Theory

When liquid is placed in an open vessel. It slowly escapes into gaseous phase eventually leaving the
vessel empty. This phenomenon is known as vaporization or evaporation
Evaporation is the process whereby atoms or molecules in a liquid state (or solid state if the
substance sublimes) gain sufficient energy to enter the gaseous state. The thermal motion of a
molecule must be sufficient to overcome the surface tension of the liquid in order for it to
evaporate, that is, its kinetic energy must exceed the work function of cohesion at the surface.
Evaporation causes cooling. This is due to the reason that the molecules which undergo evaporation
have high kinetic energy therefore the kinetic energy of the molecules which are left behind is less.
Evaporation therefore proceeds more quickly at higher temperature and in liquids with lower
surface tension. Since only a small proportion of the molecules are located near the surface and
are moving in the proper direction to escape at any given instant, the rate of evaporation is
limited. Also, as the faster-moving molecules escape, the remaining molecules have lower
average kinetic energy, and the temperature of the liquid thus decreases. Since the remaining
molecules which are left have lower average kinetic energy. Therefore temperature is kept constant the
remaining liquid will have same distribution of the molecular kinetic energy and high molecular energy
will kept one escaping from liquid into gaseous phase of the liquid is taken in an open vessel evaporation
will continue until whole of the liquid evaporates If the evaporation takes place in a closed vessel,
the escaping molecules accumulate as a vapor above the liquid. Many of the molecules return to
the liquid, with returning molecules becoming more frequent as the density and pressure of the
vapor increases. When the process of escape and return reaches equilibrium, the vapor is said to
be "saturated," and no further change in either vapor pressure and density or liquid temperature
will occur. one of the reasons why we use a different quantity to compare the willingness of liquids
to evaporate, and that is specific heat of vaporization lv, which tells us how much energy is needed
to evaporate one kilogram of a liquid. Specific heat of vaporization decreases with increasing
temperature. That tells us that hotter liquid needs less heat to evaporate one kilogram of it at
a fixed temperature. This intuitively makes sense. For example, while the specific heat capacity of
water at 0 °C is 2.50 MJ·kg-1, at 100 °C it is only 2.26 MJ·kg-1. comparing specific heats of evaporation
at an arbitrary temperature, for example 20 °C, is often a problem - the tables usually contain only
specific heat of vaporization for boiling temperatures (for example 100 °C for water, 78 °C for
ethanol, 357 °C for mercury etc.).

Factors influencing rate of evaporation:-

1. Concentration of the substance evaporating in the air. If the air already has a high
concentration of the substance evaporating, then the given substance will evaporate more
slowly.

2. Concentration of other substances in the air. If the air is already saturated with other
substances, it can have a lower capacity for the substance evaporating.
3. Temperature of the substance. If the substance is hotter, then evaporation will be faster.

4. Flow rate of air. This is in part related to the concentration points above. If fresh air is
moving over the substance all the time, then the concentration of the substance in the air is less
likely to go up with time, thus encouraging faster evaporation. In addition, molecules in motion
have more energy than those at rest, and so the stronger the flow of air, the greater the
evaporating power of the air molecules.

5. Inter-molecular forces. The stronger the forces keeping the molecules together in the liquid
or solid state the more energy that must be input in order to evaporate them.

6. Surface area and temperature: - Because molecules or atoms evaporate from a liquid’s
surface, a larger surface area allows more molecules or atoms to leave the liquid, and
evaporation occurs more quickly. For example, the same amount of water will evaporate faster if
spilled on a table than if it is left in a cup. Higher temperatures also increase the rate of
evaporation. At higher temperatures, molecules or atoms have a higher average speed, and
more particles are able to break free of the liquid’s surface. For example, a wet street will dry
faster in the hot sun than in the shade.

7. Nature of Liquids: The magnitude of inter-molecular forces of attraction in liquid

determines the speed of evaporation. Weaker the inter-molecular forces of attraction,
larger the extent of evaporation. In diethyl ether rate of evaporation is greater than that
of ethyl alcohol.
Composition of Environment: The rate of evaporation of liquids depends upon
the flow of air currents above the surface of the liquid. Air current flowing over the
surface of the liquid took away the molecules of the substance in vapor state
thereby preventing condensation.

Experiment no. 1
Aim: To compare the rates of evaporation of, benzene and chloroform.
Requirement: Three same size Petri dishes of diameter 10 cm. 10 ml. pipettes, stop
watch, acetone benzene and chloroform.
Procedure:
1. Clean and dry all Petri dishes and identify them as B and C.
2. Pipette out of 10 ml. benzene in Petri dish "B" with stopper similarly pipette out of
10 ml. of chloroform in each of Petri C
3. Remove the cover plates from all Petri dishes and start the stop watch.
4. Let the Petri dishes remain exposed for 10 minute. Now cover each of the Petri dish
and note the volume of the remaining material in them
 RESULTS
Rate of evaporation of Benzene is 0.0166 ml/s.
Rate of evaporation of Chloroform is 0.010 ml/s.
Conclusion:
The intermolecular forces of acetone, benzene and chloroform are in order.
Chloroform > Benzene

Experiment no. 2
Aim: To study the effect of surface area on the rate of evaporation of diethyl ether
Requirement: Three Petri dishes of diameter 2.5 cm. 5 cm. 7.5 cm. with cover 10 ml.
of pipette and stop watch.
Procedure:
1. Clean and dry all Petri dishes and mark them as A, B and C.
2. Pipette out of 10 ml. diethyl ether in each of the Petri dishes A, B and C and cover
them immediately.
3. Uncover all three Petri dishes and start the stop watch.
4. Note the remaining volume after 10 min. vaporization of diethyl ether from each
Petri dish.

.
Experiment no. 3
Effect of Air Current on Evaporation
Water evaporates or sublimates into the air based on the energy available. As you
move further away from the boiling point the amount of evaporation decreases. It further
decreases when you increase the amount of water vapor in the air. The drier the air the
more readily available it is to take water molecules. We can see and experience this
when we look at the humidity where it feels warmer out than it is because the humidity
of the air does not readily accept more water vapor, which means that your sweat will
not evaporate as readily.
Now, if the wind is blowing and it moves the most humid air (the air directly above the
liquid water), and replaces it with air that is less humid. Now the air will accept more
water vapor, allowing the water to evaporate easier. This is why it feels cooler when you
have a breeze on a hot summer day. It isn't in fact any cooler, it is just allowing your
sweat to evaporate more freely.

Experiment 4
Aim: To determine if the type of liquid affects the rate at which it evaporates into the
atmosphere.
Hypothesis: That liquids evaporate at different rates according to their physical characteristics.
In this experiment, liquids will evaporate from fastest to slowest in the following order:
nail polish remover,
water,
salt water
, vinegar,
orange juice
and oil
. Materials: • 18 x 50mL plastic measuring cups with a 10cm diameter
• 750mL water
• 750mL salt water
• 750mL white vinegar
• 750mL nail polish remover
• 750mL orange juice
• 750mL vegetable oil
• Method:
1) 3 separate measuring cups were filled with 250mL of water each
2) Step 1 was repeated with nail polish remover, vinegar, salt water, orange juice and oil
3) All the measuring cups were positioned on a table, outside but undercover for 7 days
4) The remaining liquid in each measuring cup was noted daily and recorded in a table
Discussion:
The hypothesis in this experiment was supported, as the liquids were found to evaporate at
different rates. The nail polish remover evaporated at the quickest rate, on average 241mL
over the 7 days. The next fastest was water, which evaporated 85mL over the course of the
experiment. This was closely followed by salt water at 72mL, vinegar at 63mL and orange
juice at 57mL over the week. Finally, the oil didn’t vaporize at all over the study of this
experiment. These results were obtained because the characteristics of each liquid affects the
efficiency of its ability to evaporate. For vaporisation to take place, the molecules in each
liquid must build up a certain amount of energy, which is largely dependent on the properties
of the liquid (Purdue University). Evaporation is when a molecule escapes from the surface
of a liquid as it vaporizes. This occurs when an individual molecule builds up enough energy,
so that it moves too fast to form bonds, and therefore becomes gaseous (Dr. Mabel Rodrigues
2012). As a result, the rate at which a liquid evaporates comes down to the weight of each
molecule, the forces between each molecule, and the density of the liquid. Nail polish
remover is primarily made up of a chemical known as acetone. It has an extremely low
density of 0.788g/cm, a low boiling point of 56°c and a molar mass of 58g/mol. This means
that the liquid has fewer molecules, with weak intermolecular bonds and molecules that have
a low mass (Helen Schember, PhD). These properties were significantly less than the various
liquids, which is why compared to the other substances, nail polish remover evaporated at
such as fast rate. Water has a lower molar mass at 18g/mol, however has much stronger
intermolecular forces, with a boiling point of 98.8°c. Consequently, water requires a
considerable amount of energy, significantly larger than for nail polish remover, to
evaporate. Salt water has a slightly higher density and boiling point, but not enough to make
a difference. Despite this, it still evaporates at a noticeably slower rate, which is due to the
impurities in the liquid, bringing the molar mass to 76g/mol. The salt creates inconsistencies
in the liquid, which means it takes longer to evaporate as the air pressure is lower.
Additionally, only the H2O evaporates and the salt is left behind as residue, which became
noticeable by day 3, requiring more energy to evaporate the water molecules (United States
Geological Survey 2014). Vinegar has a higher density of 1.05g/cm3 and a much higher
boiling point. The makeup of vinegar is acetic acid diluted in water. This means that the
water is vaporized, and left behind tiny crystals, which became visible by day 4. Similarly to
the salt water, these impurities cause the evaporation rate to lengthen (Purdue University
2004). Furthermore, the strong intermolecular forces caused the need for more energy for
molecules to escape. Similarly, the orange juice, also primarily water, leaves behind pulp
when evaporated. It has an extremely higher molar mass of 180g/mol. This means the
molecules require a greater amount of energy to vaporize. Finally, the oil didn’t evaporate at
all. This is largely due to the incredible rise in boiling point of 91°c and molar mass of
346g/mol, both almost double the properties of other liquids. Oil has large molecules and
strong intermolecular forces. As a result, the energy 9 required for oil to evaporate is too high
for the liquid to obtain from the surrounding environment. If the experiment had been over a
longer period of time, perhaps a noticeable change may have been identified. This
experiment was fairly reliable, however it did have its limitations. Firstly, the measuring cups
were located outside, but undercover. Although this was to prevent rain from contaminating
the experiment, it meant the liquids didn’t have direct access to the sun or sky. The
experiment was also subject to other elements of the surrounding environment, including
dust and bacteria in the air. The orange juice started to grow a thin layer of mold over parts of
the surface of the liquid, which may have affected the results. Likewise, the weather also
altered every day and so affected the amount of liquid that vaporized. These sources of error
could have been eliminated by placing the test substances in a controlled environment,
whereby the temperature is always the same and the air is purified. Secondly, the markings
on the measuring cups weren’t as detailed as would have been ideal. Although the results
would have only been marginally different, they could have been more reliable if the
markings were more detailed. For future research, it may be interesting to investigate the
affect of the surrounding environment on evaporation. For example, surface area,
temperature, weather and the material the liquid is in could be examined. It would also be
worthwhile to study how salinity alters the evaporation rate.

THANK YOU
Water evaporates or sublimates into the air based on the energy available. As you move further
away from the boiling point the amount of evaporation decreases. It further decreases when you
increase the amount of water vapor in the air. The drier the air the more readily available it is to
take water molecules. We can see and experience this when we look at the humidex. In the cases
of the humidex, it feels warmer out than it is because the humidity of the air does not readily
accept more water vapor, which means that your sweat will not evaporate as readily.
Now, if the wind is blowing and it moves the most humid air (the air directly above the liquid
water), and replaces it with air that is less humid. Now the air will accept more water vapor,
allowing the water to evaporate easier. This is why it feels cooler when you have a breeze on a
hot summer day. It isn't in fact any cooler, it is just allowing your sweat to evaporate more freely.