5 III Framework

ETHICS: FLOURISHING LIFE
FRAMEWORKS AND PRINCIPLES

BEHIND OUR MORAL
DISPOSITION FRAMEWORKS
Part III
FRAMEWORKS AND PRINCIPLES (12 hours)
This part addresses the following questions:

 What are the ethical frameworks that dictate the way we
make our individual moral decisions?
 What is my ethical framework in making my decisions?
1. VIRTUE ETHICS
a. Aristotle
b. Thomas Aquinas: Natural Law
2. KANT AND RIGHTS THEORISTS

a. Kant
b. Different Kinds of Rights
3. UTILITARIANISM
a. Origin and Nature of Theory, and
Business’ Fascination with Utilitarianism
4. JUSTICE AND FAIRNESS:

PROMOTING THE COMMON GOOD
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ETHICAL/MORAL FRAMEWORK
 a theory or system of philosophical ideas that explain ethical issues
 a set of moral principles on which an ethical practice is based
 set of ethical codes that an individual uses to guide moral judgment or
decision-making in solving a moral dilemma or problem
 a worldview or study that establishes a strong foundation
 Types of Ethical Frameworks/Theories/Worldviews:
 Deontological Ethics (on deon or duty): Kantian, Rights, Divine Command
 Teleological Ethics (on telos or end): Utilitarian, Egoism, Machiavellian (Act),
Contractarian (Rule), Aristotelian, Thomistic, Situationism, Natural Law,
Justice as Fairness
 Virtue Ethics (on virtue, character or agent): Aristotelian or Nichomachean,
Thomistic, Confucian, Feminist, Islamic
ETHICAL/MORAL PRINCIPLE
 a fundamental truth or proposition that serves as the foundation for a belief,
behavior and framework and drives values and goals
 a moral value or lesson that can be derived from experience
 a general and self-evident standard of behavior that springs from a theory
 a basic rule that transcends cultures and serves as a moral compass
Moral Principle
Instructional/Propositional
It offers or suggests something to be done, considered, Ideal
accepted and adopted.
Instructional: Propositional:
It is a concept
 "Do the right thing even  “It is good to do the right on how to
when no one is looking." thing even when no one is behave that is
(I) looking." (I) of a very high
standard.
 “To be honest is the best
 “Be honest because it is policy.” (H) INTEGRITY (I)
the best policy.” (H)
 “To do no harm is first.”(M) HONESTY (H)
 "First, do no harm." (M) or
or NON-
 “One should not risk MALEFICENCE
(non-harmfulness)
 “Don't risk harming to harming others.”(M)
(M)
others.” (M)
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VIRTUE ETHICS
1.ab
ARISTOTLE’S
NICOMACHEAN ETHICS
AND
ST. THOMAS’ NATURAL LAW
LEARNING OUTCOMES
a. Articulate what virtue ethics is
b. Critique virtue ethics
c. Make use of virtue ethics
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LECTURE CONTENTS
Aristotle / Aristoteles (384-322 B.C.)
 Greek Philosopher and Scientist

 Student of Plato
 Teacher of Alexander the Great
 Birth: 384 BC, Stagira, Greece
 Death: 322 BC, Chalcis, Greece
 Studied at Platonic Academy
 His father is Nicomachus, the physician
of Amyntas III, king of Macedonia and
grandfather of Alexander the Great
www.liveyourmagic.com
He is the author of a philosophical and scientific system like the Formal Logic and
Ethics that became the frameworks and vehicles for Medieval Islamic Philosophy,
Christian Scholasticism, Western arts, and sciences including Ethics, History,
Botany, Chemistry, Physics, Poetics, Rhetoric, Metaphysics, Philosophy of Mind,
Philosophy of Nature, Political Theory, Zoology, and Psychology.
Telos
Nicomachean Ethics is the first studied ethics book that may
have come from Nicomachus, the name of the father and son of
Aristotle. In this book, Aristotle discussed how a person should
become just and true through a good upbringing or nurturing of
virtues in oneself and others. This, for him, will bring one to his or her
purpose, goal, or end.
Since Nicomachean Ethics gave importance to the role of
purpose or end, it was considered teleological ethics (from Greek word
telos - end, purpose, goal, and logos - study). Aristotle believes that
everything including human actions has entelechy (from Greek
entelekheia — en - within + telos - end, perfection + ekhein - be in a
certain state). Accordingly, “having a telos within” is what realizes or
actualizes everyone’s potential. All things that exist or happen to fulfill
their teloi (plural of telos). This telos is what makes things unique or
differentiates one thing from others.
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Telos is the essence or nature of beings including human
persons. For example, the telos of a pen is to write while the television
is to inform and entertain.
Everything has an "entelechy"

Telos Principle
or "having a telos inside."
However, the telos or end of a person is his rationality. This

rationality makes him self-sufficient. A self-sufficient person means
that as he lacks nothing, he is capable of providing for himself what he
needs and wants. In times of isolation and suffering, he alone can freely
make his life desirable and meaningful.
Rationality or intelligence is what distinguishes a person from
plants and animals. For Aristotle, the person has a tripartite soul:
rational, vegetative, and appetitive. The vegetative which is responsible
for nutrition and growth has no significant relation with the rational.
The appetitive (emotion), which governs desire is partly irrational but
partly rational as it could be trained to follow reason. Thus, only the
rational soul is capable of thinking, acting, socializing, and choosing
based on principles and taking responsibility.
Rational actions have ends that are considered good and
praiseworthy because they lead a person to the full realization of his
potentials and well-performance. For instance, a person can study to
realize his telos – to be a professional. He will not do anything that
hinders his telos because it is against his rational nature. Ends can be
ranked to form a hierarchy. Some ends are called either as subordinate
if they are means to higher ends and as highest ends, if they are ends
in themselves or for their own sakes that something is made.
All rational actions or subordinate goods should eventually
lead to the eudaimonia (from Greek prefix eu – good and word daimon
– god, godlike, power) or flourishing. Eudaimonia is the ultimate telos
or highest good. Eudaimonia as the attainment of the daimon or
perfect self presupposes self-sufficiency, self-acceptance, and self-
mastery. Flourishing is living well a complete, stable, and sufficient
good life. It is desired for itself because it satisfies all desires and has
no evil in it. (Aristotle, n.d.)
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Eudaimonia is not a passive state but an active living of the best
life. It must be final and cannot be a means to other ends. Many agree
that it may be called also happiness, well-being, good life, self-
realization, and supreme good. But they may not agree on how one
makes or achieves a flourishing or happy life.
Happiness “Happiness is the meaning and the purpose of

Principle life, the whole aim and end of human existence.”
Happiness is achievable through the self-sufficiency of the

rational soul that is responsible for reasoning, forming principles, and
performing them brilliantly.
Virtue as Habit
Aristotle contends that human flourishing or happiness can be
achieved through practical ends like virtues (from the Latin word vir,
which means man or male, thus, virtue is manliness or human
excellence). Virtues such as courage, integrity, and responsibility are
acquired good habits through habituation, or constant practice, and
self-mastery. They are traits that contribute to the functioning well of
reason and regulate the desires of the person’s appetitive nature.
The rational soul for Aristotle must develop first its intellectual
virtues and practical wisdom (phronesis). Intellectual virtue involves 1)
intelligence (nous), which apprehends fundamental truths (such as
definitions, self-evident principles; 2) science (episteme), which is the
skill with inferential reasoning (such as proofs, syllogisms,
demonstrations); and 3) theoretical wisdom (sophia), which combines
well fundamental truths with valid and necessary inferences to reason
about unchanging truths. The intellectual virtues such as open-
mindedness and inquisitiveness guide persons toward goods and the
meaning of life.
Whereas, practical wisdom excellently applies the right
conduct, right person, right amount, right time, right intention,
right means, and right situation to achieve self-mastery. It is the
capacity to do appropriately the goods of the intellect. Practical
wisdom applies moral virtues appropriate to every circumstance.
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Aristotle identified four basic moral virtues: prudence,
temperance, courage, and justice. Moral virtues are behaviors that
obey reason. They are moral principles or good actions repeatedly
done and practiced as excellent good habits that ultimately unite and
evolve as a character. They are considered as second natures that
follow from the first nature of the human person, which is rationality.
Virtues are not emotions but rationalities that can be fully
developed if they are done in the right way all the time in any given
situation. Being virtuous is practicing or ‘habitualizing’ virtues. It
presupposes and enhances self-sufficiency and self-mastery.
“Practice makes perfect” or repetitious good actions betters one and
what he does. By practicing virtues, one persistently and repeatedly do
the right actions so that they slowly develop the appropriate attitude
and the right disposition or moral character (the sum of all virtues).
Practice Principle Practice breeds virtues and character.
A learned disposition or tendency enables one to assess a

situation properly and to reason and behave in the “right way,” an
exception for “other ways.” There can be different situations that one
has to rationally apply a habit but due to a disposition, one does a
“right” or proportionate act in a situation. An example of disposition
toward pleasure and pain is temperance. Confronted with two
situations whether to eat excessively (pleasure) or to get hungry (pain),
one makes an exception, a rational choice — to eat moderately.
Moderation or proportionality is a rational act and a practiced
moral principle. This is observing the right conduct which Aristotle
calls the golden mean or intermediate between the extremes or vices
(bad habits): deficiency and excess. “Virtues are means between
extremes; they are states of character; by their own nature they tend
to the doing of acts by which they are produced; they are in our power
and voluntary; they act as prescribed by right reason.” (Aristotle, n.d.)
Moderation Choosing the golden mean between extremes

Principle is applying it proportionately in a situation.
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Moral courage is the mean
between the extremes of cowardice
(deficiency) and recklessness (excess),
which is the “right way” or a
proportionate amount of courage
executed by the “free will” in a given
situation. There is no exact amount of
courage as it depends on the situation
that dictates what proportionate amount
of courage is needed. Recklessness is
closer to courage than cowardice because
most people are more inclined to be
cowardly than reckless.
Happiness as Virtue
Happiness as the ultimate goal of life is not a virtue because it
is both the purpose that determines the cultivation of virtues and the
final destination of virtues. But it may also be considered as a virtue or
disposition that could be developed. Happiness is not only an end but
also a means for so many ends. It could also be an activity that
becomes a habit, a virtue. Thus, virtuous people ought to act happily
and habitualize happiness.
Happiness is not something out there, in the end, to be fulfilled.
It is something that should be made here and how. It is to be done to
make everything else really happy.
It has to be practiced and mastered
in oneself in every given situation
so that all happy acts sum up to
become one’s character. With such
character, one is ultimately called
“Mr. Happy” or “Ms. Happiness.”
Happiness as a virtue sets external frustrations into the right
perspective — the practice of the idea of happiness into concrete daily
life experiences. Life can be very negative but the virtue of happiness
can bring optimism and possibilities to life.
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Happiness refers to the life of the person as a whole. It is an
excellent disposition that leads to itself, well-being. It is handling
excellently one’s happiness especially in the most difficult situations to
achieve ultimate happiness. Even if many philosophers have declared
that the human person is fundamentally alone or lonely and
surrounded by sufferings, pains, anxieties, and misfortunes, one can
still choose and master happiness to control a reality of lonely world
and life. Happiness does not suppress but balances loneliness.
Happiness does not have deficiency or excess. It is perfect or
good in itself even if it may have levels. It may be a state of mind but
it can be known, understood, and practiced. It could be found in
human interactions with fellow humans, animals, plants, and the world.
Some people are happy while others are
Aristotelian happier and happiest. This does not mean that
Principle the happiest do not have problems while the
What is good or happy have more problems than the happier.
right is anything Happiness is the long-term and total well-
that brings being — virtue. It is a lifetime independent
human process of mastering happiness so it becomes
flourishing. sustainable and final. Aristotle’s table of
virtues is shown on the next page. Make some
translations of those in your language at the table below.
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TABLE OF VIRTUES AND VICES
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Thomas Aquinas / Tomas de Aquino (1225–1274)

 Greatly influenced by Aristotle
 “Universal Doctor of the Church”
 Birth: 1225, Roccasecca, Italy
 Death: March 7, 1274, Fossanova Abbey, Italy
 Studied at Benedictine house in Naples
 His parents were Landulf (count of Aquino),
nephew of the Emperor Frederick Barbarossa
and Theodora Rossi (countess of Teano),
a descendent from the Norman barons. www.stitcher.com
He is an Italian Catholic priest, philosopher, and theologian who was known as the
“Angelic Doctor.” He was hailed as the father of the Thomistic school of theology
and defender of the Catholic faith because of his two books: Summa Theologica
and Summa Contra Gentiles. He was the most influential Western medieval legal
scholar and theologian that developed several concepts in modern philosophy.
Natural Law and Its Tenets

Natural Law Theory (Aquinas, n.d.) is the simplest ethical
framework that recognizes the deep connection between nature and
morality. All things in nature or the world have their purposes, which
are part of an all-encompassing law, the natural law. Natural Law is
morality built into the nature of people, which is rationality. Thus,
anything that is natural-rational is basically moral and vice versa.
With great influence from Aristotle, the father of Natural Law,
Thomas Aquinas is said to have Christianized Aristotelian philosophy.
Aquinas needed first to establish that humans were created by God
and are meant to achieve their ultimate happiness in heaven or in God.
He added that the natural law comes from and ends in God. Anything
that goes against it is considered unnatural and thus, immoral.
Aquinas believed in a God (efficient cause) who created the
natural world as a reflection of his will. People’s human nature was a
special reflection of His image (rationality) in order that people may
reach their purpose — perfection (final cause) or growth in relationship
with God or supreme good, and discover his plan and purpose or
nature.
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Aquinas’ natural law theory has the following tenets:
B • Eternal law of God is revealed through the Natural Law.

A • Natural law is revealed to all people through human reason.
S • Natural law has flexibility in its application.
I
• The natural laws are universal and unchangeable bases to
C
judge individual cultures and societies.
T • Everything in the world has its own nature or purpose
E (natural law) of being.
N • Humanity has an essential rational nature.
E
T
• A human person can know, through reason, what is in
S accord with his own nature, which is good.
Aquinas defined law as a dictate of reason, which is primarily

from the ruler to insure order and proper functioning of everything in
a community. For the same reason, one discovers different laws:
eternal, natural, human, and divine.
The Eternal Law is the ideal order of the universe that subsists
in the mind of God. It could be known by reason as it discovers the
Natural Law. Everything in the universe then is just a reflection of the
Eternal Law that exists in God’s mind. This justifies why human life has
infinite value. Human life is a precious gift from God. Nothing in the
world can outweigh it because it is part of God’s Eternal Law.
Life Principle Human life is inviolable.
Natural Law as a participation in the Eternal Law is revealed in

nature, especially human nature. It also reveals Moral Law as inherent
in humans so that they naturally do good and avoid evil.
Action Principle Do good and avoid evil.
Natural Law is the nature of human persons to survive,

reproduce, socialize, and know the truth and God. These are true to all
regardless of race, age, gender, status, and culture. These enable
people to do good and choose those that please their God.
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Survival Principle Self-preservation is basic to all beings.
All beings preserve naturally themselves by all means. Every

being normally takes care of its own life, and transmits it to the next
generation. Thus, to commit suicide is unnatural and immoral.
Propagation All species propagate for self-

Principle preservation.
All living species including humans are naturally sexual. This

enables them to propagate their own species and preserve life. By
rearing and caring for their own offspring.
Morality There is a built-in natural law that governs the

Principle morality of human thinking and behavior.
Human Law or Positive Law (including civil and criminal laws)

that comes from Moral Law provides precise guidance and rules of
behavior. Human laws support the Natural Law so that if they do not,
they are unjust and could be disobeyed. This is an indispensable law
to maintain peace and order because it promotes harmony and unity
despite diversity.
Social Humans as social beings live in peace and

Principle harmony with others.
Divine Law refers to the special revelation of God’s will in the

Scriptures of the Old and New Testaments. It focuses on how people
should become holy and attain salvation not only here and now but
until the absolute end. Jesus is said to be the truth and the light that
whosoever comes to him will have everlasting life.
Truth Humans use their will and reason in seeking the

Principle truth which is found in God.
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Happiness as Constitutive of Cardinal Virtues
Following Aristotle, Aquinas held that human persons have a
rational appetite or will that guides all acts to achieve their ends or
goods. All these ends or goods, which are not power, glory, fame,
wealth, honor, and pleasure ultimately lead to happiness. Happiness is
not found in the material world and created things but in God who is
the source of everything that is good or perfect.
Happiness in God should be contemplated upon by the human
person so that he may counter his desires and control unhappiness.
The intellect should seek the essence of things. It should not just seek
God’s existence but also His very essence or meaning.
The ultimate happiness in God is a moral principle that dictates
every behavior. The closer the behavior is to happiness or God, the
better it is; so, the farther it is to happiness, the worse it is. Having
Happiness and God is only possible in the afterlife. Nothing in this
world can really and fully make humans happy. This drives them, even
more, to work harder to finally reach that happiness in God.
Contemplation of God’s essence or goodness can help people
focus their behaviors on Him and the eternal happiness as the final
reward for good behaviors. Aquinas, like Aristotle, believed that
through moral virtues, humans will achieve happiness closest to God
or most heavenly happiness. Happiness is and will be through the
moral virtues because there is no happiness without virtue and no
virtue without self-struggle. Nevertheless, other thinkers hold that
perfect happiness and God are not out there in the Heavens or some
kind of eternal place. Happiness and God can be experienced in this
chaotic world and life even in human sufferings and miseries.
For Aquinas, there are basic virtues that need to be developed
first as the foundation of other moral virtues. Perfection of virtues leads
to the strength of ones’ character. These are the four cardinal virtues
(Latin: cardo - hinge or source) — (1) Prudence (controls the intellect
in making choices); (2) Courage (controls emotions in facing danger);
(3) Justice (controls the will in relating with others); (4) Temperance
(controls desires and passions).
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Prudence Principle Prudence is the “right reason in action.”
Prudence or practical wisdom as the “mother or measure of all

the virtues and emotional health” is the ability to cautiously choose
appropriate actions that best corresponds to the circumstances of a
given situation. It is being circumspect or able to account for all
relevant circumstances. It is the proper disposition that controls,
rectifies and directs emotions and desires. It knows necessary
information to do the right and good actions. It is also called the
“mother of beautiful character” and the secret to becoming beautiful.
Being prudent includes understanding the first principles or
(natural) goods in life such as truth, life, religion, and family. It also
means having practical memory, that is, the ability to recall and learn
from facts, experiences, and mistakes. Furthermore, prudence is open-
mindedness that recognizes and accepts limitations. It also entails
smartness in assessing the situation, getting clues, adjusting
appropriately, or being subtle, discreet, and highly intuitive.
Prudence essentially applies the principle of proportionality.
It is doing the right action for the right

Proportionality reason and result, at the right situation,
Principle time and place, and with the right weight
and right person or virtue.
Proportionality is the process of understanding and assessing the

nature and effects of possible action in order to choose the most
appropriate action, control its application, effects and situation, and be
responsible with the persons involved. In Roman Catholic moral
theology, proportionality is the reasonable balance between human
activity and consequences. It is the proportionate reason to tolerate
evil or an attack. Proportionate virtue is doing as much good as
possible and as little harm or bad as necessary while paying attention
to all the values and disvalues involved. Honesty must be executed
proportionately such as when a soldier is being interrogated by the
enemies. To spare the lives of his comrades, he may tell lies.
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Courage Principle Courage is “perseverance in adversity.”
Moral Courage is being cautious but certain in front of danger

and risk. It is the strength and endurance to control emotions and to
bear suffering, fear, uncertainty, anxiety, and pressure. It is humbly
swallowing pride and using failures or limitations as advantages. Moral
dilemmas and choices can be very detrimental. Situations can be
dangerous. But moral courage enables one to survive, resist
temptations and vices, and constantly pursue what is right and good
at all cost — martyrdom, or giving up ones’ precious life.
Moral courage is supported by good reasons or moral
principles such as integrity, honesty, common good, and justice which
may be greater than life in some situations. People sometimes ought
to die for principles to be happy so that courage is greatly necessary.
Moral courage is not recklessness, fearlessness, passion, excessive
anger, and suppressed fear. It is not even valor or heroism which may
involve official declaration, award, social affirmation, and
immortalization through monuments, shrines, laws, and medals. It is
greater than all of these. It is a spiritual and intellectual virtue that
priorities principles and ideals are more than anything else.
Justice Justice is giving what fairly belongs

Principle to others and to God.
Justice is fairness that consists in giving to God and neighbor

what is due to each of them. It is giving them what rightly belongs to
them as part of a good and just society and being a social being. This
disposition enables people to respect others and their rights so that
they can live harmoniously, peacefully, and prosperously.
Being just is being constantly conscious of ones’ behavior as it
may affect others. It is important to carefully evaluate every situation
so that behavior and decisions may be proper to others also. One does
not live alone so that whatever one does will always have a direct and
indirect effect on others and worshipping God.
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Temperance Temperance is the practice of self-control,

Principle abstention and moderation.
Temperance is self-restraint, self-control, self-regulation, and

moderation towards attraction to pleasures and created goods. It is the
disposition of reason to balance and control desires, passions, or
appetites. Every self-restraint or self-regulation ultimately leads to a
sound reason. Passions can be very destructive if they are not
tempered as they may cloud and bring disorder to reason. The
recurring problems on intemperance in the use of drugs, sex, money,
environmental destructions are only proofs that the absence of
temperance can destroy the persons, families, societies, and the whole
world. For others, temperance is “moderation in all things.”
Temperance is best practiced by many people through
abstinence in food and drink, sexual pleasures. Others are also good at
having proper diet and exercise, being thrifty. Highly well-tempered
people are chaste, charitable, diligent, patient, kind, and humble.
Self-control reflects not only a strong character but also a
happy life. This reveals that what brings real happiness are not sensual
or material things but ideas or principles such as self-discipline,
moderation, contentment. Happiness in the physical, which is often
called pleasure is low level. Whereas, happiness in the mental or
spiritual is high level.
Self-indulgence and sensuality are forms of intemperance that
may drive people towards enslaving and additive sins or vices such as
gluttony, greed, sloth, lust, drunkenness, wrath, mediocrity, envy, pride,
maltreatment, bullying, drug addiction, lying, and stealing.
Nevertheless, all these four cardinal virtues for Aquinas will fail
and could not reach the highest happiness without the theological
virtues of faith, hope, and love. These heavenly virtues will relate
human persons to God and each other because they provide true
knowledge and desire for Him and His will.
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Faith disposes people to recognize, believe and trust in God.
Hope disposes people to always long or wish for Him and to be always
with Him because he is the only true happiness. Love finally disposes
people to desire Him, to serve Him, and to worship Him. These
Christian virtues truly reflect the virtues of Jesus which could be hard
to comprehend. To exercise these virtues, people should contemplate
on God’s will rather than on people’s will and human reason.
Opposites of these virtues are called sins. The sins: against faith
are unbelief, skepticism, agnosticism, apostasy, and heresy; against
hope are despair, depression, hopelessness, and melancholy; and
against love are envy, bitterness, greed, hate, animosity, sedition, and
treason.
Thomistic What is good or right is anything done out of

Principle virtue because it brings happiness with God.
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ACTIVITIES
NAME: _____________________________________ Date: _____________________
Course/Year: ________________________ Schedule: _____________________
PART III1.ab: ARISTOTLE AND ACQUINAS
a. Class Discussion on Aristotle and Virtues or Thomas Aquinas and

the Natural Law. Write important insights.
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b. Student Activity: Students will interview parents and church leaders

about positions on contentious social issues, e.g., gay marriage,
divorce, etc. Write their positions with their impact to the society.
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c. Group by fives. Choose one and discuss within the group.
Aristotle’s Own Words
1. Hope is a waking dream.
2. Patience is bitter, but its fruit is sweet.
3. Knowing yourself is the beginning of all wisdom.
4. Happiness is the settling of the soul into its most appropriate spot.
5. Educating the mind without educating the heart is no education at all.
6. For the things we have to learn before we can do, we learn by doing.
7. He who has overcome his fears will truly be free.
8. Education is the best provision for old age.
9. Poverty is the parent of revolution and crime.
10. The educated differ from the uneducated as much as the living differ from the dead.
11. To be conscious that we are perceiving or thinking is to be conscious of our own existence.
12. I count him braver who overcomes his desires than him who conquers his enemies, for the
hardest victory is over self.
13. Excellence is never an accident. It is always the result of high intention, sincere effort, and
intelligent execution; it represents the wise choice of many alternatives.
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STATE 1 PRINCIPLE. EXPLAIN, AND ELABORATE THRU APPLICATION.
Principle Explanation Application
(In a sentence) (Its significance to you) (In your situation or life)
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>>>>>>>> A S S E S S M E N T <<<<<<<<
NAME: _____________________________________ Date: _____________________
PART III1.ab.1: ARISTOTELIAN AND TOMISTIC PERSPECTIVES

a. Group Discussion. Use the Aristotelian (mean between two
extremes) and Thomistic perspectives on gay marriage. Write the
power points of your discussion.
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b. Individual work: Discuss virtue ethics and its relevance to you.
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ESSAY RUBRICS: 10 PTS
CRITERIA EXCELLENT (2) GOOD (1.5) FAIR (1) SCORE
All statements are focused on Most statements are focused on Few statements are focused
FOCUS the topic. the topic. on the topic.
COHERENCE All arguments are coherent. Most arguments are coherent. Few arguments are coherent.
ACCURACY All information are correct. Most information are correct. Few information are correct.
CLARITY All arguments are very clear. Some arguments are clear. Few argument are clear.
The presentation is very The presentation is persuasive. The presentation is slightly
PERSUASION persuasive. persuasive.
T O T A L
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NAME: _____________________________________ Date: _____________________
PART III1.ab.2: VIRTUE ETHICS AND NATURAL LAW

a. Research and enumerate at least 5 critiques on virtue ethics and
natural law.
VIRTUE ETHICS NATURAL LAW
CRITIQUE TABLE RUBRICS: 10 PTS

CRITERIA EXCELLENT (2.5) GOOD (2) FAIR (1.5) SCORE
All critiques are correct and The critiques are correct but The critiques are incorrect and
COMPLETENESS complete. incomplete. incomplete.
The presentation is very well- The presentation is well- The presentation is slightly
PRESENTATION organized. organized. organized.
T O T A L
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NAME: _____________________________________ Date: _____________________
PART III1.ab.3: VIRTUE ETHICS

a. Individual Activity: Use the model to solve a moral dilemma
on virtues
7-Step Model of Ethical Decision

0. MORAL DILEMMA STORY
1. GATHER THE FACTS
2. DETERMINE THE ETHICAL ISSUES
3. WHAT VIRTUES HAVE A BEARING ON THE CASE?
4. LIST THE ALTERNATIVES
5. COMPARE THE ALTERNATIVES WITH THE VIRTUES
6. WEIGH THE CONSEQUENCES
7. MAKE A DECISION
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APPLICATION RUBRICS: 10 PTS
All steps are correct and The steps are correct but The steps are incorrect and
The application is very well- The presentation is well- The presentation is slightly
APPLICATION organized. organized. organized.
T O T A L
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KANT AND RIGHTS

THEORISTS
2.ab
KANT
AND
KINDS OF RIGHTS
LEARNING OUTCOMES
a. Understand and articulate the rights theory
b. Differentiate a legal from a moral right
c. Critique Kantian ethics
d. Make use of the rights theory
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LECTURE CONTENTS
Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)
 Greatly influenced by David Hume

 Known for his “categorical imperative” and
inspiration for the German Idealism
 Birth: April 22, 1724, Kaliningrad, Russia
 Death: February 12, 1804, Kaliningrad, Russia
 Studied theology at University of Konigsberg
 His parents were Anna Regina Reuter and
Johann Georg Cant, a harness maker.
www.aforisticamente.com
He is a German Lutheran theologian and philosopher known as the most influential
in the Age of Enlightenment and Western philosophy. He has three famous books:
Critique of Pure Reason, Critique of Practical Reason, and Critique of the Power of
Judgment. He is a renowned student, writer and professor in mathematics, physics,
and metaphysics at the University of Königsberg.
Kant lived during the European cultural revolutions of

enlightenment or renaissance in the 18th century. He followed his
predecessors, Voltaire and David Hume in trying to replace religious
traditions, superstitions, and monarchy with rationalism through his
three Critiques on reason. Rationalism aims at providing answers to
metaphysical and other questions through the powers of reason alone.
These influenced German idealism and analytic philosophy.
Kantianism or Kantian Ethics is a deontological theory that
emphasizes morality based on duty, reason, moral principle, moral
obligation, and motive or intention. It rejects consequences as the
basis of morality. The Kantian Ethical Framework is considered as a
Moral Universalism, Moral Absolutism or Moral Formalism.
"Humans are motivated by the duty to act morally

Duty
or rationally instead of emotionally or without
Principle
reason."
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Kant argued that duty or moral obligation is the very nature of
pure human reason. This means that as rational agents, people can
grasp moral principles and apply them without the aid of experiences
and consideration of consequences. So, doing their duty is doing an
action simply because their reason recognizes it as the moral or right
thing to do.
Good "Nothing can possibly be conceived in the world, or

Will even out of it, which can be called good without
Principle qualification, except a good will."
Good Will
Kant held that fundamentally, there is only one thing that is
good in and of itself — the Good Will. It is the overarching principle
of all morality. Good will is the very nature of the person’s free will.
Free will as the ability of pure reason is an absolute command of reason
without qualifications. Thus, good will can freely choose its moral duty
dictated by reason alone.
Good will is absolutely “good” by being an end in itself or as a
means to only one end, which is “good”. It is then "bad" if the will is a
means to other ends, or other than itself. Human reason produces a
will that is universally good in itself and completely good.
As a universalist, reason has only one end or “good,” which
could be found in the will, reason, and person. The “good” is found in
all activities or instances and not only in some instances. Thus, there
should be no disparity between intention and act. Intention and action
should be one or good and they justify the end.
As an absolutist, the reason allows no exceptions or
qualifications other than the “good.” The reason is objectively good in
itself regardless if no one that approves of it. An act should absolutely
and truly proceed, reflect, and represent the intention. There are two
tests: “categorical imperative” and “persons as ends in themselves.”
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Categorical "Act only according to that maxim whereby you

Imperative can, at the same time, will that it should become
Principle a universal law."
Categorical Imperative: First Test

Kant’s “good will,” which is universally and totally good can be
considered also as the same “categorical imperative.” It is the
consistency of intention and the act.
This principle is the first test if morality comes from pure
intention and objective judgment supported by rationality alone. What
is right is right and what is wrong is wrong. This is a maxim or formal
command to be categorically or unconditionally followed to be moral.
In making the right action, it could become a universal law that will be
accepted and followed by all.
The categorical imperative is also called a principle of
objectivity because as a moral test it assesses the universalizability of
moral actions. To be able to discern whether an action is right or good
one must be able to imagine that it can be adapted or accepted as a
rule by everyone around the world. But if it is acceptable or adaptable
only by some people in the world, then it is wrong or bad.
The categorical imperative could be demonstrated by asking
some questions like: If you do that, do you think everybody will like it?
Could that action be possibly made as everybody’s standard? Is that
act universalizable?
The categorical imperative is neither feeling nor inclination.
Feelings are what push persons to choose particular option or decision.
They tend to favor. However, a categorical imperative or duty is doing
what persons ought to do despite opposing feelings.
For Kant, telling a lie can never be good. It can never be rational
and universalizable, despite very strong reasons or good intentions. It
may also bring good consequences but it remains wrong. It does not
change the fact that lying is not an impartial standard. Lying is
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destructive. If all people lie, then nobody believes that some are telling
the truth. Nobody can be trusted; no society will possibly exist.
Kant gives a moral dilemma to apply his categorical imperative
which could be possibly understood better by watching Kant's Axe
narrated by Harry Shearer on Youtube. The scenario is:
While you and your friend are inside the house, a sinister-
looking (the looks make you feel that something bad or
evil might happen) man carrying an axe knocks on your
door. He asks where your best friend is. What do you do?
Kant’s answer to this by applying his principles could be
very shocking and unusual: “Do not lie because it is the right thing
to do even it may bring bad consequences.”
Person as “Act so that you treat people never as a mere

End means to an end, but always as an end in
Principle themselves."
Person as Ends in Themselves: Second Test

Good will, which is identified as the rational person is said to
be “good” precisely because he is an end himself or a means to only
one end. This holds that persons are means to their own goodness.
Only persons are rational thus, can be moral. Persons are moral agents
who are responsible for their own actions.
This “person as ends in themselves” principle is a second test
that could be considered as similar to the golden rule: “Treat others as
you would like them to treat you” or “Do to others what you want
others do unto you.”
But to consider persons only as means to achieving other
personal goals rather than being good is wrong. Rationality is
fundamentally objective or does not promote personal interest and
has only one ultimate goal — to be moral.
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To be moral is the function of practical reason to allow humans
“to apply general principles to particular instances of action.” Humans
should engage in moral reasoning as a way of determining one's moral
duty. They should discover through reason alone “what is the “right”
action to do.” They should apply moral principles such as the
“categorical imperative,” “good will” and “persons as an end in
themselves” as the very source of actions.
End Lawmaker “Act as if you were, through your maxims, a

Principle lawmaker of a kingdom of ends.”
Kant thinks that persons as ends are autonomous. Autonomous

persons are can exercise free and good will by legislating the moral law
for everyone. Every rational being can regard himself as a maker of
universal law not because of an external moral authority but under the
authority of his own reason alone. Being autonomous demands
respect for “ends” or persons have basic moral rights.
Applying 7-Step Model Kant’s Ethical Decision
1. GATHER THE FACTS.
 Your friend is inside the house.
 A sinister-looking (the looks make you feel that something bad or
evil might happen) man carrying an axe knocks on your door.
 He asks where your best friend is.
2. DETERMINE THE ETHICAL ISSUES.

Telling a lie (saving a life and preserve friendship) VERSUS telling
the truth (categorical imperative)
In such a situation, if you tell the axe man that your friend is in the
house the axe man may kill your friend. But even if you tell a lie to save
your friend there is a possibility that the axe man finds your friend
inside or outside the house and kills him.
3. WHAT PRINCIPLES HAVE A BEARING ON THE CASE?

 Categorical Imperative. This holds that an action is good or right
if it can be universalized. Telling the truth is a universal duty. This
recognizes and promotes that persons should be respected because
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they are persons and it is a duty to treat others as “ends.” Besides, it
is what comes from good will or pure reason.
 Sanctity of life. This is a moral principle or highest value that must
be protected and preserved.
 Friendship. This moral principle is centered on affection, love,
compassion, and trust. One should do everything to prove it.
4. LIST THE ALTERNATIVES.

Alternative 1: Attempt to convince the axe man that your friend is
not in the house.
Alternative 2: Call for help from the neighbors to get rid of the axe
man.
Alternative 3: Call for the police officers to report that a sinister-
looking axe man is looking for your friend.
Alternative 4: Inform your friend about the axe man and let him
decide if he allows you to reveal his location.
Alternative 5: Tell the truth that your friend is inside the house.
Alternative 6: Tell a lie that your friend is not in the house.
5. COMPARE THE ALTERNATIVES WITH THE PRINCIPLES.

a. Attempt to convince the axe man that your friend is not in the
house.
But if the above is unsuccessful you can either call for help
from either the neighbors or police officers.
b. Call for help from the neighbors or the police officers.
But if the above is unsuccessful, inform your friend about the
axe man and let him decide if he allows you to reveal his
location.
c. Tell a lie that your friend is inside the house.
But even if the above option is possible, the axe man can still
intrude. As your friend sneaks out at the back door, he can still
be caught and be killed. It would be better, to tell the truth.
For whatever the consequences be, you will not be responsible.
d. Tell the truth that your friend is inside the house.
This is the best option because it follows the categorical
imperative.
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6. WEIGH THE CONSEQUENCES. (This is NOT APPLICABLE because
consequences do not matter at all. Even if there are good,
better and best consequences, the basis should still and always
be the good will or intention.)
7. MAKE A DECISION.
We have to think through Kant’s principles of “good will,”

“categorical imperative,” and “persons as ends in
themselves.” How far should we tell the truth?
If you tell the truth as a categorical imperative, then it must be

your absolute duty to tell him that he is hiding inside. To tell the
truth, is universally good regardless of bad consequences. Telling
the truth may cause the death of your friend but you are not
responsible for it. But if you tell a lie, which by chance will lead
the axe man to find and kill your friend, then you are responsible.
Even if your friend sneaks out at the back door and is killed, your
lying itself even to a murderer makes you still responsible.
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Rights Theorists
Natural Rights Theorists. Greeks like Aristotle had long believed

that rights are natural rights that are inherited from nature
and reason, like the rights to life, freedom, property, and
pursuit of happiness. Many modern thinkers like Hugo
Grotius (1583-1645), Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679), Samuel
von Pufendorf (1632-1694), and John Locke (1632-1704)
were natural theorists.
Instrumental Rights Theorists. Consequentialists and
Utilitarianists like Jeremy Bentham, John Stuart Mill, and
Henry Sidgwick (1907) describe rights as parts of rules
instrumental in achieving an optimal distribution of
advantages or greatest utility (happiness) for the greatest
number of people. Pure egalitarian theorists also contend
that rights lead to the achievement of a more equal
distribution of advantages. Whereas, the prioritarian
theorists go beyond by giving extra weight to the interests
of the less privileged.
Contractual Rights Theorists. These thinkers hold that rights are
stipulations guaranteed by a certain valid contract between
peoples. They also uphold rights in business contracts.
Hobbes, Jean-Jacques Rouseau (1712-1778), and Locke
consider rights in social contracts between the government
and its citizens as the rights surrendered to the authority in
exchange for protection of their remaining rights including
their right to social order.
Immanuel Kant (1724-1804), [Kantian and Deontology] holds that
human persons have rights that are autonomous and
universal, and treats persons as ends. The only innate right
is “freedom, insofar as it can coexist with other’s freedom
in accordance with a universal law.” The foundation of
Kant’s human dignity and human rights is duty or reason.
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Rights Theories or Rights Based Ethics
Rights theories are ethical/moral frameworks that consider
rights as moral standards of the rightness or wrongness of behaviors.
Rights are moral rights either prohibiting behaviors that cannot be
done against or allowing behaviors that can be done to individuals.
Ordinarily, rights theories are considered deontological
theories because the rights themselves are duties (reasons) that
everyone ought to obey regardless of any circumstance or
consequence. Natural and human rights are considered deontological.
Deontological such as the natural and human rights claims that
all human persons ought to be respected because of their being
human and natural. It is an absolute duty of all persons to respect these
rights and avoid their violation.
There are also consequentialist theories of rights of which
instrumental, utilitarian, benefit, interest, and contractual theories are
some examples. These theories uphold that rights should be respected
and their violations should be minimized to bring the best
consequences, usefulness, benefit and interest to the majority.
A right defends an interest. To follow and defend a right then
is good. But to violate it is bad. Rights are considered also as
entitlements or justified claims to certain kinds of positive and negative
treatments and non-interference from others.
Rights can be the social conditions of life that can help
individuals realize their best. They help develop personalities that may
contribute best services to others and society. No society is entitled to
disrespect or compulsorily remove these rights because they are
natural or assigned as pillars of society.
When applied to moral behaviors, rights theories state that for
actions to be good or right, the intention of doing ought to be right
and are duties in themselves that promote human rights. It is not the
outcome of actions that make them morally justified but the very moral
principles or reasoning behind them.
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The United States of America's Bill of Rights and the United
Nation’s Universal Declaration of Human Rights epitomizes the kinds
of rights, which the rights theory adheres and promotes. Rights could
either be moral or legal.
Kinds of Rights: Moral and Legal
Moral rights are claims that must have a moral basis, that is, an
ethical framework or moral theory such as the rights theory or natural
law theory. They are rights that are accorded under some system of
ethics. These are grounded or inherently part of being human and are
the same rights that all people have. There are characteristics of moral
rights.
Moral rights are universal and eternal. These are to be
respected in all humans irrespective of their race, age, status, religion,
and generation. Examples are the rights to life and freedom which
should be respected anywhere around the world and at any time.
Moral rights are inalienable rights; thus, they are called "human
rights." They are accorded to human persons not for any other reason
but by just simply being humans.
Human rights entail the freedom to choose how one lives and
express oneself, what end one should aspire for, and many other
things. Human rights often assure one to freely choose his own means
to satisfy his basic needs and dreams.
Moral rights are also traditionally considered as rights ordained
by God to humans for them to discover their own source and ultimate
end, God himself.
Moral rights are natural laws that give undeniable or inherent
freedom and life. Freedom and life are natural and unchangeable
rights. These moral rights are moral principles or norms, which guide
human behaviors. Any other considerations far from being “moral”
“human,” “natural” and “reasonable” are all considered arbitrary,
prejudicial, morally irrelevant, and unequal.
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Another characteristic of moral rights is moral status, which is
having a kind of protective moral shield so that whosoever goes
beyond or takes advantage of them is a violation. Others are not free
to take, interfere, limit, and abuse them as they want. Any behavior that
compromises moral rights is called trespassing of moral status.
Trespassing of moral status only means that one may have to
exceed in their rights to the extent that they may violate others’ rights.
Though any response to trespassing must be within one’s rights. For
example, if a criminal attacks a person and the person sees it as a great
threat to his life, he has to use any means to preserve his life even if it
may harm or kill the criminal. Any exception to violate rights such as
the case of self-defense could never be the moral standard to violate
other’s rights. It should always be the last resort.
Section one under the Bill of Rights, Article III of the 1978
Philippine Constitution states: “No person shall be deprived of life,
liberty, or property without due process of law, nor shall any person be
denied the equal protection of the laws.”
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights has thirty articles:
1. Right to Equality
2. Freedom from Discrimination
3. Right to Life, Liberty, Personal Security
4. Freedom from Slavery
5. Freedom from Torture and Degrading Treatment
6. Right to Recognition as a Person before the Law
7. Right to Equality before the Law
8. Right to Remedy by Competent Tribunal
9. Freedom from Arbitrary Arrest and Exile
10. Right to Fair Public Hearing
11. Right to be Considered Innocent until Proven Guilty
12. Freedom from Interference with Privacy, Family, Home, and
Correspondence
13. Right to Free Movement in and out of the Country
14. Right to Asylum in other Countries from Persecution
15. Right to a Nationality and the Freedom to Change It
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16. Right to Marriage and Family
17. Right to Own Property
18. Freedom of Belief and Religion
19. Freedom of Opinion and Information
20. Right of Peaceful Assembly and Association
21. Right to Participate in Government and in Free Elections
22. Right to Social Security
23. Right to Desirable Work and to Join Trade Unions
24. Right to Rest and Leisure
25. Right to Adequate Living Standard
26. Right to Education
27. Right to Participate in the Cultural Life of Community
28. Right to a Social Order that Articulates this Document
29. Community Duties Essential to Free and Full Development
30. Freedom from State or Personal Interference in the above Rights
These moral rights concern human equality. No human being
can ever be denied these moral rights through any legal means or
other “good” reasons. Nevertheless, they may be formalized through
some contracts or legalization.
However, some people who do not believe in these moral
rights so that they can be violated. The utilitarianists like Bentham
considered moral rights as non-sense and only legal rights as what
makes sense.
Legal rights are claims that protect the interests of humans
both as individuals and as a group. They are “special” rights or
privileges granted by the government or a legal authority through a
certain contract of agreement.
Legal rights are also called conventional or political rights,
which are created by humans, authorities, conventions. They often
reflect society’s values and socio-economic and political aspirations of
the people. Some legal rights can be considered as compromises or
exceptions to some human or moral rights for the sake of other
reasons such as the common good.
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Legal rights are positive and negative rights that humans make
and can unmake. They are limited only to certain citizens of a particular
nation at a particular time. They do not exist on their own. Through
some laws that are created and enacted by legal authorities, the legal
rights become standards to be followed by every citizen.
Some legal rights can be removed at any time the people want
to because these rights are neither inherent nor absolute. They can
either be revised or changed depending on the intentions and
agreement of those who promulgated them. For example, Filipinos
have the legal right to vote at eighteen under the 1978 Philippine
Constitution but this may change the revision of the constitution.
Legal: Not Always Moral
Moral and legal rights cannot be separated. Some moral rights
are legalized even though not all legal rights are moral. There is an
overlap between moral and legal rights whereby legal laws are
essentially based on moral rights. Right to life is both legal and moral
so that laws on this such as its violation like murder are both illegal and
immoral. One may have a legal right to do bad but not a moral right
to do it. Some legal laws can be unjust, thus immoral.
In the past, having slaves was a legal right. Some legal rights
such as having a slave as property are violations of moral rights. In the
old America and many parts of the world, slaves were not accorded
with civil rights under their constitution because they were not citizens.
Moral rights may not be always written legally but they
naturally come out as duties of persons or reasons that something is
to be done for a particular situation. When victims are exposed, one is
determined to help or to give what is due to them.
With diverse cultures, what is legal may not necessarily be
moral. Laws and ethics are not the same. Laws often embody ethical
principles or codify ethical principles. They do not always prohibit acts
that are widely condemned as immoral and do sometimes prohibit
those that are perceived as ethical.
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The use of artificial contraceptives is supported by the R.A. No.
10354 or The Responsible Parenthood and Reproductive Health Act of
2012. Families can choose artificial methods in family planning. But
many Filipinos especially religious groups consider this law immoral
because it does not only violate the natural law but also promotes
premarital sex, self-indulgence, teenage pregnancy, and the
proliferation of pills, condoms, and pornography.
Correspondingly, some laws are immoral but not illegal. Some
examples are backbiting, gambling, smoking, and drinking alcohol,
disobeying your parents, harsh treatment of children and sex with
animals. Having no law that prohibits them is basically “legal” or
permissible (though unwritten as a law) to ordinary people.
Tan (2014) has discussed some unfair legal rights or laws
Revised Penal Code of the Philippines especially to women:
1. Articles 333 and 334 (Marital Infidelity laws) hold that a wife may
be found guilty of adultery if she has sexual relations with a man,
not her husband. In contrast, a husband would only be guilty of
concubinage by meeting certain specific conditions. The
punishment for adultery is heavier than concubinage.
2. Article 202 holds that prostitution is the act of women who

engage in sexual relations and lascivious acts for profit, and
outlines the appropriate punishment for such acts. According to
Philippine Commission on Women, the law implies that prostitutes
are “criminals who engage in the sex industry for monetary gain.”
It does not consider that most prostitutes are forced into the sex
trade by socio-economic factors such as poverty, making them
victims rather than perpetrators. The law only penalizes prostitutes
– not the customers or pimps.
3. Article 351 defines premature marriages, in which women are
barred from remarrying for 301 days or when pregnant following
legal separation, annulment, or being widowed. Although there
have been no convictions for premature marriage, the law is seen
as unfair to women as it enforces a period of mourning on them.
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4. ACTIVITIES
NAME: _____________________________________ Date: _____________________
PART III2.ab: KANTIANISM AND RIGHTS THEORY

a. Class Discussion on Kantian theory and its principles. Discuss
Kantian principles as a critique to virtue ethics and apply to moral
dilemmas.
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b. Student Activity: Analysis of a case using rights theory. Be able to

understand and articulate the rights theory by applying some
rights principles to moral dilemmas.
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>>>>>>>> A S S E S S M E N T <<<<<<<<
NAME: _____________________________________ Date: _____________________
PART III2.ab.1: RIGHTS VS VIRTUES

a. What is the difference between the rights and virtue theories?
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b. Analyze a case highlighting why the option taken by the agent may
be legal but not moral.
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Note: Use the essay rubrics in the previous assessment.
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c. Individual Activity: Use the 7-Step model to solve a moral dilemma
on Kantian principles. Use another sheet of paper.
1. GATHER THE FACTS
3. WHAT (KANT’S OR RIGHTS) PRINCIPLES HAVE A BEARING
ON THE CASE?
5. COMPARE THE ALTERNATIVES WITH THE KANTIAN AND
RIGHTS PRINCIPLES
7. MAKE A DECISION
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Note: Use the application rubrics in the previous assessment.
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NAME: _____________________________________ Date: _____________________
PART III2.ab.2: KANTIAN THEORY

a. Research and enumerate at least 5 critiques on Kantian ethics.
KANTIAN ETHICS

EXCELLENT GOOD FAIR
CRITERIA SCORE
(2.5) (2) (1.5)
T O T A L
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NAME: _____________________________________ Date: _____________________
PART III2.ab.3: KANTIAN ETHICS

b. Individual Activity: Use the model to solve a moral dilemma
choosing virtues
7-Step Model of Ethical Decision

8. GATHER THE FACTS
10. WHAT VIRTUES HAVE A BEARING ON THE CASE?
12. COMPARE THE ALTERNATIVES WITH THE VIRTUES
14. MAKE A DECISION
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APPLICATION RUBRICS: 10 PTS
All steps are correct and The steps are correct but The steps are incorrect and
The application is very well- The presentation is well- The presentation is slightly
APPLICATION organized. organized. organized.
T O T A L
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UTILITARINANISM
2.ab
ORIGIN AND NATURE

OF UTILITARIANISM,
AND BUSINESS’ FASCINATION
WITH UTILITARIANISM
LEARNING OUTCOMES
a. Articulate what utilitarianism is
b. Critique utilitarianism
c. Make use of utilitarianism
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LECTURE CONTENTS
Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832)
 Greatly influenced by John Locke and David Hume
 Known as the “Father of Utilitarianism”
 Birth: Feb. 15, 1724, Spitalfields, London, England
 Death: June 6, 1832, Westminster, London, England
 Studied Bachelor of Arts Degree at Queen’s College,
Oxford and law at Lincoln’s Inn
 His father Jeremiah Bentham was a successful
lawer in the Court of Chancery and his mother
Alicia Whitehorn née Grove was a pious woman www.critical-theory.com
He is an English philosopher, economist, theoretical jurist, reformer and

thinker. His most important work is “An Introduction to the Principles of Morals
and Legislation.”
Utilitarianism or Utilitarian Theory comes from the Latin word,

utilis, which means useful, beneficial, profitable, advantageous, and
serviceable. It is considered to be the most influential teleological or
consequentialist. It is claimed to have long originated from the Greek
Epicurus (341-271 B.C.) who thought that the end or purpose of all
actions is primarily to attain pleasure for oneself the limitation of
desires and removing the fear of death and gods.
In Utilitarianism, what is good or right is anything useful,
beneficial, advantageous, and serviceable in the consequences or ends
(telos). The end justifies the means including the intention. Intentions
and means are neither good nor bad. Utilitarianism opposes duty,
reason, virtue, God, emotion, self-interest, and love as the basis of
morality.
Jeremy Bentham (humanism.org.uk) is the founder of
Utilitarianism. He is greatly respected for having made prisons more
humane, campaigning for greater democracy and free education,
improving working conditions, employment, minimum wage, sickness
benefits and old-age insurance. His opposition to empires including
his country and slave trades are all proofs of his Utilitarian Eethics.
242
Bentham has defined the human person and his actions as
basically governed or motivated by pleasure and pain. This
fundamental role of pleasure and pain holds that everything
pleasurable is good and everything painful is evil or bad. Happiness is
pleasure that is desirable in the end. The human person and his actions
are guided by his utility principle.
Utility “The greatest good is that which produces the

Principle greatest pleasure for the greatest number.”
There are two types of Utilitarianism. In Act Utilitarianism, the

principle of utility is directly applied to every moral action. The right
act is the one that brings about the best end or the least amount of
wrong or bad end. Nicollo Machiavelli’s principle: “A prince may hurt
some individuals and would be justified in his actions if it were for the
benefit of the whole state,” is an exact Act Utilitarianism.
In Rule Utilitarianism, the principle of utility is applied to
validate any rule of conduct or moral principle. The right or good rule
is the one which brings about the best end or the least amount of
wrong or bad end. Legal laws that are enacted for the common good
are Rule Utilitarian. This is because the wrong or bad actions that the
government punishes are any violations of the law or rule.
Bentham suggested a hedonic calculus or utility calculus that
could be used to determine the moral status and circumstance of the
action. He called it the “felicific calculus” (from Latin: Felicitas or felix -
fruitful, blessed, happy): InDeCeReFePuEx.
Intensity How intense the pleasure will be?

Duration How long will it last?
Certainty How certain will it occur?
Remoteness How near it is?
Fecundity How much will it lead to similar kind of pleasure?
Purity How much free it is from pain?
Extent How many people will gain pleasure?
243
John Stuart Mill (1748-1873)

 Greatly influenced by his father James
and Jeremy Bentham
 Known as “most influential English-speaking
Philosopher” of the 19th century
 Birth: May 20, 1806, Pentonville, London
 Death: 1873, London, England
 Studied Greek at 3 years old and Latin at 8
 His father was James Mill, a Scottish
philosopher and Harriet Barrow, an economist www.picryl.com
He was a British philosopher, naturalist, liberalist, economist, and moral-political
theorist. His books and essays were centered Logic, Epistemology, Economics,
Social and Political Philosophy, Ethics, and Religion.
.
John Stuart Mill was a great follower of Bentham. He
attempted to correct the misconceptions about Utilitarianism. He
observed that Utilitarianism was misunderstood by construing utility
as mere pleasure and happiness as mere quantity.
Mill further developed Bentham’s utility principle which has
hedonistic or pleasure tendencies. The felicific calculus is not possible
because qualities cannot be quantified. He emphasized the quality of
happiness as the core of utilitarianism. He proposes an improved
version of utilitarianism with the happiness principle.
Happiness “The greatest good is greatest happiness for the

Principle greatest number of people.”
This promotes the capability of achieving quality happiness or higher

pleasures for the most amount of people. It is the sole basis of morality,
the very desire, and end of all. Everything is just a means to happiness
such as rights.
Mill believed that people become unhappy because of
selfishness and lack of mental cultivation. Education should help
nurture appropriate values that can make people selfless. Evils of the
world such as diseases and poverty can be eliminated if only people
work together.
244
Mill thought that virtuous people such as heroes and martyrs
do not deny themselves happiness. Rather, they sacrifice happiness for
the greatest end or the happiness for the greatest number of people.
Having an attitude of self-sacrifice is the best chance of gaining
happiness but not good in itself. It is good for promoting happiness.
Utilitarianism may be godless since happiness may not be the
will of God. But Mill thinks that if God desires the happiness of all His
people, then utilitarianism could be a better religion.
Business’ Fascination with Utilitarianism
There is an undeniable attraction of business with Utilitarianism
precisely because business is fundamentally result-oriented or profit-
oriented. Being result-oriented, business is very flexible when it comes
to exploring different means, short-term or long-term as long as they
gain good profit and satisfy especially the customers.
Business exists primarily for profit or financial interest that
brings success and happiness through the exchanges of goods and
services. Business commerce and trade have co-existed with humanity
since immemorial to provide basic human needs that lead to
happiness. Happiness can be in the form of high customer satisfaction,
(increased profits, outstanding reputation, workers’ highest
performance, and stakeholders’ full satisfaction.
The business has practically become both an institution and a
profession. Rule Utilitarianism has been the principle of business
institutions and professionals which manifest in their rules: “Customer
is always right;” “Profit is sweet, even if it comes from deception
(Sophocles); and, “Profit is a by-product of work; happiness is its chief
product” (Henry Ford).
Business institutions have grown into corporations, companies,
establishments, commercial enterprises, and firms that provide socio-
economic pleasures to particular groups of people. But as a profession,
business has become a provider of quality services that uphold values
and principles for the greatest happiness of the greatest number of
people.
245
Businesses have essentially been a consequence of an urgent
need or demand. They evolve to solve some social, political, and
economic problems. Commercial establishments have been built to
provide food, clothing, and shelter to everyone.
Utilitarian business decision-making prioritizes a result that
provides higher cash flow or income. But the income is just a symbol
of the happiness or satisfaction of all the owners and stakeholders. So
the greater return of investment or profit, the happier those who own
and run the business including its customers.
The business principle of cost-benefit would weigh the
advantages and disadvantages of any decision just as the utilitarian is
focused on benefits and pains. This is a very basic method in solving
business problems. All solutions should be beneficial to the
organization.
A business solution to problems is considered as the utility or
usefulness of every move or decision. Workers and their performance
are often measured by their usefulness. Besides, many businesses
consider hiring employees who have the potentials to work at their
best for the greater good of the business and the greatest happiness
of everyone in the business.
Some governments become followers of Act Utilitarianism if
they buy vaccines from business companies to combat diseases
despite the threats associated with the minor negative side effects of
the vaccines. The few possible victims of the side effects are sacrificed
for the sake of the majority who will greatly be saved by the vaccines.
Because of the recent environmental problems, businesses are
also continuously criticized because many of their excesses and waste
products became contributory to such problems. They have become
more proactive by strictly implementing corporate responsibility which
is utilitarian. They have to make sure that their business will become
effective in changing the world and make it a better place so that all
people can become truly happy.
246
ACTIVITIES
NAME: _____________________________________ Date: _____________________
PART III3.a: UTILITARIANISM
a. Student Activity: Case Analysis—Ford’s problem with Pinto. List

down the utilitarian principles that are violated or considered and
explain.
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
b. Class Discussion: Critique Utilitarianism using Virtue Ethics, Natural

Law, Kantianism, and Rights Ethics.
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
247
>>>>>>>> A S S E S S M E N T <<<<<<<<
NAME: _____________________________________ Date: _____________________
PART III3.a.1: UTILITARIAN THEORY

b. Research and enumerate at least 5 critiques on Utilitarian ethics.
UTILITARIAN ETHICS

T O T A L
248
NAME: _____________________________________ Date: _____________________
PART III3.a.2: UTILITARIAN THEORY

c. Enumerate at least 5 strengths and 5 weaknesses of Utilitarian
ethics. Give personal experience (examples) to support your claim.
UTILITARIAN ETHICS
CONTRAST TABLE RUBRICS: 10 PTS

All characteristics are correct The characteristics are correct The characteristics are incorrect
COMPLETENESS and complete. but incomplete. and incomplete.
The differences made are very The differences made are The differences made are
CONTRAST accurate. accurate. inaccurate.
The similarities are stated very The similarities are stated The similarities are not stated
CLARITY clearly. clearly. clearly.
T O T A L
249
NAME: _____________________________________ Date: _____________________
PART III3.a.3: APPLICATION OF UTILITARIAN ETHICS

a. Individual Case Analysis#1: Use the 7-Step model to solve a moral
case, “The Marcopper and the Boac River”
1. GATHER THE FACTS
3. WHAT (UTILITARIAN) PRINCIPLES HAVE A BEARING ON THE
CASE?
5. COMPARE THE ALTERNATIVES WITH THE UTILITARIAN
PRINCIPLES
7. MAKE A DECISION
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
250
JUSTICE AND FAIRNESS:

PROMOTING THE
COMMON GOOD
JUSTICE AS FAIRNESS THEORY

AND DISTRIBUTIVE JUSTICE
LEARNING OUTCOMES
a. Articulate what justice and fairness are
b. Critique justice and fairness
c. Make use of justice and fairness
251
LECTURE CONTENTS
John Bordley Rawls (1921-2002)

 Greatly influenced by Wittgenstein's student
Norman Malcolm
 Known for his defense of egalitarian liberalism
 Birth: Feb. 21, 1921, Baltimore, Md., U.S.
 Death: Nov. 24, 2002, Lexington, Mass.
 Studied at Princeton
 His father William Lee Rawls was a prominent
lawyer, and his mother was Anna Abell Stump,
a feminist and chapter president
of the League of Women Voters www.medium.com.com
He is a 20th century American political and ethical philosopher, who is best known
for his book A Theory of Justice (1971) that greatly influenced modern political
thought. He held a James Bryant Conant University Professorship at Harvard
University. He was a Harvard professor for thirty years. He also received the Schock
Prize for Logic and Philosophy.
John Rawls is a veteran of World War II. He served as an

infantryman in New Guinea with the Bronze Star award. In the
Philippines, he lost his Christian faith after witnessing horrific scenes of
war such as a soldier removing his helmet and taking a bullet to his
head. After the atomic blast in Hiroshima, he was disappointed,
disobeyed orders, left the military, and became an atheist.
Many thinkers attribute Rawls’ Philosophy and great passion
for justice as the results of his horrific life in the military. His idea of
morality is deeply rooted in Kant’s ethics that criticized Bentham and
Mill’s utilitarianism, and Intuitionism.
The utilitarian had argued that societies pursue the greatest
good for the greatest number but Rawls considered this as problematic
because of the tyranny of majorities over minorities, plurality, and
distinctness of individuals.
Rawls offered his idea of justice as fairness. His justice is the
first virtue of social institutions and internal divisions of society.
252
Justice and Fairness: Promoting the Common Good
Common good has been a moral and political concern of
societies from the ancient time until today. In the modern era,
utilitarian societies demand extreme sacrifices from individuals for the
common good. Their common good was of a higher purpose, which is
the narrowing of self-interest or sacrificing individual interests.
Rawls criticized slavery, which the utilitarian government
considered as beneficial to the society including the slave-owners. He
was more concerned about the suffering of the slaves which was
wrong. Following Kant, he claimed that slavery is bad or wrong
regardless of the happiness or utility it may bring to society or to any
group of people. Slavery does not respect fundamental human rights
and liberties. It is unjust, unfair, and unproductive.
Rawls argued that utilitarianism is objectionable. He developed
a non-utilitarian liberal theory that establishes principles of justice as
fairness in his book A Theory of Justice.
Nature of the Theory of Justice as Fairness
Rawl’s theory of “justice as fairness” enables individuals to
pursue their conceptions of what is good and not just the common
good being dictated upon by the government. In this theory, justice is
what is good and also called fairness. This helps society in ordering its
socio-political affairs especially in crafting laws that distribute fair and
equal access to opportunities for everyone especially the disabled and
minorities. This offers a fair, equal, and just criteria for the distribution
of goods; thus, called naturally distributive justice.
Kings and emperors usually own all goods but permit the
people to enjoy the goods in their name. If there is no central power
such as those with kingdoms and empires, distributive justice is and
will never be possible. It addresses the ownership of goods, equality of
opportunities, and fairness in the distribution of the goods in a society.
Traditionally, distributive justice is when equal work produces equal
outcomes or workers proportionately receive an amount of goods.
253
Rawls believed that without distributive justice, institutions
would not truly prosper in a society. Believing in John Locke and Jean
Jacques Rousseau, the ‘social contract’ is necessary between people
and their leader. Leaders in such contracts are expected to assure their
people of their natural rights. Rawls thought of this social contract as
a hypothetical or a ‘thought experiment,’ which he called the ‘original
position.’
Rawls deemed it necessary that this “thought experiment” or
“veil of ignorance” is a situation in which one imagines to know nothing
of oneself, of one’s natural abilities and very position in society. One is
symbolically covered by a veil that represents ignorance so that one is
ignorant of everything such as gender, race, preferences, religion,
nationality, abilities, ownerships, etcetera.
Being in a ‘veil of ignorance wherein everyone knew nothing at
all, Rawls held that rational beings naturally decide best. This original
position is the first situation of fairness and impartiality. Everyone
should then imagine a position of freedom and equality in which
everyone agrees and commit themselves to principles of justice.
Through this “veil of ignorance,” an imaginary assembly of
people gather to negotiate over a social contract. Under strict
conditions that allow rational persons to deliberate only with reason
and logic, the best principles of social justice are assessed and selected.
Some main concepts of justice on social and political philosophy, may
be considered as alternatives to choose which of those really advance
and establish their fundamental interests, and effectively make them
pursue their ultimate ends.
People should be self-interested rational persons who are well-
informed, enlightened, and motivated to select advantageous
principles. They should not be ignorant of the general situations in
which they can be, and general facts of human nature and psychology.
The value of impartiality will dictate their decision on what principles
be strictly implemented in their society. Rawls has two best principles:
equal liberty and difference.
254
Distributive Justice: Egalitarian, Capitalist and Socialist
Distributive can be in the form of egalitarianism, capitalism, and
socialism. Egalitarian distributive justice holds that an equal share of
benefits and burdens should be given to every member of the society.
There are no relevant differences such as status, ability, and need that
can justify any unfair distribution of goods.
Egalitarianism ensures that the allocation of income and wealth
are done equally because no one deserves to be poor, to be in lower
social status, and to have natural inabilities. Egalitarians were the ruling
elite and landowner aristocrats.
“Each person has an equal right to the most

Equal Liberty
extensive liberties compatible with similar
Principle
liberties for all.”
Rawls calls this egalitarian distributive justice as (1) equal liberty

principle. The equal liberty principle guarantees the equal basic
liberties and rights such as freedom of expression, assembly, property,
etc. needed to secure the fundamental interests of free and equal
citizens. Such liberties can help one pursue a wide range of
conceptions of the good.
Another form of distributive justice, which is a critique of
egalitarianism is capitalism. Capitalism holds that equality only applies
to political and civil rights but not to economic benefits. People can be
treated unequally depending on their contribution to society,
organization, etc. because that is determined by their privately owned
assets and business.
Capitalism is seen as a very essential element in efficiently
earning profits and incentives, cutting costs and solving problems, and
encouraging creative and innovative economy.
255
A capitalist economy that relies on free markets and private
ownership can be very detrimental to the poor or less privileged
members of the society. The capitalists and oligarchs can dictate the
prices, incomes, wealth, and distribution of goods that are favorable to
their interests. Capitalism can be very oppressive and inhumane.
Rawls is thus considered also capitalist. He makes benefits for
some with greater talents, wealth, training, power, etc. equal to their
contribution for the benefit of the disadvantaged persons.
Socialist distributive justice is also another option. This
asserts that people can be treated unequally like capitalism but such is
to be based on the people’s needs and abilities. Rawls calls this a
“property-owning democracy,” in which a broad distribution of wealth
across society is guaranteed by strong policies of wealth redistribution.
With a greater intervention of the government, resources are
re-allocated in a more egalitarian way. The main means of production
will be owned and operated by the government. But both government
and workers become co-owners of resources. Everyone is given equal
opportunities.
Rawl’s socialist principle is the 2) Difference Principle.
“Social and economic inequalities are to be

arranged so that they are both: to the greatest
Difference
benefit of the least advantaged; and attached to
Principle
offices and positions open to all under
conditions of fair equality of opportunity.”
This principle means that responsibilities or benefits and burdens are

to be distributed according to one’s abilities and needs. The "least
advantaged" are reasonable to be given special powers for they have
the greatest needs. While all people can still pursue their interests, they
have to fairly compete with each other for the powers and positions of
any office they aspire for.
256
The difference principle means that a government may
undertake financial projects that require some persons to give up some
power, income, status, etc. so that other’s life can be better off. Besides,
there should be no discrimination in education and employment
whereby everybody has an access to privileged positions.
Philippine taxation is a good example of the application of
Rawl’s justice as fairness with its two principles. Taxation is very
essential to every country’s revenue and expenses. It is a financial
system that collects money from people’s income and produces goods
or services also to earn income to use them for the public and the less
privileged members. This is getting from those who have more to give
something to those who have less. This may also provide incentives
for good behaviors.
National Internal Revenue Code provided laws governing
Philippine taxation, which had a substantial revision in the Tax Reform
Act of 1997 on January 1, 1998. Taxation is being managed by the
Bureau of Internal Revenue under the Department of Finance.
In taxation, the equal liberty principle ensures that all pay their
own income tax from their salary, passive, business, and professional
incomes. The collected taxes are spent for public facilities to be used
equally. Some of these projects are airports, seaports, railways, roads,
bridges, water utilities, flood control, sewerage, electrification, energy
sources, public markets, terminals, etcetera.
With the difference principle, the income tax imposed fairly on
every Filipino is according to the rates below:
Tax Rate (Php) Tax Rate
Php0 – 10,000 5%
Php10,000 – 30,000 10%
Php30,000 – 70,000 15%
Php70,000 – 140,000 20%
Php140,000 – 250,000 25%
Php250,000 – 500,000 30%
Php500,000 and above 32 32%
257
With the difference principle, the collected taxes are being
spent differently or unequally to the less privileged citizens. Some of
these expenses are students-teachers’ assistance, scholarship, medical
missions, immunization, PhilHealth insurance subsidy, free medicines,
sustainable livelihood, feeding, 4Ps, DSWD relief operations, welfare
services, assistance to farmers, financial and social services, NHA
housing, free textbooks, assistance programs, and relief operations.
258
ACTIVITIES
NAME: _____________________________________ Date: _____________________
PART III.4: ON TAXES
a. Student Activity: Discussion and debate—Social Housing-Who

should pay for the cost? Who should carry the burden of taxation?
Who should benefit from taxes? Write down the main points of the
debate and the resolutions.
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________

259
>>>>>>>> A S S E S S M E N T <<<<<<<<
NAME: _____________________________________ Date: _____________________
PART III.4.1: JUSTICE AS FAIRNESS
a. Articulate what justice as fairness is.

__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
b. Critique justice and fairness.

__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
c. Discuss Equality of Liberty and Difference Principles.

__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
Note: Use the essay rubrics in the previous assessment.
260
NAME: _____________________________________ Date: _____________________
PART III4.2: JUSTICE AS FAIRNESS THEORY

d. Enumerate at least 5 strengths and 5 weaknesses of Justice as
Fairness Ethics in your future profession. Give personal
observations to support your claim.
JUSTICE AS FAIRNESS ETHICS
5 Strengths 5 Weaknesses
CONTRAST TABLE RUBRICS: 10 PTS

All characteristics are correct The characteristics are correct The characteristics are incorrect
COMPLETENESS and complete. but incomplete. and incomplete.
The differences made are very The differences made are The differences made are
CONTRAST accurate. accurate. inaccurate.
The similarities are stated very The similarities are stated The similarities are not stated
CLARITY clearly. clearly. clearly.
T O T A L
261
NAME: _____________________________________ Date: _____________________
PART III.4.3: APPLICATION OF JUSTICE AS FAIRNESS

a. Individual Activity: Use the 7-Step model to solve a moral dilemma
on Justice as Fairness. Use another sheet of paper
1. GATHER THE FACTS
3. WHAT RAWLS PRINCIPLES HAVE A BEARING ON THE CASE?
5. COMPARE THE ALTERNATIVES WITH THE RAWL’S
PRINCIPLES
7. MAKE A DECISION
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
262
ENHANCEMENT
Jove Jim Sanchez Aguas (2020). Lectures in Ethics 5 Ethical Theories Part 1 to 4.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GCS9GPnnfgE&fbclid
=IwAR1oI8ZnKCGVmCuSDcpWHF7Un7TabE91Cd5DUxxtJjbvkxswgyH2F
PLZKk.
Daily Stoic. (2020). These Were The Habits Marcus Aurelius Practiced Every Day |
Ryan Holiday | Daily Stoic. https://www.youtube. com/watch?v
=qbGPrO7rh3s
Daily Rant Australia. (2018). Stoicism and Improving One's Willpower.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8A_Kb5AoQFU
CrashCourse. (2016). Aristotle & Virtue Theory: Crash Course Philosophy #38.
https://www.youtube.com/watch? v=PrvtOWEXDIQ
Hillsdale College. (2019). Intro to Aristotle's Ethics | Lecture 1: The Good.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9YaaBgDg57g
BBC Radio 4. (2014). Aristotle on ‘Flourishing.’ https://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=j_7deR0idvs
Philosophy Explained. (2018). Aristotle on Virtue. https://www.youtube.
com/watch?v=YmZqEsZfWyc
Philosophy and Ethics. (2015). 8 Natural Law Virtues. https://www.youtube.
com/watch?v=d_qBAGya2Dk
CrashCourse. (2016). Natural Law Theory: Crash Course Philosophy #34.
https://www. youtube.com/watch?v=r_UfYY7aWKo
PHILO-notes. (2020). What is Natural Law Ethics? | PHILO-notes Whiteboard
Edition. https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=HoID9FkZATI\
inkofknowledge. (2016). The 4 Virtues: Courage, Temperence, Wisdom and
Justice - Hamza Yusuf. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v
=odAPaJTj3AM
CrashCourse. (2016). Kant & Categorical Imperatives: Crash Course Philosophy
#35. https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=8bIys6JoEDw
PHILO-notes. (2020). What is Deontological Ethics? - PHILO-notes.
https://www.youtube. com/watch?v=v6FdxomCR3M
BBC Radio 4. (2014). Kant’s Axe. https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=
x_uUEaeqFog&t=28s
KnowledgEquity - Support for CPA. (2016). Rights theory. https://www.
youtube.com/watch?v= r6ZIMF1Ma5k
263
Rod Williams. (2017). Rights Based Moral Theory. https://www.youtube.
com/watch?v= aq9VuCZNJ78
CrashCourse (2016). Utilitarianism: Crash Course Philosophy #36. https://
www.youtube.com/ watch?v=-a739VjqdSI&t=22s
PHILO-notes. (2020). What is Utilitarianism? | PHILO-notes Whiteboard Edition.
https://www. youtube.com/watch?v=01Y1zVGv9h0.
Philosophy and Ethics. (2016). Act and Rule Utilitarianism. https://www.
youtube.com/ watch?v=GrZp12isYb4
PHILO-notes. (2020). John Rawls’ Theory of Justice - PHILO-notes. https://
www.youtube.com/ watch?v=EM5G-cXH_9M
Toby Handfield. (2014). The Difference Principle illustrated. https://www.
youtube.com/watch?v= jsD4qbqDNL4
PHILOSOPHICAL MOVIES FOR REFLECTION

PK (2014) Braveheart (1995) My Sister's Keeper (2009)
Guru (2007) Philadelphia (1993) Planet of the Apes (1968)
Juno (2007) Les Mesirables (2012) Taare Zameen Par (2007)
Border (1997) Ankhon Dekhi (2013) Like Stars on Earth (2007)
Aladdin (2019) General Luna (2015) Lawrence of Arabia (1962)
Dangal (2016) Searching (III) (2018) Nayak: The Real Hero (2001)
Lagaan (2001) Shutter Island (2010) American History X (1998)
Identity (2003) Minority report (2002) The Kids Are Alright (2010)
Amistad (1997) Hotel Rwanda (2004) All About My Mother (1999)
3 Idiots (2009) Forrest Gump (1994) A Clockwork Orange (1971)
Ghajini (2008) Responsibility (2005) Saving Private Ryan (1998)
Gattaca (1997) Tough Choices (1998) The Matrix Reloaded (2003)
Gandhi (1982) Pay It Forward (2001) Dead Poets Society (1989)
Lakshya (2004) Life is Beautiful (1997) You Don't Know Jack (2010)
Loving (2016) The Sea Inside (2004) Remember the Titans (2000)
Big Fish (2003) Life as a House (2001) Beauty and the Beast (2017)
Lifeboat (1944) Sophie's Choice (1982) Being John Malkovich (1999)
Inception (2010) The Kite Runner (2007) If these Wall could Talk (1996)
Life of Pi (2012) The Green Mile (1999) The Cider House Rules (1999)
Gladiator (2000) A Beautiful Mind (2001) All the President's Men (1976)
Prisoners (2013) Girl, Interrupted (1999) Whose Life Is It Anyway (1981)
Earthlings (2005) Hacksaw Ridge (2016) Manjhi: The Mountain Man (2015)
The Hours (2020) The Dark Knight (2008) The Adventures of Huck Finn (1993)
Waking Life (2001) 12 Years a Slave (2013) The Shawshank Redemption (1994)
Unthinkable (2010) My Name is Khan (2010) The Diving Bell And The Butterfly (2007)
Talk to Her (2003) The Sea Inside (I) (2004) The Boy In The Stripped Pajamas (2008)
Quiz Show (1994) Million Dollar Baby (2004) One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest (1975)
264

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ETHICS: FLOURISHING LIFE

FRAMEWORKS AND PRINCIPLES

FRAMEWORKS AND PRINCIPLES (12 hours)

This part addresses the following questions:

2. KANT AND RIGHTS THEORISTS

4. JUSTICE AND FAIRNESS:

Aristotle / Aristoteles (384-322 B.C.)

 Greek Philosopher and Scientist

Everything has an "entelechy"

However, the telos or end of a person is his rationality. This

Happiness “Happiness is the meaning and the purpose of

Happiness is achievable through the self-sufficiency of the

Practice Principle Practice breeds virtues and character.

A learned disposition or tendency enables one to assess a

Moderation Choosing the golden mean between extremes

Thomas Aquinas / Tomas de Aquino (1225–1274)

Natural Law and Its Tenets

B • Eternal law of God is revealed through the Natural Law.

Aquinas defined law as a dictate of reason, which is primarily

Life Principle Human life is inviolable.

Natural Law as a participation in the Eternal Law is revealed in

Action Principle Do good and avoid evil.

Natural Law is the nature of human persons to survive,

Survival Principle Self-preservation is basic to all beings.

All beings preserve naturally themselves by all means. Every

Propagation All species propagate for self-

All living species including humans are naturally sexual. This

Morality There is a built-in natural law that governs the

Human Law or Positive Law (including civil and criminal laws)

Social Humans as social beings live in peace and

Divine Law refers to the special revelation of God’s will in the

Truth Humans use their will and reason in seeking the

Prudence Principle Prudence is the “right reason in action.”

Prudence or practical wisdom as the “mother or measure of all

It is doing the right action for the right

Proportionality is the process of understanding and assessing the

Courage Principle Courage is “perseverance in adversity.”

Moral Courage is being cautious but certain in front of danger

Justice Justice is giving what fairly belongs

Justice is fairness that consists in giving to God and neighbor

Temperance Temperance is the practice of self-control,

Temperance is self-restraint, self-control, self-regulation, and

Thomistic What is good or right is anything done out of

PART III1.ab: ARISTOTLE AND ACQUINAS

a. Class Discussion on Aristotle and Virtues or Thomas Aquinas and

b. Student Activity: Students will interview parents and church leaders

PART III1.ab.1: ARISTOTELIAN AND TOMISTIC PERSPECTIVES

PART III1.ab.2: VIRTUE ETHICS AND NATURAL LAW

CRITIQUE TABLE RUBRICS: 10 PTS

PART III1.ab.3: VIRTUE ETHICS

7-Step Model of Ethical Decision

KANT AND RIGHTS

 Greatly influenced by David Hume

Kant lived during the European cultural revolutions of

"Humans are motivated by the duty to act morally

Good "Nothing can possibly be conceived in the world, or

Categorical "Act only according to that maxim whereby you

Categorical Imperative: First Test

Person as “Act so that you treat people never as a mere

Person as Ends in Themselves: Second Test

End Lawmaker “Act as if you were, through your maxims, a

Kant thinks that persons as ends are autonomous. Autonomous