Unit-1

Introduction to Hybrid Electric Vehicles

Historical Journey of Hybrid and Electric Vehicles

Introduction: What is a hybrid? A hybrid vehicle combines any two power (energy) sources.
Possible combinations include diesel/electric, gasoline/fly wheel, and fuel cell (FC)/battery.
Typically, one energy source is storage, and the other is conversion of a fuel to energy. The
combination of two power sources may support two separate propulsion systems. Thus to be a
True hybrid, the vehicle must have at least two modes of propulsion. For example, a truck that
uses a diesel to drive a generator, which in turn drives several electrical motors for all-wheel
drive, is not a hybrid. But if the truck has electrical energy storage to provide a second mode,
which is electrical assists, then it is a hybrid Vehicle. These two power sources may be paired in
series, meaning that the gas engine charges the batteries of an electric motor that powers the
car, or in parallel, with both mechanisms

Hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) Consistent with the definition of hybrid above, the hybrid electric
vehicle combines a gasoline engine with an electric motor. An alternate arrangement is a diesel
engine and an electric motor (figure 1).
As shown in Figure 1, a HEV is formed by merging components from a pure electrical vehicle and
a pure gasoline vehicle. The Electric Vehicle (EV) has an M/G which allows regenerative braking
for an EV; the M/G installed in the HEV enables regenerative braking. For the HEV, the M/G is
tucked directly behind the engine. In Honda hybrids, the M/G is connected directly to the
engine. The transmission appears next in line. This arrangement has two torque producers; the
M/G in motor mode, M-mode, and the gasoline engine. The battery and M/G are connected
electrically.

HEVs are a combination of electrical and mechanical components. Three main sources of
electricity for hybrids are batteries, FCs, and capacitors. Each device has a low cell voltage, and,
hence, requires many cells in series to obtain the voltage demanded by an HEV. Difference in
the source of Energy can be explained as:

a. The FC provides high energy but low power.

b. The battery supplies both modest power and energy.
c. The capacitor supplies very large power but low energy.

The components of an electrochemical cell include anode, cathode, and electrolyte (shown in
fig2). The current flow both internal and external to the cell is used to describe the current loop.

Figure 2: An electrode, a circuit for a cell which is converting chemical energy to electrical energy.
The motion of negative charges is clockwise and forms a closed loop through external wires and
load and the electrolyte in the cell. [1]

A critical issue for both battery life and safety is the precision control of the Charge/Discharge
cycle. Overcharging can be traced as a cause of fire and failure. Applications impose two
boundaries or limitations on batteries. The first limit, which is dictated by battery life, is the
minimum allowed State of Charge. As a result, not all the installed battery energy can be used.
The battery feeds energy to other electrical equipment, which is usually the inverter. This
equipment can use a broad range of input voltage, but cannot accept a low voltage. The second
limit is the minimum voltage allowed from the battery.

Historical development (root) of Automobiles

In 1900, steam technology was advanced. The advantages of steam-powered cars included high
performance in terms of power and speed. However, the disadvantages of steam-powered cars
included poor fuel economy and the need to “fire up the boiler” before driving. Feed water was
a necessary input for steam engine, therefore could not tolerate the loss of fresh water. Later,
Steam condensers were applied to the steam car to solve the feed water problem. However, by
that time Gasoline cars had won the marketing battle.

Gasoline cars of 1900 were noisy, dirty, smelly, cantankerous, and unreliable. In comparison,
electric cars were comfortable, quiet, clean, and fashionable. Ease of control was also a
desirable feature. Lead acid batteries were used in 1900 and are still used in modern cars. Hence
lead acid atteries have a long history (since 1881) of use as a viable energy storage device.
Golden age of Electrical vehicle marked from 1890 to 1924 with peak production of electric
vehicles in 1912. However, the range was limited by energy storage in the battery. After every
trip, the battery required recharging. At the 1924 automobile show, no electric cars were on
display. This announced the end of the Golden Age of electric-powered cars.

The range of a gasoline car was far superior to that of either a steam or an electric car and
dominated the automobile market from 1924 to 1960. The gasoline car had one dominant
feature; it used gasoline as a fuel. The modern period starts with the oil embargoes and the
gasoline shortages during the 1970s which created long lines at gas stations. Engineers
recognized that the good features of the gasoline engine could be combined with those of the
electric motor to produce a superior car. A marriage of the two yields the hybrid automobile
1769 The first steam-powered vehicle was designed by Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot and constructed
by M. Brezin that could attain speeds of up to 6 km/hour. These early steam-powered vehicles
were so heavy that they were only practical on a perfectly flat surface as strong as iron.

1807 The next step towards the development of the car was the invention of the internal
combustion engine. Francois Isaac de Rivaz designed the first internal combustion engine in,
using a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen to generate energy.

1825 British inventor Goldsworthy Gurney built a steam car that successfully completed an 85
mile round-trip journey in ten hours time.

1839 Robert Anderson of Aberdeen, Scotland built the first electric vehicle.

1860 In, Jean Joseph Etienne Lenoir, a Frenchman, built the first successful two-stroke gas
driven engine.

1886 Historical records indicate that an electric-powered taxicab, using a battery with 28 cells
and a small electric motor, was introduced in England.

1888 Immisch & Company built a four-passenger carriage, powered by a one-horsepower motor
and 24-cell battery, for the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire. In the same year, Magnus Volk in
Brighton, England made a three-wheeled electric car. 1890 – 1910 (Period of significant
improvements in battery technology)

Invention Of hybrid vehicle 1890 Jacob Lohner, a coach builder in Vienna, Austria, foresaw the
need for an electric vehicle that would be less noisy than the new gas-powered cars. He
commissioned a design for an electric vehicle from Austro-Hungarian engineer Ferdinand
Porsche, who had recently graduated from the Vienna Technical College. Porsche's first version
of the electric car used a pair of electric motors mounted in the front wheel hubs of a
conventional car. The car could travel up to 38 miles. To extend the vehicle's range, Porsche
added a gasoline engine that could recharge the batteries, thus giving birth to the first hybrid,
the Lohner-Porsche Elektromobil.

Early Hybrid Vehicles 1900 Porsche showed his hybrid car at the Paris Exposition of 1900. A
gasoline engine was used to power a generator which, in turn, drove a small series of motors.
The electric engine was used to give the car a little bit of extra power. This method of series
hybrid engine is still in use today, although obviously with further scope of performance
improvement and greater fuel savings

1915 Woods Motor Vehicle manufacturers created the Dual Power hybrid vehicle, second
hybrid car in market. Rather than combining the two power sources to give a single output of
power, the Dual Power used an electric battery motor to power the engine at low speeds (below
25km/h) and used the gasoline engine to carry the vehicle from these low speeds up to its
55km/h maximum speed. While Porsche had invented the series hybrid, Woods invented the
parallel hybrid.

1918 The Woods Dual Power was the first hybrid to go into mass production. In all, some 600
models were built by. However, the evolution of the internal combustion engine left electric
power a marginal technology

1960 Victor Wouk worked in helping create numerous hybrid designs earned him the nickname
of the “Godfather of the Hybrid”. In 1976 he even converted a Buick Skylark from gasoline to
hybrid.

1978 Modern hybrid cars rely on the regenerative braking system. When a standard combustion
engine car brakes, a lot of power is lost because it dissipates into the atmosphere as heat.
Regenerative braking means that the electric motor is used for slowing the car and it essentially
collects this power and uses it to help recharge the electric batteries within the car. This
development alone is believed to have progressed hybrid vehicle manufacture significantly. The
Regenerative Braking System, was first designed and developed in 1978 by David Arthurs. Using
standard car components he converted an Opel GT to offer 75 miles to the gallon and many
home conversions are done using the plans for this system that are still widely available on the
Internet.

Modern Period of Hybrid History The history of hybrid cars is much longer and more involved
than many first imagine. It is, however, in the last ten years or so that we, as consumers, have
begun to pay more attention to the hybrid vehicle as a viable alternative to ICE driven cars.
Whether looking for a way to save money on spiraling gas costs or in an attempt to help reduce
the negative effects on the environment we are buying hybrid cars much more frequently.

1990s Automakers took a renewed interest in the hybrid, seeking a solution to dwindling energy
supplies and environmental concerns and created modern history of hybrid car
1993 In USA, Bill Clinton's administration recognized the urgency for the mass production of cars
powered by means other than gasoline. Numerous government agencies, as well as Chrysler,
Ford, GM, and USCAR combined forces in the PNGV (Partnership for a New Generation of
Vehicles), to create cars using alternative power sources, including the development and
improvement of hybrid electric vehicles.

1997 The Audi Duo was the first European hybrid car put into mass production and hybrid
production and consumer take up has continued to go from strength to strength over the
decades.

2000 Toyota Prius and Honda Insight became the first mass market hybrids to go on sale in the
United States, with dozens of models following in the next decade. The Honda Insight and
Toyota Prius were two of the first mainstream Hybrid Electric Vehicles and both models remain
a popular line.

2005 A hybrid Ford Escape, the SUV, was released in 2005. Toyota and Ford essentially swapped
patents with one another, Ford gaining a number of Toyota patents relating to hybrid
technology and Toyota, in return, gaining access to Diesel engine patents from Ford.

Present of Hybrid Electric vehicle Toyota is the most prominent of all manufacturers when it
comes to hybrid cars. As well as the specialist hybrid range they have produced hybrid versions
of many of their existing model lines, including several Lexus (now owned and manufactured by
Toyota) vehicles. They have also stated that it is their intention to release a hybrid version of
every single model they release in the coming decade. As well as cars and SUVs, there are a
select number of hybrid motorcycles, pickups, vans, and other road going vehicles available to
the consumer and the list is continually increasing.

Future of Hybrid electrical vehicle Since petroleum is limited and will someday run out of
supply. In the arbitrary year 2037, an estimated one billion petroleum-fueled vehicles will be on
the world’s roads. gasoline will become prohibitively expensive. The world need to have
solutions for the “400 million otherwise useless cars”. So year 2037 “gasoline runs out year”
means, petroleum will no longer be used for personal mobility. A market may develop for solar-
powered EVs of the size of a scooter or golf cart. Since hybrid technology applies to heavy
vehicles, hybrid buses and hybrid trains will be more significant.
Economic and Environmental Impact of Electric Hybrid Vehicle
As modern culture and technology continue to develop, the growing presence of global warming and
irreversible climate change draws increasing amounts of concern from the world’s population. It has
only been recently, when modern society has actually taken notice of these changes and decided
that something needs to change if the global warming process is to be stopped.

Countries around the world are working to drastically reduce CO 2 emissions as well as other harmful
environmental pollutants. Amongst the most notable producers of these pollutants are automobiles,
which are almost exclusively powered by internal combustion engines and spew out unhealthy
emissions.

According to various reports, cars and trucks are responsible for almost 25% of CO 2 emission and
other major transportation methods account for another 12%. With immense quantities of cars on
the road today, pure combustion engines are quickly becoming a target of global warming blame.
One potential alternative to the world’s dependence on standard combustion engine vehicles are
hybrid cars. Cost-effectiveness is also an important factor contributing to the development of an
environment friendly transportation sector. Hybrid Vehicle

Hybrid Vehicle A hybrid vehicle combines any type of two power (energy) sources. Possible
combinations include diesel/electric, gasoline/fly wheel, and fuel cell (FC)/battery. Typically, one
energy source is storage, and the other is conversion of a fuel to energy. In the majority of modern
hybrids, cars are powered by a combination of traditional gasoline power and the addition of an
electric motor.

However, hybrid still use the petroleum based engine while driving so they are not completely clean,
just cleaner than petroleum only cars. This enables hybrid cars to have the potential to segue into
new technologies that rely strictly on alternate fuel sources.
The design of such vehicles requires, among other developments, improvements in power train
systems, fuel processing, and power conversion technologies. Opportunities for utilizing various
fuels for vehicle propulsion, with an emphasis on synthetic fuels (e.g., hydrogen,
biodiesel,bioethanol, dimethylether, ammonia, etc.) as well as electricity via electrical batteries,
have been analyzed over the last decade. In order to analyze environment impact of vehicle
propulsion and fueling system; we are presenting a case study which has been reported in literature
(Chapter: Ibrahim Dincer, Marc A. Rosen and Calin Zamfirescu,” Economic and Environmental
Comparison of Conventional and Alternative Vehicle Options”, Book: Electric and Hybrid Vehicles:
Power Sources, Models, Sustainability, Infrastructure and the Market by Gianfranco Pistoia (2010))

A Case study

This case treated the following aspects: economic criteria, environmental criteria, and a combined
impact criterion. The latter is a normalized indicator that takes into account the effects on both
environmental and economic performance of the options considered.

Case compared four kinds of fuel-propulsion vehicle alternatives. Two additional kinds of vehicles,
both of which are zero polluting at fuel utilization stage (during vehicle operation) were also
included in analysis. The vehicles analyzed were as follows:

1. Conventional gasoline vehicle (gasoline fuel and ICE),

2. Hybrid vehicle (gasoline fuel, electrical drive, and large rechargeable battery),
3. Electric vehicle (high-capacity electrical battery and electrical drive/generator),
4. Hydrogen fuel cell vehicle (high-pressure hydrogen fuel tank, fuel cell, electrical drive),
5. Hydrogen internal combustion vehicle (high-pressure hydrogen fuel tank and ICE),
6. Ammonia-fueled vehicle (liquid ammonia fuel tank, ammonia thermo-catalytic decomposition and
separation unit to generate pure hydrogen, hydrogen-fueled ICE).

For environmental impact analysis, all stages of the life cycle were considered, starting from
a) The extraction of natural resources to produce materials and
b) Ending with conversion of the energy stored onboard the vehicle into mechanical energy for
vehicle displacement and
c) Other purposes (heating, cooling, lighting, etc.).
In addition, vehicle production stages and end-of-life disposal contribute substantially when
quantifying the life cycle environmental impact of fuel-propulsion alternatives. The analysis were
conducted on six vehicles, each was representative of one of the above discussed categories. The
specific vehicles were:

1) Toyota Corolla (conventional vehicle),

2) Toyota Prius (hybrid vehicle),
3) Toyota RAV4EV (electric vehicle),
4) Honda FCX (hydrogen fuel cell vehicle),
5) Ford Focus H2-ICE (hydrogen ICE vehicle),
6) Ford Focus H2-ICE adapted to use ammonia as source of hydrogen (ammonia-fueled ICE vehicle).

Economical Analysis A number of key economic parameters that characterize vehicles were:
A. Vehicle price,
B. Fuel cost, and
C. Driving range.

Table1: Technical and economical values for selected vehicle types

For the Honda FCX the listed initial price for a prototype leased in 2002 was USk$2,000, which is
estimated to drop below USk$100 in regular production. Currently, a Honda FCX can be leased for 3
years with a total price of USk$21.6. In order to render the comparative study reasonable, the initial
price of the hydrogen fuel cell vehicle is assumed here to be USk$100. For electric vehicle, the
specific cost was estimated to be US$569/kWh with nickel metal hydride (NiMeH) batteries which
are typically used in hybrid and electric cars. Historical prices of typical fuels were used to calculate
annual average price.

Environmental Analysis Analysis for the first five options was based on published data from
manufacturers. The results for the sixth case, i.e. the ammonia-fueled vehicle, were calculated from
data published by Ford on the performance of its hydrogen-fueled Ford Focus vehicle. Two
environmental impact elements were accounted for in the:
a) Air pollution (AP) and
b) Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions.

The main GHGs were CO2, CH4, N2O, and SF6 (sulfur hexafluoride), which have GHG impact weighting
coefficients relative to CO2 of 1, 21, 310, and 24,900, respectively. For AP, the airborne pollutants
CO, NOx, SOx, and VOCs are assigned the following weighting coefficients: 0.017, 1, 1.3, and 0.64,
respectively. The vehicle production stage contributes to the total life cycle environmental impact
through the pollution associated with
a) The extraction and processing of material resources,
b) Manufacturing and
c) The vehicle disposal stage.

Additional sources of GHG and AP emissions were associated with the fuel production and utilization
stages. The environmental impacts of these stages have been evaluated in numerous life cycle
assessments of fuel cycles. Regarding electricity production for the electric car case, three case
scenarios were considered here:
1. when electricity is produced from renewable energy sources and nuclear energy;
2. when 50% of the electricity is produced from renewable energy sources and 50% from natural gas
at an efficiency of 40%;
3. when electricity is produced from natural gas at an efficiency of 40%.

AP emissions were calculated assuming that GHG emissions for plant manufacturing correspond
entirely to natural gas combustion. GHG and AP emissions embedded in manufacturing a natural gas
power generation plant were negligible compared to the direct emissions during its utilization.
Taking those factors into account, GHG and AP emissions for the three scenarios of electricity
generation were presented in Table 2.

Table2: GHG and air pollution emissions per MJ of electricity produced

Electricity-generation Description of GHG emission (g) AP emission (g)

scenario Electricity generation
Scenario
1 Electricity produced = 5.11 0.195
100% (Renewable
Energy + Nuclear
Energy)
2 Electricity produced = 77.5 0.296
(50% Renewable
Energy + 50% Natural
gas)
3 Electricity produced = 149.9 0.573
100% Natural Gas

Hydrogen charging of fuel tanks on vehicles requires compression. Therefore, presented case
considered the energy for hydrogen compression to be provided by electricity

Table 3: GHG and air pollution emissions per MJ fuel of Hydrogen from natural gas produced
 Fuel GHG emissions, AP emissions, g
g

Hydrogen from
natural gas

Scenario 1 78.5 0.0994

Scenario 2 82.1 0.113

Scenario 3 85.7 0.127

GHG and AP emissions were reported for hydrogen vehicles for the three electricity-generation
scenarios considered (see table 3), accounting for the environmental effects of hydrogen
compression

Table 4. Environmental impact associated with vehicle Overall Life cycle and Fuel Utilization State

Vehicle type GHG emissions AP emissions( kg/100 km) GHG AP

(kg/100 km) emission emissions(kg/100
s (kg/100 km)
km)

Conventional 19.9 0.0564 21.4 0.06

Hybrid 11.6 0.0328 13.3 0.037

Electric-S1 0.343 0.00131 2.31 0.00756

Electric-S2 5.21 0.0199 7.18 0.0262

Electric-S3 10.1 0.0385 12 0.0448

Fuel Cell -S1 10.2 0.0129 14.2 0.0306

Fuel Cell -S2 10.6 0.0147 14.7 0.0324

Fuel Cell -S3 11.1 0.0165 15.2 0.0342

H2-ICE 10 0.014 11.5 0.018

NH3–H2-ICE 0 0.014 1.4 0.017

The environmental impact of the fuel utilization stage, as well as the overall life cycle is presented in
Table 4. The H2-ICE vehicle results were based on the assumption that the only GHG emissions
during the utilization stage were associated with the compression work, needed to fill the fuel tank
of the vehicle. The GHG effect of water vapor emissions was neglected in this analysis due its little
value,. For the ammonia fuel vehicle, a very small amount of pump work was needed therefore,
ammonia fuel was considered to emit no GHGs during fuel utilization.

Figure1: Environmental indicators for six vehicle types

Results of technical–economical–environmental Analysis: In present situation this case study

provides a general approach for assessing the combined technical–economical–environmental benefits
of transportation options. This analysis showed that the hybrid and electric cars have advantages over
the others. The economics and environmental impact associated with use of an electric car depends
significantly on the source of the electricity:

a. If electricity is generated from renewable energy sources, the electric car is advantageous to the
hybrid vehicle.
b. If the electricity is generated from fossil fuels, the electric car remains competitive only if the
electricity is generated onboard.
c. If the electricity is generated with an efficiency of 50–60% by a gas turbine engine connected to a
high-capacity battery and electric motor, the electric car is superior in many respects.
d. For electricity-generation scenarios 2 and 3, using ammonia as a means to store hydrogen onboard
a vehicle is the best option among those analyzed (as shown in figure 2).

Figure2: Normalized economic and environmental indicators for six vehicle types [1]

The electric car with capability for onboard electricity generation represents a beneficial option and
is worthy of further investigation, as part of efforts to develop energy efficient and ecologically
benign vehicles. The main limitations of this study were as follows:
(i) the use of data which may be of limited accuracy in some instances;
(ii) the subjectivity of the indicators chosen; and
(iii) the simplicity of the procedure used for developing the general indicator without using unique
weighting coefficients.

Despite these limitations, the study reflects relatively accurately and realistically the present
situation and provides a general approach for assessing the combined technical–economical–
environmental benefits of transportation options.
 Dynamics of Electric and Hybrid vehicles

Introduction The fundamentals of vehicle design involve the basic principles of physics,
specially the Newton's second law of motion. According to Newton's second law the acceleration
of an object is proportional to the net force exerted on it. Hence, an object accelerates when the
net force acting on it is not zero. In a vehicle several forces act on it and the net or resultant force
governs the motion according to the Newton's second law. The propulsion unit of the vehicle
delivers the force necessary to move the vehicle forward. This force of the propulsion unit helps
the vehicle to overcome the resisting forces due to gravity, air and tire resistance. The
acceleration of the vehicle depends on:
 the power delivered by the propulsion unit
 the road conditions
 the aerodynamics of the vehicle
 the composite mass of the vehicle

In this lecture the mathematical framework required for the analysis of vehicle mechanics based
on Newton’s second law of motion is presented 

General description of vehicle movement

 Vehicle resistance
 Dynamic equation
 Tire Ground Adhesion and maximum tractive effort

General description of vehicle movement The vehicle motion can be completely determined by
analysing the forces acting on it in the direction of motion. The forces acting on a vehicle,
moving up a grade, are shown in Figure 1. The tractive force (Ft) in the contact area between the
tires of the driven wheels and the road surface propels the vehicle forward. The tractive force (Ft)
is produced by the power plant and transferred to the driving wheels via the transmission and the
final drive. When the vehicle moves, it encounters a resistive force that tries to retard its motion.
The resistive forces are

 Rolling resistance
 Aerodynamic drag
 Uphill resistance
 Figure 1: Forces acting on a vehicle going uphill

Using the Newton's second law of motion, the vehicle acceleration can be expressed as
Rolling resistance The rolling resistance of tires on hard surfaces is due to hysteresis in the tire
material. In Figure 2 a tire at standstill is shown. On this tyre a force (P), is acting at its centre.
The pressure in the contact area between the tire and the ground is distributed symmetrically to
the centre line and the resulting reaction force (Pz) is aligned along P.

Figure 2: Pressure distribution in contact area [1]

The deformation, z, versus the load P, in the loading and unloading process is shown in Figure 3.
From this figure it can be seen that, due to the hysteresis, the force (P) for the same
deformation (z) of the tire material at loading is greater than at during unloading. Hence, the
hysteresis causes an asymmetric distribution of the ground reaction forces.

Figure 3: Force acting on a tyre vs. deformation in loading and unloading [1]

The scenario of a rolling tire is shown in Figure 4. When the tire rolls, the leading half of the
contact area is loading and the trailing half is unloading. Thus, the pressure on the leading half is
greater than the pressure on the trailing half (Figure 4a). This phenomenon results in the ground
reaction force shifting forward. The shift in the ground reaction force creates a moment that
opposes rolling of the wheels. On soft surfaces, the rolling resistance is mainly caused by
deformation of the ground surface, (Figure 4b). In this case the ground reaction force almost
completely shifts to the leading half.
 Figure 4a: Force acting on a tyre vs. deformation in loading and unloading on a hard surface [1]

The rolling resistance coefficient, fr, is a function of:

 tire material

 tire structure

 tire temperature

 tire inflation pressure

 tread geometry

 road roughness

 road material

 presence of absence of liquids on the road

The typical values of the rolling resistance coefficient (fr) are given in Table 1. Table 1:
Reference values for the rolling resistance coefficient (fr)

Conditions Rolling resistance

coefficient (fr)
Car tire on smooth tarmac road 0.01
Car tire on concrete road 0.011
Car tire on a rolled gravel road 0.02
Tar macadam road 0.025
Unpaved road 0.05
Bad earth tracks 0.16
Loose sand 0.15-0.3
Truck tire on concrete or 0.006-0.01
asphalt road
Wheel on iron rail 0.001-0.002
Aerodynamic drag A vehicle traveling at a particular speed in air encounters a force resisting its
motion. This force is known as aerodynamic drag. The main causes of aerodynamic drag are:
 shape drag

 skin effect

The shape drag is due to the shape of the vehicle. The forward motion of the vehicle
pushes the air in front of it. However, the air cannot instantaneously move out of the way
and its pressure is thus increased. This results in high air pressure in the front of the
vehicle. The air behind the vehicle cannot instantaneously fill the space left by the
forward motion of the vehicle. This creates a zone of low air pressure. Hence, the motion
of the vehicle creates two zones of pressure. The high pressure zone in the front of the
vehicle opposes its movement by pushing. On the other hand, the low pressure zone
developed at the rear of the vehicle opposes its motion by pulling it backwards. The air
close to the skin of the vehicle moves almost at the speed of the vehicle while the air
away from the vehicle remains still. Between these two layers (the air layer moving at the
vehicle speed and the static layer) the molecules move at a wide range of speeds. The
difference in speed between two air molecules produces friction. This friction results in
the second component of aerodynamic drag and it is known as skin effect.

Grading resistance

When a vehicle goes up or down a slope, its weight produces a component of force that is
always directed downwards, Figure 5. This force component opposes the forward motion, i.e.
the grade climbing. When the vehicle goes down the grade, this force component aids the
vehicle motion. The grading resistance can be expressed as

In some literature, the tire rolling resistance and the grading resistance taken together and is
called road resistance. The road resistance is expressed as

Acceleration resistance In addition to the driving resistance occurring in steady state motion,
inertial forces also occur during acceleration and braking. The total mass of the vehicle and the
inertial mass of those rotating parts of the drive accelerated or braked are the factors
influencing the resistance to acceleration: 2 2 wheremass of vehicle [ ] intertia of rotational
components [ ] speed of the vehicle [ / ] [ ] rot a dyn rot dyn J dV F M r dt M kg J kg m V km h r
dynamic radius of the tyre m