failure
• Chemotherapies
Treatment:
• If hypothalamic treat underlying cause and induce ovulation with
gonadotropins
• Tumors Bromocriptine to shrink tumor and/or excision
• Genital tract obstruction surgery
• Ovarian dysfunction Exogenous estrogen replacement
How to differentiate between Menopause and Asherman’s syndrome?
An ultrasound will help visualize the presence or absence of follicle. Asherman’s
syndrome will have follicles while menopause will lack the presence of follicles.
Hypothalamic Causes: Stress, Anxiety, Anorexia, And Excessive Exercise
Pituitary Causes: Adenoma
Ovarian Causes: Early menopause, resistant ovary syndrome
Endometrial Causes: Asherman’s syndrome
Abnormal bleeding in a reproductive age woman
With the presence of abnormal bleeding, first thing is to rule out “PAD:
P pregnancy
A anatomical abnormalities
D dysfunctional uterine bleeding
Dysfunctional Uterine Bleeding (DUB):
• Anatomic menstruation without anatomic lesions of the uterus
• Is most commonly due to chronic estrogen stimulation
• Abnormal bleeding is defined as bleeding at intervals <21 days or >36 days,
lasting >7 days, or blood volume loss >80ml
Diagnosis:
• R/O anatomic causes (fibroids, cervical or vaginal lesions, infections, cervical
and/or endometrial cancer)
• Evaluate factors that can affect the hypothalamus‐pituitary axis (stress,
excessive exercise, weight changes, systemic disease, coagulopathies,
pregnancies)
Treatment:
• Give progesterone from day 14‐25 of menstrual cycle
• Birth control pills are an alternative
Hirsutism and Virilization
Hirsutism excessive body hair usually due to polycystic ovaries or adrenal
hyperplasia
Virilization masculinization, associated with marked ⇑ in testosterone, male
pattern balding, voice deepening, clitoromegaly, breast involution.
Differentiating causes of Hirsutism and Virilization
Menopause
• The cessation of menses occurs on average at 51yr of age.
• Cycles no longer associated with pre‐menstrual symptoms, no longer regular
or predictable.
Signs and symptoms:
• Acute onset of hot‐flashes/sweating that cease acutely (within 3‐5 minutes)
• Mood disturbances
• Sleep disturbances
• Vaginal dryness (leads to dyspareunia)
• Osteoporosis
Diagnosis:
• Irregular menstrual cycles are most obvious for diagnosis
• Presence of hot flashes suggest menopause
• ⇑ levels of FSH (>30mIU/ml)
Treatment:
• 1st line treatment is estrogen replacement therapy (continuous estrogen with
cyclic progestin to allow withdrawal bleeding or daily admin of both estrogen
and progestin, which wont cause w/d bleeding).
• Raloxifene: a 2nd generation tamoxifen‐like drug (mixed estrogen
agonist/antagonist). Shown to prevent osteoporosis, decreases LDL,
decreases risk of breast cancer.
• Calcium supplementation is not a substitute for estrogen replacement
Infertility
• Defined as 1yr of frequent, unprotected intercourse without pregnancy.
• 60% female cause, 40% male cause
How to approach infertility:
1st Step: Semen Analysis (volume, motility, # active sperm)
If this is found to be abnormal, attempt Intrauterine Insemination (IUI) or
Intracytoplastic Sperm Injection (ICSI)
If semen analysis is normal, consider female factors.
2nd Step: Test cervical mucus to see if it softens (done around time of ovulation –
known as “spinnbarkeit”.
How to test:
• Patient comes in after intercourse
• With help of speculum get endocervical mucus
• Put mucus on a glass slide and cover with another slide
• Attempt to pull slides apart (should be able to separate at least 6cm before
mucus breaks – which indicates soft and favorable mucus)
• If slide breaks too early, mucus is “hostile”
• Also want to check for “mucus ferning” on microscopy
How to treat hostile mucus: Intra Uterine Insemination (IUI)
• Perform by inserting a catheter into the cervix and inject sperm past the
mucus plug
Another solution: Give estrogen early in the cycle (softens mucus)
Next: If Sperm is OK and Mucus is OK….
3rd Step: Check Ovulation
• Check basal body temperature (⇑ 1deg due to progesterone spike)
• A sign of pregnancy is the lack of body temperature rising
• Do an endometrial biopsy
• Day 22 is the highest day of serum progesterone
• LH surge – there are strips that can measure LH, if + patient will ovulate
within 24‐48hrs
If you find a problem with ovulation, give fertility drugs.
Treatment:
1st CLOMID (fools the pituitary into secreting lots of FSH and LH)
OR
2nd PERGANOL (concentrated amounts of FSH and LH from urine of menopausal
women).
** Use CLOMID first, it has a lower rate of multiple gestation and lower risk of
“ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome”. With PERGANOL, there is a 20% multi‐
gestation risk.
If semen is normal…
If mucus is normal…
If ovulation is normal…
NEXT STEP: Look for tubal factors (blockage due to PID) – history of chronic pain,
TOA, ectopic pregnancy, infertility
Perform: Hystero‐Salpingogram to help diagnose a blockage
IF there is a tubal problem, there are 2 choices:
1. Tuboplasty (cuts out the obstruction)
2. In Vitro Fertilization (done in a lab, then put zygote into uterus)
In Vitro Fertilization (IVF):
• Puts 4 zygotes into the uterus
• Putting <4 = low pregnancy rate
• Putting >4 = ⇑ risk of multiple gestation
IVF has a 60% pregnancy rate
Last thing to do in the infertility workup is Laparoscopy (checking for
endometriosis).
20%‐25% of those with unexplained infertility actually have endometriosis.
** If everything is normal, diagnosis is “unexplained infertility”
DATA shows that 50% of people with infertility will get pregnant within 4‐5 years.
Androgen Insensitivity
• A diagnosis made when there is an absence of pubic or axillary hair.
• Karyotype reveals a male genotype (XY), and US reveals testicles.
• Testes produce normal levels of both male and female hormones, ie. Estrogen
and testosterone.
Management:
Removal of testes before 20yr of age due to increased risk of testicular cancer. After
removal patient will require life‐long estrogen replacement.
Gonadal Dysgenesis (Turner’s syndrome)
• Absence of secondary sexual characteristics
• Karyotype reveals the absence of one of the X chromosomes (45, X).
• Elevated FSH
• Lack of a second X chromosome leads to lack of ovarian follicle development,
leading to “streak gonads”.
Management:
Estrogen and progesterone replacement to help development of secondary sexual
characteristics.
Urogynecology
Pelvic Relaxation: Most commonly causes the following:
1. Uterine Prolapse
2. Cystocele (bladder prolapse into vagina)
3. Rectocele (rectal prolapse into vagina)
Uterine Prolapse:
• Occurs when ligaments (suspensary) ligaments can no longer support it
• Most common cause is childbirth
Signs & Symptoms:
• Vaginal pressure sensation
• Vaginal fullness
• Low back pain
** Can cause cystocele and rectocele
Degrees of prolapse:
1st degree prolapse is above introitus
2nd degree goes to the introitus
3rd degree goes past introitus
Cystocele:
• Bladder prolapse into the vagina due to excessive pelvic relaxation
• Severe cases can cause stress incontinence
2 types of incontinence:
1. Stress Incontinence the most common type (caused by pelvic floor
injuries)
2. Neurogenic Incontinence urge/overflow incontinence (caused by ⇓
innervation and control of bladder function, resulting in involuntary bladder
contraction (urges) or bladder atony (overflow).
Testing for stress incontinence:
1. Do a pelvic exam – if you see prolapse this suggests stress incontinence
2. Q‐tip test – insert a Q‐tip into urethra and have the pt cough. If it rotates
>30degrees, pt has stress incontinence.
** If patient describes an “urge” and/or “frequency” for urination, it is suggestive of
neurogenic incontinence
Treatments:
Stress Incontinence 1st – attempt kegel exercises, 2nd – surgery (colporaphy)
Neurogenic Anti‐spasmotics, anti‐cholinergics
Other causes of urinary incontinence:
Neuropathic caused by head injury, spinal injury, or peripheral nerve injury.
Treatment: catheter, either indwelling or intermittent
Anatomical caused by a vesicovaginal fistula. Treatment: repair of defect.
Gynecologic Oncology
1. Endometrial cancer
2. Fibroids/Leiomyoma
3. Cervical cancer
4. Ovarian neoplasm’s
5. Vulvar and vaginal cancer
6. Gestational trophoblastic neoplasia
Endometrial Cancer:
• Is the most common reproductive tract cancer with approximately 30,000‐
40,000 new cases each year.
• Is an “estrogen‐dependent” cancer
Risk factors:
• Unopposed postmenopausal estrogen replacement therapy
• Menopause after 52yr of age
• Obesity
• Nulliparity
• PCOS
• Diabetes
• Chronic anovulation
Signs & Symptoms:
• Abnormal uterine bleeding, especially if woman is postmenopausal
• All women >35yr with abnormal bleeding requires an endometrial sampling
for histologic examination.
Diagnosis:
• Pap smear not reliable
• Bimanual exam for masses, nodules, induration, and immobility
• Endometrial biopsy by endocervical curettage, D&C, hysteroscopy with direct
biopsies.
Treatment:
• If simple or complex hyperplasia – give progesterone to reverse
hyperplastic process promoted by estrogen (Provera for 10 days)
• Atypical hyperplasia – hysterectomy because of likelihood that invasive
carcinoma will ensue
• Endometrial carcinoma Total abdominal hysterectomy + bilateral
salpingo‐oophorectomy + lymph node dissection, adjuvant external‐beam
radiation, treatment for recurrence is high‐dose progestin’s.
Prognosis:
• Histologic grade is the most important factor in overall prognosis.
• Depth of myometrial invasion is 2nd most important factor in overall
prognosis
G1 – highly differentiated
G2 – moderately differentiated
G3 – solid or completely undifferentiated
G1 tumor that doesn’t invade the myometrium has a 95% 5‐yr survival
G3 tumor with deep myometrial invasion has ~20% 5‐yr survival
Uterine Leiomyomas Fibroids
• Fibroids are benign tumors whose growth is related to the production of
estrogen.
• Growth is often rapid perimenopausally
• 30% of cases warrant a hysterectomy
Signs & Symptoms:
• Menorrhagia
• Pelvic pain and pressure (misdiagnosed as dysmenorrheal)
• Enlarged, firm, asymmetric, non‐tender uterus
Diagnosing Fibroids:
• US initially, confirm with tissue sample by either D&C or biopsy (especially in
postmenopausal women).
Treatments:
• Mild symptoms only require re‐assurance and observation
• Estrogen inhibitors such as GnRH agonists can shrink the uterus, which help
to create a simpler surgical procedure.
• Surgery myomectomy recommended in young patients who want to
preserve fertility.
• Hysterectomy is definitive treatment that should be reserved for
symptomatic women who have no desire for children and/or any more
children.
Adenomyosis
• Abnormal location of endometrial glands and stroma within the myometrium
of the uterine wall
• When symptomatic is causes dysmenorrheal and menorrhagia.
• Uterus feels soft, globular, tender, and symmetrical.
• Unlike leiomyomas, there is no change with high or low estrogen states.
Leiomyosarcoma
• A rare cancer that accounts for approximately 3% of uterine cancers
Signs & Symptoms:
Sarcoma postmenopausal bleeding, pelvic pain, increasing vaginal discharge
Treatment:
• Hysterectomy with intraopertive LN biopsy
• Surgical staging is an important aspect
• Adjunctive therapies have minimal overall benefit
** Only 50% of patients survive 5 yr
Cervical Cancer
• The most important screening tool is the Pap smear
• The average age of diagnosis is between 45‐50yr.
• The most common diagnosis is squamous cell carcinoma (85%), the other
15% are adenocarcinoma
Diagnosis:
Cervical Biopsy most commonly is SCC
Next step metastatic workup (pelvic exam, CXR, IV pyelogram, cystoscopy, and
sigmoidoscopy).
** Imaging studies not required (invasive cervical cancer is the only gynecological
cancer that does not get staged clinically).
Management:
• Management is simple hysterectomy or modified radical hysterectomy + LN
dissection. Survival <40% at 5yr.
• Adjuvant therapy such as radiation and chemo is given when any of the
following conditions are present: Mets to LN’s, tumor >4cm, + margins, local
recurrence
Ovarian Neoplasms
Benign cysts:
• Functional growth resulting from failure of normal rupture of follicle
• Benign tumors are more common than malignant tumors
• Risk of malignancy increases with age
Signs & Symptoms:
• Pelvic pain/pressure
• Acute and severe pain when cyst ruptures
Confirm Diagnosis With US
Benign Neoplasms
Malignant Tumors:
• Most commonly seen in women > 50yr
• OCP use is a protective factor
• Seen in higher frequency in women of low parity, ⇓ fertility, delayed
childbearing
• Usually asymptomatic until metastasis has occurred
• Yearly pelvic exams are the most effective screening tools
Signs & Symptoms:
• Vague abdominal pains
• Vague pelvic pains
• Constipation, early satiety, abdominal distention, urinary frequency
Treatment:
• Debulking surgery + chemo/radiation
Malignant Neoplasms
Vulvar and Vaginal Cancers
Vulvar Intraepithelial Neoplasia (VIN):
VIN 1 & 2 characterized by mild/moderate dysplasia, ⇑ risk of progressing to
advanced stages and then carcinoma.
VIN 3 = carcinoma in situ
Signs & Symptoms:
• Pruritis
• Presence of raised lesions
• Irritation
Diagnosis:
• Biopsy required for a definitive diagnosis
Differential diagnosis:
• Malignant melanoma and Paget’s disease
Treatment:
• For VIN 1 and 2 local excision
• For VIN 3 wide excision
Vulvar Cancer:
• 90% are squamous cell cancers
• Most often this presents in postmenopausal women
Signs & Symptoms:
• Pruritis (may present with or without an ulcerative lesion)
Treatment:
• Excision
** 5yr survival rate ranges from 70%‐90% depending on LN involvement.
** With the presence of deep pelvic nodes, survival rate drops to 20%
Vaginal carcinoma in situ and carcinoma:
• 70% of patients with vaginal CIS have previous genital tract neoplasm
Treatment:
• Radiation
• Surgery reserved for extensive disease
Gestational Trophoblastic Disease (GTN)
• An abnormal proliferation of placental tissue that involves both the
cytotrophoblast and/or syncytiotrophoblast.
• Can be both benign and malignant
Risk factors:
• Maternal age on low or high spectrum (<20yr and >35yr)
• Folate deficiency is a risk factor
Signs & Symptoms:
• Most common sign is a fundus that is larger than dates should show
• Bilateral cystic enlargement of the ovary
• Bleeding at <16 weeks gestation and passage of tissue from vagina is the
most common symptom
• Hypertension
• Hyperthyroidism
• Hyperemesis gravidarum
• No fetal heart tones heard
• Most common site of metastasis is the lung
Diagnosing:
• US reveals homogenous intrauterine echoes without a gestational sac or fetal
parts (looks like a “snowstorm”)
Management:
• Get a baseline quantitative β‐hCG
• Get a CXR to rule out lung METS
• D&C to evacuate the uterine contents
• Place the patient on OCP’s so that there will be no confusion between a rising
β‐hCG titer from recurrent disease and normal pregnancy
BENIGN MOLE
Complete Mole Incomplete Mole
Empty egg Normal egg
46, XX (dizygotic ploidy) 69, XXY (triploidy)
Fetus is absent Fetus is nonviable
20% become malignant 10% become malignant
No chemotherapy. No chemotherapy.
Serial β‐hCG until completely negative. Serial β‐hCG until completely negative.
Follow up for 1yr while on OCP’s Follow up for 1yr while on OCP’s
MALIGNANT MOLES
The Breast
Benign Breast Diseases:
• Fibroadenoma
• Fibrocystic disease
• Intraductal Papilloma
• Fat Necrosis
• Mastitis
Malignant Breast Diseases:
• Ductal carcinoma in situ (DCIS)
• Lobular carcinoma in situ (LCIS)
• Ductal carcinoma
• Lobular carcinoma
• Inflammatory breast cancer
• Paget’s disease of the breast
Fibroadenoma
• Is the most commonly seen tumor in young women (20’s)
• Fibroadenomas grow rapidly but have no increased risk for developing
cancer
• Histology shows myxoid stroma and curvilinear/slit ducts
Treatment: Not required and will often resorb within several weeks (re‐evaluate at
1 month)
Fibrocystic Disease
• Is the most common tumor in patients between 35‐50 years of age.
• Arises in terminal ductal lobular units
• Often arises as multiple bilateral small lumps which are tender during the
menstrual cycle
Intraductal Papilloma
• Presents commonly with serous bloody nipple discharge
• Multiple nodules in younger patients and solitary growth in perimenopausal
patients
• There is an increased cancer risk with multiple papillomas, but no increased
cancer risk with solitary pipillomas
Ductal Carcinoma in Situ (DCIS)
• Usually seen on mammography but not clinically palpable
• Is a premalignancy that will lead to invasive ductal cancer
• Histology shows haphazard cells along papillae, punched‐out areas in ducts,
with cells infiltrating open spaces.
Treatment:
• Mass excision ensuring clear margins.
• If margins are not clear must excise again with wider margins.
• Give post‐op radiation to prevent recurrences.
Lobular Carcinoma in Situ (LCIS)
• LCIS can’t be detected clinically but mammography is also a weak tool for
diagnosis
• Not precancerous like DCIS but can be a marker for future invasive ductal
cancer
• Mucinous cells are almost always present
• There is a “saw‐tooth” and clover‐leaf configurations in the ducts
Invasive Ductal Carcinoma (IDC)
• Is the most common breast cancer type, seen most commonly in the mid 30’s
– late 50’s, and forms solid tumors
• Most important prognosis factor is the size of the tumor
• LN involvement is also an extremely important factor in prognosis
• There are many subtypes of IDC, such as mucinous and medullary
• Moderately differentiated IDC comes from cribriform or papillary intraductal
originators
• Poorly differentiated IDC comes from intraductal comedo originator.
Invasive Lobular Carcinoma (ILC)
• 3%‐5% of invasive cancer is lobular
• Most commonly seen from 45‐55 yr of age
• Vague appearance on mammogram
• Growth pattern single file growth pattern within a fibrous stroma
Treating invasive carcinomas:
• If tumor is <5cm perform lumpectomy + radiotherapy +/‐ adjuvant therapy
+/‐ chemotherapy
• Sentinal node biopsy should be performed over an axillary node biopsy
• Always test for: 1. Estrogen & Progesterone receptors, and 2. HER2 protein
• The primary treatment for inflammatory, tumor size >5cm, and METS is
systemic therapy
Inflammatory Carcinoma
• Classic symptoms are that of inflammation (warm, red, painful)
• Progresses rapidly and is almost widely metastatic at presentation
• Has a very poor prognosis
Paget’s Disease of the Breast
• Very specific presentation of dermatitis + macular rash over the nipple and
areola
• There is almost always an underlying ductal carcinoma
More on the breast:
• The most common cause of nipple discharge is intraductal papilloma
• The presence of discharge + palpable mass increases the likelihood of cancer
is greater
• If discharge is unilateral, further workup is required
• If discharge is bloody, further workup is required
• If discharge is associated with a mass, further workup is required
• For bilateral, milky nipple discharge do a workup for prolactinoma
With discharge:
• Next step is a mammogram to look for underlying masses and/or
calcifications
• If mammography gives a definitive diagnosis, excision of duct is
recommended
• For nipple discharge, never base diagnosis on cytology
Mastalgia:
• Is cyclical or noncyclical breast pain that isn’t caused by lumps
• Treat with danazol (induces amenorrhea)
Gynecomastia:
• Enlargement of the male breast, both unilateral and bilateral
• No lobules
• Is caused by an imbalance in estrogens and androgens, most often occurring
during puberty
• May be seen in hyperestrogen states (cirrhosis, drugs inhibiting estrogen
breakdown ETOH, marijuana, heroin)
Cancer Risks of Breast Cancers:
• #1 risk factor is gender (females make up 99% of breast cancers)
• In women, age is the #1 factor
• Menarche < 11yr is a risk factor for breast cancer
• Women who are nulliparous at >30yr have an increased risk
• 95% of breast cancer is NOT familial
• Having a first degree relative with a hx of breast cancer increases the risk of
breast cancer
• Autosomal dominant conditions that have increased risk, such as BRCA‐1,
BRCA‐2
• Prior cancer in the opposite breast
• Cancer of the breast occurs most commonly in the upper and outer quadrant
of the breast.
What to do for certain breast masses?
When to do an ultrasound (US) this is the first step when finding a palpable
mass that feels cystic on physical exam.
When to do fine needle aspiration (FNA) this is often the first step when finding
a palpable mass, and may be done either after an US or instead of an US.
When to do either mammography (if pt >40yr) and biopsy (or biopsy solely if pt
is <40yr):
If cyst recurs more than twice in 4‐6 months
If there is bloody fluid on aspiration
If mass doesn’t appear completely with a FNA
There is bloody nipple discharge
There is edema of the skin and erythema that suggests inflammatory breast
carcinoma (excisional biopsy)
When to order for cytology any aspirate with gross blood must be send for
cytology
When to observe and repeat an exam within 68 weeks whenever a cyst
disappears with aspiration, and the fluid is clear, and/or when the needle biopsy
and imaging studies are negative.
When should adjuvant therapy be included in the management Use adjuvant
therapy in all hormone receptor (+) tumors regardless of any other factors.
When to test for BRCA1 and BRCA2?
• If there is a history of early‐onset breast or ovarian cancer in the family
• If there is breast and/or ovarian cancer in the same patient
• A family history of MALE breast cancer
• If patient is of Ashkenazi Jewish heritage
When is chemotherapy included in tumor management?
• When tumor is >1cm
• When the disease is node (+)
When is trastuzumab included in management?
• Included for metastatic breast cancer that over expresses HER2/neu
• This is a monoclonal antibody directed against the extracellular domain of
the HER2/neu receptor
Tamoxifen:
• Competitively binds to estrogen receptors
• Produces a 50% decrease in recurrence and a 25% decrease in mortality
• Excellent for both pre and post‐op patients
Aromatase Inhibitors:
• Include drugs such as: Anastrazole, Exemestane, and Letrozole
• These block the peripheral production of estrogen
• These are the standard of care in hormone receptor (+) women who are
menopausal (more effective than tamoxifen)
• Will increase the risk of osteoporosis
LHRH analogues:
• A commonly used drug is Goserelin
• An alternative or an addition to tamoxifen in premenopausal women
Benefits of Tamoxifen Side effects of Tamoxifen
⇓ incidence of contralateral breast Exacerbates menopausal symptoms
cancer
⇑ bone density in postmenopausal ⇑⇑ risk of cancer of the endometrium
women
⇓ serum cholesterol **All women with a history of tamoxifen
⇓ fractures use + vaginal bleeding should have an
⇓ cardiovascular mortality rate evaluation of the endometrium
Treatment review:
If case describes HR(‐), pre or post menopausal chemo alone
If case describes HR(+), PREmenopausal chemo + tamoxifen
If case describes HR(+), POSTmenop chemo + aromatase inhibitor
Chapter 4
Pediatrics
The Newborn
The APGAR score:
This score measures the newborn’s need for resuscitation and measures 5 criteria at
1‐minute and 5‐minutes. At 1‐minute we can determine how well the baby did
during labor and delivery, while at 5‐minutes we can determine the effectiveness of
resuscitation (if it was needed)
APGAR SCORING TABLE
Managing the Newborn:
There are some important things that must be done immediately upon delivery of
the newborn, upon delivery give the following:
• Give 1% silver nitrate eye drops OR 0.5% erythromycin ophthalmic ointment
• 1mg of intramuscular vitamin K (prevents hemorrhagic disease of the
newborn)
Before discharging the newborn from the hospital, do the following:
• Hearing test to rule out a sensorineural hearing loss
• Order neonatal screening tests: PKU, galactosemia, hypothyroidism
Abnormalities in the newborn:
There are many abnormalities of the newborn that should be recognizable. It is also
important to know which are benign and which require further investigation.
Opening of the Hypospadias No definitive
urethra on mgmt, but
ventral surface not supposed
of penis to circumcise
the infant
Reducible Inguinal Surgical
scrotal swelling Hernia correction
Developmental Milestones
Developmental milestones show up over and over again on the board exams. By
memorizing the important milestones you are going to get 2‐3 easy points on the CK
exam. Milestones refer to both infant and adolescent (puberty) milestones.
Developmental Milestones
Puberty:
The milestones of puberty are as follows and are based on population averages:
MALES FEMALES
Testicular enlargement – 11.5 yrs Breast buds – 10.5 yrs
Genitals increase in size Pubic Hair Growth Begins
Pubic Hair Growth Begins Linear Growth Spurt – 12 yrs
Peak Growth Spurt – 13.5 yrs Menarche – 12.5 yrs
Child Abuse
• Suspected child abuse requires your BY LAW to report the suspected abuse.
• You must also explain to the parents why you suspect abuse and that you are
legally obligated to report it to child protective services.
• If a parent refuses hospitalization or treatment of their child against the best
interest of the child, you must get an emergency court order.
Highrisk children:
• Premature infants
• Children with chronic medical problems
• Infants with colic
• Children with behavioral problems
• Poverty stricken children
• Children of teenage parents
• Single parents
• Children of substance abusers
Classic findings:
• Chip fractures (damage to the corner of metaphysis in long bones)
• Spiral fractures
• Rib fractures
• Burns (immersion in hot water, cigarette burns, stocking‐glove burns on
hands and feet)
• Head injury – MCC of death
• Sexual abuse
When to hospitalize a child under suspect of being abused:
• The hospital is the safest place for the child
• The diagnosis is still unclear
• The child has a medical condition requiring hospitalization
Workup for suspected child abuse:
• PT/PTT/BT
• Full skeletal survey for breaks
• If injuries are severe, get a CT or MRI + a thorough eye exam
• If injury is to the abdomen, get an abdominal CT, check for blood in the stool
and urine, and check liver and pancreatic enzymes
Treatment:
1st ‐ Address medical and/or surgical issues before all else
2nd – Report abuse to child protective services (CPS)
Breast Feeding
There are many advantages to breastfeeding:
• Psychological and emotional bonding between mother and infant
• Passive transfer of T‐cell immunity decreases risks of allergies and infection
Contraindications to breast feeding:
• HIV
• CMV
• HSV (only if lesions are on breast)
• HBV (unless vaccination is given prior)
• Substance abuse
• Breast cancer
• Acute illness in mother that is absent in infant
• Drugs (list below of contraindicated drugs during breastfeeding)
Absolutely Contraindicated Relatively Contraindicated
Alcohol Steroids
Nicotine Neuroleptics
Antineoplastics Sedatives
Lithium Tetracycline
Chloramphenicol Sulfonamides
Iodide and Mercurial Drugs Metronidazole
Highyield Growth & Development Facts
• The height of a child at 2 years of age normally correlates with the final adult
height percentile.
• By 6 months of age the birth weight should double, and by 1 year the birth
weight should triple.
• The absolute best indicator for malnutrition is a child who is <5th percentile
for height and weight.
• Skeletal and sexual maturity are related more than it is related to
chronological age.
• The MCC of failure to thrive (FTT) in all age groups is psychosocial
deprivation.
• In patients with genetic short stature or constitutional delay, birth weight is
normal.
• Patients with both genetic short stature and constitutional delay have a
growth pattern that is below and parallel to the normal growth curve.
Infectious Diseases – The ToRCHS
In general, all will have: jaundice, IUGR, mental retardation, and
hepatosplenomegaly. Look for things that stand out with each infection
Disease Characteristics
Toxoplasmosis • Acquired by mother through poorly ingested meat
• Acquired when mother handles cat feces through litter
box
• 1/3 of mothers transmit and 1/3 of infants are affected
• Causes: intracerebral calcifications, IUGR, severe
mental retardation, hydrocephalus, chorioretinitis,
epilepsy, hepatosplenomegaly
• If infected do ultrasound to find any major anomalies
Rubella • When acquired in 1st trimester there is an 80% chance of
transmission
• When acquired in 2nd trimester there is a 50% chance of
transmission
• When acquired in 3rd trimester there is a 5% chance of
transmission
• Signs & Symptoms – cataracts, IUGR, blueberry muffin
rash, glaucoma, chorioretinitis, PDA, pulmonary
stenosis, ASD, VSD, myocarditis, hearing loss, mental
retardation, deafness
• Diagnosis – confirm with IgM rubella antibody in
neonate’s serum.
• Treat – goal is universal prevention by immunizing all
children, there’s no therapy for active infection
Cytomegalovirus • Affects 1% of all births and is the most common
(CMV) congenital infection
• Infection is often asymptomatic
• Approx 1% risk of transplacental transmission, and
approx 10% of infected infants manifest defects
• Congenital defects – microchephaly, periventricular
intracranial calcifications, IURG, chorioretinitis, severe
mental retardation, sensorineural hearing loss
• Transmission is through body fluids
• Diagnose with urine CMV culture
Herpes Simplex • Vaginal delivery during active infection = approx 50%
Virus get infected
• C‐section is required if active infection
• 1st week – pneumonia and shock
• 2nd week – skin vesicles, keratoconjunctivitis
• Week 34 – acute meningoencephalitis
• Treat – acyclovir significantly decreases mortality
Syphilis • There is almost a 100% transmission rate, occurs mostly
after 1st trimester
• 40% death rate (fetal and perinatal)
• Manifests early (first 2 years), then late (within next 2
decades)
• Signs/Symptoms of early infection – jaundice, increased
LFTs, hemolytic anemia, rash that is followed by
desquamation of the hands and feet, snuffles (blood‐
tinged nasal secretions), osteochondritis, sattle nose.
• Late symptoms – Hutchinson teeth (upper 2 incisors get
notched), mulberry molars, bone thickening (frontal
bossing), saber shins (anterior bowing of tibia)
• Best initial test – VDRL screening
• Most specific test – IgMFTAABS
• Treat – Penicillin G for 10‐14 days
Infant Botulism
• An acute and flaccid paralysis caused by C. Botulinum.
• Irreversible blocks release of Ach
• Caused by the ingestion of raw honey
Signs/Symptoms:
• Constipation
• Lethargy
• Weak cry
• Poor feeding
• Hypotonia
• Drooling
• ⇓ suck reflexes
• ⇓ spontaneous movements
Diagnosis: Based on PE and the acute onset of flaccid paralysis
Treatment: Supportive care + intubation
Common Viral Exanthems
Disease Signs and Symptoms
Measles (Rubeola) • Begins at hairline then moves downward, is an
Paramyxovirus erythematous maculopapular rash that erupts 5
days after prodrome.
• Pathognomonic “Koplik spots” often disappear
before rash starts (white spots on buccal mucosa)
• Diagnosis – cough, coryza, conjunctivitis (3C’s)
Rubella (German • Suboccipital lymphadenopathy*
measles) Togavirus • A maculopapular rash starts on the face then
generalizes
• Rash lasts approximately 5 days
• Soft palate may show red spots of various sizes
Hand, foot, & mouth • Patient has vesicular rash on the hands and feet +
disease (Coxsackie A) ulcerations in the mouth
• Rash lasts approximately 1 week
• Is contagious by contact
Roseola Infantum • Acute fever lasts 1‐5 days, but child shows no
(HHV‐6) physical symptoms and does not feel ill
• Once fever drops, a maculopapular rash appears
over the whole body (lasts 24hrs)
Erythema Infectiosum • “Slapped cheek” syndrome
(5th disease – Parvo • An erythematous maculopapular rash spreads
B19) from the arms to the trunk/legs, forms “reticular”
pattern
• Dangerous if pt has sickle cell disease due to
tendency to form aplastic crisis
Varicella (chicken pox) • Highly contagious, teardrop vesicles that break and
crust over.
• Starts on face and trunk then spreads
• Contagious until crusting over
Vaccinations
This diagram is the typical vaccination recommendation for children from 0‐6yr old
RESPIRATORY DISORDERS
Upper Respiratory Infections
no signs or
symptoms of Blood cult +
severity of throat cult.
epiglottitis
Otitis Media
• Common in children and often precipitated by an URI
• Conditions that disrupt proper Eustachian tube drainage lead to chronic OM
• MCC are: strep pneumonia, H. Infl, Moraxella, or viral causes
Signs and Symptoms:
• Erythema and ⇓ motility of tympanic membrane
• ⇓ hearing
• Ear pressure
• Bulging tympanic membrane with visualization of fluid behind TM
Treatment:
1st line Amoxicillin
2nd line Amoxicillin + Clavulinic Acid (augmentin)
** For recurring OM, ENT consult and tubes may need to be inserted
Bronchiolitis
Classically presents as child <2yr with the following:
• Mild URI
• Fever
• Paroxysmal wheezing cough
• Tachypnea
• Dyspnea
• Wheezing and prolonged expirations
Common causes are:
• RSV (in up to 50%)
• Parainfluenza virus
• Adenovirus
Signs and Symptoms:
• Inflammation
• Air trapping and over inflation (due to ball‐valve obstruction)
Diagnosis:
Dx is clinically based.
Best initial test CXR looking for hyperinflation + patchy atelectasis
Most specific test Immunofluorescence of nasopharyngeal swab
Treatment:
• Mostly supportive
• If tachypnea is severe hospitalize and give trial of nebulized β‐agonists
Pneumonia
There are different causes of pneumonia:
Viral MCC in children <5yr, MCC is RSV
Bacterial MCC in children >5yr, MCC are S. Pneumo, Mycoplasm Pneumo
Chlamydial Common in infants 1‐3 month with insidious onset
Viral:
• Tachypnea is the most consistent finding in viral pneumonia
• URI symptoms
• Low grade fever
Bacterial:
• Acute onset with sudden shaking chills
• High grade fever
• Cough
• Chest pain (pleuritis‐ pain with respiration)
• Diminished breath sounds
• Dullness to percussion of the lung fields
Chlamydial:
• Most common finding are a “staccato cough” and “peripheral eosinophilia”
• No fever or wheezing
• May be conjunctivitis
Diagnosis:
CXR:
• Viral hyperinflation with bilateral interstitial infiltrates
• Bacterial (pneumo) lobar consolidation
• Mycoplasma/Chlamydia unilateral lower‐lobe interstitial pneumo that
looks worse than the patient’s presenting symptoms
CBC:
• Viral <20000 wbc
• Bact 15000‐40000
Treatment:
• Mild cases can be managed on an outpatient basis, Amoxicillin is the best
choice. Augmenting may also be used
• Severe cases require hospitalization and are treated with IV ceftriaxone
• If pneumonia is of viral origin, withold Ab’s unless patient deteriorates.
• Chlamydia or Mycoplasma treated with erythromycin
MUSCULOSKELETAL DISORDERS
Limp
• Painful limping most often occurs acutely, and may be associated with fever,
irritability.
• Young infants may refuse to walk
• Painless limping usually has an insidious onset and is more commonly due
to weakness or deformity of the limb secondary to developmental hip
dysplasia, cerebral palsy, or leg‐length discrepancy
This table shows the different causes of PAINFUL LIMP
Xray is normal
Diagnose: technetium
scan that shows ⇑
epiphyseal uptake
Aseptic Vascular LeggCalvePerthes dx ⇓ weight bearing on
Necrosis • Head of femur affected side over long
• 4‐9yr old term
• Boys 5x more than
girls
Osgood Schlatter
• Tibial tubercle
• Active
child/adolescent
• Rest relieves pain
Kohler’s bone
• Navicular bone
Si/Sx: afebrile with
insidious onset of hip
pain, pain of inner
thigh/knee, ⇑ pain with
movement, ⇓ with rest,
normal wbc and ESR
Xray: femoral head
sclerosis and ⇑ width of
the femoral neck
Dx: technetium scan
shows ⇓ uptake in
epiphysis
Slipped Capital Femoral • MC in obese males Surgical pinning
Epiphysis (SCFE) 8‐17yr
• 20%‐30% bilateral
• 80% occur slowly
and progressively
where 20% occur
acutely and
associated with
trauma
Si/Sx: dull, aching pain in
hip/knee, pain with
activity
Xray: “ice cream scoop
falling off cone” to
describe lateral
movement of the femur
shaft in relation to the
femoral head
Dx: strictly clinical
Osteomyelitis Neonates – S. Aureus 50% IV antibiotics for 4‐6
of time weeks
Children – Staph, Strep,
Salmonella (sickle cell)
Si/Sx in young infants:
only symptom may be
fever
Si/Sx in older children:
fever, malaise, edema, and
⇓ extremity movement
Dx: neutrophilic
leukocytosis, ⇑ ESR, blood
cultures, bone scan is 90%
sensitive.
MRI is gold standard
Collagen Vascular Disease
Juvenile Rheumatoid Arthritis
• Chronic inflammation of ≥ joints in a patient ≤ 16yr
• Occurs MC in 1‐4yr olds, females > males
• There are 3 categories: Systemic, pauciarticular, and polyarticular
Diagnosis: Symptoms that persist for 3 consecutive months with the exclusion of
other causes of arthritis or collagen vascular disease.
Treatment: NSAIDs, low‐dose MTX, and prednisone in acute febrile onset
Types of Juvenile RA
Systemic (Still’s disease) – • Patient has high‐spiking fever that returns
10%20% to normal daily
• Small, pale pink macules with central
pallor on trunk & proximal extremities
with possible palm & sole involvement
• Joint involvement may not occur for
weeks to months
• 1/3 have disabling chronic arthritis
Pauciarticular – 40%60% • Involves ≤ 4 joints, primarily affecting
large joints (knee, elbow, ankle)
• Chronic joint disease is abnormal
• Fever/malaise/anemia/lymphadenopathy
common
2 Types:
Type 1 – MC, females <4yr, 90% ANA (+), incr
risk of chronic iridocyclitis
Type 2 – MC males >8yr, ANA (‐), 75% are HLA‐
B27 (+), incr risk of Ankylosing spondylitis or
Reiter’s syndrome later in life
Polyarticular • ≥ 5 joints are involved, both small & large,
insidious onset, fever, lethargy, anemia
• There are 2 types that depend on whether
rheumatoid factor is (+) or (‐)
• RF (+) – 80% females, late onset, more
severe, rheumatoid nodules present, 75%
are ANA (+)
• RF (‐) – occurs at any time during
childhood, mild, rarely ass’d with
rheumatoid nodules, 25% are ANA (+)
Kawasaki’s Disease
• A mucocutaneous lymph node syndrome
• Affects large and medium vessel vasculitis in children <5yr of age
• More commonly seen in children of Japanese heritage
Diagnosis:
Diagnosis requires the presence of a FEVER > 104F or 40C for more than 5 days that
is unresponsive to antibiotics + 4/5 of the following criteria:
Using the mnemonic CRASH to remember the criteria
1. Conjunctivitis
2. Rash (truncal)
3. Aneurysms of the coronary arteries
4. Strawberry tongue
5. Hand and foot induration (erythema of the palms and soles)
Complications:
• 10%‐40% of untreated cases show dilation/aneurysm of the coronary
arteries
Treatment:
• IVIG to prevent coronary vasculitis + high‐dose aspirin
• Do not give steroids as this will exacerbate the condition
Prognosis:
• With response to IVIG + aspirin is rapid and 2/3 become afebrile within 1
day.
• Always re‐evaluate in 1 week, repeat ECHO at 3‐6wk post illness
• If no further abn on ECHO then no further imaging is necessary
HenochSchonlein Purpura
• A small‐vessel vasculitis mediated by IgA nephropathy (Berger’s disease)
Signs and symptoms:
• A palpable purpura on the legs and buttocks is pathognomonic in children
• May also have abdominal pain due to intussusception
Treatment:
• Self‐limited and rarely progresses to glomerulonephritis
Histiocytosis X
• A proliferation of histiocytic cells resembling Langerhan’s skin cells
There are 3 common variants:
1. LettererSiwe disease
• An acute, aggressive, disseminated variant that is often fatal in infants
Signs and Symptoms:
• Hepatosplenomegaly
• Lymphadenopathy
• Pancytopenia
• Lung involvement
• Recurrent infections
2. HandSchullerChristian
• A chronic/progressive variant that presents prior to 5 yr
Classic triad: Skull lesions + diabetes insipidus + exophthalmos
3. Eosinophilic granuloma
• Extraskeletal involvement usually limited to the lungs
• Has the best prognosis of all variants and often regresses spontaneously
Metabolic Disorders
Congenital Hypothyroidism
• Newborn screening is mandatory by law
• T4 is essential during the first two years of life for normal brain development
• Usually due to secondary thyroid agenesis or enzyme defects
• Birth history is usually normal with a prolonged period of jaundice
Signs and Symptoms:
• At 6‐12 weeks the infant develops poor feeding, lethargy, hypotonia, coarse
facial features, large protruding tongue, constipation, hoarse cry, and
developmental delay
Diagnosis:
• ⇓ T4, ⇑ TSH
Treatment:
• Levothyroxine
• Delay of treatment beyond 6 wks results in mental retardation
Newborn Jaundice
Timeframe Differential Dx
Within 24hr of birth • Sepsis
• Hemolysis (ABO/Rh
isoimmunization, hereditary
spherocytosis)
Within 48hr of birth • Hemolysis
• Infection
• Physiologic
After 48hr • Infection
• Hemolysis
• Breast milk jaundice
• Congenital malformation
• hepatitis
** 50% of neonates have jaundice during their first week of life
Physiologic jaundice:
• Clinically benign condition that occurs between 24‐48hr after birth
• Characterized by unconjugated hyperbilirubinemia
• Cause is increased bilirubin production + a relative deficiency in glucuronyl
transferase in the immature liver
Treatment:
• None required
Jaundice present at birth pathologic
• Is always pathologic and appears within 24hrs of birth
• Bilirubin rises >5mg/dL/day
• Bilirubin >12mg/dL in term infant
• Direct bilirubin >2mg/dL at any time
• Hyperbilirubinemia is present after the 2nd week of life
Workup for pathologic jaundice:
• Total and direct bilirubin
• Direct Coomb’s test
• Blood type of infant and mother (ABO or Rh incompatibility)
• CBC, retic #, peripheral smear (assessing for hemolysis)
• U/A and urine culture (if elevated is direct bilirubin – assess for sepsis)
If prolonged >2 weeks, do the following:
If ⇑ conjugated bilirubin
• Initial diagnostic tests LFT’s
• Most specific test US and liver biopsy
If no elevation of unconjugated bilirubin
• UTI or other type of infection
• Bilirubin conjugation abnormalities (Gilberts, Crigler‐Najjar)
• Hemolysis
• Intrinsic red cell membrane defect or enzyme defect (spherocytosis,
elliptocytosis, G6PD def, pyruvate kinase deficiency)
Treatment:
• When bilirubin is >10‐12 mg/dL phototherapy
• Exchange transfusion if encephalopathy is suspected or there is failure of
improvement with phototherapy
Unconjugated Hyperbilirubinemia
• Caused by hemolytic anemia or congenital deficiency of glucuronyl
transferase (Crigler‐Najjar, Gilbert’s syndrome)
Hemolytic anemia:
• Congenital or acquired
• Congenital spherocytosis, G6PD, pyruvate kinase deficiency
• Acquired ABO/Rh isoimmunization, infection, drugs, twin‐twin
transfusion, chronic fetal hypoxia, delayed cord clamping, maternal diabetes
Conjugated Hyperbilirubinemia
• Infectious causes are sepsis, ToRCH’s, hepatitis, syphilis, listeria infection
• Metabolic causes are galactosemia, α1‐antitrypsin def
• Congenital causes are extrahepatic biliary atresia, Dubin‐Johnson
syndrome, Rotor syndrome
Treatment:
• UV light to break down bilirubin pigments
• Urgent treatment is imperative in order to prevent kernicterus induced
mental retardation
Complications:
• UV light can cause diarrhea, dermatitis, dehydration, and damage to the
retina (be cautious of these adverse effects)
Reye Syndrome
• The use of salicylates in children causes an acute encephalopathy + fatty
degeneration of the liver
• Most commonly occurs in children aged 4‐12yr
Signs and Symptoms:
• Alternates an asymptomatic interval with abrupt onset of vomiting, delirium,
stupor, abnormal LFT’s
• Rapid progression to seizures, coma, and death
Diagnosis:
• Significantly elevated liver enzymes
Treatment:
• Urgent ICP management with mannitol and fluid restriction
• Glucose administration due to rapid depletion of stores
Prognosis:
• Bad if serum ammonia levels are increased 3fold, and if there is a decreased
PT level that WONT respond to vitamin K
• If disease is mild the recovery is usually good and rapid
• A severe disease can result in permanent neuro defects
Seizures
• In the newborn, seizures may present as jitters with repetitive sucking
movements, tongue thrusting, and apneic spells.
• Blood counts and chemistries are often WNL
• Neonatal seizures can be diagnosed by the presence of ocular deviation and
failure of jitters to subside with stimulus
Diagnosis:
• EEG – often normal
• CBC + chemistry panel often the cause is hypoglycemia in case of GDM
• Amino acid assay looking for inborn errors of metabolism
• Total cord blood IgM to look for ToRCH infections
• Urine cultures
• LP if suspected meningitis
• US of head if infant is preterm looking for bleeding
Treatment:
• 1st line DOC is Phenobarbital
• Persistent seizure not responsive to Phenobarbital – give Phenytoin
Febrile Seizures
• Usually between 3mnt – 5yr
• A fever is present with no other signs of infection
• Is the MC convulsive disorder in children and rarely develops into epilepsy
• Seizure occurs during temperature rise (≥ 102F) but not at its peak
Signs and Symptoms:
• MC is a tonic‐clonic seizure that rarely last more than 10min + a drowsy
postictal period is common
• Seizure lasting >15min is usually due to an infectious process
Diagnosis:
• Clinical diagnosis is usually all that is needed
• Routine labs only required to identify a source of the fever
• LP to rule out meningitis (only if suspected)
Treatment:
• Control fever with antipyretics
• Reassure parents/counsel
• Always do a careful evaluation for the source of the fever
** 30%‐50% of children experience recurrent febrile seizures
Genetic and Congenital Disorders
Failure to Thrive
• Is the failure of children to grow and develop at an appropriate rate
• May be due to inadequate calories or inability to absorb the calories
• May be idiopathic or due to other diseases
• Factors such as poverty, family problems, neonatal problems, and maternal
depression should all be included in diagnosis
Diagnosis:
Requires 3 criteria for a FTT diagnosis:
1. Child <2yr with weight <5th percentile for age on >1 occasion
2. Child <2yr whose weight is <80% of ideal for age
3. Child <2yr whose weight crosses 2 major percentiles downward on a
standardized growth chart
Exceptions:
• Genetically short stature
• Small for gestational age children
• Preterm infants
• Very lean (be careful here)
• ⇑ height with a ⇓weight gain (causes an overweight child – careful attention
for this diagnosis)
Treatment:
Organic causes treat underlying condition + supplement with sufficient calories
Idiopathic causes educate parent on nutrition and observe parent while feeding
Older infants/children offer solids before liquids, ⇓ mealtime distractions, have
child eat with others, never force‐feed
** Monitor closely for weight gain with adequate calorie consumption
Prognosis:
• In the 1st year of life the px is poor since the brain develops early in life
• 1/3 of children with nonorganic failure to thrive are developmentally
delayed
Craniofacial Abnormalities
• The mildest form of craniofacial abnormality is the “bifid uvula”, and has no
clinical significance
Cleft Lip:
• May occur unilaterally or bilaterally
• Caused by a failure of fusion of maxillary prominences
• MC form is unilateral cleft lip
• No interference with feeding
• Treat with surgical repair
Cleft Palate:
• May be anterior or posterior
• Anterior cleft palate is due to failure of the fusion of the palatine shelves with
the primary palate
• Posterior cleft palate is due to failure of the fusion of the palatine shelves
with the nasal septum
• These conditions will interfere with feeding and thus require a special nipple
for the baby to feed properly
• Treat with surgical repair
Macroglossia:
• Is a congenitally enlarged tongue
• Seen in conditions such as Down’s syndrome, hypothyroidism, and gigantism
• Can be acquired later in life via acromegaly and/or amyloidosis
• Is NOT glossitis, which is from a B‐vitamin deficiency
• Treatment is aimed at treating the underlying cause
ArnoldChiari Malformation
A congenital disorder where the cerebellum is caudally displaced, the medulla is
elongated and passes into the foramen magnum.
Signs and Symptoms:
• Flattened skull base
• Hydrocephalus
• Aqueduct stenosis
Prognosis:
• Death usually as neonate of toddler
Neural Tube Defects
• Associated with increased α‐fetoprotein in the maternal serum
• VERY PREVENTABLE with FOLATE supplementation
Signs and Symptoms:
• Spina bifida (failure of posterior vertebral arches to close)
• Meningocele (lack of vertebrae covering the lumbar spinal cord)
Treatment:
• Prevention is key (folic acid supplementation)
• Neuro deficits remain
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome
• In children born to alcoholic mothers, or mothers who consumed excessive
alcohol during pregnancy
Signs and symptoms:
• Characteristic facial abnormalities and developmental delays
• ASD
• Microcephaly
• Smooth filtrum of upper lip
Treatment:
• Cessation of ETOH consumption when pregnant
Congenital Pyloric Stenosis
• Presents with projectile vomiting in first 2wk‐2month of life
• Seen more commonly in males and in 1st‐born children
• The pathognomonic finding is the palpable “olive mass” in the mid‐
epigastrium (hypertrophied pyloric stenosis)
Diagnosis:
• Palpation of “olive” mass is often sufficient
• If no mass can be palpated, to an ultrasound (US)
Treatment:
• Longitudinal surgical incision of hypertrophied pylorus
Congenital Heart Diseases
ASD:
• Often asymptomatic and found on routine physicals
• Can predispose to CHF in the 2nd and 3rd decades of life
• May also predispose to strokes (due to an embolus bypass tract)
Signs and Symptoms:
• Midsystolic ejection murmur
• Loud S1
• Wide fixed‐split S2
Diagnosis:
• Echocardiography
Treatment:
• Surgical patching
• Treatment is more important for females because they have an increase in
cardiovascular stress during pregnancy
Ventricular Septal Defect (VSD)
• Is the MC congenital heart defect
• 30% of these VSD’s close spontaneously by 2yr of age
Signs and Symptoms:
• Small defects may be asymptomatic
• Large defects can cause CHF
• Can cause delayed/decreased development and growth
• Holosystolic murmur heard over the entire precordium and maximally at the
4th left intercostal space
Eisenmenger’s Complex:
• A right to left shunt secondary to pulmonary hypertension
• RV hypertrophy causes a flow reversal through the shunt, resulting in a R L
shunt
• Get cyanosis secondary to lack of blood flow to the lungs
Diagnosis:
• Echocardiography
Treatment:
• Simple defects require complete closure
Tetralogy of Fallot
Four defects make up this tetralogy, they are:
1. VSD
2. Pulmonary outflow obstruction
3. RV hypertrophy
4. Overriding aorta
Signs and Symptoms:
• Cyanosis develops within first 6 months of life (not present at birth)
• “Tet Spells” are acute cyanosis accompanied by panic, where child goes into a
squatting position because it helps improve blood flow to the lungs
Diagnosis:
• Echo
• CXR shows “boot‐shaped” contour of the heart due to RV enlargement
Treatment:
• Surgical repair of VSD and pulmonary outflow tracts
Transposition of the Great Arteries
• Aorta comes off the right ventricle
• Pulmonary artery comes off left ventricle
• Without a persistent AV communication this condition is incompatible with
life. Thus requires a PDA or persistent foramen ovale.
Signs and Symptoms:
• Marked cyanosis at birth
• Early clubbing of the digits
• CXR shows an enlarged egg‐shaped heart and an increase in pulmonary
vasculature
Diagnosis:
• Echo
Treatment:
• Surgical switching of the arterial roots to normal positions with repair of
communication defect
Prognosis:
• Without treatment is fatal within several months of birth
Coarctation of the Aorta
• A congenital aortic narrowing that is often asymptomatic in children
Signs and Symptoms:
• Normal BP in arms with decreased BP in legs
• Continuous murmur over collateral vessels in the back
• The classic XRAY shows “rib notching”
Diagnosis:
• Confirm with CT or aortogram
Treatment:
• Surgical resection of coarctation and reanastomosis
Patent Ductus Arteriosus (PDA)
• ⇑ incidence with premature births
• Pt predisposed to endocarditis and PVD’s
Signs and Symptoms:
• Continuous machinery murmur that’s best heard at 2nd left interspace
• Wide pulse pressure
• Hypoxia
Diagnosis:
• Echo or cardiac catheterization
Treatment:
• Indomethacin induces closure (blocks prostaglandins) for children
• Older children usually require surgical repair
Genetic Anomalies
hypothyroidism
• Supplement with
estrogen, GH, and
anabolic steroids
Fragile X Syndrome
• Microcephaly in • Ass’d with ADHD
early childhood
• Large ears
• Large testes
• Is the MCC of mental
retardation in boys
Beckwith‐Wiedemann • Multi‐organ • Increased risk of abd
syndrome enlargement tumors
• Macrosomia • US and serum AFP q
• Macroglossia 6mnth up until 6yr of
• Pancreatic beta cell age – looking for
hyperplasia Wilm’s tumor
• Large kidneys
• Neonatal
polycythemia
Prader‐Willi • Obesity • Morbid obesity
(deletion at 15q11q13 – • Hyperphagia decreases life‐span
paternally derived) • Small genitalia
• Mental retardation
Angelman syndrome (aka • Mental retardation • Epilepsy develops in
“happy puppet” syndrome). • Inappropriate 80%
(deletion at 15q11q13 laughter
maternally derived) • Absence of speech
• Ataxia/jerky arm
movements
• Recurrent seizures
Pierre‐Robin • Mandibular • Airway obstruction
(ass’d with FAS and hypoplasia possible over first 4
Edwards) • Cleft palate wks of life, thus
monitor airway
Trauma and Intoxication
Poisonings
Signs/Symptoms Possible Toxins
Lethargy & Coma ETOH, sedatives, narcotics, antihistamines,
neuroleptics, anti‐depressants
Seizures Theophylline, cocaine, amphetamines, anti‐
depressants, antisphychotics, pesticides
Hypotension Organophosphate pesticides, β‐blockers
Arrhythmia TCA’s, cocaine, digitalis, quinidine
Hyperthermia Salicylates, anticholinergics
• Approximately 50% of cases occur in children <6yr
• 92% occur at home, 60% with non‐pharm agents, 40% with pharm agents
• 75% of cases are due to ingestion, 8% dermal, 6% ophthalmic, and 6%
inhalation
• Lavage is often unnecessary in children but may be useful in drugs
decreasing gastric motility
• Charcoal is often most effective and safest procedure to prevent absorption
(but is ineffective in heavy metal or volatile hydrocarbon poisoning).
Adolescence
Epidemiology
Injuries:
• 50% of adolescent deaths attributed to injuries
• Many due to ETOH & elicit drugs
• Older adolescents have increase deaths due to MVA, while younger
adolescents have deaths due to drowning and weapon injuries
• Homicide rates are 5x> for Blacks than White males
Suicide:
• Is the 2nd leading cause of adolescent death
• Females attempt more but males are 5x more likely to succeed
• Suicide attempts are greater in those who abuse ETOH and drugs
Substance abuse:
• A major cause of morbidity in adolescents
• Average age of 1st usage is 12‐14yr
• High school seniors on average: 90% tried ETOH, 40% tried marijuana
Sex:
• 61% of all males and 47% of all females in high school have had sex
• Biggest risks: unwanted pregnancy, STD’s
• 86% of STD’s occur among adolescents and young adults between 15‐29yr of
age
• >1 million female adolescents become pregnant yearly, 33% are <15yr old
Chapter 5
Biostats
Success in answering the biostatistics questions comes from not only memorizing
the following charts, but actually understanding them. If you can grasp what is
happening you will not have any issues in this section.
True Positive: is the # of people who have the disease with +ve results
False Positive: is the # of people who in fact do not have the disease with a +ve test
result
True Negative: is the # of people who do not have a disease who tested –ve
False Negative: is the # of people who have the disease who tested ‐ve
Sensitivity [A/A+C]
Sensitivity is a tests ability to detect a disease
Specificity [D/B+D]
Specificity is a tests ability to detect health
Positive Predictive Value [A/A+B]
The positive predictive value (PPV) detects the likelihood that the patient has a
disease when they test positive for a test
Negative Predictive Value [D/C+D]
The negative predictive value measures how likely a patient is in fact healthy after a
test result comes back negative.
Odds Ratio [(a X d) / (b X c)]
Compares the incidence of disease in people exposed X incidence of non‐disease in
people not exposed, divided by the incidence of people unexposed and incidence of
non‐disease in those exposed.
OR >1 = the factor being studied is a risk factor for the outcome
OR < 1 = the factor being studied is a protective factor in respect to the outcome
OR = 1 = no significant difference in outcome in either exposed or unexposed group
Relative Risk [a/(a+b) / d/(c+d)]
Compares disease risk in people exposed to a certain factor with disease risk in
people who have not been exposed
Attributable Risk [a/(a+b) – d/(c+d)]
The attributable risk is the # of cases attributable to one risk factor
Standard Deviation
1 standard deviation – 68% fall within 1 SD
2 standard deviations – 95% fall within 2 SD’s
3 standard deviations – 99.7% fall within 3 SD’s
MEAN – the average value
MEDIAN – the middle value
MODE – the most common value
+VE SKEW
A +ve skewed graph means the mean>median>mode
‐VE SKEW
A –ve skewed graph means the mean<median<mode
Normal bell curve
Mean = median = mode
NO DISEASE DISEASE
This chart represents sensitivity & specificity
• If the cutoff point for a disease is moved from false (+) false (‐), there will
be an ⇑ in the # of positive results. Thus an ⇑ in sensitivity (TP⇑, FP⇑, FN⇓,
PPV⇓]
• If the cutoff point is raised from the false (‐) false (+), this will ⇑ specificity
[TN⇑, FP⇑]
Correlation coefficient
Measures to what degree the variables are related (from ‐1 to +1)
0 = there is no correlation
+1 = there is a perfect correlation (thus if 1 variable increases so does the other)
‐1 = there is a perfect negative correlation (thus if 1 variable increases the other
decreases)
Confidence interval and pvalue
Two values used to strengthen a finding of a study. For statistical significance, the
confidence interval must not contain the null value (RR=1). Further, statistically
significant results have a p‐value <0.05 (meaning there is <5% chance that the
results obtained were due to chance alone).
A p‐value <0.05 is generally used as a cutoff for statistical significance in medicine.
0.05 means there is a ≤ 5% chance that results obtained are due to random chance.
When the p‐value is ≤ 0.05 we reject the null hypothesis (null hypothesis says that a
result is due to random error or chance)
The confidence interval is given in 2 digits, and the closer they are, the more
confidence there is. * With increased subjects there is a tighter confidence interval
Attributable Risk Percent (ARP)
Measures the impact of a risk factor being studied. The ARP represents the excess
risk in a population that can be explained by exposure to a particular risk factor.
Calculate ARP: [(RR ‐1)/RR]
Incidence vs Prevalance
Incidence the # of new cases of a disease over a unit of time
Prevalence is the total # of cases of a disease (new or old) at a certain point in
time
If a disease is treated only to prolong life without curing the disease (ie. Terminal
cancers), then incidence remains the same but prevalence increases.
** In short term diseases: incidence > prevalence
** In long term diseases: prevalence > incidence
Reliability gives similar or very close results on repeat measures
Validity/Accuracy defined as a test’s ability to measure what it is supposed to
measure (as compared to the gold standard)
Precision is increased with a tighter confidence interval, and CI is made tighter
with a higher # of subjects
Study Types
CaseControl/Experimental Is the gold standard, compares 2 equal groups
where one has a changed variable
Prospective Also known as: Cohort, Observational, Incidence. Takes a sample and
divides it into 2 groups based on presence or absence of risk factor, and follows over
time to see what develops. ** These are time consuming and expensive.
Retrospective Chooses a population (after the fact) based on the presence or
absence of a risk factor. ** Costs less, less time consuming, better for rare diseases.
Case Series describes the clinical presentation of people with a certain disease
CrossSectional/Prevalence This study looks at the prevalence of disease and the
prevalence of risk factors. Takes sample from a population at one point in time.
This compares 2 different cultures.
Epidemic When the observed incidence greatly exceeds the expected incidence
Pandemic Is an epidemic seen over a wide geographical area.
Test Methods
Twosample Ttest: is used to compare the means of 2 groups of subjects
ANOVA (analysis of variance): used to compare ≥ 3 variables
Chisquared: compares the proportions of a categorized outcomes (2x2 table). If
the difference between the observed and expected values is large, an associated
between the exposure and the outcome is assumed to be present.
MetaAnalysis: is a method of pooling the data from several studies to do an
analysis having a big statistical power.
Types of Bias
Selection Bias: Bias type due to manner in which people are selected, or from
selective losses from follow‐up
Observer & Measurement Bias: Distortion of measurement of association by
misclassifying exposed, unexposed, and/or diseases/non‐diseased subjects.
Recall Bias: Results from the inaccurate recall of past exposure by people in the
study
Hawthorne Effect: Patients change their behavior because they know they are being
studied
Confounding: Is bias that results when the expose/disease relationship is mixed
with the effect of extraneous factors. (ex. Study of the association of smoking and
cirrhosis, and find that there is a strong association. Then the division of drinkers
and non‐drinkers finds there’s no association of smoking to cirrhosis. In this case,
alcohol is the confounder). * Matching is an effective way of controlling confounding
Lead Time Bias: Refers to the chronology of the diagnosis and treatment between
different cases. (ex. Testing of platelet inhibitors in pilots vs autoworkers, not fair
because pilots are undergoing constant health screening)
Admission Rate Bias: Refers to distortion in risk ratio due to different hospitals
admission of cases
Unacceptability Bias: Occurs when participants purposely give desirable responses
which lead to
Chapter 6
Psychiatry
Mood Disorders
Major Depressive Disorder
Major depressive disorder is characterized by a depressed mood or anhedonia
(cannot enjoy things that they once enjoyed), and depressive symptoms lasting at
least 2 weeks.
• Look for other possible causes such as hypothyroidism, drug use/substance
use.
The classic mnemonic for depression is SIG E CAPS
S: sleep disturbances (too much or too little)
I: interest changes (loss of interst)
G: guilty feelings
E: energy loss
C: concentration disturbances
A: appetite changes (causes weight changes too)
P: psychomotor changes
S: suicidal thoughs/death
• If patient is suicidal or dangerous to others always admit
Treatment:
• 1st line treatment is SSRI such as fluoxetine, paroxetine, sertraline (possible
side effect is sexual dysfunction)
• Can include benzodiazepine if patient is agitated
• Therapy is also indicated along with SSRI treatment
Dysthymic Disorder
Same symptoms as major depressive disorder except is It is possible to get a
more low‐level in nature, and is present on most days for major depressive
at least 2 years. episode while
dysthymic. Treat as
Treatment: MDD in this situation.
• SSRI (similar treatment as Major Depression)
Bereavement
• Bereavement is commonly seen after death of a family member (most
commonly seen in older people after death of a spouse).
Diagnosis:
• Key to the diagnosis is the time that has elapsed since the onset of the
bereavement period.
• Symptoms > 2months makes the diagnosis major depressive disorder instead
of normal bereavement.
Treatment:
• Therapy (grief management) is recommended in such conditions
Bipolar Disorder
• A condition with episodes of mania, Remembering MANIA:
depression, as well as normal periods.
• Seen in approximately 1% of the population D – distractibility
• Affects males = females I ‐ insomnia
• More common in the younger population
• A mix of mania, depression, or mixed G – grandiosity
symptoms for at least 1 week
F‐ flight of ideas
Signs and Symptoms:
A – activity increased
• Acute onset of ⇑ energy
• ⇓ need to sleep S – speech (pressured)
T – takes risks
• Pressured speech
• ⇓ attention span
• hypersexuality
• Reckless behavior (excessive gambling, shopping, spending money)
Differential diagnosis:
• Schizophrenia
• Intoxication (cocaine, amphetamine)
• Certain personality disorders
Diagnosis:
• Episode should last ≥ 1 week and should be abrupt/cause significant
disability
• Bipolar 1 a manic episode with or without depressive episode
• Bipolar 2 depressive episodes with hypomanic episodes
• Rapid cycling > 4 episodes in a one‐year period
Treatment:
• Hospitalization (is often involuntary because patient is manic)
• Mood stabilizers – Lithium is DOC, can also use valproate or carbamazepine
• Antipsychotics can be used until acute mania is controlled
• If recurrent episodes of depression are present, can give antidepressants
only in conjunction with mood stabilizers
• Lithium levels should be checked to prevent toxicity
Cyclothymia
• Is a recurrence of depressive episodes and hypomania for at least 2 years
• Is a milder form of bipolar disorder
Treatment:
• 1st is psychotherapy because many patients can function without medication
• If functioning becomes impaired start patient on valproic acid, which is more
effective in cyclothymia than lithium
DrugInduced Mania
• The most common causes are cocaine and amphetamines
Signs and Symptoms:
• Findings similar to mania
• Mydriasis
• Hypertension
• MI in young people (highly suggestive of cocaine overdose)
Treatment:
• For acute symptoms give CCB’s
• Drug treatment programs for long‐term management
Postpartum Depression
PSYCHOSIS
Psychosis is characterized by:
• Hallucinations – false sensory perception that is NOT based on real stimuli
• Delusions – false interpretations of external reality
• Can be of the paranoid nature, grandiosity, religious, or ideas of reference
This table gives a general overview of the causes of psychosis
DISEASE CHARACTERISTICS
Schizophrenia • There is a strong genetic predisposition, onset
usually late teens through the 20’s
• +ve symptoms = hallucinations and/or
delusions
• ‐ve symptoms = flattened affect
• Other symptoms include disorganized behavior
and/or speech
• Must last ≥ 6 months to be called schizophrenia
• If lasting 1‐6 months called schizophreniform
• If lasting <1 month it is a brief psychotic
disorder (these patients often return to normal
baseline functioning)
Schizoaffective disorder • Combination of a mood disorder +
schizophrenia
Delusional disorder • Patient gets non‐bizarre delusions
Mood disorders • Bipolar and/or depression can cause delusions
and in extreme cases may cause hallucinations
Delirium • Often seen in patients who have underlying
conditions
• No orientation to person, place, or time
• Waxing and waning of condition
• Treatment involves treating the underlying
condition
Drugs • Cocaine/amphetamines cause paranoid
delusions and formication (sensation of bugs
crawling on the skin)
• LSD/PCP cause hallucinations of vision, taste,
touch, and scent
Medical causes • Endocrine disorders, metabolic disorders,
neoplastic disorders, and seizure disorders can
cause psychosis
Treatment:
• If condition is disabling or potentially dangerous to patient or others,
hospitalization is required.
• Pharmacologic therapy is with dopamine antagonists, and the differences
amongst the drugs is based on the side effects they produce
• Improve drug compliance by giving depot form of haldol
• Psychotherapy to improve social functioning (behavioral treatment to
improve social skills, family‐oriented treatment for improved familial
functioning)
• Prognosis is dependent of frequency of episodes as well as accompanying
symptoms (presence of negative symptoms usually indicates a poor
prognosis)
• Patients who were very high‐functioning prior to the psychosis onset have a
better prognosis
DRUG ADVERSE EFFECTS
Typical Antipsychotics
Chlorpromazine Low potency, ⇑anticholinergic effects, ⇓ movement disorders
Haloperidol High potency, ⇓ anticholinergic effect, ⇑ movement d/o
Atypical Antipsychotics
Clozapine For refractory disease, give weekly CBC (agranulocytosis
risk)
Risperidone 1st line, minimal averse effects
Olanzapine 1st line, minimal adverse effects
There are many possible movement disorders associated with the use of
antipsychotic medications. You will likely encounter one on the CK exam. This table
will demonstrate the timeline for certain adverse movement reactions.
gait
• Treatment –
benztrophine
(anticholinergic used
in Parkinson’s
disease)
Tardive Dyskinesia 4 months – 4 years • Involuntary/irregular
movements of the
head, tongue, lips,
limbs, and trunk
• Treatment – change
medications
immediately (is a
permanent
condition)
Akithisia May occur at any time • Patient has a sense of
during treatment discomfort/restlessn
ess
• Treat by lower the
dose of medication
Neuroleptic Malignant May occur at any time • Is a life‐threatening
Syndrome during treatment muscle rigidity with
fever, increased BP
and HR, and
rhabdomyolysis that
appears over 1‐3
days
• Treatment is
supportive, stop all
offending drugs
immediately, give
patient dantrolene
(Calcium is inhibited
from release into
cells), and cool the
patient
Anxiety Disorders
Panic Disorder
• A condition seen MC in women in their mid 20’s
• Symptoms mimic those of an MI (chest pain, palpitations, diaphoresis,
nausea, anxiety, sense of impending doom)
• Symptoms usually escalate for approximately 10 minutes and last at least 30
minutes
• This disorder is very unpredictable, if it occurs in the same type of setting
then suspect a specific phobia
Diagnosis:
• Must differentiate from drug use, MI, and other sources of phobias
• Diagnosis of exclusion
Treatment:
• Cognitive‐behavioral therapy and/or relaxation training.
• Relaxation is more useful if patient has an agoraphobic tendency
• SSRI’s and benzodiazepines can be prescribed
Agoraphobia
• Patient fears being in situations where they cannot escape, bringing about a
panic attack
• Patients develop agoraphobia because of recurrent and unexpected panic
attacks in certain situations
Diagnosis:
• Is clinical, looking for evidence of social and/or occupational dysfunction
Treatment:
• Exposure desensitization
• β‐blockers as prophylaxis from sympathetic activation when in possibly
triggering situations
ObsessiveCompulsive Disorder (OCD)
• Patient experiences recurrent thoughts and performs Do not confuse OCD
recurrent actions/rituals as a coping mechanism with obsessive‐
• Obsessive thoughts provoke anxiety, compulsions are compulsive
a way of dealing with this anxiety, this anxiety relief is “personality
only temporary and thus rituals get performed over disorder”, where
and over again. the patient sees no
• Commonly involve cleanliness (fear of contamination) wrong in their
– thus excessive hand‐washing is common behaviors.
Diagnosis:
• Patient must be aware of the abnormality of their behavior, and must be
disturbed by this.
Treatment:
• 1st line treatment is SSRI
• 2nd line is clomipramine
• Patient must undergo psychotherapy as well, where they are forced to
overcome their behavior
PostTraumatic Stress Disorder
• This is the classic “Vietnam vet” patient, who has undergone a traumatic
incident that leaves them emotionally scarred
There are 3 key groups of symptoms:
1. Avoidance of stimuli – associated with their trauma or numbing of
responsiveness because it emits emotional pain
2. Re‐experiencing the traumatic event – via dreams, thoughts, recollections.
3. Increased arousal – seen as sleep disturbances, emotional lability,
impulsiveness, anxiety.
Diagnosis:
A patient who
• Always differentiate from an acute stress disorder, functioned very
where symptoms last less than 1 month and occur well before the
within 1 month of experiencing the stressor onset of PTSD
• Diagnosis requires a traumatic incident and must last has a greater
longer than 1 month prognosis than
someone who
was less
functional.
Treatment:
• When patient is in acute distress, give benzodiazepines to calm them down
• For long‐term therapy, give SSRI’s + psychotherapy
Generalized Anxiety Disorder
• Patient worries excessively and/or has poorly controlled anxiety on most
days for at least 6 months.
• There is no specific event or reason for this anxiety
• Patient has trouble sleeping, the inability to concentrate, excessive fatigue
and restlessness
• Be sure to distinguish from specific phobia/anxieties or other causes of
anxiety.
Diagnosis:
• Must be evidence of social dysfunction (which rules out normal anxiety)
Treatment:
• Psychotherapy teaching patient to recognize their worrying and finding a
way to manage through thought patterns and behavior
• Can give SSRI’s, buspirone, and benzodiazepines
• β‐blockers to block excessive sympathetic activation
ANXIOLYTICS PRESCRIBED FOR ANXIETY DISORDERS:
PANIC DISORDER: SSRI, Alpralozam, Clonazepam
GAD: SSRI’s
OCD: SSRI’s and clomipramine
ADJUSTMENT DISORDER: Benzodiazepines
SOCIAL PHOBIA: SSRI + buspirone
Personality Disorders
Some general characteristics of Personality Disorders:
• They cause functional impairments
• Behavior often causes significant disruption to others (co‐workers,
classmates, family members, etc)
• Patients usually see no problem with their behaviors
CLUSTER A DISORDERS – Paranoid, Schizoid, Schizotypal (Eccentric/Weird)
CLUSTER B DISORDERS – Borderline, Antisocial, Histrionic, Narcissistic
(Dramatic/Aggressive)
CLUSTER C DISORDERS – Narcissistic, Avoidant, Dependent, Obsessive
Compulsive (Shy/Nervous)
CLUSTER A DISORDERS
Paranoid:
• These people negatively interpret the intentions of others
• Often use projection as their main ego defense
Schizoid:
• These people are socially withdrawn and introverted
• Avoid forming close emotional connections with others
Schizotypal:
• These people believe in things not normally accepted by society, such as
magic
• May have brief psychotic episodes but are not psychotic
• Socially isolated
• Many schizotypal patients have schizophrenic relatives
CLUSTER B DISORDERS
Antisocial:
• Break the law, violate other’s rights
• Often seductive in nature
• Must be 18yr of age for diagnosis + must have been this way since at least 15
yr old (conduct disorder)
Borderline:
• Exhibit self‐destructive behavior such as cutting
• Emotionally volatile
• “Splitting” ego defense commonly used (people seen as either great or
terrible)
• Have the ability to dissociate from past negative experiences
Histrionic:
• Attention‐seekers
• Sexually promiscuous and uses physical appearance for attention
• Very dramatic and exaggerate their behaviors
• Use ego defenses such as dissociation and repression
CLUSTER C DISORDERS
Narcissistic:
• Believe they are superior and are entitled to the best
• Do not handle criticism well
Avoidant:
• Patient feels sensitive and does not handle negative comments well
• Scared to try new things or make new friends for fear of embarrassment
Dependent:
• Scared to be on their own and cannot do much on their own
• Require help with decisions from someone else
ObsessiveCompulsive:
• This person is overly preoccupied with rules, regulations, neatness, etc
• They commonly isolate themselves (ego defense) in order to avoid
demonstrating emotions
Ego Defenses
Acting Out: transformation of unacceptable feelings into actions (ex. Tantrums)
Identification: copies the behavior of someone else
Rationalization: a way of making something unacceptable seem acceptable (ex.
Boyfriend breaks up with girlfriend and she says she wanted to end it anyway)
Reaction Formation: expressing outwardly the exact opposite of how you feel (ex.
Someone addicted to something starts a charity to fight that cause)
Intellectualization: trying to logically explain something in order to make sense of
it
Regression: resorting to immature/child‐like behavior
Sublimation: funneling unacceptable feelings into positive actions (ex. Funneling
sexual feelings into a workout regimen)
Somatoform & Factitious Disorder
Somatoform Disorders
Somatization disorder:
• Most commonly female patients and starts before 30 years of age
• Frequently visits the doctor for many procedures and operations
• Often have a history of abusive and/or failed relationships
Symptoms:
• Somatic complaints involving many different Somatization and
systems, such as: conversion disorder
are never intentional.
GI nausea, vomiting, diarrhea If a question says
patient is looking for
Neurologic weakness, loss of sensation that is not gain or did something
explained by normal anatomy purposely, these two
are not the right
Sexual irregular menses, etc
answer.
• Lab findings do not explain any of the complaints
Diagnosis:
• Must always rule out medical conditions
• Rule out material gains
Treatment:
• Important to form a strong bond with the patient
• Try to bring to light the fact that there are psychological causes for the
condition
• Schedule regular appointments
• Perform a physical exam but do not order lab tests
Conversion disorder:
• Patient experiences neurologic symptoms that cannot be explained by
medical or neurological disorder
• Patients are often not overly concerned about the impairment – know as “la
belle indifference”
• There are often psychological factors associated with symptoms, such as
going limp when someone yells at them
Treatment:
• Formation of a strong relationship with the patient
• Psychotherapy
Hypochondriasis:
• The patient falsely believes they have a specific disease even when they are
ruled out with negative workups and/or lab tests
Treatment:
• Regular visits to ONE primary doctor
• Avoid tests/procedures
• Provide psychotherapy
• SSRI’s may be useful in some cases
Factitious Disorders
• These patients have intentionally feigned their symptoms
• These patients often see many doctors and visit many different hospitals
• They often have more medical knowledge than the average person (often
healthcare workers)
Factitious disorder: purposely faked but not for obvious gain
Malingering disorder: purposely faked for an obvious gain, such as medication,
insurance, etc.
• Very demanding of treatment
• A factitious order “by proxy”, is made when signs and symptoms are faked by
another person (ex. Mother makes up symptoms in her child – known as
Munchhausen’s by proxy)
Munchhausen’s syndrome:
• A factitious disorder mainly with physical symptoms
Munchhausen’s by proxy:
• Someone claims non‐existent symptoms (MC in their child)
• Motivation is usually to assume the role of caretaker
Diagnosis:
• By exclusion of a real medical condition
• Differentiate between malingering and factitious disorders
Treatment:
• Very difficult, patients often very defensive when it is suggested that they are
faking
Childhood and Adolescent Psychiatry
Autism
• Seen in 0.02%‐0.05% of children
• Onset before 3yr of age
• Is 3‐5x more common in boys
• Develop severe problems in communication
• Have normal hearing
• Significant problems in forming social relationships
• Are comfortable performing repetitive behaviors
• Often perform self‐destructive behaviors
• Have subnormal intelligence (<70 IQ) in approximately 2/3 of all patients
• Some have unusual specific abilities
• Prognosis is not good, only 2% are able to work and live independently, but
most remain severely impaired in adulthood
Treatment/Management:
• Behavioral therapy to increase social/communicative skills, decrease
behavioral problems, and improve their self‐care
• It is often more beneficial for the parents, because they have much difficulty
raising a child with autism.
Asperger disorder
• This disorder is first seen at 3‐5 years of age
• More common in boys
• They have significant problems forming social relationships
• Little or no delay in cognitive or language development
• Prognosis is much better here than it is in Asperger
Childhood Depression
• Presents differently depending on the age group
• Preschoolers may be aggressive and/or hyperactive, while adolescents are
irritable or show antisocial behavior
• Important to note that they may also show the same symptoms that adults do
when experiencing a major depressive disorder
Treatment:
• Family therapy may be required because this is often a cause of childhood
depression
• Use of antidepressants is very controversial in children and teens due to
their risk of suicide in this age group
Separation Anxiety
• Child is too attached to parents or other figures in their life
• Child has excessive worry that these figures will be separated from them
Signs and Symptoms:
• Somatic symptoms during times of seperation
• Trouble sleeping
Treatment:
• Desensitization
• Imipramine may be used in some cases
Oppositional Defiant Disorder/Conduct Disorder
Oppositional Defiant:
• Patients are argumentative and temperamental (more so with people close to
them)
• Often have no friends and perform poorly in school
Conduct Disorder:
• Patient is a bully to others
• Shows physical cruelty to animals
• Violates and destroys other people’s property, steals.
• Has no remorse for their actions
• Family history often shows negligence, and abuse of drugs and/or alcholol
• This may lead to conduct disorder (but not always)
Treatment:
• For both oppositional defiant disorder and conduct disorder, create an
atmosphere/setting with strict rules and consequences for not obeying these
rules
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
• Characterized by overactivity, a limited attention span, poor self‐control,
impulsiveness, emotional lability, high sensitivity to stimuli, sleep problems
Diagnosis:
• Onset must be before 7yr of age
• ≥ 6 symptoms from both hyperactivity and/or inattention sub‐categories
Treatment:
• CNS stimulants are DOC
• Methylphenidate in children >6yr of age
• Other types of CNS stimulants also given
• Note the adverse effects of CNS stimulants can be the inability to gain weight
and the inhibition of growth
Tourette’s Disorder
• Characterized by involuntary tics, repetitive movements, and vocalizations
• Diagnosis MUST include both a motor tic and a vocal tick that is present for
≥1 yr
• The common stereotype of Tourette’s involves uncontrollable swearing,
which is known as coprolalia
Treatment:
• Haldol is very effective, but is not used in milder cases
• Psychotherapy is effective in dealing with the social aspects of this disorder,
but it does not improve the tics
Anorexia Nervosa
• Often start during adolescence
• There is a profound disturbance in body image and in a person’s self‐worth
Signs and Symptoms:
• Patients are below the ideal weight for their age and height
• They often have mealtime rituals such as cutting their food into tiny pieces
and/or re‐arranging it on the plate
• Amenorrhea occurs secondary to the weight loss, and is required for the
diagnosis of anorexia
Treatment:
• Hospitalization may be required to restore the patient’s weight to a safe
level, as well as correct any electrolyte imbalances
• The most severe adverse reaction is cardiac dysfunction
• The mainstay of treatment is psychotherapy
Prognosis is poor if preoccupations with food and weight do not improve
Bulimia Nervosa
• More common than anorexia
• Characterized by binge eating (with a perceived lack of control)
• Often accompanied by purging (laxative use and/or vomiting)
• Often have a normal appearance and normal weight
• Often have cuts on the hands from shoving them down the throat to induce
vomiting
• Dental erosions seen due to acidic destruction from constant vomiting
Treatment is same as that for anorexia
Dissociative Disorder (multiple personality disorder)
• A patient possesses different personalities that can each take control at any
given time
• Childhood trauma is very common when this condition is present
• Treatment is focused on the gradual integration of these personalities
Two different disorders that should be taken into consideration:
Dissociative Amnesia:
• Person forgets plenty of personal information
Dissociative Fugue:
• A syndrome where someone travels to another place with the inability to
remember the past and confusion about their present identity
Adjustment Disorder
• A stressful life event leads to the inability to deal emotionally and/or
behaviorally
Diagnosis:
• Symptoms present within 3 months of the stressful event and must
disappear within 6 months of the disappearance of the stressor
• Differentiate from a bereavement disorder
• Always aggressively look at whether there is a depressive disorder and/or
anxiety disorder, which must be treated
ImpulseControl Disorders
• Patients are unable to resist the drive to perform actions that may be harmful
to others and themselves
• There is a feeling of anxiety before performing the impulsive action and a
sense of gratification afterwards
IntermittentExplosive Disorder
• Patient shows aggressive behavior that is way out of proportion to the
stressor
• Must not be associated with drug use
• Treat with SSRI’s AND a mood stabilizer such as Lithium
Kleptomania
• An individual who repeatedly steals to relieve anxiety
• Person does not steal because they need the object
• Often, the person returns the object after stealing it
Pyromania
• Individual purposely sets fires
• There is no personal gain in pyromania, nor is there any anger in relation to
doing this (if there is, this shifts the diagnosis to conduct/antisocial disorder)
Trichotillomania
• Patient impulsively pulls out their hair
• This results in observable hair loss
Drugs of Abuse
Alcohol
• Alcohol is a commonly abused drug
• Patients develop different levels of dependence
• Alcohol dependence is the frequent use of alcohol that results in tolerance,
leading to psychological and physical dependence.
• Alcohol abuse is diagnosed when its use results in failure to perform
normally in society (loss of job, social impairment, legal problems)
Diagnosis:
• Lab tests are not required for diagnosis
• The CAGE questionnaire is the most accurate diagnosis
Treatment:
• The most effective management of an alcoholic is always alcoholics
anonymous
Management:
• For outpatient management, the first thing is to prevent further intake of
alcohol
• If patient is intoxicated prevent them from operating machinery (driving)
• If patient is agitated sedate
• Admit to hospital if patient requires further help
The following table presents the most commonly abused drugs
Paraphilias
• Involve recurrent, sexually arousing preoccupations that are focused on
humiliation and/or suffering and the use of nonliving objects and
nonconsenting partners.
• Occurs for >6 months
• Causes social impairment
• Treatment for all is psychotherapy and aversive conditioning
• Severe cases may require anti‐androgens or SSRI’s to reduce patient’s sex
drive
Types:
Frotteurism: Touching or rubbing against a non‐consenting partner
Exhibitionism: Recurrent urge to expose themselves to strangers
Pedophilia: Urges or arousal toward prepubescent children (is the most common
paraphilia)
Voyeurism: Urges to observe an unsuspecting person who is having sex or taking
off their clothes
Fetishism: The use of nonliving objects associated with the human body (shoes are
common)
Masochism: Recurrent urge or behavior involving being humiliated
Sadism: Causing suffering to a victim is exciting to the patient
Sleep
Normal Sleep
There are two types of sleep:
1. Non‐REM (NREM), which has four stages
2. REM – rapid eye movement
The stages of normal sleep
Stages Characteristics
NONREM This stage consists of early, slow‐wave sleep
Stage 1 Consists of α‐waves and σ‐waves
Stage 2 Sleep spindles are present
Stage 3,4 δ‐waves are present during these stages
REM Dreaming occurs here (this stage is affected by elicit drugs and
ETOH)
Sleep Disorders
Insomnia
• Patient is unable to fall asleep or stay asleep
• Recurrent over more than a 1‐month period
• May be associated with periods of stress, anxiety, or drug use
Treatment:
• A sleep schedule is important to regular internal sleep patterns
• Exercise
• Antihistamines
• 2‐week period of benzodiazepines (careful to avoid dependence)
Hypersomnia
Narcolepsy:
• Patient experiences acute attacks of REM sleep
• They suddenly collapse with a complete loss of muscle tone (cataplexy)
Treatment:
• CNS stimulants
Sleep Apnea:
• Apneic periods that occur during sleep
• Most commonly is obstructive (commonly due to excess weight)
Treatment:
• Weight loss
• Continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP)
• If patient doesn’t get relief from these then should undergo surgery since
sleep apnea is a life‐threatening condition
Pickwickian Syndrome (Central Alveolar Hypoventilation)
• A syndrome with somnolence, obesity, and erythrocytosis
• Patient gradually develops hypercapnea, hypoxemia, and erythrocytosis
• This is caused by the weight of excess adipose tissue pressing on the lungs
Treatment:
• Weight loss
Parasomnias
Night Terrors:
• Child arises during NREM sleep, is not aware they are awake, screams in
terror, then falls back asleep.
• They do not remember the occurrence when they awaken
Nightmares:
• Occur during REM sleep
• Related to emotional events such as tragedy, scary movie, etc
• Patient remembers the dream
Sleep Walking:
• Occurs during NREM sleep
• Patient gets out of bed and wanders about
• Patient has no recollection of the event
Chapter 7
Cardiovascular
• Diabetes
• Smoking
• Hypertension (HTN)
• Hypercholesterolemia
• Family history
• Age
Minor Risk Factors:
• Obesity
• Lack of estrogen (this is why it occurs in men more than women)
The #1 preventable RF is smoking
Stable Angina
• Chest pain that occurs with activity
• Caused by atherosclerosis, whereby the supply of 02 required by the heart is
not met
Signs and Symptoms:
• Chest pain that may radiate to the left arm, jaw, and back.
• Relieved by rest and nitroglycerin
• EKG will show ST‐segment depression and T‐wave inversion
Diagnosis:
• Made by clinical presentation and based on symptoms
Treatment of Angina
Acute • Sublingual nitroglycerin (acts in
1‐2 min)
• May take nitro up to 3 times
every 3‐5 minutes
• Lack of relief may indicate
infarction in progress
Chronic Prevention • Long‐acting nitrates for
prophylaxis
• β‐blockers ⇓ myocardial 02
consumption when stressed
• Aspirin to prevent PLT
aggregation in atherosclerotic
plaque
• Smoking cessation
• ⇓LDL ⇑HDL through diet
Endovascular Intervention • Percutaneous transluminal
coronary angioplasty
• Indicated when there’s a failure in
medical management
• Stent placement can reduce re‐
stenosis by 20%‐30%
• GPIIb‐IIIa antagonists further
reduce stenosis rate
Surgery • Coronary artery bypass graft
• Indicated when medical
treatment fails
Unstable Angina
• Symptoms are similar to angina but occur more frequently and without any
relation to exertion/activity, occurring at rest
• Unstable angina = ischemia
• Unstable angina and non‐ST‐elevation MI are a closely related
• EKG during ischemia usually shows ST‐segment depression or T‐wave
inversion
• LABS are (+) for cardiac enzymes
Treatment:
• Based on the likelihood that it will progress to a potentially fatal outcome (ie.
Risk of recurrent unstable angina, infarction, or death 30 days after
presentation).
Prinzmetal’s Angina
• Is caused by a coronary artery vasospasm
• EKG shows ST‐segment elevation
• ST elevation is transient and cardiac enzymes are usually negative, which
helps differentiate from an MI
• Treatment is vasodilators (nitroglycerin or CCB’s)
• Patient should undergo catheterization because vasospasm often occurs at
the site of an atherosclerotic lesion in the coronary arteries.
ST Elevation Myocardial Infarction (STEMI)
• Infarction usually secondary to acute thrombosis in an atherosclerotic vessel
Signs and Symptoms:
• Crushing substernal pain that is not relieved by rest
• Diaphoresis
• Nausea/vomiting
• Tachycardia or bradycardia
• Dyspnea
Diagnosis:
• EKG will show ST elevation and Q waves
• Cardiac enzymes elevated (CK‐MB, troponin I) – CK‐MB normalizes within
72hr
Treatment:
• Re‐establish vessel patency
• #1 priority aspirin (proven to ⇓ mortality)
• #2 priority β‐blocker (proven to ⇓ mortality)
• Statins to lower cholesterol (goal is to get LDL <100 post‐infarct)
• 02 + morphine (pain control)
• Nitro to reduce preload and afterload
• ACEI’s are excellent late and long‐term therapy (⇓ afterload and prevent
remodeling)
• Consult about smoking cessation
PostMI Discharge Instructions:
• ASA
• β‐blocker
• Statin
• ACEI
EKG findings and Arrhythmias
Heart Blocks:
Firstdegree AV block normal sinus rhythm with PR interval ≥ 0.2ms
Seconddegree, type 1 (Weckenbach) block PR interval elongates from beat to
beat until a PR is dropped
Seconddegree, type 2 (Mobitz) block PR interval fixed but there are regular
non‐conducted P‐waves leading to dropped beats
Thirddegree block no relationship between P waves and QRS complexes.
Presents with junctional escape rhythms or ventricular escape rhythm
Atrial Fibrillation
• The most common chronic arrhythmia
• From ischemia, atrial dilatation, surgical history, pulmonary diseases, toxic
syndromes
• Classically, the pulse is irregularly irregular
Signs and Symptoms:
• Chest discomfort
• Palpitations
• Tachycardia,
• Hypotension + syncope
Treatment:
• Control rate with β‐blockers, CCB’s, and digoxin (not acutely)
• If fibrillations last >24hr then should anticoagulate with warfarin for at least
3 weeks before cardioversion (prevents embolisms)
• If you cannot convert to normal sinus rhythm, the patient will require long‐
term anticoagulation. 1st line is warfarin, 2nd line is aspirin
Cardioversion to convert to normal rhythm:
1st line IV procainamide, sotalol, amiodarone
Electrical shock of 100‐200J followed by 360J
Atrial Flutter
• Less stable than Afib
• The rate is slower than that of atrial fibrillation (approximately 250‐
350bpm)
• Ventricular rate in atrial flutter is at risk of going too fast, thus atrial flutter is
considered to be more dangerous (medically slowing this rate can cause a
paradoxical increase in ventricular rates)
• Classic rhythm is an atrial flutter rate of 300bpm with a 2:1 block resulting in
a ventricular rate of 150bpm
• Signs and symptoms similar to those of atrial fibrillation
• Complications include syncope, embolization, ischemia, heart failure
Classic EKG finding is a “sawtooth” pattern:
Treatment:
• If patient is stable, slow the ventricular rate with CCB’s or β‐blockers (avoid
procainamide because it can result in increased ventricular rate as the atrial
rate slows down)
• If cardioversion is going to take place be sure to anticoagulate for 3 weeks
• If patient is unstable must cardiovert start at only 50J because is easier to
convert to normal sinus rhythm than atrial fibrillation
Multifocal Atrial Tachycardia (MFAT)
• An irregularly irregular rhythm where there are multiple concurrent
pacemakers in the atria.
• Commonly found in pts with COPD
EKG shows tachycardia with ≥ 3 distinct P waves
Treatment:
• Verapamil
• Treat any underlying condition
Supraventricular Tachycardia
• Many tachyarrhythmias originating above the ventricle
• Pacemaker may be in atrium or AV junction, having multiple pacemakers
active at any one time
• Differentiating from ventricular arrhythmia may be difficult if there is also
the presence of a bundle branch block
Treatment:
• Very dependent on etiology
• May need to correct electrolyte imbalance
• May need to correct ventricular rate [digoxin, CCB, β‐blockers, adenosine
(breaks 90% of SVT)]
• If unstable requires cardioversion
• Carotid massage if patient has paroxysmal SVT
Ventricular Tachycardia
• VTach is defined as ≥ 3 consecutive premature ventricular contractions
• If sustained, the tachycardic periods last a minimum of 30s.
• Sustained tachycardia requires immediate cardioversion due to risk of going
into ventricular fibrillation
Treatment:
• If hypotensive or no pulse existent do emergency defibrillation (200, then
300, then 360J)
• If patient is asymptomatic and not hypotensive, the first line treatment is
amiodarone or lidocaine because it can convert rhythm back to normal
Ventricular Fibrillation
• Erratic ventricular rhythm is a fatal condition.
• Has no rhyme or rhythm
Signs and Symptoms:
• Syncope
• Severe hypotension
• Sudden death
Treatment:
• 1st line ‐ Emergent cardioversion is the primary therapy (200‐300‐360J),
which converts to normal rhythm almost 95% of the time
• Chest compressions rarely work
• 2nd line – Amiodarone or lidocaine
• If treatment isn’t given in a timely matter, patient experiences failure of
cardiac output and this progresses to death.
Congestive Heart Failure
Definition:
‐ CHF occurs when the cardiac output is insufficient to met systemic demands
‐ May be right‐sided, left‐sided, or both
Causes:
‐ Valvular diseases
‐ MI
‐ Hypertension
‐ PE
‐ Anemia
‐ Cardiomyopathy
‐ Edocarditis
‐ Thyrotoxicosis
Signs and Symptoms:
Leftsided: signs and symptoms are due to ⇓ CO and ⇑ cardiac pressures
‐ Paroxysmal nocturnal dyspnea
‐ Exertional dyspnea
‐ Orthopnea
‐ Cardiomegaly
‐ S3 gallop
‐ Renal hypoperfusion (leads to sodium retention and worsened CHF)
Rightsided: signs and symptoms are due to pooling upstream of the right heart
‐ ⇑ JVP
‐ Edema
‐ Hepatic congestion
‐ Atrial fibrillation (increases risk of embolization)
‐ Fatigue
‐ Cyanosis
‐ Weight loss
Diagnose with echocardiogram
Treatment:
1st line regimen ACEI, β‐blockers, furosemide and spironolactone, and digoxin
If patient cannot tolerate ACEI, try hydralazine + isosorbide dinitrate
ACEIs have been proven to decrease mortality in CHF
β blockers have been to decrease mortality
‐ Don’t start β‐blockers during active failure because they can exacerbate the
condition
‐ Start β‐blockers once patient is fully diuresed and is on stable doses of other
medications
Spironolactone proven to decrease mortality in class IV CHF
Loops almost always used to maintain dry weight in CHF patients
Digoxin improves symptoms but DOESN’T decrease mortality
Be wary of giving Loop diuretic without spironolactone because this can cause
an unsafe hypokalemia that potentiates the effect of digoxin (1st sign of digoxin
toxicity is a SVT with AV block and blurry yellow vision)
Cardiomyopathies
Dilated Hypertrophic Restrictive
Cause Ischmia, infections, Genetic myosin Amyloidosis,
metabolic disorder scleroderma,
conditions, drugs hemochromotosis,
glycogen storage
disease,
sarcoidosis
Signs & Right and left sided Exertional Pulmonary HTN,
Symptoms heart failure, S3 syncope, angina, S4 gallop, ⇓ QRS
gallop, systolic LVH, diastolic dysfunction
dysfunction dysfunction
Prognosis 30% 5yr survival 5% annual 30% 5‐yr survival
rate mortality rate
Treatment Stop offending β‐blockers and Diuretics and
agents, tx is similar diuretics correction of
to CHF treatment underlying cause
Diagnosis for each is echocardiography
Valvular Diseases
Presentation:
‐ Valvular heart diseases all present with shortness of breath as the chief
complaint
‐ Often worsens with exertion/exercise
Clue to Diagnosis Diagnosis
Young female and/or general Miltral Valve Prolapse (MVP)
population
Healthy young athlete Idiopathic Hypertrophic Subaortic
Stenosis (now called: Hypertrophic
obstructive cardiomyopathy HOMC)
Immigrant, pregnant Mitral Stenosis
Turner’s syndrome Bicuspid aortic valve
Palpitations, atypical chest pain not Mitral Valve Prolapse
associated with exertion
Physical Findings:
‐ Murmur and rales (seen in all cases)
‐ Peripheral edema, gallops, carotid pulse findings (possibly seen)
Murmurs:
Systolic:
‐ Most commonly seen in aortic stenosis, mitral regurgitation, MVP, and HOCM
Diastolic:
‐ Most commonly seen with aortic regurgitation and mitral stenosis.
All right‐sided murmurs INCREASE in intensity with inhalation
All left‐sided murmurs DECREASE in intensity with exhalation
Location and Radiation of murmurs:
Valvular Lesion Best heard at
Aortic Stenosis 2nd right intercostal space and radiates
to the carotids
Pulmonic valve 2nd left intercostal space
Aortic regurgitation/tricuspid/VSD Left lower sternal border
Mitral regurgitation Apex (left 5th intercostal space)
Murmur intensity:
I/VI only heard with special maneuvers (valsalva)
II/VI and III/VI majority of murmurs
IV/VI thrill present
V/VI can be heard with stethoscope partially off of the chest
VI/VI can be heard without a stethoscope
Diagnosis:
‐ Best initial diagnostic test for valvular lesions is A trick to know
echocardiogram what type of
‐ The most accurate test is left heart catheterization therapy you should
use:
Treatment:
If the valsalva
Regurgitant lesions best treated with vasodilator therapy maneuver
improves the
(ACEI, ARB) murmur, use
diuretics.
Stenotic lesions best treated with anatomic repair (mitral
stenosis requires balloon valvuloplasty, severe aortic stenosis If amyl nitrate
requires surgical replacement) improves the
murmur, ACEI is
indicated.
Aortic Stenosis
‐ Most commonly presents with chest pain
‐ Syncope and CHF are less commonly present with aortic stenosis
‐ Patient is often older and has a history of hypertension
Prognosis:
‐ If coronary disease is present then 3‐5yr is avg survival
‐ If syncope is present then 2‐3 yr avg survival
‐ If CHF present then 1.5‐2yr avg survival
Diagnosis:
‐ TTE is the best initial diagnosis
‐ TEE is more accurate
‐ Left heart catheterization is the most accurate
‐ EKG and CXR will show LVH
Treatment:
‐ Diuretics are the best initial therapy but do not alter the long‐term
prognosis, and special attention must be paid since over‐diuresis is a possibility
‐ Treatment of choice is valve replacement
Aortic Regurgitation
‐ HTN
‐ Rheumatic heart disease
‐ Endocarditis
Signs and Symptoms:
‐ Diastolic decrescendo murmur heart best at the left sternal border
Diagnosis:
‐ TTE is best initial diagnostic test
‐ TEE is more accurate
‐ Left heart catheterization is most accurate
Treatment:
‐ ACEI’s
‐ ARB’s
‐ Nifedipine
If ejection fraction drops below 55% or the LV end‐diastolic diameter goes
above 55mm, surgery should be done even if the patient is asymptomatic.
Mitral Stenosis:
‐ MCC of mitral stenosis is rheumatic fever
‐ Seen in immigrants and pregnant patients (increased plasma vol in
pregnancy)
Signs and Symptoms:
‐ Dysphagia (large left atrium compresses esophagus)
‐ Hoarseness (pressure on recurrent laryngeal nerve)
‐ Atrial fibrillation
Physical Exam:
‐ Diastolic rumble after an opening snap
Diagnosis:
‐ TTE is best initial diagnostic test
‐ TEE is more accurate
‐ Left heart cath is most accurate
‐ EKG and/or CXR showing left atrial hypertrophy
Treatment:
‐ Best initial therapy is diuretics, however they do not alter progression of
the disease
‐ Balloon valvuloplasty is the most effective therapy (all pregnant women
must have this procedure done)
Mitral Regurgitation
‐ Caused by HTN, ischemic heart disease, and any condition that may lead to
dilation of the heart
‐ The most common complain is dyspnea on exertion
Physical exam findings:
‐ Holosystolic murmur that obscures both S1 and S2
‐ Best heard at the apex, radiates to the axilla
Diagnosis:
‐ TTE is best initial test
‐ TEE is more accurate
Treatment:
‐ ACEI
‐ ARB’s
‐ Nifedipine
‐ If LV ejection fraction drops below 60% or LV end systolic diameter is
above 45mm, then surgery should be done
Pericardial Disease
Pericarditis
‐ Pleuritic chest pain
‐ Relieved by leaning forward
‐ Pain often described as sharp and brief
Signs and Symptoms:
‐ Friction rub is commonly found
‐ No other pertinent physical findings
Diagnosis:
‐ Best initial test is the EKG
‐ Diffuse ST‐segment elevation
‐ PR‐segment depression is pathognomonic but is not always present
Treatment:
‐ Best initial therapy is NSAID’s
‐ Patient should return in 1‐2 days, if the pain is gone they are cured
‐ If pain persists after 2 days of NSAID treatment, prednisone orally is
treatment
Pericardial Tamponade
‐ Presents with SOB, hypotension, JVD + clear lungs
‐ Pulsus paradoxus is present (decreased BP >10mmHg on inspiration)
‐ Electrical alternans is present (alteration of QRS complex on EKG
Diagnosis:
‐ Echo is the most accurate diagnostic test
‐ Earliest finding is usually collapse of the right atrium and ventricle
‐ EKG shows low voltage and electrical alternans
‐ Right heart catheterization will show equalization of all pressures in the
heart during diastole
Treatment:
‐ Best initial therapy is a pericardiocentesis
‐ Most effective long‐term therapy is pericardial window placement
Constrictive Pericarditis
‐ Presents with SOB
‐ Edema
‐ JVD
‐ Ascites
‐ Hepatosplenomegaly
Unique features of constrictive pericarditis:
‐ A pericardial knock, which is an extra diastolic sound from the heart hitting
the calcified pericardium
Diagnosis:
‐ CXR showing calcification
‐ Low voltage EKG
‐ Thickened pericardium on CT
Treatment:
‐ Diuretics are the best initial therapy
‐ Pericardial stripping is the most effective therapy
Chapter 8
Endocrine
Pituitary Disorders
Prolactinoma
• Prolactin‐secreting tumor
• Always think of this when there is visual disturbances
Signs and Symptoms:
Men:
• Impotence
• Decreased libido
• Gynecomastia
• Most often men also present with headache and visual disturbacnes
Women:
• Amenorrhea
• Galactorrhea
• Both in the absence of pregnancy
Diagnosis:
• Rule out pregnancy
• Rule out drugs such as: Metoclopromide, Phenothiazines, and/or TCA
• MRI to confirm presence of tumor
Treatment:
• 1st line treatment is a dopamine agonist such as bromocriptine (most
prolactinomas respond to DA agonists)
• If medical therapy doesn’t work, surgical removal is done
Acromegaly
• Excess production of GH due to a GH‐producing adenoma in the pituitary
Signs and Symptoms:
• Enlargement of the head, hands, feet, nose, and jaw
• May be enlargement of the sweat that can cause intense sweating
• Joint abnormalities (excess growth of articular cartilage)
• Amenorrhea
• Cardiomegaly and hypertension
• Colonic polyps
• Diabetes also common because insulin is antagonized by GH
Diagnosis:
• Best initial test is IGF (confirms diagnosis of acromegaly)
• Most accurate test is administration of glucose (normally should suppress
GH, if it suppresses GH then this excludes acromegaly)
• MRI done after there is a reason for doing so
Treatment:
• Transphenoidal removal
• DA agonist to inhibit GH release
• Octreotide has some merit in preventing GH release
• Pegvisomant a GH receptor antagonist
Diabetes
Type 1 DM
• Autoimmune destruction of pancreatic β‐cells, leads to insulin deficiency
Signs and Symptoms:
• Polyuria, polyphagia, polydipsia
• Weight loss
• DKA emergency
Diagnosis:
• Random plasma glucose >200 with symptoms OR
• Two measurement of fasting glucose >125
• 2hr oral glucose tolerant test >200 with or without symptoms
Treatment:
• Insulin replacement
Complications:
• DKA
Signs and Symptoms of DKA:
• Hyperglycemia >250
• Hyperkalemia (due to transcellular shift out of the cell in exchange for H+)
• Low pH
• Elevated levels of acetone, acetoacetate, and β‐hydroxybutyric acid
• Increased anion gap
DKA treatment:
1st IV fluids
2nd potassium replacement(hyper becomes hypo as DKA is treated), insulin
replacement
3rd addition of glucose to insulin drip when pt becomes normoglycemic (keep
giving insulin until ketones are gone)
** insulin is given originally to shut down ketogenesis, not decrease glucose, thus
keep giving insulin until ketones are gone despite normal glucose.
Type 2 DM
• A peripheral insulin resistance
• Usually adult onset (changing with the obesity epidemic)
• Family history often plays a strong role
• Ketosis is NOT associated with DM2
Signs and Symptoms:
• Acute 3P’s (polydypsia, polyphagia, polyuria), fatigue, weight loss
• Subactue infections (yeast infections, Mucor, S. Aureus)
Chronic signs and symptoms:
• Macrovascular stroke, CAD
• Microvascular retinitis, nephritis
• Neuropathy parasthesia, stocking and glove burning sensation, autonomic
insufficiency, ⇓ sensation
Diagnosis: same as type 1
Treatment:
• FIRST treatment is always diet and lifestyle modifications
• Oral hypoglycemics for mild/moderate disease
• 1st line metformin (biguanide), its MOA is blocking gluconeogenesis
• 2nd line sulfonylurea (glyburide), MOA is ⇑ β‐cell insulin secretion
• 3rd line Thiazolidinediones (pioglitazone), MOA is increasing tissue
sensitivity to insulin
• If oral drugs don’t work, patient may require insulin
• Lifelong cases most usually will require insulin treatment
• ACEI’s important because they slow down the progression of diabetic
nephropathy
Monitoring DM with HbA1c:
• HbA1c allows us to get a measure of the average glucose level over the past 3
months
• Tight glucose control is directly responsible for decreasing complications and
mortality in both types of insulin
• An HbA1c <7 or 8 is recommended (this # is always decreasing)
Complications of DM2:
Hyperosmolar Hyperglyicemic Nonketotic Coma(HHNK):
• Often precipitated by stress, secondary to hypovolemia
• Glucose can become >1000mg/dL
• There is no acidosis (as in type 1 DM)
Treating HHNK:
• IV fluids are most important, rehydration is often all that is needed.
• May require upwards of 10L of fluids
• Without treatment, mortality rate climbs over 50%
Complications of Diabetes
Hypertension Control is essential in DM patients because it causes long‐term
complications of the heart, eye, kidney, and brain. Goal is to keep it <130/90
Lipid Management Goals are: LDL <100, if patient has CAD + DM, the goal is <70.
Retinopathy Diabetics require a yearly eye exam to detect proliferative
retinopathies. If present, laser coagulation should be performed.
Nephropathy If any form of protein is present in the urine give the DM pt ACEI’s.
These prevent nephropathies and ACEI’s are 1st line drugs in DM with HTN
Neuropathy Yearly foot exams are important. If neuropathy is present there is
no need to delay treatment with gabapentin or pregabalin.
Erectile Dysfunction Ask patient about this, sildenafil or tadalafil work well but
do not give if they are also on nitrates
Gastroparesis More common in long‐term diabetics, there is impaired stretch‐
receptors and thus impaired motility. Patient will have bloating, constipation,
fullness, and diarrhea. Give metoclopramide or erythromycin (increase gastric
motility)
Adrenal Disorders
Cushing’s Syndrome
There are 3 sources of Cushing’s disease, they are listed in this table along with
pertinent information
There is a common presentation of all patients with
hypercortisolism:
• Fat redistribution: Truncal obesity, buffalo hump, thin arms/legs, “moon
facies”
• Striae and easy bruising: Due to a loss of collagen(cortisol thins the skin)
• HTN: Due to fluid and sodium retention
• Hirsuitism: from increased adrenal androgen levels
• Muscle wasting
Diagnosis:
1. 1mg overnight dexamethasone suppression test: normally a person will
suppress the 8am level of cortisol if given dexa at 11pm the previous night. A
normal test (suppression) will rule out hypercortisolism of all kinds. ** a test
may be elevated due to other factors such as depression, alcoholism, or
excessive stress
2. 24‐hr urine cortisol: this test adds specificity to the overnight
dexamethasone test, if the overnight test was abnormal (failing to suppress
ACTH), then this test confirms hypercortisolism.
** these tests are to diagnose the presence of Cushing’s syndrome, the location is
still unknown at this point.
Diagnosing the location:
• Looking at the ACTH can help identify the location
• If ACTH is high source of problem is the pituitary or ectopic ACTH
production
• If ACTH is low source is the adrenal
Treatment:
• Removal of whatever is causing the problem, identified by MRI or abdominal
scan (depending on the location of the problem)
Addison’s Disease (adrenal insufficiency)
Can be primary (Addison’s) or secondary (⇓ ACTH production from pituitary)
Addison’s disease:
• MC is autoimmune disorder
• Waterhouse‐Friderichsen may be cause, which is hemorrhagic necrosis of the
adrenal medulla during the course of meningococcemia
Signs and Symptoms:
• Fatigue
• Anorexia
• Hyponatremia + hyperkalemia
• Hypotension
• Nausea/vomiting
• Constipation
• Hyperpigmentation (only in primary case)
Diagnosis:
• ⇑ ACTH and ⇓ cortisol (in response to ACTH)
• Hyperpigmentation
• If cause is secondary, then cortisol will ⇑ in response to ACTH
Treatment:
• For acute Addison’s give fluids + hydrocortisone
• For stable patient give prednisone
• If patients do not respond to above treatments, give fludrocortisone (highest
# of mineralocorticoids)
Adrenal Cortical Hyperfunction
1° Hyperaldosteronism (Conn’s Syndrome):
• Most commonly due to an adenoma or hyperplasia of the zona glomerulosa
of the adrenal gland
Signs and Symptoms:
• Hypertension
• ⇑Na+
• ⇑Cl‐
• ⇓K+
• ⇓ renin
Diagnosis:
• ⇑ aldosterone
• ⇓ renin
• CT showing adrenal lesion
Treatment:
• If adenoma surgical resection
• If hyperplasia spironolactone
2° Hyperaldosteronism:
• Increased renin production 2° to decreased renal bloodflow(CHF, shock,
renal artery stenosis)
Diagnosis:
• ⇑ renin (this is used to differentiate between 1° and 2° causes
Treatment:
• Treat underlying cause
• Treat HTN
Pheocromocytoma
Patient presents with:
• Episodic HTN
• Headache
• Palpitations
• Tachycardia
• Diaphoresis
Diagnosis:
• Best initial tests high plasma and urinary catecholamine/plasma‐free
metanephrine and VMA levels
• Most accurate tests CT or MRI of adrenal glands
Treatment:
• 1st – phenoxybenzamine to control BP
• 2nd – propranolol (only after α‐blockade with phenoxybenzamine)
• 3rd – surgical resection
Male Gonadal Disorders
Thyroid Disorders
The clinical differences between hyperthyroidism and hypothyroidism
HYPOTHYROIDISM HYPERTHYROIDISM
Weight Gain Loss
Intolerance Cold Heat
Hair Course Fine
Skin Dry Moist
Mental Depressed Anxious
Heart Bradycardia Tachycardia
Muscle Weak Weak
Reflexes Diminished
Fatigue Yes Yes
Menstrual Changes Yes Yes
Hypothyroidism
• Most commonly from ‘burnout’ Hashimoto’s thryoiditis.
• Patient is fatigued
• Poverty of movement
• Gaining weight
Diagnosis:
• ⇑ TSH
• ⇓ T4
Treatment:
• Thyroxine
• T4(converted in the tissue to T3 as needed)
Hyperthyroidism
• ⇑ T4 levels
• ⇓ TSH
• 4 forms of hyperthyroidism: Graves(MC), Silent, Subacute, Pituitary adenoma
Grave’s Disease:
Has many findings that are unique to this type of hyperthyroidism:
• Exophthalmos and proptosis
• Dermopathy (redness and thickened skin below the knee)
• Onycolysis (seperation of the nail from the nailbed)
• RAIU is elevated
Treatment:
• PTU or methimazole is given acutely to bring the gland under control
• After gland is controlled, use radioactive iodine ablation
• Propranolol used to treat sympathetic symptoms
Silent Thyroiditis:
• An autoimmune process with a non‐tender gland and hyperthyroidism
• No eye, nail, or skin finding
• RAIU test is normal
• Gland is not in a state of hyperfunctioning, rather it is “leaking”
• Antibodies to thyroid peroxidase and antithyroglobulin antibodies may be
present
Treatment: There is no treatment
Subacute Thyroiditis:
• A condition of viral etiology
• Gland is tender
Diagnosis:
• TSH low
• T4 increased
• RAIU low
Treatment:
• Aspirin to relieve the pain
Pituitary Adenoma:
• Rare condition
• Is the only hyperthyroid disorder with an elevated TSH
Diagnosis:
• MRI of brain
Treatment:
• Removal of adenoma
Exogenous Thyroid Hormones Abuse:
• Will be an elevation in T4 (due to taking thyroid hormone)
• The TSH will be suppressed due to negative feedback
• Thyroid gland will atrophy
Thyroid Storm:
• This is an emergency situation where there is severe release of thyroid
hormones from the thyroid gland
• Causes symptoms of extreme sympathetic stimulation (tremor, tachycardia,
diaphoresis, etc)
Treatment:
1st give iodine to block the uptake of iodine into the gland
2nd give PTU or methimazole to block thyroxine production
3rd dexamethasone to block the peripheral converion of T4 T3
4th block sympathetic effects with propranolol
Myxedema Coma:
• An emergency hypothyroid condition
• May be spontaneous or ppte by cold conditions, infections, sedative drugs,
respiratory failure
Signs and Symptoms:
• Hypoventilation
• Hypotension
• Stupor
• Coma
• Seizures
Treatment:
• Levothyroxine
• Cortisone
• Intubate
Thyroid Malignancies
• All solitary dominant nodules should be diagnosed by FNA
• Excision if malignancy is suspected
• Hot nodules (a nodule that takes up more radioactive iodine) are less likely
to be malignant
• Cold nodules (nodules that take up less radioactive iodine) are more likely to
be malignant
Papillary cancer:
• Most common type of thyroid
• Best prognosis (85% 5‐yr survival rate)
• Psammoma bodies & orphan‐annie bodies/ground‐glass nuclei
Follicular cancer:
• Good prognosis
• Common metastasis to bone and lungs
Medullary cancer:
• Prognosis is intermediate
• Is a cancer of the parafollicular “C” cells that are derived from cells of the 5th
branchial pouch
• Secretes calcitonin
Anaplastic cancer:
• Terrible prognosis
• Has a 0% 5‐yr survival rate
Multiple Endocrine Neoplasia:
Type 1 (Wermer’s) 3 P’s: Pituitary, Pancreas, Parathyroid
Type 2 (Sipple’s) Pheocromocytoma, Medullary Thyroid
CA, Parathyroid
Type 2b (Type 3) Pheocromocytoma, Medullary Thyroid
CA, Mucocutaneous neuromas(esp in GI)
Chapter 9
Infectious
Disease
Answering questions in the infectious disease section are usually pretty straight
forward. Being able to correctly answer these questions comes down to
understanding the following:
1. Common conditions and their associated organisms
2. Common conditions and the best antibiotics to use
3. Organisms and their gram stain characteristics
4. Common scenarios and their commonly associated organisms
For greatest chances of success with these questions, the following tables should be
memorized.
Gram Stain Characteristics
ORGANISM CHARACTERISTICS STAINING CHARACTERISTICS
Gram (+) organisms Blue in color
Gram (‐) organisms Red in color
Gram (+) cocci (pairs) S. Pneumonia
Gram (+) cocci (chains) Streptococcus
Gram (+) cocci (clusters) Staphylococcus
Gram (‐) diplococci Neisseria
Gram (‐) rods Hemophilus
Gram (‐) rods with mucoid capsule Klebsiella
Pseudohyphae on stain Candida
Acid Fast Organisms Mycobacterium, Nocardia
Silver Staining Pneumocystis Carinii
Spirochete Borrelia,
Treponema/Leptospira(darkfield)
Common situations and their associated organisms
SITUATION ASSOCIATED ORGANISMS
Cellulitis from a dog or cat bite Pasteurella Multocida
Burn wound infection with a blue/green Pseudomonas
color
Baby Paralyzed after eating honey Clostridium Botulinum
Diarrhea after taking antibiotics Clostridium Difficile
Pricked by thorn while gardening Sporothrix Schenckii
Gastroenteritis in young child Rotavirus
Diarrhea after traveling to Mexico E. Coli
Aplastic crisis in Sickle Cell patient Parvovirus B19
Food poisoning after eating reheat rice B. Cereus
Food poisoning after eating raw seafood Vibrio Parahemolyticus
Pneumonia in Southwest USA Coccidioides Immitis
Pneumonia after exploring caves Histoplasma Capsulatum
Pneumonia after exposure to bird Histoplasma Capsulatum
droppings in Ohio
Pneumonia after exposure to exotic Chlamydia Psittaci
birds
Pneumonia in a patient with silicosis Tuberculosis
Diarrhea after hiking or drinking from a Giardia Lamblia
stream
B12 deficiency Diphyllobothrium Latum
Fever and muscle pains after eating raw Trichinella Spiralis
meat
Pneumonia after being near an air Legionella Pneumophilia
conditioner or water tower
Slaughterhouse worker with a fever Brucellosis
Fungal ball/hemoptysis after TB or Aspergillus
cavitary lung disease
Highyield conditions/illnesses and their most likely organism and treatments
Important information regarding HIV
How often should the CD4 count be checked? Q 6 months
At what point is PCP a worry in HIV/Aids patient? When CD4 is <200
What is the most common opportunistic pneumonia in AIDS? PCP
How to prevent PCP infection? Prophylax with TMP‐SMX when CD4 ≤ 200
At what CD4 level should prophylaxis against Mycobacterium Avium Complex be
started? When CD4 is <50
Which type of cancer are HIV/Aids patients at increased risk for? Kaposi’s
sarcoma
Should live vaccines be given do these patients? NO
Which is the only live vaccine to be given? MMR
Which type of blood disease is increased in this patient population? NHL
What is the most likely cause of pneumonia in HIV patient? Strep Pneumo
What is the most likely cause of Opportunistic pneumonia in HIV? PCP (be able to
recognize if the question is asking most common cause or most common
opportunistic cause)
Which organism can cause chronic diarrhea in AIDS patients? Cryptosporidium
Chapter 10
Allergies
Hypersensitivity Reactions
Type 1 – Anaphylactic (Preformed IgE antibodies)
Type 2 – Cytotoxic (preformed IgG and IgM antibodies)
Type 3 – Immune complex‐mediated (antigen‐antibody complexes deposited in
vessels and cause an inflammatory response)
Type 4 – Delayed/Cell‐mediated (sensitized T lymphocytes release inflammatory
mediators)
Anaphylaxis
• Is a typ1 hypersensitivity reaction
• Due to preformed IgE antibodies that cause the immediate release of
vasoactive amines such as histamines and leukotrienes.
• Commonly seen after bee stings and ingestion of medications such as
penicillin and sulfa drugs
Presentation:
Symptoms develop acutely and are often very dramatic
• Difficulty breathing
• Hypotension + tachycardia
• Urticaria
• Angioedema
Treatment/Management:
• Secure airway
• Give subcutaneous epinephrine
• If these aren’t available give corticosteroids
• Give antihistamines for cutaneous reactions
Angioedema
• Is most commonly caused by a deficiency of C1 esterase inhibitor
Presentation:
• Diffuse swelling of the eyelids, lips, and airway
• Usually occurs after mild facial trauma or ingestion of certain medications
(often ace inhibitors)
• There is usually a family history
• C4 levels are low
Treatment/Management:
• Secure airway
• Give subcutaneous epinephrine
• Manage exactly like anaphylaxis
Allergic Rhinitis
• An allergic reaction that is very common
• Recurring nasal stuffiness, itching, rhinorrhea, and sneezing
Treatment/Management:
• The main treatment should be avoidance of the allergen
• Keep air clean
• Close windows and keep air‐conditioning running during summer months
• Non‐sedating antihistamines such as loratadine are very effective and can be
used continually
• Nasal saline sprays/netti pot are effective at washing out the nasal cavity
Primary Immunodeficiencies
IgA Deficiency
• Is the most common primary immunodeficiency, and it is often asymptomatic
• Causes recurrent respiratory and GI infections
• Someone receiving blood products may develop anaphylaxis, which should
make you think of an IgA deficiency
• Never give these patients immunoglobulin’s
Treatment:
• Manage and treat infections as they arise
Bruton’s Agammaglobulinemia
• Is an x‐linked disorder affecting males
• Patients present with infections starting around 6 months of age
• Recurrent sinopulmonary infections due to Strep or Hemophilus organisms
are classic
Treatment/Management:
• Infusion of IV Ig’s
Common Variable Immunodeficiency
• Is a condition that presents in both men and women
• Usually only presents when they are adults
• Patient presents with recurrent sinopulmonary infections
• May get sprue‐like abdominal disorders (malabsorbtion, diarrhea,
steatorrhea)
Diagnosis:
• IgG levels are low
Treatment:
• Infusions of IVIG is required since IgG levels are low
Severe Combined Immunodeficiency
• An AR or x‐linked disorder
• Commonly caused by adenosine deaminase deficiency
• There is a B and T cell defect, thus patient has severe infections early in life
• These are the so called “bubble babies”, and require isolation to prevent life‐
threatening infections
WiskottAldrich Syndrome
• An x‐linked recessive disorder affecting only males
• There is a classic triad of eczema, recurring infections, and thrombocytopenia
ChediakHigashi Syndrome
• Due to a defect in microtubule polymerization
• Giant granules in neutrophils
• Oculocutaneous albinism
• Recurring infections
Chronic Granulomatous Disease
• Usually an x‐linked recessive disorder affecting males
• There is a defect in NADPH oxidase, causing recurring infections due to
catalase (+) organisms (Staph, Pseudomonas,etc)
• Diagnostic test involves nitroblue tetrazolium dye (normally gets reduced by
granulocytes) – measures respiratory burst, which is lacking in these
patients
Chapter 11
Pulmonary
Hypoxemia
There are 5 causes of hypoxemia:
1. Hypoventilation
2. Diffusion Impairment
3. V/Q mismatch
4. ⇓ Fi02
5. Shunt
Here is an algorithm figuring out the cause of hypoxemia
Signs and Symptoms:
• Tachycardia, dyspnea
• Clubbing and cyanosis
• Crackles and rales
Treatment:
• Treatment requires treating the current hypoxemia and the treatment of
underlying disorders
• ⇑ Pa02
• 02 by nasal cannula, or CPAP, or intubation if necessary
• If there is a shunt, the hypoxemia will not improve by increasing the FIO2
COPD’s
1. Emphysema
2. Chronic Bronchitis
3. Asthma
4. Bronchiectasis
Emphysema
• Is air space dilation with alveolar wall destruction
• The most common cause of emphysema is smoking
• If a young patient gets this, consider an alpha‐1‐antitrypsin deficiency
Emphysema – Notice Lung Hyperinflation
Signs and Symptoms:
• Barrel chest
• Hyperventilation
• Pursed lip breathing
• Known as the “pink puffers”
Diagnosis:
• Clinical diagnosis + CXR showing hyperinflation of the lungs
Treatment:
Acute episodes require:
• 02 and an ABG
• CXR
• Albuterol (inhaled)
• Steroids for acute desaturations
• ADVISE PATIENT TO STOP SMOKING
Chronic management of COPD:
• Ipratropium inhaler
• Albuterol inhaler
• Yearly influenza vaccination
• Pneumococcal vaccine
• FUTHER SMOKING CESSATION ADVISING
• Long‐term 02 therapy if P02 is <55% or the 02 saturation is <88%
Chronic Bronchitis
• Presents as a productive cough on most days for ≥ 3 months in a row for ≥
2yrs
• Known as the “blue bloater”
Signs and Symptoms:
• Similar to emphysema however hypoxia is more severe
• RVH + pulmonary HTN
• Neck vein distention
• Hepatomegaly
Diagnosis:
• Diagnosis is largely clinical
• Can confirm with a lung biopsy that shows an increased Reid index, which is
a glandular layer that is >50% of the total thickness of the bronchial wall.
Treatment:
• 02
• Bronchodilators
Asthma
• Presents with SOB and expiratory wheezing
• Severe cases may present with the use of accessory muscles
• Caused by bronchial hyperresponsiveness that is reversible
Signs and Symptoms:
• Expiratory wheezing and dyspnea
• Onset is often physical activity
• Condition is reversible with bronchodilators such as albuterol
Diagnosis:
• Highly clinical
• Check for a FEV increase of more than 10%
• Complication includes status asthmaticus, which is refractory attacks that
last for days and are fatal
Treatment:
• Treatment with β2‐agonists such as albuterol
• Long‐term control involves addition of inhaled steroid (if patient isn’t
experiencing enough control with albuterol)
• If albuterol + steroids are not enough, addition of a long‐acting β‐agonist
such as salmuterol may help
• Last resort in long‐term management (refractory to these previous
treatments) is oral steroids
Bronchiectasis
• Due to an anatomic defect that causes permanent dilation of the bronchioles
• Patient experiences recurring lung infections that produce massive amounts
of sputum
• Patient often has digital clubbing as well
Diagnosis:
• The most accurate diagnostic test is the high‐resolution CT scan, which will
show thickened bronchial walls and dilated airways
• CXR will show the classic “tram‐track markings”
Treatment:
• Must treat infections as they arise because there is no curative therapy
• Antibiotic therapy for recurring infections
• Chest physiotherapy can be helpful in releasing and eliminating sputum
• Long‐term “cure” is a lung‐transplant
Restrictive Lung Diseases
1. Interstitial Fibrosis
2. Parenchymal disease
3. Extrapulmonary disease
4. Pleural effusion
Interstitial Fibrosis
• Due to chronic insult to the lung tissue by things such as asbestos, chronic
infections, organic dusts
• Diagnosis made by a CXR, which shows a “honeycomb” pattern of the lung
Treatment:
• 02, PEEP, steroids if there is collagen vascular disease
Parenchymal Disease
• Parenchymal diseases are caused by things such as infections (TB),
inflammation (sarcoidosis), drugs, toxic/chronic inhalation of offending
agents (asbestos), and it may be idiopathic
• Patient presents with a dry cough, SOB, and chronic hypoxia
Signs and Symptoms:
• “Velcro” rales
• Clubbing
Diagnosis:
• CXR or high‐resolution CT
• Lung biopsy
• PFT (all measurements are decreased proportionately)
Treatment:
• If inflammatory, steroids can help
• There are no definitive cures for other forms of parenchymal disease
Extrapulmonary Disease
• Anything that affects the musculature responsible for aiding in breathing can
cause problems
• Multiple sclerosis, ALS, Guillain‐Barre, spinal cord trauma
• Anything that presses on the diaphragm can also cause trouble, such as
pregnancy and obesity
• Management/treatment is supportive only
Pleural Effusion
• Fluid in the pleural space
Signs and Symptoms:
• Decreased breath sounds
• Dullness to percussion
• Decreased tactile fremitus
Diagnosis:
• The best initial diagnostic test is a CXR (lateral decubidus shows free flowing
fluids)
• Most accurate test is thoracentesis (can show which type of fluid it is)
Treatment:
• Small effusions usually resorb spontaneously
• Diuretics can be used if causing respiratory problems
• If effusion is large, insert a chest tube for draining
Pulmonary Embolism
• Patient presents with a sudden onset of shortness of breath
• Lungs are clear
The risk factors for PE are usually telltale in the questions:
1. Immobility (Long airplane ride)
2. Trauma (Broken bone)
3. Surgery (Especially replacement of joints in the leg)
4. Malignancies
5. Thrombophilias
Diagnosis:
• A CXR should be done and is usually normal. May show a wedge‐shaped
infarct (large PE), atelectasis is a common finding
• EKG often shows non‐specific ST‐T wave elevations
• Best test to confirm diagnosis of PE is the spiral‐CT and should be done if the
xray is abnormal
• If the xray is normal but you are still suspicious, a V/Q scan should be
performed (the less normal the xray the less accurate the V/Q scan will be)
• Doppler exam is only 70% sensitive, thus many PE’s are missed with this test.
The benefit of the Doppler is that if it DOES detect a PE, it is 100% accurate
• D‐dimer is a highly sensitive test but it has low specificity. This is the best
test to use if the patient has a low probability of having a PE and you want a
single test to rule out a PE
Pulmonary Hypertension
Pulmonary hypertension is defined as hypertension that is ≥ ¼ that of the systemic
pressure. Normally it should be approximately 1/8 that of the systemic pressure
• Active pulmonary hypertension means it is primarily a disease of the lung
• Passive pulmonary hypertension means it is secondary to a condition of the
heart
Primary Disease:
• Idiopathic, which occurs commonly in young women
• Interstitial restrictive diseases
• Obstructive pulmonary diseases
Secondary Disease:
• Seen in heart disease
• Commonly seen in patients with HIV/AIDS
Signs and Symptoms:
• Tricuspid regurgitation
• Loud P2
• Right ventricular heave
• Raynaud’s phenomenon
Diagnosis:
• Best initial test is the TTE, which will show RVH and an enlarged right atrium
• Most accurate test is right heart catheterization with increased pulmonary
artery pressure
• EKG will likely show right‐axis deviation
Treatment:
• 02
• Prostaglandins
• Endothelin inhibitors that prevent growth of the vasculature of the
pulmonary system
Tuberculosis
• 1° TB affects the lower lobes and is usually asymptomatic
• It occurs in specific groups such as immigrants, HIV+ patients, homeless
patients, and alcoholics.
Signs and Symptoms:
• Night sweats
• Fever
• Cough
• Sputum
• Weight loss
Diagnosis:
• CXR is the best initial diagnostic test
• Do an acid‐fast stain of the sputum to confirm diagnosis
Treatment:
• Treatment with 4 anti‐TB medications should be started with six months of
therapy being the standard of care
• Isoniazid (6 months), Rifampin (6 months), Pyrizinamide (2 months), and
Ethambutol (2 months)
• Do LFT’s because these medications can cause liver toxicity (stop all
medications if transaminase levels reach 5x the upper limit of normal)
Specific Toxicities caused by TB drugs:
Isoniazid peripheral neuropathy, add B6
Rifampin red/orange colored body secretions
Pyrazinamide hyperuricemia
Ethambutol optic neuritis
The PPD test
A screening test for those in risk groups.
Testing criteria is as follows:
• 5mm: close contacts, HIV+, steroid users
• 10mm: for those who are in the “high‐risk” groups mentioned above
• 15mm: those with no increased risk
If PPD is positive, do the following:
1. CXR
2. If CXR is abnormal, do a sputum stain
3. If sputum stain is positive, start 4‐drug therapy
Cancers of the Lung
• Lung cancers account for the most cancer deaths and are the 2nd most
commonly diagnosed cancer
• XRAY is NOT a good screening tool because by the time they are seen
metastasis has occurred
• Common signs and symptoms: Cough, hemoptysis, hoarseness, weight loss,
fatigue, recurrent pneumonia
The following table demonstrates the common characteristics of different types
of lung cancers
CANCER TYPE CHARACTERISTICS
Adenocarcinoma Is the most common lung cancer in non‐
smokers (periphery and subpleura)
CEA (+), and is used to follow treatment
Bronchoalveolar carcinoma A subtype of adenocarcinoma that is not
related to smoking
Presents in the periphery of the lung
Large Cell carcinoma In periphery
Is highly anaplastic and has a poor
prognosis
Squamous cell carcinoma Arises from bronchus and is a central
hilar mass
Strongly linked to smoking
PTHrP release causes hypercalcemia
Small cell carcinoma Central hilar location
Strong link to smoking
Secretion of ADH and ACTH causes
multiple endocrine problems
Treat with radiation + chemotherapy
May cause Lambert‐Eaton syndrome
Bronchial carcinoid tumor Secretes serotonin
Causes recurrent diarrhea, flushing of
the skin, asthmatic wheezing
Manage with a 5‐HT antagonist
Lymphoangio‐leiomyomatosis Is a smoothmuscle neoplasm
Most commonly seen in menstruating
women
Presents classically with pneumothorax
Treat with either progesterone or a lung
transplant
Treat small cell carcinoma with a combination of radiation and chemotherapy
Treat all other types with local resection + radiation (non‐metastatic), and radiation
+ chemo if metastatic
Superior Sulcus Tumor
• Also known as “Pancoast tumor”, which causes the following:
1. Horner’s syndrome – Ptosis, Anhydrosis, Myosis because it damages the
sympathetic cervical ganglion in the lower neck, AND
2. Superior Vena Cava Syndrome – obstruction of the SVC causes facial
swelling, cyanosis, and dilation of veins of the head and neck
Chapter 12
GI
Esophageal Disorders
The only two esophageal disorders that require an endoscopy are CANCER and
Barrett’s esophagus, both which require a biopsy to know the diagnosis.
DYSPHAGIA
Achalasia
• Dysphagia to both solids and liquids in a young non‐smoker.
• May be food regurgitation, and aspiration of previously eaten food.
• Involves a failure of the gastroesophageal sphincter to relax, no mucosal
abnormalities
Diagnosis:
• Best initial test is the barium swallow
• Most accurate test is an esophageal manometry
Treatment:
• Best Initial treatment is pneumatic dilation, if repeatedly unsuccessful do
surgery.
• If patient refuses surgery, we can give them an injection of botulinum toxin.
Esophageal Cancer
Presents w/ the following:
1. Dysphagia: first to solids then to liquids
2. May have heme (+) stool and/or anemia
3. Often pts are >50yr and are smokers/alcohol drinkers.
Diagnosis:
Best initial test is an endoscopy
If endoscopy is not an option, do a barium swallow
Treatment:
• Best initial therapy is a surgical resection (if no local or distant metastasis)
• Follow surgery w/ chemo‐based 5FU
Rings and webs
• Also known as peptic strictures.
• Can be caused by repetitive exposure of the esophagus to acids, resulting in
scarring and stricture formation.
• Previous use of sclerosing agents for variceal bleeding can also cause
strictures(this is why banding is the superior procedure).
Diagnosis:
• Best initial diagnostic test is a barium study
Following are the diff kinds of strictures:
1. PlummerVinson syndrome: is a proximal stricture found in association
with iron deficiency anemia. Is more common in middle‐aged women and is
associated with squamous cell esophageal cancer
• Best initial therapy is iron replacement
2. Schatzki’s rings: is a distal ring of the esophagus that presents w/
intermittent symptoms of dysphagia
• Best initial therapy is pneumatic dilation
3. Peptic stricture: results from acid reflux. Treat with pneumatic dilation
Zenker’s Diverticulum
Look for pt w/ dysphagia w/ horribly bad breath. There is food rotting in the back of the
esophagus from dilation of the posterior pharyngeal constrictor muscles.
Diagnosis:
• Best initial test is a barium study
• Best initial therapy is surgical resection
Spastic Disorders
• Diffuse esophageal spasm and “nutcracker esophagus” are essentially same
disease.
• Look for case of severe chest pain, often w/o risk factors for Ischemic heart
disease.
• May occur after drinking a cold beverage.
• Pain is always present, but dysphagia isn’t always present.
• All cardiac tests are normal
Diagnosis:
• Most accurate diagnostic test is manometry
• Barium studies may show a corkscrew pattern, but only during an episode of
spasm
Treatment:
• Calcium channel blockers and nitrates are the best treatment options
Esophagitis
Esophagitis presents with odynophagia as the food rubs against the esophagus.
Diagnosis:
• IF patient is HIV (‐), do an endoscopy first
• IF patient is HIV (+), has a CD4 count <100 give fluconazole.. only do
endoscopy if the patient doesn’t response to fluconazle.
Candida Esophagitis
• Causes 90% of esophagitis in HIV (+) patients
• The other common cause is pill esophagitis, where certain pills can cause
esophagitis in the patient.
Treatment:
• Have pt sit upright when taking the pills
• Have patient drink more water and remain upright for 30 minutes after
swallowing.
.
MalloryWeiss tear
Is an upper GI bleed with violent retching and vomiting of any cause.
There may be hematemesis or black stool on exam or in the history
Treatment:
• Most cases resolve spontaneously, if bleeding persists, injection of
epinephrine can be used to stop the bleeding.
GERD
Patient presents with a history of epigastric pain that is associated with substernal chest
pain and possibly a metallic taste in the mouth.
NOTE: As many as 20% of people who have a chronic cough are suffering as a result
of GERD
Diagnosis:
• PPI admin is both diagnostic and therapeutic.
• Further testing such as 24hr pH monitoring should only be done if there is no
response to PPIs and the diagnosis still is not clear
Treatment:Mild disease should be controlled w/ lifestyle modifications such as:
• Weight Loss
• Sleeping in an upright position, or at least somewhat angled in bed
• Smoking cessation
• Limiting alcohol, caffeine, chocolate, and peppermint ingestion
• Avoidance of food and drink within 2‐3 hours of going to bed
If those don’t work then PPIs are the next best therapy for GERD. They should
control 90‐95% of cases.
If there is no improvement then a trial of H2‐blockers should be tried (many adverse
effects with these)
Barrett Esophagus
Is a metaplasia from squamous to columnar cells
Diagnosis:
• Perform endoscopy when there is weight loss, anemia, and/or blood in the
stool, and in anyone who has chronic symptoms of reflux disease for more
than 5yrs.
FINDING ON ENDOSCOPY MANAGEMENT
Barrett esophagus PPI and repeat endoscopy every 2‐3
years
Low‐grade dysplasia PPI and repeat endoscopy in 3‐6 months
High‐grade dysplasia Distal esophagectomy
Epigastric Pain
Any pt >45yr w/ persistent epigastric pain and/or discomfort should receive an
upper endoscopy. This is essential to exclude the possibility of gastric cancer
Non-Ulcer Dyspepsia:
• Is the MCC of epigastric discomfort
• Can only be concluded after endoscopy has excluded an ulcer disease, gastric
cancer, and gastritis
Treatment:
• Consists of symptomatic therapy w/ H2 blockers, liquid antacids, or PPIs.
Peptic Ulcer Disease
• Due to hypersecretion of acid
• Can be either duodenal ulcer(DU) or gastric ulcer(GU) diseases
• H. Pylori is the MCC of ulcers, 2nd MCC is NSAIDs, head trauma, burns,
intubation, Crohn’s disease, and ZES.
• Usually, food improves the pain of a duodenal ulcer and makes the pain of a
gastric ulcer worse
• If the pt is above 45 and has epigastric pain, you must scope to exclude
gastric cancer.
Gastritis
Testing for H. Pylori:
Most accurate test:
• Endoscopy with biopsy (if this is done no further testing is required)
• Serology is very sensitive but not specific, if the serology is negative, this
excludes H. Pylori.
• A positive test can’t distinguish between new and previous infection.
Breath testing and stool antigen testing:
• These are not standard or routinely used. They can however distinguish
between new and old disease.
Treating H. Pylori:
• Treat this bacteria with PPI and clarithromycin + amoxicillin.
• ONLY treat if its associated with gastritis or ulcer disease.
There is no need for routine post‐treatment testing of H Pylori. there is no benefit in
treating H. Pylori that is associated with non‐ulcer dyspepsia.
If the treatment of H.Pyolir doesn’t succeed, try the following:
1. Repeat treatment with 2 new antibiotics and PPI : Use metronidazole +
tetracycline instead
2. If repeat treatment fails, evaluate for ZES (Gastrinoma).
Stress Ulcer Prophylaxis:
Routine prophylactic use of a PPI or H2 blocker or sucralfate should only be used if one
of the following is present:
1. Head trauma
2. Intubation and mechanical ventilation
3. Burns
4. Coagulopathy and steroid use in combo
**NSAID or steroid use alone is not an indication for routine stress ulcer prophylaxis
ZollingerEllison Syndrome(ZES) or Gastrinoma
ZES is diagnosed by finding an elevated gastrin level and an elevated gastric acid output.
When to test the gastrin and gastric acid output?
When any of the following are present:
1. large ulcer >1cm
2. multiple ulcers
3. distal location near the ligament of Treitz
4. recurrent or persistent despite H. Pylori treatment
*if the gastrin and acid output level are both elevated, then localization of the gastrinoma
is next.
Diagnosis:
• Most accurate is an endoscopic ultrasound
• Nuclear somatostatin scan is also very sensitive because ZES patients have a
high number of somatostatin receptors
Treatment:
• Local disease requires surgical resection
• Metastatic disease requires the patient be on lifelong PPIs
Inflammatory Bowel Disease(IBD)
• Both Crohn’s and ulcerative colitis can present with fever, abdominal pain,
diarrhea, blood in stool, and weight loss.
• UC pres most often with abdominal pain and bloody diarrhea
Extraintestinal manifestations of IBD are:
• Joint pain
• Eye findings
• Skin findings
• Sclerosing cholangitis
Features more common to Crohn’s disease are:
• Masses
• Skip lesions
• Involvement of upper GI tract
• Perianal disease
• Transmural granulomas
• Fistulae
• Hypocalcemia from fat malabsorbtion
• Obstruction
• Calcium oxalate kidney stones
• Cholesterol gall stones
• Vitamin B12 malabsorbtion from terminal ileum involvement
Diagnosis:
• Endoscopy is best initial test
• Barium studies are also good diagnostic tests
Crohn’s Markers:
• Antisaccharomyces cerevesiae(ASCA) : positive
• Antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibody(ANCA) : negative
UC Markers:
• ASCA: negative
• ANCA: positive
Treatment:
• Best initial treatment for both is mesalamine
• Steroids are useful in acute cases
• Surgery is required if there is no relief from these treatment modalities
DIARRHEA
Infectious Diarrhea
The presence of blood indicates a pathogenic invader, which may include any of the
following:
Diagnosis:
Treatment:
Mild disease Keep the patient hydrated, this usually resolves on its own
Non-Bloody Diarrhea:
• Non-bloody diarrhea may still be d/t the above pathogens, which can all present
with non-bloody diarrhea.
• NO BLOOD in diarrhea will exclude all of the following, which never have
blood:
Develops several days to weeks after use of antibiotics such as Clindamycin, which is
the most common cause. There can be both blood and fecal leukocytes with C.Difficile-
related colitis.
Diagnosis:
Treatment:
Chronic Diarrhea
Diagnosis:
• Removal of milk products will both allow for diagnosis and treatment
MALABSORBTION
1. Celiac Disease
2. Tropical Sprue
3. Chronic Pancreatitis
4. Whipple’s Disease
Diagnosis:
Celiac Disease
Diagnosis:
Treatment:
Tropical Sprue
Patient will have a history of being in a tropical location, and presents the same way as
celiac disease.
Diagnosis:
Treatment:
• Tetracycline or TMP-SMX for 3-6 months
Whipple’s Disease
Diagnosis:
• The most accurate test is a small bowel biopsy that shows PAS (+) organisms
• Can also do a PCR of the stool looking for T. Whippelii
Treatment:
Chronic Pancreatitis
Diagnosis:
Treatment:
Diagnosis:
• Testing may include colonoscopy, xrays, blood tests, but all are negative
Treatment:
• The best initial treatment is fiber supplementation, which helps by bulking the
stool and relieving pain
• If fiber doesn’t work, can add antispasmotic agents to try and relax the bowel
• If these fail to work, TCA’s can be tried
COLON CANCER
** The most important thing to know for colon cancer screening is when and what to do
for the patient
Diagnostic Testing:
General Population:
The best method of screening for colon cancer is performing a colonoscopy every 10yrs
One family member with colon cancer requires colonoscopy starting at 40yr or 10yr
before age of family member who had cancer.
Three family member, two generations, one premature(<50) require a colonoscopy every
1-2yr starting at 25yrs. This is a “lynch syndrome” or HNPCC
Gardner’s syndrome
• This presents with benign bone tumors known as osteomas, as well as other soft
tissue tumors. There is no additional screening indicated for Gardner’s syndrome
Peutz-Jeghers Syndrome
Juvenile Polyposis
DIVERTICULAR DISEASE
Diverticulosis
Diagnosis:
Treatment:
Diverticulitis
Treatment:
Gastrointestinal Bleeding
Red blood lower GI bleed, rarely a very acute upper GI bleed can be red blood
Black stool upper GI bleed (Proximal to Ligament of Trietz). Black stool usually is
100ml or more blood.
Heme (+) brown stool can occur from as little as 5-10ml of blood loss
Coffee ground emesis needs very little gastric, esophageal, or duodenal blood loss, as
little as 5-10ml.
Variceal Bleeding
Diagnosis:
• Endoscopy
Treatment:
Sources of Bleeding
Upper GI:
• Ulcer disease
• Esophagitis
• Gastritis
• Duodenitis
• Varices
• Cancer
Lower GI:
• Angiodysplasia
• Diverticular disease
• Polyps
• Ischemic colitis
• IBD
• Cancer
Presents with a sudden onset of severe abdominal pain with a normal appearing exam (ie.
The pain is out of proportion to the findings on exam)
Diagnosis:
Treatment:
Other GI Conditions
Constipation
There is usually no clear etiology, for clinical purpose must know possible causes and be
able to treat underlying reason.
Dumping syndrome
• This is a rare disorder related to prior gastric surgery (Often for ulcer disease)
• This is a disorder where stomach contents are quickly passed through to the
intestine, and it then draws fluid into the GI, causing an initial HYPERglycemia
follow by a reactive HYPOglycemia
• Shaking chills
• Diaphoresis
• Weakness
• Hypotension
• Hyperglycemia
Treatment:
Diabetic Gastroparesis
Diagnosis:
Treatment:
Acute Pancreatitis
Presents (classically) as severe midepigastric pain and tenderness that is associated with
alcoholism and/or gallstones
Diagnosis:
Treatment:
ACUTE HEPATITIS:
1. Jaundice
2. Fatigue
3. Weight loss
4. Dark urine from bilirubin in the urine
*Hepatitis B and C are more likely to pres with serum-sickness phenomenom like joint
pain, urticaria, and fever.
Diagnosis:
Hepatitis B testing:
• The first test to become abnormal in acute hep B infection is the surface antigen.
• Elevation in ALT, e-antigen, and symptoms all occur after the appearance of
hepatitis B surface antigen.
• Chronic hep B gives the same serologic pattern as acute hep B, but it is based on
persistence of the surface antigen beyond six months.
*Tests for active viral replication: hep B DNA polymerase = e-antigen = hep B PCR
for DNA, all equal the same thing.
Hepatitis C testing:
• Best initial test is hep C antibody, this wont tell the level of activity of the virus
• Most accurate test Hep C PCR for RNA, also is the most accurate way of testing
response to therapy
• Liver biopsy is the most accurate for finding out the severity of the disease
Chronic hep B: The pt w/ surface antigen, e-antigen, and DNA polymerase or PCR for
DNA is the pt most likely to benefit from antiviral therapy. Look for >6mnth of positive
serology
Chronic hep C: Combine interferon with ribavirin (MC adverse effect is anemia)
Vaccination:
• For adults the strongest indication for both types are the following:
Specific indications:
HEP A travelers
HEP B health care workers and pts on dialysis.
CIRRHOSIS
No matter what the cause may be, it will have a number of features:
Ascites:
Perform paracentesis for all pts with ascites if a new ascites, pain, fever, or tenderness are
present.
Diagnosis:
Alcoholic cirrhosis
Is a diagnosis of exlusion. Must exclude all other causes of cirrhosis and look for a
history of longstanding alcohol abuse. Treat as described above for cirrhosis
Diagnosis:
• The best initial test is elevated alkaline phosphatase + normal bilirubin level
• The most accurate test is presence of antimitochondrial antibody
Treatment:
• Ursodeoxycholic acid
• Urticaria
• Elevated bilirubin levels
• Elevated alkaline phosphatase
Diagnosis:
• Ursodeoxycholic acid
Wilson’s Disease
Involves cirrhosis and liver disease in a person with a choreiform movement disorder
and neuropsychiatric abnormalities.
• Extrapyrimidal symptoms
• Mania/depression
• Kayser-Fleischer rings around the cornea is pathognomonic for Wilson’s disease
Diagnosis:
Treatment:
• Penicillamine
Hemochromatosis
• Cardiomyopathies (Restrictive)
• Infertility
• Hepatoma
Diagnosis:
• Best initial test is serum study showing elevated serum iron and ferritin with a low
TIBC. Iron saturation will be grossly elevated
• The most accurate test is a MRI or liver biopsy
Treatment:
• Phlebotomy
Autoimmune Hepatitis
Most often presentation is a young woman who has another autoimmune disease
Diagnosis:
Treatment:
• Prednisone
Diagnosis:
Treatment:
Chapter 13
Nephrology
Renal Tubular and Interstitial Disorders
Drug Induced Interstitial Nephritis
• Classic drugs causing interstitial nephritis include PCN, NSAIDs,
Sulfonamides, and diuretics.
Signs and Symptoms:
• Rash
• Hematuria
• Oliguria
• Fever
• Eosinophilia
• Eosinophiliuria is rare but is pathognomonic for hypersensitivity Allergic
Interstitial Nephritis
Diagnosis:
• Diagnosis is mainly clinical, removal of offending agent + improvement helps
to confirm diagnosis
Treatment:
• Removal of offending agent
• Steroids can help
Acute Renal Failure
• Presents with ⇑ azotemia
• ⇑ BUN & Creatinine
• Caused by either prerenal, renal, or postrenal azotemia
Prerenal Failure:
• Hypoperfusion will lead to renal failure
• Volume depletion, sepsis, heatstroke, burns, hypotension
Intrinsic Renal Failure:
• ATN is the most common cause
• Renal ischemia also a possibility
Postrenal Failure:
• Is due to obstruction secondary to either BPH, renal calculi, and/or
bladder/pelvic tumors
• IV fluids to maintain urine output
• Diuretics to prevent fluid overload
• Close monitoring of electrolyte abnormalities
• Dialyze with severe electrolyte abnormalities, unresponsive metabolic
acidosis, uremia, and toxic ingestion
Acute Tubular Necrosis
• From either hypoperfusion that leads to tissue death or from insult due to
various toxic injuries
• Is the most common cause of acute renal failure
Treatment:
• Remove cause
• Give IV fluids to maintain urinary output
• Closely monitor electrolytes
• Give diuretics as needed to prevent fluid overload
Renal Tubule Functional Disorders
1. Renal Tubular Acidosis
2. Diabetes Insipidus
3. Syndrome of Inappropriate Antidiuretic Hormone
Renal Tubular Acidosis:
There is central and nephrogenic types of DI, both:
• ⇓ secretion of ADH if it is central diabetes insipidus, and an ADH resistance if
it is nephrogenic
Signs and Symptoms of both:
• Polyuria
• Polydypsia
• Nocturia
• Urine osmolality ≤ 200 and serum osmolality ≥ 300
Central DI:
• Is either idiopathic (Primary) or caused by insult to brain (Secondary)
• Treat this with DDAVP nasal spray
Nephrogenic DI:
• Is an x‐linked disease and may be secondary to sickle cell, pyelonephritis,
nephrosis, amyloidosis, multiple myeloma drugs
• Treat by increasing water intake and restricting sodium intake
Diagnosis:
• With DDAVP administration, central DI will have a fast decrease in urine
output, while nephrogenic DI will have no change in urine volume
• With DDAVP administration, central DI shows an acute increase in urine
osmolality, where nephrogenic DI shows no change in osmolality
• Treat central DI with DDAVP or vasopressin
• Treat nephrogenic DI by correcting the underlying cause (electrolyte
imbalances).
Syndrome of Inappropriate Antidiuretic Hormone (SIADH):
There are many possible causes of SIADH:
CNS disease: trauma, tumors, hydrocephalus
Pulmonary diseases: pneumonia, Small cell carcinoma of lung, abscess, COPD
Endocrine disease: hypothyroidism, Conn’s syndrome
Drugs: NSAIDs, chemotherapy, diuretics, phenothiazine, oral hypoglycemics
Diagnosis: presence of hyponatremia with a urine osmolality of >300mmol/kg
Treatment: this condition is usually self‐limiting, resistant cases may require
demeclocycline which induces nephrogenic DI
Chronic Renal Failure:
• Always associated with renal azotemia
Characterized by:
• Azotemia
• Acidosis
• Hyperkalemia
• Hypocalcemia due to lack of vitamin D production
• Anemia (lack of erythropoietin production)
• Hypertension due to RAAS pathway activation
Signs and Symptoms:
• Nausea and vomiting
• Anorexia
• Dementia
• Convulsions
• Coma
• PLT dysfunction (leads to bleeding)
Diagnosis:
• Renal ultrasound showing small kidneys if failure is chronic
• Presence of anemia due to lack of EPO production
Treatment:
• Restrict both water and salt
• Prevent fluid overload with diuretics
• If there are severe electrolyte disturbances or acid‐base problems go into
dialysis
Glomerular Diseases
Nephritic and Nephrotic Syndromes:
Nephrotic: Defined by hyperproteinuria, hypoproteinemia, hyperlipidemia,
edema
• Proteinuria >3.5g/day
• Patient has generalized edema
• Hypercoagulation
• ⇓ albumin
• Hyperlipidemia
Diagnosis:
• Best initial test is a urinalysis showing significantly increased levels of
protein
• Next best step is a spot‐urine test for a protein: creatinine >3.5:1
• 24‐hr urine protein collection >3.5g
• Most accurate test Renal biopsy
TYPE OF NEPHROTIC DISEASE COMMON CHARACTERISTICS/TX
Minimal Change Disease This is seen in young children.
Treat with prednisone
Focal Segmental Glomerulosclerosis Similar in presentation to MCD but
occurs in adults.
Most commonly idiopathic.
Commonly presents in young
hypertensive males.
Treat with prednisone and
cyclophosphamide
Membranous Glomerulonephritis Is the most common 1° cause of
nephritic syndrome in adults.
A slowly progressive disorder.
Many causes: HBV, HCV, syphilis, certain
drugs, malignancies, SLE.
Treat with prednisone +
cyclophosphamide.
50% of cases progress to end‐stage renal
failure
Membranoproliferative Type 1 is slowly progressive while Type
Glomerulonephritis 2 is aggressive.
Autoantibody against C3 convertase
(⇓C3 levels)
Treat with prednisone, plasmapharesis.
Treatment:
• Protein and salt restriction
• HMG‐CoA reductase inhibitor for hyperlipidemia
Nephritic:
• This happens when there is diffuse glomerular inflammation
Signs and Symptoms:
• There is an acute‐onset of hematuria
• Oliguria
• Hypertension
• Edema
• ⇓GFR
• ⇑ Bun:Cr
TYPE OF NEPHRITIC DISEASE COMMON CHARACTERISTICS/TX
Post‐streptococcal Glomerulonephritis An acute condition.
Classically occurs after Strep Pyogenes
infection.
Immunofluorescence shows coarse
granular IgG or C3 deposits.
Labs show increased red cells and casts,
⇓ serum C3, ⇑ ASO titer.
Rapidly Progressive Glomerulonephritis A nephritic condition that progresses
(Crescentic) rapidly to renal failure.
Goodpasture’s disease is in this category.
Immunofluorescence shows smooth and
linear IgG deposits.
Treat with prednisone and
plasmapharesis.
Berger’s Disease (IgA nephropathy) Most common type of nephropathy.
IgA deposits in mesangium.
Presents with recurrent hematuria +
low‐grade proteinuria.
Usually harmless, however 1 in 4 may
progress to renal failure.
Treat with prednisone
Henoch‐Schonlein Purpura Always in children, is an IgA
nephropathy.
Presents with abdominal pain, GI bleed,
vomiting, and hematuria.
Classically find palpable purpura on
buttocks and legs
Is a self‐limiting disease that requires no
steroids.
Multiple Myeloma There is an increased light‐chain
production.
Find Bence‐Jones protein in urine.
Hypercalcemia seen.
Patient becomes succeptible to
encapsulated bacteria because there is a
defect in normal antibody production.
Treatment must be on the underlying
myeloma.
Systemic Glomerulonephropathies:
DISEASE CHARACTERISTIC NEPHROPATHY
Diabetes Mellitus Is the MCC of ESRD.
Early manifestation is microalbuminuria
(give ACEI’s, strict glycemic control).
HIV MC seen when HIV is acquired by IV
drug use.
Presents as focal segmental
glomerulonephritis.
Early treatment with antiretroviral
Renal Amyloidosis Diagnose with birefringence on congo
red stain.
Treat with a transplant
LUPUS
Type 1 No renal involvement
Type 2 Is a mesangial disease with focal
segmental glomerular pattern.
Treatment isn’t typically required
Type 3 Is a focal proliferative disease.
Treat aggressively with prednisone and
cyclophosphamide
Type 4 Diffuse proliferative disease.
Combination of both nephritic and
nephritic disease.
Wire‐loop abnormality on LM
Treat with prednisone and
cyclophosphamide
Type 5 Is a membranous disease that is
indistinguishable from other primary
membranous diseases.
Treat with prednisone
Renal Artery Stenosis
• Presents with sudden onset of hypertension along with hypokalemia
• Abdominal bruit heard with stethoscope
• Can be caused by plaque, fibromuscular dysplasia
Diagnosis:
• Best initial test is a renal ultrasound with Doppler
• If small kidneys are then seen, do an MRA
• The most accurate test is a renal angiogram
Treatment:
• Angioplasty and stenting
Obstruction of the Urinary Tract
• BPH and stones are the MCC in adults
• There is an increased risk of stasis thus increasing the risks of UTI’s
• Present with urinary colic, intense pain that radiates from the back around to
the pelvis and the groin
Nephrolithiasis:
Calcium Pyrophosphate:
• 85% of stones are calcium pyrophosphate
• Are radiopaque and associated with hypercalcemia
• 50% of time it’s associated with hypercalciuria
• Treat calcium stones with hydration and loop diuretics (LOOPS eliminate
calcium)
Ammonium Mangesium Phosphate (Struvite):
• 2nd MCC of stones
• Are radiopaque
• Usually caused by urease (+) Proteus or Staph Saprophyticus
• May form large staghorn calculi
• Treatment involves taking care of the underlying infection
Uric Acid Stones:
• Often secondary to gout or conditions that cause increased cell turnover,
such as myeloproliferative disease
• Treat by alkalinizing the urine and/or treating any underlying conditions
Kidney Tumors
• The most common renal malignancy is renal cell carcinoma, which occurs
MC in males from 50‐70yr of age
• Presents with hematuria, flank pain, fever, palpable mass, and secondary
polycythemia
• Treatment involves interleukin and resection
• The most common childhood renal malignancy is Wilm’s tumor, which
occurs MC between 2‐4yr old
• Presents with a palpable flank mass
• Part of WAGR complex (Wilms, Aniridia, GU malformation, Retardation –
mental and motor)
Treatment:
• Removal of kidney plus chemotherapy and/or radiation
Chapter 14
Hematology
Anemias:
Mild to moderate anemia presents with:
• Fatigue, pallor, pale conjunctiva, flow murmur
Severe anemia presents with:
• SOB, light‐headedness, confusion
Diagnosis:
• The most reliable test for iron deficiency anemia is serum ferritin, which will
be decreased.
• If a patient has iron‐deficiency anemia and does not respond to treatment, do
hemoglobin electrophoresis to look for an α or β thalassemia
LABS for suspected anemias:
1. Iron studies (most imp)
2. CBC w/ peripheral smear (paying attention to MCV, MCHC)
3. B12/folate(B12 = neuropathies, folate = no neuropathies)
4. RDW (newer smaller RBCs cause change in RDW)
5. Reticulocyte count (determines whether site of problem is bone marrow
synthesis of new RBCs)
6. LDH, bilirubin, haptoglobin (all determine whether hemolysis is in play)
7. TSH with T4 (see whether hypothyroidism is cause of fatigue)
8. CXR/blood culture/UA for suspected sickle cell disease
Iron deficiency Anemia
Signs and Symptoms:
• Fatigue
• Pallor
• Pale conjunctiva
• Low ferritin, low iron, increased TIBC
Diagnosis:
• Best diagnostic test for iron‐deficiency anemia is iron studies
• The most accurate test is a bone marrow biopsy
Treatment:
• Oral ferrous sulfate supplement
Anemia of Chronic Disease
Signs and Symptoms:
• Same signs and symptoms with the addition of a history of chronic
inflammatory disorder or autoimmune disorder
Diagnosis:
• Best diagnostic test is iron studies (will come back normal)
Treatment:
• Correct the underlying disease
Thalassemia
Signs and Symptoms:
• Small MCV
• Presence of target cells
• Very other symptoms
Diagnosis:
• Best initial test is an iron study
• The most accurate test is hemoglobin electrophoresis
• Beta‐thalassemia has elevated HgA2 and HgF
• Alpha‐thalassemia has normal levels
There is no treatment for these conditions
Sideroblastic Anemia
Signs and Symptoms:
• Patient has a history of alcohol abuse, exposure to lead, or the use of
isoniazid (INH)
Diagnosis:
• Best initial test is iron studies
• The most accurate test is the Prussian blue stain
Treatment:
• Minor cases require only pyridoxine replacement
• Severe cases require the removal of exposure to toxin
Macrocytic Anemia
• Presents similary to microcytic anemia with fatigue, pallor, light‐headedness,
but is caused by a deficiency of either vitamin B12 or folic acid
Vitamin B12 Deficiency:
Signs and Symptoms:
• Parasthesias
• Peripheral neuropathies
• Dementia is the least common occurrence
Diagnosis:
• CBC with peripheral smear, paying special attention to neutrophils
• Neutrophils are large and hypersegmented
• B12 deficiency can also cause glossitis and diarrhea
Treatment:
• Replace either folate or vitamin B12
NOTE:
Approx 30% of B12 deficiencies show normal B12 levels because transcobalamine
is an acute phase reactant which elevates with any form of stress. Thus is you
suspect B12 deficiency and levels are normal, get a methylmalonic acid level.
After finding low B12 or elevevated methylmalonic acid, the best confirmatory test
is antiparietal cell antibodies or anti‐intrinsic factor antibodies (both confirm
pernicious anemia as the cause of B12 def).
Treatment:
• Replace B12 or folate
** Folate deficiency is most commonly caused by a poor diet, classically described as
a “tea and toast diet”. Folate stores deplete within 3 months, thus with poor diets
this can be seen quickly. Treat this with diet modifications and immediate folate
replacement.
• Patient presents with extreme pain in the chest, back, and thighs
• When a patient presents with a sickle cell crisis, give immediate oxygen,
normal saline, and analgesics.
• If patient presents with these symptoms + fever, give IV antibiotics as well
When to do exchange transfusion in sickle cell pt?
1. Presence of visual disturbances due to retinal infarct.
2. Pulmonary infarct leading to pleuritic pain and abnormal xray.
3. Priapism due to infarct of prosthetic plexus of veins.
4. Stroke
What causes sudden drops in hematocrit in sickle cell pt?
• Either due to a folate deficiency or parvo B19 virus, which causes an aplastic
crisis
- All Sickle cell pts should be on folate supplements, thus if that’s the case it is
due to parvo B19
- Do a PCR for DNA of parvo B19
Treatment
• Transfusion and IVIG
What should all sickle cell patients who are being discharged be given?
• Folate replacement
• Pneumococcal vaccine
• Hydroxyurea (This increases hemoglobin F, stops sickling of cells, and
prevents further crises)
Hemolytic Anemia
All forms of hemolytic anemia present with a sudden onset of weakness and fatigue
that is associated with anemia.
• Are premature destruction of red blood cells
• Bone marrow responds appropriately by increasing erythropoiesis and thus
there is an increase in reticulocyte count
• If bone marrow doesn’t work properly, anemia will ensue
Hemolysis will show the following:
1. Increased indirect bilirubin (Gets released with RBC destruction)
2. Increased reticulocyte count (Determines bones marrow’s ability to make
new RBCs)
3. Increased LDH
4. Decreased haptoglobin (ordered to distinguish between anemia and
hemolytic anemia)
Intravascular hemolysis will also show the following:
1. Abnormal peripheral smear (Schistocytes, helmet cells, fragmented cells)
2. Hemoglobinuria
3. Hemosiderinuria (Metabolic, oxidized product or hemoglobin in urine).
Causes: Factors external to RBC defects OR intrinsic RBC defects
1. Factors external to RBC defects (Most cases acquired)
• Immune hemolysis
• Mechanical hemolysis (caused by prosthetic heart valves)
• Medications, burns, and toxins
2. Hemolysis due to intrinsic RBC defects (Most cases inherited)
• Caused by sickle cell disease, hemoglobin disease, thalassemias
• Membrane defects such as hereditary spherocytosis, paroxysmal nocturnal
hemoglobinopathy
• Enzyme defects such as G6PD deficiency and pyruvate kinase deficiency
Autoimmune Hemolysis
• Patient often has a history of autoimmune diseases, cancers, or medication
use
Diagnosis:
• Most accurate test is Coomb’s test
• Look for an increased LDH and increased reticulocyte count
• Look at the peripheral smear for spherocytes
Treatment:
• The best initial therapy is prednisone
• With no response to prednisone, IVIG can stop acute episodes
• With recurring episodes of hemolysis, a splenectomy is most effective
*NOTE: warm antibodies are the cause here, which are always IgG. Only IgG
responds to steroids and splenectomy.
ColdInduced Hemolysis (Cold agglutinins)
• Coomb’s test is negative
• There is often a mycoplasma or EBV infection
• There is no response to steroids, splenectomy, or IVIG
Hemolysis due to intrinsic defects
Glucose6Phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency
• Presents with a severe and acute onset of hemolysis
• Is an x‐linked disorder, thus seen in males
• Most commonly there is a history of sulfa drugs, primaquine, or dapsone use
• Ingestion of fava beans is classically asked on board exams
Diagnosis:
• The best initial test is the peripheral smear that shows Heinz bodies and bite cells
• The most accurate diagnostic test is a glucose-6-phosphate level. The problem
with this test is that it will only show up after 2 months, and is not a good test
early on in an acute haemolytic episode
Treatment:
• Avoidance of oxidative stress
Pyruvate Kinase Deficiency
Presents the same way as G6PD deficiency, but the cause is unknown
Hereditary Spherocytosis
Signs and Symptoms:
• Jaundince in childhood
• Splenomegaly
• Bilirubin gallstones
• Recurrent episodes
Spherocytes
Diagnosis:
• The most accurate and best initial test is the osmotic fragility test
• Peripheral smear showing spherocytes
Treatment:
• Folic acid supplementation
• Splenectomy for severe disease
Hemolytic Uremic Syndrome (HUS)
• HUS in kids, there is usually a history of E.Coli 0157:H7
Signs and Symptom:
• Acute renal failure
• Abdominal pain
• Bloody diarrhea
• Seizures
Treatment:
• Dialysis in children, adults this isn’t useful and there is a much poorer
prognosis
Thrombotic Thrombocytopenic Purpura (TTP)
• Is an idiopathic disease that is often seen in HIV patients
Signs and Symptoms:
There is a pentad of:
• Haemolytic anemia
• Renal failure
• Fever
• Thrombocytopenia
• Neurological diseases
Treatment:
• Plasma exchange until symptoms subside
• Without treatment this is fatal
Paroxysmal Nocturnal hemoglobinuria (PNH)
Presents with recurring episodes of dark urine, mostly seen in the morning.
Signs and Symptoms:
• Pancytopenia
• Recurring episodes of dark urine in the morning
• Portal vein thrombosis is a complication that leads to death
• May progress to cause aplastic anemia and/or AML
Diagnosis:
• The most accurate test is the presence of decay accelerating factor antibody
Treatment:
• Prednisone or other steroids
Methemoglobinemia
• Blood locked in the oxidized state cannot pick up and transport oxygen.
• Patient will present with shortness of breath with no reason
Signs and Symptoms:
• SOB with no known cause (There will be clear lungs on exam with a normal
CXR)
• Blood (if seen) will have a brownish appearance, which indicates it is locked
in the oxidized state.
Diagnosis:
• Look for exposure to drugs like nitroglycerin, amyl nitrate, or nitroprusside
• CXR and PE show no reason for SOB
• Look for a history of anesthetic use
Treatment:
• Give methylene blue
Transfusion Reactions
1. ABO incompatibility presents with acute symptoms of hemolysis while
the transfusion is happening. Ex: during a transfusion, a patient becomes
hypotensive and tachycardic. She has back and chest pain, and there is dark
urine. LDH and bilirubin are elevated, and haptoglobin are low.
2. Transfusion related acute lung injury(leukoagglutination rxn)
presents with acute SOB from antibodies in the donor blood against recipient
white cells.
3. IgA Deficiency presents with anaphylaxis. In future use donation from
IgA deficient donor or washed red cells.
4. Febrile nonhemolytic rxn results in a small rise in temperature and
needs no therapy, the reaction is against the donor’s white cell antigens.
Prevent by using filtered blood transfusion in future.
5. Minor blood group incompatibility results in delayed jaundice, no
therapy needed.
Leukemia
Acute leukemias present with signs of pancytopenia, such as fatigue, bleeding, and
infections from non-functional white blood cells.
• AUER RODS
• Mostly occurring in adults (up to 80%)
Diagnosis:
• The best initial test is peripheral smear showing blasts
Treatment:
• Best initial therapy for AML is Idarubicin (or daunorubicin) and cytosine
arabinoside
• The best initial test is peripheral smear showing blasts
Treatment:
• Idarubicin + cytosine arabinoside + intrathecal methotrexate.
Acute Promyelocytic Leukemia(M3)
This leukemia is associated with disseminated intravascular coagulopathy
Treatment:
• Idarubicin + cytosine arabinoside + all trans retinoic acid(ATRA)
Chronic Myelogenous Leukemia(CML)
Signs and Symptoms:
• Elevated white cells that are predominantly neutrophils
• Splenomegaly is frequent.
• Untreated CML has the highest risk of transformation into acute leukemia of all
forms of myeloproliferative disorders.
• Associated with Philadelphia Chromosome
Diagnosis:
• Best initial test is Leukocyte alkaline phosphatase score (LAP score). An
elevated PMN count with low LAP score is CML. Reactive high white counts
from infection give an elevated LAP score, LAP is up in normal cells, not CML.
• The most accurate test is finding the Philadelphia Chromosome
Treatment:
• Best initial treatment is Imatinib (Gleevec)
• Bone marrow transplant is the only cure for CML, but is never the best initial
therapy, because Imatinib leads to 90% hematologic remission with no major
adverse effects.
Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia(CLL)
Seen in people older then 50yr of age
Signs and Symptoms:
• Often asymptomatic
• Organomegaly
• Haemolytic anemia
• Thrombocytopenia
Diagnosis:
• Best initial test is the peripheral smear showing ‘smudge cells’
Treatment:
• At stages 0 and 1, there is no treatment required
• At advanced stages give fludarabine or chlorambucil
Diagnosis:
• The Most accurate test is the tartrate resistant acid phosphatase(TRAP)
smear showing hairy cells
Treatment:
• The best initial therapy for Hairy Cell leukemia is cladribine or 2‐CDA
Myelofibrosis
• Presents similarly to hairy cell leukemia except there will be a normal TRAP
level
• The key diagnostic feature is the “tear‐drop” shaped cells on peripheral
smear
• There is no specific therapy for myelofibrosis
• Everything above
• Pruritis following hot showers or baths due to histamine release
• Splenomegaly
Diagnosis:
• Very high hematocrit with a low MCV
• Get an ABG to rule out or in hypoxia as a cause of erythrocytosis
Treatment:
• The best initial therapy is phlebotomy
• Hydroxyurea can be given to lower the cell count
• Give daily aspirin
Multiple Myeloma
This condition presents most commonly with bone pain due to fractures occurring
from normal use
Diagnosis:
• The most specific test is a bone marrow biopsy
• Skeletal survey to detect punched out osteolytic lesions
• Serum protein electrophoresis(SPEP) to look for elevated monoclonal
antibody (usually IgG)
• Urine protein electrophoresis(UPEP) to detects Bence‐Jones proteins
• Peripheral smear showing “rouleaux” formation of blood cells.
• Elevated calcium levels due to osteolytic lesions
• Beta 2 microglobulin level is a prognostic indicator
• BUN and Creatinine to detect renal insufficiency
Treatment:
• Steroids and Melphalan
• The most effective therapy is bone marrow transplant
• Treat all underlying co‐morbidities
Waldenstrom’s Macroglobulinemia
This is a hyperviscosity of the blood due to overproduction of IgM
Signs and Symptoms:
• Blurred vision
• Confusion
• Headache
• Enlarged lymph nodes
• Splenomegaly
Diagnosis:
• The best initial test is the serum viscosity (increased significantly) and SPEP
for IgM levels
• There will be no specific finding on the CBC
Treatment:
• Plasmapharesis is the best initial therapy
• Can also give fludarabine or chlorambucil
Aplastic Anemia
• Presents as pancytopenia with no identifiable etiology.
• If pt is < 50 and has a match, best therapy is BM transplantation.
• If BM transplant isn’t an option (>50), give antithymocyte globulin and
cyclosporine.
LYMPHOMAS
Present with enlarged lymph nodes that are most commonly seen in the cervical area
Hodgkin’s disease occurs in a bimodal age distribution (young and old), and is
characterized by Reed-Sternberg cells
Reed-Sternberg Cell
Non‐Hodgkin’s disease is commonly seen in HIV patients
Diagnosis:
• The best initial diagnostic test for both types of lymphomas is lymph node
biopsy
Once excisional biopsy shows abnormal architecture, further testing to determine
stage of the lymphoma needs to be done.
1. Stage 1 single lymph node group
2. Stage 2 2 LN groups on one side of diaphragm
3. Stage 3 LN involvement on both sides of diaphragm
4. Stage 4 widespread disease
HD and NHL present with stages as follows:
HD ‐ 80‐90% pres w/ stage 1 and 2
NHL ‐ 80‐90% pres w/ stages 3 and 4
How to stage: CXR, CT with contrast (Chest/abdomen/pelvis/head), and BM biopsy.
Treatment:
B SYMPTOMS:
1. Localized disease (stage 1,2) without “B”
symptoms is treated predominantly with
radiation.
2. More advanced stages 3,4 is treated with Are systemic symptoms
chemotherapy. such as:
FEVER
Specific treatments: NIGHT SWEATS
1. HD: ABVD (adriamycin[doxorubicin], bleomycin, vinblastine, dacarbazine)
WEIGHT LOSS
2. NHL: CHOP (cyclophosphamide, hydroxyadriamycin, oncovin[vincristine],
and prednisone)
* Also test for anti‐CD20 antigen and if present, add Rituximab, which adds
efficacy to CHOP.
COAGULATION DISORDERS
Von Willebrand’s disease (VWD)
Is due to platelet dysfunction, not a lower number of platelets
• Bleeding from PLT dysfunction, superficial bleeds from skin and mucosal
surfaces, such as gingival, gums, and vagina.
• Epistaxis common
• Bleeding often worsened with use of aspirin
• PLT count is normal
Diagnosis:
• Best initial test is platelet function test
• The most accurate test is a ristocetin cofactor assay and a VWF level (If VWF
is normal, ristocetin tells you if it is working properly)
Treatments:
• First line treatment is desmopressin or DDAVP, which causes the release of
subendothelial stores of VWF and co‐factor VIII
• If desmopressin doesn’t work, give factor VIII replacement
Platelettype bleeding causes: petechiae, epistaxis, purpura, gingival, gums,
vaginal
Factortype bleeding causes: hemarthroses, hematoma
Idiopathic Thrombocytopenic Purpura (ITP)
ITP is a diagnosis of exclusion that presents with platelet‐type bleeding and a
platelet count of < 50,000
Diagnosis:
• Perform a sonogram to assess the size of the spleen
• Check for anti‐platelet antibodies
• Bone marrow biopsy looking for megakaryocytes
• Antibodies to glycoprotein IIb/IIIa receptors
Treatment:
• With mild ITP (platelets of ~ 20,000) give prednisone
• With severe ITP (platelets of < 20,000) give IV immunoglobulins, which is the
fastest way to increase the platelet count
• NEVER transfuse platelets because this exacerbates the condition
Uremia-Induced PLT dysfunction
This presents as platelet‐type bleeding in a patient with renal failure, where renal
failure causes uremia, which prevents the degranulation of platelets and thus stops
them from working
Signs and Symptoms:
• Platelet type bleeding
Diagnosis:
• Ristocetin and VWF levels (normal)
• Check platelet levels (They will be normal)
• Look for renal failure (This is the key to diagnosing)
Treatment:
• Desmopressin
HeparinInduced Thrombocytopenia (HIT)
A condition where platelets drop at least 50% a few days after the use of heparin
Signs and Symptoms:
• The most common clinical manifestation is thrombosis, where venous
thrombosis is the most common type
Diagnosis:
• The best initial diagnostic test is platelet factor 4 antibodies
• Other important test is heparin‐induced anti‐platelet antibodies
Treatment:
• The best initial therapy is to stop heparin and use direct thrombin inhibitor
such as “argatroban” or “lepirudin”.
Chapter 15
Rheumatology
Rheumatoid Arthritis
An autoimmune disease presents most commonly in females > 50.
• Joint pain and morning stiffness that is symmetrical and in multiple joints of
the hands.
• Lasts longer than 1hr in the morning with symptomatic episodes going on for
at least 6 weeks.
• Often a prodrome of fatigue and malaise, but this isn’t enough for a clear dx.
Diagnosis is based on having 4 or more of the following:
• Morning stiffness lasting more than 1hr
• Wrist and finger involvement
• Swelling of at least 3 joints
• Symmetric involvement
• Rheumatoid nodules
• Xray abn’s showing erosions
• (+) rheumatoid factor
Rheumatoid arthritis is a group of physical findings, joint problems, and lab tests.
There is no single diagnostic criteria to confirm the diagnosis, nor is there one single
therapy to control and treat the disease.
Diagnosis:
• The single most accurate lab test is the anticitrullinated cyclic peptide (anti‐
CCP)
• Normocytic, normochromic anemia is very characteristic of rheumatoid
arthritis
Joint Findings:
• MCP swelling and pain
• Boutonierre deformity: flexion of PIP w/ hyperextension of the DIP
• Swan neck deformity
• Baker’s cyst
• C1/C2 cervical spine subluxation
• Knee: although knee is commonly involved, multiple small joints are involved
more commonly over time.
Treatment:
• NSAIDs and Disease modifying anti‐rheumatic drugs(DMARDS)
• Steroids can be used acutely to help control the disease while DMARDs take
effect, but they are only used as a bridge to DMARD therapy, not used long‐
term
Seronegative Spondyloarthropathies
1. Ankylosing spondylitis
2. Reactive arthritis (Reiters syndrome)
3. Psoriatic arthritis
4. Juvenile RA
This group of inflammatory conditions all the following characteristics:
• Negative for RF
• Predilection for the spine
• SI joint involvement
• Associated with HLA B27
Ankylosing Spondylitis(AS)
• AS presents in a young male (<40) w/ spine or back stiffness.
• Peripheral joint involvement is less common
• Pain is worse at night and relieved by leaning forward, which can lead to
kyphosis and diminished chest expansion.
• Rare findings include: uveitis and aortitis.
Diagnosis:
• The best initial test is an xray
• The most accurate test is an MRI
Treatment:
• NSAIDS
• Sulfasalazine
• Biological agents (Infliximab, Adalimumab)
Reactive Arthritis(formerly Reiter’s syndrome):
• Presents with asymmetric arthritis and a history of urethritis or GI infection.
• Patient may have constitutional symptoms such as fever, malaise, and weight
loss.
Diagnosis:
• Clinical diagnosis based on the presence of the classic triad of urethritis,
conjunctivitis, and arthritis
Treatment:
• NSAIDs
Psoriatic Arthritis:
• Presents as joint involvement with a history of psoriasis.
• Rheumatoid factor (‐)
• SI joint is involved.
Key features of this disease are:
• Pitting of the nails
• Involvement of the distal interphalangeal joints
• “Sausage‐shaped” digits
Treatment:
• Initial treatment should be with NSAIDs
• If this isn’t working, add biological agents such as Infliximab
• If these don’t work, try methotrexate
Juvenile RA (aka adult onset Still’s disease)
There is no specific diagnostic test.
JRA is characterized by the following:
• Ferritin levels are high
• WBC count is elevated
• RF (‐) and ANA (‐)
Treatment:
• NSAIDs
• If unresponsive to NSAIDs, give methotrexate
Whipple’s Disease
• Causes diarrhea and fat malabsorbtion, and is most commonly presented
with joint pain
• The most specific test for diagnosis is a biopsy of the bowel
Treatment:
• TMP/SMX
Osteoarthritis
Osteoarthritis is the most common joint abnormality and is associated with
excessive joint usage and increased age
Signs and Symptoms:
• Morning stiffness lasting < 30 minutes
• Joint crepitus seen
• Affects the distal interphalangeal joint (whereas RA does not)
• Heberden’s nodes are seen as DIP osteophytes
• Bouchard’s nodes are seen as PIP osteophytes
Diagnosis:
• The best initial diagnostic test is an xray of the joint
Treatment:
• NSAIDs
• Glucosamine sulphate and chondroitin sulphate are used to slow joint
deterioration.
OA RA
SLE
Classically, a rash + joint pain + fatigue = Lupus
There are 11 criteria for LUPUS, 4 must be present to make the diagnosis.
SKIN - Malar Rash
- Photosensitivity rash
- Oral ulcers rash
- Discoid rash
Arthralgias Present in 90% of pts
Blood Leukopenia, thrombocytopenia,
hemolysis. Any blood involvement
counts as 1 criteria.
Renal Varies from benign proteinuria to ESRD.
Cerebral Behavior changes, stroke, seizure,
meningitis
Serositis Pericarditis, pleuritic chest pain,
pulmonary HTN, pneumonia,
myocarditis.
Serology - ANA (95% sensitive)
- DS‐DNA (60% sensitive)
Each of the serologic abn’s count as 1
criteria. If person has joint pain,
rash, and both ANA and DS DNA, the
pt has 4 criteria.
Diagnosis:
• The best initial diagnostic test is the ANA
• The most specific test is the anti‐ds DNA or anti‐Smith antibody
How to follow the severity of a lupus flareup?
1. Complement levels will drop in flare‐up
2. anti‐ds DNA will rise in flare up
Treatment/Management:
• For acute flare‐ups give prednisone and other glucocorticoids
• Give NSAIDs for joint pain
• If there is no response to those medications, antimalarials and
hydrochloroquine will work
• For severe disease that recurs give cyclophosphamide and azthioprine
Druginduced Lupus
The most likely causes of drug‐induced lupus are hydralazine, procainamide, and
isoniazid
Diagnosis:
• There will be anti‐histone antibodies
• There is never renal or CNS involvement
• There are normal levels of complement and anti‐ds DNA antibodies
Sjorgen’s syndrome
Seen most commonly in women (9x greater in women than men)
Signs and Symptoms:
• Dry eyes, dry mouth
• There is a sensation of sand under the eyes
• Dysgeusia is common
• Commonly a loss of teeth due to the lack of adequate saliva
Diagnosis:
• The most accurate test is a lip biopsy
• The Schirmer test is will show inadequate lacrimation
• Commonly see “anti‐Ro or anti‐La antibodies
Treatment:
• Pilocarpine to increase Ach and thus increase lacrimation and salivary
secretions
Scleroderma
Patient has tight skin, heartburn, and Raynaud’s phenomenon
Signs and Symptoms:
• Skin findings include a tight, fibrous thickening that causes tight and
immobile fingers as well as a tight face
• Joint Pain that is mild and symmetrical
• Raynaud’s Phenomenon, may result in ulcerations
Scleroderma can present diffusely with the following:
Lungs: fibrosis and pulmonary HTN(the leading causes of death in this disease)
GI: Wide mouth colonic diverticula and esophageal dysmotility, leading to reflux and
Barrett’s esophagus. 15% of pts get primary biliary cirrhosis
Heart: Restrictive cardiomyopathy
Renal: may lead to malignant HTN.
Diagnosis:
• There is not a single best diagnostic test
• Though not specific, ANA is seen in 95% of cases
Treatment:
• There is no treatment that slows the progression or treats this condition
• If there is renal involvement give ACEIs
• If there is pulmonary hypertension, give Bosentan and prostacyclin analogs
• For Raynaud’s give calcium channel blockers
Eosinophilic Fasciitis
Is similar in presentation to scleroderma but there is no Raynaud’s, nor is there any
of the other systemic findings
Signs and Symptoms:
• Thickened skin similar to scleroderma
• Marked eosinophilia gives the appearance of peau d’orange
Treatment:
• Manage this condition with corticosteroids
Polymyositis(PM) and Dermatomyositis(DM)
In both conditions, the patient cannot get up from a seated position without using the
arms. There can also be muscle pain and tenderness.
For polymyositis Weakness + increased CPK + increased aldolase
For dermatomyositis Weakness + increased CPK + increased aldolase + skin
rash.
Diagnosis:
• Clinical
• Should order LFT’s and ANA
Treatment:
• Corticosteroids
Fibromyalgia
A pain syndrome seen mostly in females that presents with aching muscles,
stiffness, trigger points for pain, and sleep that isn’t refreshing
Signs and Symptoms:
• Muscle aches
• Muscle stiffness
• Depression and/or anxiety
• Extreme sensitivity and pain to trigger points on the body
Diagnosis:
• Normal blood tests and no objective evidence of disease
Treatment/Management:
• Exercise can help relieve some pain and stiffness
• TCA’s can be given
Polymyalgia Rheumatica (PMR)
Seen most commonly in those > 50yr
Signs and Symptoms:
• Patient older than 50yr with significant pain and stiffness of the proximal
muscles (shoulders, pelvic girdle)
• Stiffness is usually worse in the morning and is usually more localized to the
muscles
• Patient may have fever, malaise, and weight loss
Diagnosis:
• CBC will likely show normocytic anemia
• Muscle biopsy and labs are all normal
• Lack of muscle atrophy
Treatment: Steroids
Following explains difference between chronic fatigue, fibromyalgia, and PMR
Vaculitis
Common features among different types of vasculitis include:
• Fatigue, malaise, wt loss
• Fever
• Skin lesions such as palpable purpura and rash
• Joint pain
• Neuropathy
Common lab findings:
• Normocytic anemia
• Elevated ESR
• Thrombocytosis
Diagnosis:
• The most accurate test is a biopsy
Treatment:
• The best initial therapy is steroids
If steroids aren’t effective, alternate and/or additional therapies are the following
• Cyclophosphamie
• Azathioprine/6‐mercaptopurine
• Methotrexate
Polyarteritis Nodosa (PAN)
PAN has all the features of vasculitis described above, what differentiates it is the
unique features that accompany PAN.
• Abdominal pain (65%)
• Renal involvement (65%)
• Testicular involve(35%)
• Pericarditis(35%)
• HTN(50%)
Diagnosis:
• The best initial test is angiography of the abdominal vessels
• The most accurate test is a biopsy of the muscles, sural nerve, and skin
Treatment:
• Prednisone and Cyclophosphamide
Wegener’s Granulomatosis
A disorder that like PAN can affect the majority of the body. Look for the addition of
upper and lower respiratory findings and the presence of c-ANCA
Diagnosis:
Treatment:
ChurgStrauss
• Can affect any organ in the body, but the key to making its diagnosis is
presence of vasculitis, eosinophilia, and asthma.
• P‐ANCA and anti‐myeloperoxidase can be positive too, but these findings
aren’t as unique as the presence of eosinophilia.
• Most accurate test is biopsy
Treatment:
• Steroids
Temporal Arteritis
A type of giant cell arteritis, related to PMR.
• Fever
• Malaise
• Fatigue
• Weight loss
• Headache
• Visual disturbances
• Jaw claudication
Diagnosis:
• Elevation of ESR
• Clinical findings
Treatment:
• Steroids
Takayasu’s Arteritis
Seen in young asian females
Signs and Symptoms:
• Dimishes pulses
• Vasculitis commonly seen before loss of pulse
• Patient often gets TIA and/or stroke caused by the vascular occlusion
Diagnosis:
• MRA or arteriography
Treatment:
• Steroids
Cryoglobulinemia
Is similar to to vasculitis syndromes, the difference is the association with hepatitis
C and kidney involvement
Treat with interferon and ribavirin
Behcet Disease
Diagnosis:
• There is no specific test for diagnosis, we must use the features seen above
Treatment:
• Prednisone and colchisine
INFLAMED JOINTS
The key to diagnosing inflamed joints is to look at the fluid within the joint. It is the
most accurate diagnostic test for gout, pseudogout, and septic arthritis
Synovial fluid cell count
Gout
Look for a man with a sudden onset of severe pain in the toe at night. The toe will be
red, swollen, and tender.
• Alcohol ingestion
• Thiazide diuretics
• Nicotinic acid
• Foods high in protein
Diagnosis:
• The best initial test is aspiration of the joint fluid
• The most accurate test is light exam of the fluid showing negatively
birefringent needle‐shaped crystals
Treatment:
• The best initial therapy for an acute gouty attack is NSAIDs.
• Give colchisine within 24hr of the attack
• Allopurinol is best as prophylaxis and prevention of future attacks, which
works by reducing the levels of uric acid
Pseudogout (Calcium Pyrophosphate Deposition Disease)
• Involves most commonly the wrist and knees, but doesn’t involve the toes
• Onset is much slower than gout, and doesn’t acutely attack the patient
Diagnosis:
• Aspiration of joint fluid shows positively birefringent rhomboid‐shaped
crystals
Treatment:
• NSAIDs are the best initial therapy
• Can give colchisine, but is not as effective here as it is in gout
Septic Arthritis
• Any arthritic or prosthetic joint put patient at risk of septic arthritis
• With increased joint abnormality comes increased risk of sepsis
More risk factors for septic arthritis:
• Osteoarthritis is more of a risk than having normal joints
• RA is more of a risk than osteoarthritis
• Prosthetic joints are more of a risk than anything else.
Signs and Symptoms:
• Red, swollen, tender, immobile joint
Most common causes of septic arthritis:
• Staph aureus (40%)
• Strep (30%)
• Gram‐ve bacilli (20%)
**Septic arthritis requires consult w/ orthopaedic surgeon.
Diagnosis:
• The best initial test is arthrocentesis showing > 50,000 WBC
• The most accurate test is a culture of the fluid
Treatment:
• Empiric IV antibiotics such as Ceftriaxone and Vancomycin once suspected
Paget’s Disease of Bone
A condition with pain, stiffness, aching, and fractures associated with softening of
the bones.
Signs and Symptoms:
• Stiffness
• Pain
• Fractures
• Bowing of the tibias
Diagnosis:
• The best initial test is for the elevation of alkaline phosphatase
• The most accurate test is xray of the bones
Treatment:
• Best treated with bisphosphonates and calcitonin
* In cases of Paget’s, osteolytic lesions will be found initially. These may be replaced
with osteoblastic lesions
** If you see osteolytic think Paget’s or osteoporosis
*** If you see osteoblastic, think about metastatic prostate cancer in differential.
Baker’s Cyst
A posterior herniation of the synovium of the knee
Signs and Symptoms:
• Patient often has osteoarthritis
• Palpation of the sac in the posterium of the knee
• Swelling of the calf is common (exclude a DVT when you see this)
Treatment:
• NSAIDS are mainstay of treatment
• Severe cases may require steroid injections
Plantar Fasciitis and Tarsal Tunnel Syndrome
Following table compares the two conditions:
Plantar Fasciitis Tarsal tunnel syndrome
Pain on bottom of foot Pain on bottom of foot
Very severe in morning, better w/ More painful w/ use; may have sole
walking a few steps numbness
Stretch the foot and calf Avoid boots and high heels; may need
steroid injection
Resolves spontaneously over time May need surgical release
Chapter 16
Neurology
Strokes and TIA
Strokes:
• Strokes occur for greater ≥ 24hr and have permanent residual neurological
deficits.
• Caused by ischemia most commonly, and hemorrhagic.
• Ischemic strokes occur from emboli or thrombosis, which occur more acutely
TIA:
• Presents the same as a stroke except it lasts <24hr.
• Commonly presents with a loss of vision in only one eye (Amaurosis fugax),
due to emboli in the first branch off of the carotid (Ophthalmic artery)
• TIA’s are always due to emboli or thrombosis, never hemorrhage
Diagnosing:
• The best initial test is always a CT of the head without contrast
Treatment:
• If possible, give thrombolytics within 3hrs of the onset of symptoms and the
CT has ruled out hemorrhage
• Aspirin is the best initial therapy for those who come in too late for
thrombosis
• If patient is already on aspirin, can give dipyridamole (Clopidogrel is an
alternative)
* There is no clear evidence that heparin benefits a stroke
Arteries and their associated symptoms in stroke:
CEREBRAL ARTERY SYMPTOMS
Anterior cerebral artery ‐profound lower extremity weakness
- mild upper extreme weakness
- personality changes
- urinary incontinence
Middle cerebral artery - profound upper extremity
weakness
- aphasia
- apraxia/neglect
- eyes deviate towards lesion side*
Posterior cerebral artery - contralateral homonymous
hemianopia w/ macular sparing
- prosopagnosia(cant recognize
faces)
Vertebrobasilar artery - vertigo
- N/V
- Vertical nystagmus
- Dysarthria and dystonia
- Sensory changes in face/scalp
- Ataxia
- Labile blood pressure
Lacunar infarct - must be absence of cortical
deficits**
- Parkinson signs
- Hemiparesis(most notable in
face)
- Sensory deficits
- Possible bulbar signs
Ophthalmic artery ‐ amaurosis fugax
Further management of a Stroke or TIA:
After all initial managements are implemented, do the following:
• Echocardiogram
• Carotid Doppler
• EKG and Holter monitor if the EKG comes back normal
Young pts <50yr with no significant past medical history (DM, HTN) should have
following done:
1. Sedimentaion rate
2. VDRL or RPR
3. ANA, dsDNA
4. Protein C, protein S, factor V leiden mutation, antiphospholipid syndromes
* The younger the patient, the more likely the cause of stroke is a vasculitis or
hypercoagulable state.
Control HTN, DM, and hyperlipidemia in this pt:
Goals:
• HTN: <130/80
• DM: same tight glycemic control as gen pop’n
• Hyperlipidemia: LDL<100
TIA:
Same management as per stroke, except thrombolytics aren’t indicated because the
administration of thrombolytics are to resolve symptoms, so if symptoms are
resolved they aren’t necessary.
SEIZURES
For seizure disorders, the only clear diagnostic criteria is for a patient undergoing
status epilepticus.
Therapy for status is as follows:
1. Benzodiazepine such as Ativan (Lorazepam)
2. If seizure persists, add fosphenytoin
3. If seizure persists, add phenobarbitol
4. If seizure persists, give general anesthetic such as pentobarbital.
Diagnosis in a patient having a seizure:
• Urgent CT of the head
• Urine toxicology secreen
• Chemistry panel
• Calcium levels
• Magnesium levels
Further management:
• If initial tests don’t give clear cause, do an EEG (shouldn’t be done first).
• Neurology consult required in any patient having or who had a seizure.
Longterm treatment of firsttime seizures:
• If patient only had 1 seizure, chronic therapy is not required unless there is a
strong family history, an abnormal EEG, or status epilepticus
Chronic antiepileptic therapy:
• There is no single agent considered to be the best therapy.
1st line therapies include:
• Valproate, carbamazepine, phenytoin, and levetiracetam are all equal in
efficacy.
• Lamotrigine has same efficacy but can cause steven‐johnson syndrome.
2nd line therapies:
• Gabapentin and phenobarbitol
For absence/petit mal seizures:
• Ethosuxamide is best.
Parkinson’s Disease
Is a gait disorder with the following findings:
• Cogwheel rigidity
• Resting tremor
• Mask‐like facies
• Orthostasis
• Intact cognition and memory
Diagnosis:
• There is no specific test to make the diagnosis of PD, rather the clinical
findings are what is used to make the diagnosis
Treatment:
Mild symptoms:
• In a patient < 60yr of age Anticholinergics such as Benztropine or
Hydroxyzine
• In a patient > 60yr of age Amantadine (Older patients commonly develop
bad reaction from anticholinergic medications)
Severe symptoms:
• Levedopa/carbidopa have the greatest efficacy but has an “on‐off”
phenomenon with uneven long‐term effects and more side effects
• Dopamine agonists such as Pramiprexole, Ropinerole, and Cabergoline are
less efficacious but have fewer side effects
** If these medication don’t work, use COMT inhibitors (Tolcapone, Entacapone)
which inhibit metabolism of dopamine, which extends the effect of dopamine‐based
medication. Can also try MAOI’s.
TREMOR
MULTIPLE SCLEROSIS
Multiple Sclerosis presents with abnormalities of any part of the CNS. The
symptoms improve and resolve, only to have another defect develop months or
years later.
Multiple
Signs and Symptoms: Sclerosis:
• The most common abnormality is optic neuritis “SIN”
• There is commonly fatigue, hyperreflexia, spasticity, and
depression
• There is also commonly optic neuritis
1. Scanning
speech
2. Intention
tremor
Diagnosis: 3. Nystagmu
• The best initial diagnostic test is an MRI s
• The most accurate test is also the MRI
• If the MRI doesn’t give you the diagnosis, do a lumbar tap
Treatment:
• Steroids are the best initial therapy to resolve an acute exacerbation
• Glatiramer and beta‐interferon can both decrease the progression of MS
• Can give Amantadine to combat fatigue and Baclofen to combat spasticity
DEMENTIA
Alzheimers Disease
Is a slow progressive loss of memory exclusively in pts > 65yrs of age
Diagnosis:
• Anybody with memory lost requires a CT of the head, a TSH level, and an
RPR/VDRL
• With Alzheimer’s disease you will only see diffuse and symmetrical atrophy
Treatment
• Anticholinesterase inhibitors are the standard therapy of choice
Frontotemporal Dementia (Pick Disease)
• Personality and behaviour become abnormal first, then memory loss
afterwards.
• Head CT or MRI shows focal atrophy of frontal and temporal lobes
• Treat this like Alzheimer’s, but do not expect the same type of response
CreutzfeldJakob Disease (CJD)
• Caused by prions, which are transmissible protein particles.
• Manifests as rapidly progressive dementia and presence of myoclonus.
• This presents in those younger than the Alzheimer’s patient
• EEG will be abnormal
• Most accurate test is brain biopsy
• CSF: shows 14‐3‐3 protein, the presence of this will spare the patient a brain
biopsy.
Lewy Body Dementia:
Is Parkinson’s disease + dementia.
Normal Pressure Hydrocephalus:
• This condition generally presents in older males, but it can affect women as
well.
• It presents as a person with incontinence, with gait abnormalities, and with
cognitive impairment
Diagnosis:
• Diagnosis should include a head CT and a lumbar puncture
Treatment:
• Shunt placement
Huntington’s Disease/Chorea
• Presents in young patients (usually in 30’s)
• There is usually a family history
Symptoms:
• Dementia
• Personality changes and psychological disturbance
• Choreic movements
Diagnosis:
• Specific genetic testing will show that inheritance is autosomal dominant
Treatment:
• There is no treatment
HEADACHE
Migraine: 60% are unilateral, often triggered by: cheese, caffeine, menses, OCP’s
Do a CT or MRI if HA has any of the following:
• Sudden and/or severe
• Onset after 40yr
• Associated with any neurological findings
• May be preceeded by an aura and/or scotomata (Dark spots in visual field),
and abnormal smells
Treatment:
• The best initial abortive therapy is sumatriptan or ergotamine
• Prophylactic therapy takes 4‐6wks to work, if patient gets four or more HA
per month, prophylax with propranolol.
• Alternate prophylactics with CCBs, TCA’s, or SSRI.
Cluster: 10x more frequent in men than women. Are exclusively unilateral w/
redness and tearing of the eye and rhinorrhea.
Treatment:
• The best abortive therapy is 100% 02.
• This treatment is unique to cluster HA’s.
• Sumatriptan can also be used in same way as is in migraines.
Prophylactic therapy: there is none because these HA’s are numerous but short and
intense, and the “cluster” would be over by the time the prophylaxis kicked in.
Gender Men 10x more than
women
* Sumatriptan is similar to 5HT, and works by causing vasoconstriction in cerebral
arteries.
Temporal Arteritis
Patient will present with tenderness over the temporal area and may also complain
of jaw claudication
Diagnosis:
• First check the ESR
• The most accurate test is a biopsy of the temporal artery
Treatment:
• Give steroids immediately, do not delay if this is suspected
Pseudotumor Cerebri
• This presents most commonly in a younger woman with a headache and
double vision, papilledema
• CT/MRI show up normal
• Vitamin A use is often the cause
Diagnosis:
• LP is the most accurate test because it shows an elevated opening pressure
Treatment:
• Involves weight loss
• Acetazolamide can also be given
Dizziness/Vertigo
• All pts with vertigo will have a subjective sensation of the room spinning
around them.
• Often associated with nausea and vomiting
• All pts with vertigo will have nystagmus
• Generally all patients wtih vertigo should have MRI of the internal auditory
canal.
Following table summarizes pres of a number of vertigocausing conditions:
BPV
• Vertigo alone w/ no loss of hearing,no tinnitus, no ataxia.
• Positive dix‐hallpike maneuver
• Treat with meclizine(antivert)
Vestibular Neuronitis
• An idiopathic inflammation of the vestibular portion of CN8.
• No hearing loss or tinnitus because only vestibibular portion is affected.
• Most likely to be a viral cause
• Not related to change in position
• Treat with meclizine
Labyrinthitis
• Is inflammation of the cochlear portion of the inner ear.
• There is hearing loss as well as tinnitus.
• Is acute and self‐limited
• Treat with meclizine
Meniere’s Disease
• Same pres as labyrinthitis (vertigo, tinnitus, hearing loss) but meniere’s is
chronic with remitting and relapsing episodes.
• Treat with salt restriction and diuretics.
Acoustic Neuroma
• A tumor of CN8 that can be related to neurofibromatosis (von
Recklinghaus’s).
• Presents with ataxia in addition to hearing loss, tinnitus, and vertigo.
Diagnosis:
• MRI of internal auditory canal
Treatment:
• Surgical resection.
Perilymphatic Fistula
• Head trauma or any form of barotraumas to the ear may rupture the
tympanic membrane and lead to a perilymph fistula.
Wernicke-Korsakoff Syndrome
Presents with the following:
1. History of chronic heavy ETOH use
2. Confusion with confabulation
3. Ataxia
4. Memory loss
5. Gaze palsy and/or ophthalmoplegia
6. Nystagmus
Diagnosis:
• Do a head CT
• Vitamin B12 level
• TSH/T4 level
• RPR/VDRL
• Presence of memory loss
Treatment:
• 1st give thiamine then give glucose.
CNS INFECTIONS
Often when a CNS infection is suspected, a head CT should be performed before the
LP.
This is the case in the following circumstances:
• A history of CSN disease
• Focal neurological deficits
• Presence of papilledema
• Seizures
• Altered consciousness
• Significant delay in ability to perform LP
** If these are present, get blood cultures and start empiric antibiotics before
ordering CT.
CSF:
• Getting CSF is the most accurate test for bacteria meningitis, but cannot wait
for culture to start therapy.
• Gram stain: only 50% sensitive, thus if (‐) cannot exclude anything. Is highly
specific though, so if (+) it is likely to be bacteria meningitis. Ie. Good spec
bad sensitivity
• Gram (+) diplococci: pneumococcus
• Gram (+) bacilli: listeria
• Gram (‐) diplococci: neisseria
• Gram (‐) pleomorphic, coccobacillary organisms: hemophilus
Protein: An elevated protein level in CSF is of marginal diagnostic benefit. Elevated
protein is non‐specific because any form of CSN infection can elevate the CSF
protein. However, a normal CSF protein excludes bacterial meningitis.
Glucose: Levels below 60% of serum levels is consistent w/ bacterial meningitis
Cell count: This is best initial test for the diagnosis of meningitis. If thousands of
PMN’s are present start IV ceftriaxone, vancomycin, and steroids. Thousand of
PMN’s is bacterial meningitis until proven otherwise.
Cryptococcus (fungal meningitis)
• Look for HIV(+) patient with <100CD4 cells.
• This infection is slower than bacterial meningitis and may not give severe
meningeal signs (neck stiffness, photophobia, and high fever, all at same
time).
Diagnosis:
• The best initial test is the India ink stain
• The most accurate test is the cryptococcal antigen
Treatment:
• The best initial therapy is Amphotericin
*follow Amphotericin with oral Fluconazole (continued indefinitely until the CD4
count raises), once CD4 count >100, fluconazole can be discontinued.
Lyme Disease
Patient usually lives in Connecticut area and has a history of camping, hiking, or
being in tall grass. The tick exposure is rarely remembered by the patient.
Diagnosis:
• A central clearing target rash is pathognomonic
• There is a history of joint pain
• Bell’s palsy
Treatment:
• Oral doxycycline
• If there is cardiac involvement treat with IV ceftriaxone
Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever (RMSF)
Look for camper/hiker with a rash that started on wrists and ankles and moved
centrally.
Signs and Symptoms:
• Fever, headache, and malaise always precede the rash
Diagnosis:
• Oral Doxycylcine is the most effective therapy.
TB Meningitis
• This is an extremely difficult diagnosis to pinpoint
• Look for an immigrant with a history of lung TB
• Presents slowly over weeks to months (If acute then not TB meningitis)
Diagnosis:
• Has a very high CSF protein levels
• Acid fast stain of CSF is not accurate, need three high‐volume centrifuged
samples if going to do acid‐fast stain.
Treatment:
• RIPE treatment as with TB, only diff is should add steroids and extend the
length of therapy for meningitis when compared to the pulmonary disease.
Viral Meningitis
• Viral meningitis is in general a diagnosis of exclusion.
• There is lymphocytic pleocytosis in the CSF.
• There is no specific therapy for viral meningitis.
Listeria Meningitis
• Look for elderly, neonatal, and HIV (+) patients and those who have no
spleen, are on steroids, or are immunocomprimised with leukemia or
lymphoma.
* Add Ampicillin to regimen of vancomycin + ceftriaxone when Listeria is suspected.
Such as if there is lymphocytosis in the CSF.
Neisseria Meningitides
• Look for patients who are adolescents, in the military, are asplenic, or who
have terminal complement deficiency.
Treatment is as follows:
Patient Respiratory isolation
Close contacts Start prophylaxis with rifampin or ciprofloxacin.
Close contacts are: household members, people who share utensils, cups, kisses.
Routine contacts Routine school and work contacts do not need to receive
prophylaxis.
ENCEPHALITIS
• Look for a patient with a fever and altered mental status over a few hours.
• Almost all encephalitis in the US is from herpes, the patient does not have to
recall a past history of herpes in order to make this diagnosis
FEVER + CONFUSION = Encephalitis
Diagnosis:
• The best diagnostic test is a CT scan of the head
• The most accurate test is a PCR of the CSF
Treatment:
• The best initial therapy is acyclovir
• For acyclovir‐resistant patients give foscarnet
BRAIN ABSCESS
• Pres with a fever, headache, and focal neurological deficits
• CT finds a “ring” aka contrast enhanced lesion
• Finding a ring means either cancer or infection.
Consider HIV status in context of brain abscess as follows:
• HIV negative patient brain biopsy is the next step
• HIV positive patient Treatment for toxoplasmosis with pyrimethamine
and sulfadiazine for 2wks and repeat the head CT
Progressive Multifocal Leukoencephalopathy (PML)
• These brain lesions in HIV(+) patients are not associated with ring
enhancement or mass effect.
• There is no specific therapy.
• Treat the HIV and raise the CD4, when the HIV is improved, the lesions will
disappear.
Neurocysticercosis
• Look for a patient from Mexico with a seizure
• Head CT shows multiple 1cm cystic lesions, over time lesions will calcify.
Diagnosis:
• Confirm with serology
Treatment:
• When still active and uncalcified, the lesions are treated with Albendazole,
use steroids to prevent a reaction to dying parasites.
Head Trauma and Intracranial Hemorrhage
Any head trauma resulting in a loss of consciousness or altered mental status should
lead to CT of head without contrast
Treatment for various head traumas are as follows:
1. Concussion: None
2. Contusion: Admit patient, vast majority get no treatment
3. Subdural and Epidural Hematomas: Large ones drained, small ones left
alone to reabsorb on their own.
4. Large intracranial hemorrhage with mass effect: 1.
Intubate/hyperventilate to decrease ICP, 2. Decrease PC02 to 25‐30, which
constricts cerebral blood vessels, 3. administer Mannitol as an osmotic
diuretic to decrease ICP, 4. Perform surgical evacuation.
Subarachnoid Hemorrhage(SAH)
Look for the following symptoms:
• Sudden, severe headache
• Stiff neck
• Photophobia
• LOC in 50% of patients
• Focal neurological deficits in 30% of patients
• SAH is like sudden onset of meningitis with a LOC but without fever.
Diagnosis:
• The best initial test is a head CT without contrast. It is 95% sensitive, if
conclusive, no need to do an LP
• The most accurate diagnostic test is an LP, but not necessary if CT shows
blood.
Treatment:
• Perform angiography to determine site of bleed
• Surgically clip or embolize the site of bleeding (If patient re‐bleeds there is a
50% change of death).
• Insert a vetriculoperotoneal shunt if hydrocephalus develops
• Prescribe nimodipine orally; which is a CCB that prevents stroke.
** When SAH occurs, an intense vasospasm can lead to non‐hemorrhagic
stroke(thus CCB used).
SPINE DISORDERS
Lumbosacral Cord compression Epidural abscess Spinal stenosis
strain
Syringomyelia
• Is a defective fluid cavity in the center of the cord from trauma, tumors, or
congenital problem.
• Presents with a loss of sensation of pain and tenderness in a cape‐like
distribution over the neck, shoulders, and down both arms.
Diagnosis:
• MRI
Treatment:
• Surgical correction
Cord Compression
• Metastatic cancer presses on the cord, resulting in pain and tenderness of the
spine.
• Lumbosacral strain doesn’t give tenderness of the spine itself.
Diagnosis:
• The best initial test is an MRI
• The most accurate diagnostic test is a biopsy, only done if diagnosis is not
clear from the history
Spinal Stenosis
• Presents with leg pain on walking and can look like peripheral arterial
disease
• Pulses will be intact in spinal stenosis
• Pain worsens when patient leans backwards and/or walks in a downward
direction, while it improves when walking in an upward direction
• Diagnose with an MRI and treat with surgical decompression
Anterior Spinal Artery Infarction
• All sensation is lost except position and vibratory sense, which travel down
the posterior column of the spinal cord
• No specific therapy can correct this problem
BrownSequard Syndrome
• This results from traumatic injury to the spine, such as that from a knife
wound.
• Patient loses ipsilateral position, vibratory sense, contralateral pain and
temperature
** The most urgent management in cord compression is the administration of
steroids as soon as possible and to relieve pressure on the cord. Imaging studies are
done after administration of steroids.
• Is an idiopathic disorder of both upper and lower motor neurons.
• Treated with riluzole, a unique agent that blocks the accumulation of
glutamate
UMN signs LMN signs
Hyperreflexia Wasting
Upgoing toes on plantar reflex Fasciculations
Spasticity weakness
Weakness
PERIPHERAL NEUROPATHIES
Diabetes
• Diabetes is the most common cause of peripheral neuropathies
• Specific testing is not necessary in most cases.
Treatment:
• Gabapentin or Pregabalin are useful in treating neuropathies.
• TCA’s are less effective and have more side effects
Carpal Tunnel Syndrome
• Look for pain and weakness of first three digits of hand
• Symptoms may worsen with repetitive use.
• Initial mgmt is a splint.
• Steroid injections may be used if splints provide no relief
• If these don’t work, can perform surgery to relieve the pain
Radial Nerve Palsy
• Aka “Saturday night palsy”, results from falling asleep or passing out with
pressure on arms underneath the body or outstretched, perhaps draped over back
of a chair (classic presentation on exam question)
• Results in wrist drop, resolves on its own.
Peroneal Nerve Palsy
• Results from high boots pressing at the back of the knee.
• Results in foot drop and inability to evert the foot.
• This palsy will resolve on its own
CN7 palsy (Bell’s palsy)
• Results in hemi‐facial paralysis of both upper and lower halves of face.
• Thought to be due to a virus
• There may also be a loss of taste in anterior 2/3 of tongue, hyperaccusis, and
the inability to close the eye at night.
Treatment:
• Steroids and acyclovir or valcyclovir should be given
Reflex sympathetic dystrophy (chronic regional pain syndrome)
• Occurs in a patient with a previous injury to the extremity
• Light tough such as from a sheet touching the foot, results in extreme pain
that is “burning” in quality
Treatment:
• NSAIDs
• Gabapentin
• Occasionally a nerve block may be done if the previous methods don’t work
• Surgical sympathectomy may be necessary when refractory
Restless Leg Syndrome
• Uncomfortable feeling in the legs which patient tries to “shake off”, which
brings only temporary relief
Treatment:
• Pramipexole or ropinerole.
GuillainBarre syndrome
• Ascending paralysis, thought to be caused by a viral infection.
• Usually presents weeks after a respiratory infection
Management/Treatment:
• First step is to take a peak inspiratory pressure, which can tell if the pt will
undergo respiratory failure.
• Second step is to give IVIG’s and/or perform plasmapharesis.
MYASTHENIA GRAVIS
• Classically presents with weakness of the muscles of mastication, making it
hard to finish meals
• Blurry vision from diplopia results from inability to focus the eyes on a single
target.
• Classically the patient reports drooping of the eyelids as the day progresses.
Diagnosis:
• The best initial test is testing for anti‐acetylcholine receptor
antibodies(ACHR)
• The most accurate test is clinical presentation and ACHR, which is more
sensitive and specific that tensilon test.
Treatment:
• The best initial therapy is Pyridostigmine or Neostigmine
• Thymectomy can be performed if pyridostigmine or neostigmine don’t work
patients < 60 yr of age should undergo thymectomy.
• Give Prednisone if thymectomy doesn’t work, or if there are no responses to
pyridostigmine or neostigmine, then prednisone should be started.
• Azathioprine and cyclosporine are used to try to keep the patient off of long‐
term steroids.
Chapter 17
Oncology
Breast Cancer Screening
Screening mammography as follows:
• Start at 40
• Between 40‐50 and every 1‐2yrs
• At 50, start doing them every year
When a mammogram shows an abnormality?
• 1st thing is to do a biopsy(shows CA and presence of esetrogen and/or
progesterone receptors)
What is the sentinel node?
• It is the first node detected in the operative field, detected by dye.
• If this node is free of CA, then axillary node dissection is not necessary, if the
node is cancerous, axillary lymph node biopsy is required
Best initial therapy for breast cancer?
• Lumpectomy with radiation treatment(equal to modified radical
mastectomy)
• If there is presence of estrogen or progesterone receptor (+), use tamoxifen
or raloxifene
• Adjuvant chemotherapy used whenever the axillary nodes are (+) OR the
cancer is >1cm in size.
Hormonal Inhibition Therapy:
• Tamoxifen and raloxifene used if either progesterone or esterogen
receptors are positive. They SERMs (selective esterogen receptor
modulators). Adverse Reactions: DVT, hot flashes,endometrial CA.
• These are different from aromatase inhibitors, which do not lead to DVT,
but cause osteoporosis due to antagonistic activity in the bone.
Adjuvant Chemotherapy: Is appropriate when,
1. Cancer is in the axilla
2. Cancer larger than 1cm
3. More efficacious when pt still menstruation, because BR‐ca wont be
controlled with estrogen antagonists such as tamoxifen.
TRASTUZUMAB: is a monoclonal antibody against breast CA antigen “HER‐2/NEU”,
useful in metastatic disease, has modest activity with few adverse reactions
Primary Preventative Therapy: Use Tamoxifen in any patient with multiple 1st
degree relatives (mom, sister) with breast CA
COLON CANCER
The most imp thing is screening schedule and indicators..
• Colon cancer is treated with surgical resection of the colon and
chemotherapy centered around a 5‐FU regimen.
Routine for screening:
1. Colonoscopy starting at 50, the every 10yrs. If single family member has it, get
colonoscopy 10yrs earlier than the age at which that person was diagnosed. Three
family members get colonoscopy at 25yr, then every 10yr. FAP do screening
sigmoidoscopy at 12yr, then every 1-2yr.
2. Occult blood testing starting at 50yr, then every year thereafter.
3. Sigmoidoscopy and double contrast barium enema at 50, then q 3‐5yr.
LUNG CANCER
Remember that small cell carcinoma releases ectopic ACTH, Squamous cell carcinoma
releases PTH-like hormone.
• There is no screening test for lung cancer
• Excisional biopsy should be done on solitary lung nodules in pts who are
smokers with nodule >1cm.
• Calcifications usually go against malignancy, but if there is history of
smoking, a patient >50yr, and nodule >1cm, excision is warranted.
Lung cancer therapy: The most imp issue in treatment is whether the disease is
localized enough to be surgically resected. Surgery cannot be done is any of the
following are present:
1. Bilateral disease
2. Mets
3. Malignant pleural effusion
4. Involvement of aorta, vena cava, or heart
5. Lesions within 1‐2cm of carina.
*** Smallcell lung cancer is non‐resectable because >95% of time is has one of
these features.
CERVICAL CANCER
• Start pap smears at 21, or 3yrs after onset of sexual activity
• Do pap smears every 3 yrs until age 65. Stop at 65 unless there has been no
previous screening.
• Administer HPV quadrivalent vaccine to all women 13‐26yr
Following up an abnormal pap smear:
1. An abnormal pap smear with low‐grade or high‐grade dysplasia should be
followed by colposcopy and biopsy.
2. A pap smear showing atypical squamous cells of undetermined significance
(ASCUS), do HPV testing. If HPV (+), proceed to colposcopy, if HPV (‐), do
repeat pap in 6mnth
3. Once pap smear normal, return to routine testing
* Pap smears lower mortality in screen populations, but still not as much as
mammography because incidence of cervical CA is less than that of breast cancer.
PROSTATE CANCER
• No proven screening method that lowers mortality rate. PSA and DRE not
proven to lower mortality.
• Do not routinely offer these tests, however if pt asks for them, you should
perform.
Treating prostate cancer:
1. Localized: Surgery and either external radiation or implanted radioactive
pellets (nearly equal in efficacy)
2. Metastatic: Androgen blockade is standard of care, use flutamide
(testosterone receptor blocker) AND leuprolide or goserelin (GNRH
agonists).
* There is no good chemotherapy for metastatic prostate cancer, treatment is
hormonal in nature.
*Remember the 5‐alpha‐reductase inhibitor finasteride is used for BPH, not
cancer
A man with prostate cancer presents with severe, sudden back pain. MRI shows
cord compression, and he’s started on steroids. What’s the next best step in
mgmt?
FLUTAMIDE (to block temporary flare up in androgen levels that accompanies
GNRH agonist treatment
OVARIAN CANCER
Key feats are women >50 with increasing abdominal girth at same time as weight
loss.
Diagnostic testing:
• There’s no routine screening test
• CA125 is a marker of progression and response to therapy, not a diagnostic
test
Treatment:
• Treatment is surgical debulking followed by chemotherapy, even in cases of local
metastatic disease.
• Ovarian ca is unique in that surgical resection is beneficial even when there’s a
large volume of tumor spread through the pelvis and abdomen. If possible,
removing all visible tumors helps.
TESTICULAR CANCER
• Presents with painless scrotal lump in a man <35yr.
• Is extremely curable with a 90‐95% 5yr survival rate.
• NEVER do a biopsy of the testicle.
Diagnostic Testing:
• An inguinal orchiectomy of the affected testicle, never do biopsy.
• Measure AFP, LDH, and bHCG
• Stage with CT of abdomen and pelvis.
Treatment:
1. Local disease: Radiation
2. Widespread disease: Chemotherapy, which is curative of even metastasis in
testicular cancer.
*Of all testicular cancers, 95% are germ cell tumors (seminoma and non
seminoma).
*AFP secreted only by nonseminomas.
*Measure AFP, LDH, and bHCG.
• Screen all and advise against smoking
• Most effective methods are use of oral meds such as Buproprion and
Varenicline.
• Less effective are nicotine patch and gum (which should be tried first).
*With buproprion, patient should slowly decrease cigarettes 2wks after starting
therapy. Use buproprion in conjunction with counselling and nicotine replacement.
Osteoporosis Screen all women with DEXA scan at 65yr of age.
AAA All men about 65yr who were ever smokers should be screened once w/ an
ultrasound.
DM No recommendation for routine diabetes screening
HTN All pts should be screened at every visit.
Hyperlipidemia Men >35, Women >45
Chapter 18
Dermatology
Using Topical Steroids
Acne
• An infection of the pilosebaceous gland caused by the bacteria
Propionibacterium acnes
ACNE
Signs and Symptoms:
• Blackheads (open comedones) and whiteheads (closed comedones)
Treatment:
• Mild disease should be managed with topical antibiotics such as clindamycin,
erythromycin, in addition to benzoyl peroxide
• Moderate disease should combine benzoyl peroxide with retinoids
• Severe disease should be managed with oral antibiotics and oral retinoic acid
derivatives
Bacterial Infections of the Skin
Impetigo
A superficial skin infection limited to the epidermis
Impetigo
• Is often described as being “honey‐colored”, “wheeping”, or “oozing”
• Usually caused by Staphylococcus, but may also be due to Strep Pyogenes
Treatment:
• Mupirocin (A topical antibiotic) and/or antistaphylococcal oral antibiotics
Erysipelas
A skin infection of the epidermis and the dermis, which is usually caused by Strep
Pyogenes. This condition is often described as being bright red, angry, and swollen.
Erysipelas
• With erysipelas may come fever and chills
Treatment:
• Penicillin G or ampicillin if diagnosis is Streptococcus
Cellulitis
An infection caused by Staphylococcus and Streptococcus that infects the dermis
and the subcutaneous tissues. Managed with antistaph drugs such as oxacillin and
nafcillin.
Cellulitis
Folliculitis
An infection of the hair follicle, may progress to a worse infection called a furuncle.
Usually caused by staphylococcus, if acquired from a hot‐tub it can be due to
Pseudomonas, fungi, or virus
Look for this around the beard area where there are accumulations of pus‐like
material.
Folliculitis
Treatment:
• Local care and topical mupirocin
• Severe cases that progress require systemic antistaphylococcal antibiotics
Necrotizing Fasciitis
Is a severe, life‐threatening skin infection. It begins as a cellulitis that dissects into
the fascial planes of the skin. MCC by strep and Clostridium
Presentation:
• High fever
• Extreme pain that is worse than it looks
• Bullae
• Crepitus
Necrotizing Fasciitis
Diagnosis:
• CT or MRI looking for air in the tissue and/or necrosis
• Elevated creatine phosphokinase
Management/Treatment:
• Surgical debridement
• Combination beta lactam/beta lactamase medications
• If it is caused by Strep Pyogenes, give clindamycin + PCN
Scarlet Fever
Is caused by Strep Pyogenes, and looks like a combination of a rash and goosebumps
Scarlet Fever
Signs and Symptoms:
• Rough skin
• Strawberry tongue
• Beefy‐red pharynx
• Rash is most intense in the axilla and groin (In the creased areas of skin)
• Desquamation of hands and feet occurs as rash resolves
• May have fever, chills, sore throat, cervical adenopathy
• Glomerulonephritis is a complication
Treatment:
• Penicillin
Common Dermatologic Disorders
Eczema
• Is a superficial, itchy, erythematous lesion
• The rash develops after itching
• Commonly seen on the flexor surfaces
• Diagosis is clinical
Eczema
Treatment: Avoidance of irritants and triggers, keep skins moisturized,
antihistamines/steroids are good for relief from inflammation and itching
There are many variations of Eczema, including:
1. Atopic Dermatitis – this is the classic where itching causes a rash
2. Contact dermatitis – an itchy rash at the site of contact, classically caused by
contact with nickel, chemicals, or poison plants
3. Seborrheic dermatitis – scaling and flaking in areas of sebaceous glands
Psoriasis
• Presents as pink plaques with silver scaling
• Occurs on the extensor surfaces such as the elbows and knees
• There is often pitting of the fingernails
• The classic finding is known as “Auspitz Sign”, which is pinpoint bleeding
when the scale is removed
• This is diagnosed clinically
Psoriatic Plaque
Treatment:
1st line is Topical steroids
2nd line is UVA light and may be used as an adjunct/prophylactic
3rd line is methotrexate and clyclosporin
Urticaria
• Is a condition caused by mast cell degranulation and histamine release
• Presents with the classic “wheals” that are intensely itchy
• “Dermographism” is seen where you can write a word with your finger on
the skin and it will remain
• Most lesions are IgE‐mediated (thus a type 1 sensitivity)
• Diagnose this condition by scrapings
Urticaria
Treatment:
• Avoid triggers
• Give antihistamines/steroids
• This can possibly affect the respiratory tract which would then involve
securing an airway
Vitiligo
• There is a loss of melanocytes in discrete areas of the skin
• Borders are sharply demarcated
• Usually seen in darker patients
• Possibly autoimmune in nature
Vitiligo
Treatment:
• Mini‐grafting can restore pigment to areas where it is lacking
Albinism
• Failure of melanocytes to produce pigment, due to a tyrosine deficiency
• Patient has white skin, iris translucency, decreased retinal pigment,
nystagmus, and strabismus
• Avoid sun exposure and use sunscreen all the time
• There is an increased risk of skin cancer due to lack of protection from the
sun
Albinism
Blistering Disorders
Pemphigus Vulgaris
• A rare autoimmune disorder affecting people between 20‐40yr of age
• Bullae slough off easily and leave large denuded areas of skin, this is know as
“Nikolsky’s sign”, this predisposes to an increased risk of infection
• Fatal condition if not managed properly
Pemphigus Vulgaris
Diagnosis:
• Immunofluorescence of the surrounding epidermal cells shows a
“tombstone” fluorescent pattern
Treatment:
• High‐dose oral steroids
Bullous Pemphigoid
• An autoimmune condition that affects mostly the elderly
• Less severe than pemphigus vulgaris
• Presents with hard and tense bullae that do not rupture easily
• Prognosis is much better than that of pemphigus vulgaris
Bullous Pemphigoid
Diagnosis:
• Skin biopsy showing a linear band along the basement membrane on
immunofluorescence
• Increased eosinophils found in the dermis
Treatment:
• Oral steroids
Erythema Multiforme
• Is a hypersensitivity reaction to drugs, infections, or systemic disorders
• Presents with diffuse and erythematous target lesions that are highly
differing in shape
Erythema Multiforme
Diagnosis:
• Is clinical but a history of herpes infection makes this a likely diagnosis
Treatment:
• Stop offending causes and treat if there is a history of herpes with acyclovir
Porphyria Cutanea Tarda
• An autosomal disorder of impaired heme synthesis
• Get blisters on sun‐exposed areas of the face and hands
• Differentiate this porphyria by the absence of abdominal pain
Porphyria Cutanea Tarda
Diagnosis:
• Wood’s lamp of urine, where the urine fluoresces with an orange‐pink color
due to the increased levels of uroporphyrins
Treatment:
• Sunscreens used liberally
• Phlebotomy
• Chloroquine
• Avoidance of alcohol
Parasitic Infections of the Skin
Scabies
• Presents as severely itchy papules and burrows that are located along the
webs of the fingers
• Highly contagious
Scabies infection
Diagnosis:
• Identify the Sarcoptes Scabiei mite from a skin scraping under the
microscope
Treatment:
• Permethrin 5% create to the entire body for those infected and close contacts
for 8‐10hr, repeated in another week
• Wash all linens and bedding in hot water the same day as cream application
Pediculosis Capitis (Head Lice)
• Itching and swelling of the scalp
• Common in school‐aged children
Diagnosis:
• Microscopic exam of the hair shaft will show lice attached to shaft
Treatment:
• Permethrin shampoo or gel to the scalp
• Repeat applications are commonly required
Pediculosis Pubis (Crabs)
• Extremely itchy papules in the pubic region
• May also be along the axilla, buttocks, eyelashes, eyebrows, and periumbilical
area
Diagnosis:
• Microscopic identification of lice
Treatment:
• Permethrin shampoo left on for 10 minutes, and repeated again within a
week
Cutaneous Larva Migrans
• Is a snake‐like, thread‐like lesion that marks the burrow of the nematode
larvae
• Often seen on the hands, back, feet, and buttocks
• Is caused by hookworms, namely Ancylostoma, Necatar, and Strongyloides
Cutaneous Larva Migrans
Diagnosis:
• A history of skin being exposed to moist soil or sand
• Presence of classic lesion
Treatment:
• Ivermectin orally or Thiabendazole topically
Fungal Cutaneous Disorders
Tinea Pityrosporu KOH prep Selenium
Versicolor m Ovale. shows the Sulfide
classic shampoo
Sharply “Spaghetti on
demarcated and affected
hypopigment meatball area for 7
ed macules appearance” days.
on face and
trunk in the
summer.
Macules do
not tan
Onychomyco Thickened, Clinical Fluconazo
sis yellowing of and/or KOH le or
the prep Itraconazo
fingernails le
and toenails.
Skin Cancer
Cancer Type Image Signs and Treatment Prognosis
Symptoms
Malignant Seen MC in Excision + Poor with
Melanoma light‐skin chemotherapy metastasis
people with if there is
increased sun metastasis
exposure.
Fits all
ABCDE
criteria
Squamous Common in Excision + Moderate
Cells elderly. radiation prognosis
Carcinoma (better than
On sun melanoma
exposed but worse
areas. than basal
cell)
Ulcerations
and crusted
Basal Cell MC and looks Excision Great
Carcinoma like a pearly prognosis –
papule with almost never
translucent metastasizes
borders
Kaposi’s Red/purple Chemotherapy Good unless
Sarcoma plaques. and HIV there is
medications associated
Caused by organ damage
HHV8.
Almost
exlusively in
AIDS patient
Cutaneous T‐ Total body Radiation, 7‐10 yr
cell rash that is chemotherapy survival with
Lymphoma very itchy no treatment.
Chapter 19
High-Yield
Preventative
Medicine
• Female patients > 65 yrs of age should receive a one‐time DEXA bone scan
for osteoporosis
• Any female who is at least 60yr old and has 1 risk factor for osteoporosis
• The T‐score is used to assess bone density
• A T‐score between [‐1.5 to ‐2.5] is considered to be osteopenia
• A T‐score < ‐2.5 is osteoporosis
• A patient with a T‐score of <‐1.5 plus risk factors for osteoporosis (smoking,
poor calcium vitamin D levels, lack of weight bearing exercise in the history,
use of alcohol), should receive preventative medications, such as oral
bisphosphonates or Raloxifene
• Raloxifene is the only SERM that is FDA approved to prevent osteoporosis
• Kids with cystic fibrosis should receive normal vaccinations in addition to a
few additions yearly influenza, pneumococcal boosters
• Patients with an egg allergy should avoid the influenza and yellow fever
vaccines, and should be cautious with MMR as well
• The 1st step in management of increased LDL is lifestyle management, if LDL
>100mg/dL and the patient has risk factors, they should be started on
lifestyle modifications + statin drugs
• The drug of choice for increasing the HDL is Gemfibrozel and nicotinic acids
• It is recommended that any male who is an active smoker or former smoker
and aged between 65‐75 be given a one‐time abdominal ultrasound to
evaluate for a AAA
• Patients with a chronic liver disease should receive a number of vaccines
(Tetanus every 10yrs + Hep A&B yearly, and pneumococcal vaccine)
Adult Vaccine Recommendations:
• Tetanus and Diptheria every 10yrs after 18yrs of age
• Influenza to all adults >50yr or to adults with chronic diseases (DM, CHF, etc)
• Pneumococcal vaccine given to all adults >65yr of age or to adults with
chronic diseases
• Screening for cervical cancer with a pap smear should start at 21yr of age or
3yrs after the onset of sexual activity (whichever comes first)
• If 2‐3 normal pap smears are done in a row and the woman is in a
monogamous relationship, you can increase the time between pap smears to
every 2‐3 years.
• Screening can stop at 70yrs of age
• Bupropion is FDA approved for smoking cessation and must be used in
conjunction with counseling and nicotine replacement
• Hepatitis A vaccine is given to men who have sex with men
• Meningococcal vaccine is given to those who live in close quarters with
others
• Routine cholesterol screening should begin in patients at risk at 35yr of age
in men and 45yr of age in women, then every 5yrs after that
• The most common vaccine‐preventable disease is hepatitis A
• When CD4 count drops below 200/250, start PCP prophylaxis with TMP‐SMX
• When CD4 count drops below 50, prophylax for mycobacterium avium
complex with amoxicillin
• Routine screening for Chlamydia is now recommended for all sexually active
females who are ≤ 24 yrs of age
• Mammograms should be done every 1‐2 yrs starting at 40yr in females with
an average risk of breast cancer. There is no clear time when they should
stop, but it should be no sooner than 70yr of age
• Pneumococcal vaccine is a capsular polysaccharide of the 23 most common
types of pneumococcus, which yield a B‐cell response only, it is T‐cell
independent
• Any female with a history of being treated for CIN2/3 should have pap
smears with or without colposcopy and curettage every 6 months until three
negative results are obtained (patients may resume standard screen after
meeting this milestone)