Edwin Powell Hubble: National Academy of Sciences

national academy of sciences
E d w i n p o w e l l H u bb l e
1889—1953
A Biographical Memoir by
N. U. Mayall
Any opinions expressed in this memoir are those of the author(s)

and do not necessarily reflect the views of the
National Academy of Sciences.
Biographical Memoir
Copyright 1970
national academy of sciences
washington d.c.
EDWIN POWELL HUBBLE
November 20,1889-September 28,1953
BY N. U. MAYALL
by his inspired use of the largest telescope

E DWIN HUBBLE,
of his time, the 100-inch reflector of the Mount Wilson
Observatory, revolutionized our knowledge of the size, structure,
and properties of the universe. He thus became the outstanding
leader in the observational approach to cosmology, as con-
trasted with the previous work that involved much philosophi-
cal speculation. Although he regarded himself primarily as an
observational astronomer assembling and analyzing empirical
data, Hubble, from the very beginning of his astronomical
career, took the widest possible view of the relationship of
his investigations to the general field of cosmology. Indeed,
Edwin Hubble advanced the astronomical horizon on the uni-
verse by steps relatively as large in his time as those taken by
Galileo in his studies of the solar system, and by the Herschels
in their investigations of our own Milky Way stellar system.
PERSONAL HISTORY
In a conversation with the author Bernard Jaffe, Hubble is

reported to have said that the best biographical memoir of a
scientist would be written if each man set down, as well as he
could, the way he came to do the work he did. In this way his
work would be separated completely from the man's own
176 BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIRS
personal history, which Hubble thought need not enter the
picture. Jaffe is reported to have replied that the personal
side also had value, possibly in reflecting the effect of the man's
times and environment in determining what he went about
doing.
Since Hubble firmly kept his personal history in the back-
ground, there is little about it in the literature of astronomy.
Through the generosity of Mrs. Hubble, however, the present
writer was given access to her journals, which form an impor-
tant part of the collection of biographical materials in the
Huntington Library, San Marino, California. These journals
contain a wealth of information, enough for a biography of
much greater scope than this memoir. From the many events
and experiences described so perceptively and understandingly
in the journals, a selection has been made of some that seem
especially revealing of Hubble's character and philosophy. In
many cases the wording follows closely that of the journal
entries, particularly when they quote Hubble's remarks. The
verbatim record should be accurate, since Hubble himself read,
corrected, and made suggestions, such as, for example, "The
next time at camp there should be more about fish."
The Hubble family for many generations produced pio-
neering and patriotic individuals. Hubble's ancestors were from
the British Isles; Richard Hubble, an officer in the Royalist
army, came to the United States in the seventeenth century.
About him Hubble remarked, "I was always glad that he
waited until after the king was beheaded . . . whenever there
was trouble in England someone of the family left in a hurry."
Richard settled in Connecticut, prospered, and left five thou-
sand dollars to each of his eleven children, "a good deal of money
in the seventeenth century," Hubble commented. Justus Hub-
ble, one of Edwin's forefathers, fought in the Revolutionary War
and later settled in Virginia. At the time of the Civil War the fam-
EDWIN POWELL HUBBLE 177
ily was divided in its loyalty. Edwin's paternal grandfather joined
the Union army, while other members of the family fought
for the Confederates. Edwin's mother was Virginia Lee James,
from Virginia City, Nevada, and his father was John Powell
Hubble, from Missouri, where Edwin himself was born in
Marshfield on November 20, 1889, during a visit of the parents
to his grandparents. Hubble, however, said later that he would
rather have been born in Kentucky, where his relatives had
been living and where his ancestors had established themselves.
There were seven children in the family, three brothers and
four sisters; Edwin was the fifth child and the second son.
Among the many pleasant childhood memories Hubble
recalled were long country wanderings spent in watching birds
and animals, swimming, and ice skating. He was expected to
obey at once, without questioning. He was spanked when small,
and had "good lickings" when older. In later years he approved
of this discipline, saying, "It did me a lot of good." He liked and
read many books, such as novels by Jules Verne and H. Rider
Haggard, especially King Solomon's Mines. His father was
connected with an insurance company; he had his office in
Chicago and settled his family in suburban Wheaton, where
many years later Grote Reber carried out his pioneering re-
search in radio astronomy. Young Edwin corresponded with his
grandfather, who once wrote to his twelve-year-old grandson
to ask some questions about Mars. The reply so pleased the
grandfather that he had it printed in a Springfield newspaper.
Like many other youngsters, Edwin earned his first money
by delivering morning papers in Wheaton. At Wheaton High
School he participated actively in athletics, with football as his
favorite game, although he also entered many track events.
In a later year Mrs. Hubble once was surprised by her husband's
exact estimate of her height of 5 feet 4 inches. Hubble's ex-
planation was, "I was a high jumper, my dear." On his high
school commencement day in 1906, the principal said, "Edwin
Hubble, I have watched you for four years and I have never
seen you study for ten minutes." He then paused for what
was an awful moment for Edwin, and continued, "Here is a
scholarship to the University of Chicago."
By a mistake, this high school scholarship was also awarded
to another student, thus the money had to be halved, and
Edwin had to supply the rest. He paid his expenses by tutoring,
by summer work, and, in his junior year, by a scholarship in
physics and by working as a laboratory assistant to Robert
Millikan. When Edwin left home his mother asked him to give
up football. Instead he played basketball, and in 1909 was on the
team that won the championship of the West. He also took
up college boxing and was so successful that promoters urged
him to turn professional and train to fight the heavyweight
champion, Jack Johnson. He received a college letter in athlet-
ics for his participation in track, boxing, and basketball.
During summer vacations he worked as a surveyor and civil
engineer in the woods around the Great Lakes, in the regions
where railroads were competing for rights-of-way to iron mines.
At that time the border towns were very rough; one evening
when walking through the railroad yards, Edwin was held up
by two ruffians. He laughed at them, walked on past, but was
stabbed in the back below his shoulder. He turned and knocked
one man out, while the other ran away. Another time, two
girls stopped him to ask help in getting a drunken lumberjack
from a bridge. Edwin's friendly words changed the drunken
man's challenging mood to one of affection, so he was able to
get the lumberjack home, where the man's wife thought Edwin
was responsible for her husband's state. At the end of one sum-
mer he and another worker were the last to leave, but by a
change of schedule they were left waiting in vain at the rail-
road station, without provisions. They walked out of the woods
in three days, without food, although Edwin said, "We could
have killed a porcupine or small game, but there was no need,
and anyway, there was plenty of water." The experience
gained from his work as a surveyor later served him well
during World War II at Aberdeen, where he laid out the firing
and bombing ranges for ballistic research.
In 1910 Hubble received his B.S. degree from the Uni-
versity of Chicago, and in the same year was awarded a Rhodes
Scholarship, under which he read Roman and English Law
at Queen's College, Oxford. In athletics he was an Oxford
Blue, taking part in track and boxing and rowing stroke in
the Queen's boat. Some years later he was made an Honourary
Fellow of Queen's College. He returned to the United States
in 1913, passed the bar examination September 2, and practiced
law halfheartedly for a year thereafter in Louisville, Kentucky.
He reported that at this time he "chucked the law for astronomy,
and I knew that even if I were second-rate or third-rate, it
was astronomy that mattered." Thus in 1914 he returned to
the University of Chicago for postgraduate work leading to his
doctoral degree in astronomy. He found congenial men among
the faculty—Millikan, Gale, Michelson, Breasted, and Moul-
ton. Hubble's undergraduate experiences were helpful to him
when he was asked to serve as head of Snell Hall, which had
the reputation of housing the toughest campus elements.
"They never gave any trouble," Hubble recalled, "partly per-
haps because I had been a C man and because I boxed." He
had, in fact, appeared in an exhibition bout with the French
champion, Carpentier.
During his graduate student days at Yerkes Observatory he
once strolled down to a lakeside pier, where a professor and
his wife also were walking. She fell in and Edwin dived in to
help her out. She struggled and grabbed him, but Hubble
related that "I didn't like to knock her out, so as the water
was not too deep, I set her on my shoulders, which just brought
her head above the surface while I walked underwater until
it became shallow and I could put her down on the shore. I
thought it odd," he added reflectively, "that her husband showed
no warmth in his thanks, nor did he seem particularly glad
to see her."
While finishing work for his doctorate early in 1917, Hub-
ble was invited by Hale to join the staff of the Mount Wilson
Observatory, Pasadena, California. Although this was one of
the greatest of astronomical opportunities, it came in April
of that fateful year. After sitting up all night to finish his
Ph.D. thesis, and taking the oral examination the next morn-
ing, Hubble enlisted in the infantry and telegraphed Hale,
"Regret cannot accept your invitation. Am off to the war."
Hubble was commissioned a captain in the 343d Infantry,
86th Division, and later became a major. His first assignment
was to take discards (many of whom were AWOL's), called
"replacements," to camp. An armed guard brought two men
to the station in handcuffs. Edwin said, "I have enough to do
without looking after you. Take the handcuffs off these men."
In return the grateful men offered to inspect food supplies for
bulged tins (of spoiled food), since they were experts after so
much KP. The result was that there were no food-poisoning
cases on the long, slow train trip. The train arrived with no
deserters, no sick men, and no men unaccounted for.
The official history of the 86th Division relates the follow-
ing story. One of the commanding general's standing orders
was that, when he met an officer, the latter should stop work,
stand at attention, salute, give his name and rank, and account
for the activities of the moment. One morning Edwin was
riding a bicycle on the drill field and saw the general. He dis-
mounted, saluted, and said, "Good Morning, General, nice day,
sir." The general snapped, "Major, can it be that you do not
know what my orders stipulate on the procedure to be taken
by an officer whom I meet?" The major looked the general
squarely in the eyes, saluted, hopped on the bike, and said,
"Sir, Major Hubble, 86th Infantry, getting on his bicycle and
riding away." On another occasion at a dinner of civilians in
Rockford, his hostess challenged him to inspect her kitchen
for cleanliness, because he had said army standards were very
high. He reluctantly agreed, so with guests and hostess looking
on, he took out a white handkerchief and wiped the inside of
a stove leg, the joint between blade and handle of a knife, and
the electric light cord, all of which produced black marks.
"This," he said, "is a test for army kitchens," and afterwards
doubted if his hostess ever forgave him.
Hubble was sent to France where he served as a field and
line officer. Early in November 1918 he was injured by a
bursting shell, from which he suffered a concussion and some
damage to his right elbow. After the armistice he was called to
serve as a judge advocate on courts-martial because of his Oxford
law degree, and later he became administrative head of the
American officers assigned to the universities of Oxford, Cam-
bridge, and Wales.
He returned to the United States in the summer of 1919,
was mustered out in San Francisco, and went immediately to
Pasadena, California. Although he deplored the evils of war,
he nevertheless admitted enjoying army life. He liked the
plain hard living under campaign conditions, the simple rations,
the discipline and adventure, and the living and working to-
gether with fighting men. He took no war insurance, no pen-
sions, no wound remuneration, or allowance of any kind. He
kept only his tin hat, the crossed rifles of the 343d Infantry,
the gold maple leaves of a major, and a German trench dagger
"to cut the pages of French books."
On February 26, 1924, Edwin Hubble and Grace Burke
were married in Pasadena, California. Mrs. Hubble recalls that
the first description of her future husband was given to her by
W. H. Wright, at that time Astronomer in the Lick Observatory.
"He is a hard worker," he said, "he wants to find out about
the universe; that shows how young he is."
Hubble worked at the Mount Wilson Observatory until the
summer of 1942, when he left to do war work at the Aberdeen
Proving Ground. He has described his assignment in the fol-
lowing manner: "Some time after Pearl Harbor, while I was
trying to get back into the Infantry, I was called in by Army
Ordnance and told, in effect, to stop that nonsense, that I
had been ear-marked long before for a job in Ordnance. . . .
My name, they told me, was top of the list because ballistics
had a curious affinity with astronomy, and, moreover, as a
line officer in the last war I might appreciate the significance
of some of the problems as viewed from positions in front of
the guns as well as behind the guns. . . . I rushed to a dictionary.
Ballistics, it seemed, is the science of hurling missiles against
an enemy. This seemed a trifle thin so I turned to the encyclo-
paedia; there I found a long article, but it puzzled me. Ballis-
tics was either underdeveloped or highly classified. So I went
to Aberdeen, partly to find out. . . . I found out. . . . Ballistics
was both underdeveloped and highly classified." At the Ballis-
tics Research Laboratory, Aberdeen Proving Ground, Hubble
was Chief of Exterior Ballistics and Director of the Supersonic
Wind Tunnel. In a letter to Mrs. Hubble, September 2, 1942,
Hubble wrote: "I am more and more impressed with the place.
It is not the home of genius but it knows the answers to many
problems and how to get the answers for others. And best of
all, it fights for high standards—when a conclusion is reached
and a statement formulated, you treat it with respect or get into
trouble." For his valuable service to his country during the
war he was awarded the Medal of Merit in 1946.
After World War II Hubble returned to his position at the
Mount Wilson Observatory where his research, so brilliantly
carried out between two world wars, had provided strong
evidence of the need for a telescope larger than the 100-inch
reflector. He had assisted greatly in the design of the 200-inch
Hale telescope, and had served on the Mount Wilson Observa-
tory Advisory Committee for building the Mount Palomar
Observatory. "With the 200-inch," he said in a BBC broadcast
in London, "we may grasp what now we can scarcely brush with
our fingertips." As Chief of Research, he planned in advance
a broad program for this great instrument. "What do you
expect to find with the 200-inch?" he was asked, and he replied,
"We hope to find something we hadn't expected."
Hubble was also active in his community. He was elected
to the Board of Trustees of the Huntington Library, as successor
to George Ellery Hale, and he served on this Board from 1938
until his death. He organized the Los Angeles Committee on
Foreign Relations and served as a member and its chairman.
He was elected to the National Academy of Sciences in 1927.
Hubble had considerable foresight not only in matters per-
taining to astronomy but also in political and international
affairs. He recognized very early that the European policy of
appeasement in the 1930s was doomed to failure, and that this
country would again be drawn into war. When Germany com-
mitted her first acts of aggression, he said, "This is a world war
and we are in it." In the months preceding the U.S. entry into
the war, he made many speeches throughout the country, and he
advocated immediate participation by the United States as an
ally of Great Britain. In October 1941 Hubble was introduced
to two visiting Englishmen as "Pro-British," to which he replied,
"Hell, I'm for civilization."
Hubble was an accomplished and eloquent speaker, well
able to hold the attention of his audience. An interesting
example of this ability occurred in Pasadena after a very dam-
aging earthquake in March 1933. The guests at the Huntington
Hotel had panicked and were agitatedly canceling their res-
ervations and trying to leave as soon as possible. The hotel
manager, a friend of Hubble, called him to come over in order
to try to calm the guests. Hubble suggested getting a man from
the Cal Tech Seismology Laboratory, but the manager insisted
that he wanted Hubble because he "could give them confidence."
Hubble agreed and told his audience they were fortunate to
have experienced an earthquake without suffering any dam-
age. He described the geological history of southern California,
the locations of the major faults, and explained that damage
occurred in poorly planned and constructed buildings. He told
his audience that they need have no fear about the hotel falling
down, because he and the manager had inspected it that morn-
ing. What he did not tell them was that his own house and the
hotel were built on an earthquake fault, later named the
"Huntington-Hubble" fault by a geologist at Cal Tech. Hub-
ble's talk at the hotel saved the season.
Hubble had a deep interest in science and philosophy, and
he gave his library to the Mount Wilson Observatory. He had
collected many books covering his three principal interests:
Nicolas de Cusa (1401-1464), Giordano Bruno (1548-1600),
and selections from Chinese science and philosophy.
Hubble was a very skillful dry-fly fisherman and did much
fishing in this country in the Rockies, in England on the River
Test at Longstock, and at Bossington House near Stockbridge.
In July 1949, while fishing in the Rockies, he suffered an
attack of coronary thrombosis. In May 1953 Hubble went to
England, where he gave the George Darwin Lecture, the Cor-
mac Lecture of the Royal Society of Scotland, and a lecture
before the Royal Institution of Great Britain. In Paris he at-
tended a meeting of the Institut de France, of which he was a
member. He came back to Bossington House, the residence
of his friend Sir Richard Fairey. Upon his return home, he
continued his researches at the Mount Wilson and Palomar
Observatories, where he was active until the time of his death,
from a cerebral thrombosis, on September 28, 1953.
RESUME OF RESEARCH
In order truly to appreciate the remarkable contributions

to the field of extragalactic research made by Edwin Hubble,
it is necessary to review briefly the state of this knowledge in
the early part of the twentieth century. About 1900 only specu-
lation as to the nature of the thousands of faint nebulous objects
was available. Nebular research in the eighteenth and nine-
teenth centuries was restricted primarily to the cataloguing
of these faint objects. With the application of photography,
spectrographs, and telescopes of increasingly larger size to the
study of the nebulae, several different types of objects were
differentiated. A large number of these made u p the group
called "extragalactic nebulae" by Hubble, who never accepted
the term "galaxy" to describe them. These small, usually sym-
metrical objects, found everywhere in the sky, except in the
plane of the Milky Way, were beyond the limit of detailed
study with small or moderate-sized telescopes in operation dur-
ing the first two decades of the twentieth century.
Toward the end of 1923, Hubble, using the 100-inch re-
flecting telescope on Mount Wilson, was able to resolve several of
the largest spiral nebulae into stars. In particular, among the
brighter resolved stars Hubble was able to identify some having
characteristics identical to a type of variable stars called
Cepheids. These objects had been recognized and carefully
studied in our own galaxy and in the Magellanic Clouds, and
their intrinsic brightnesses, or luminosities, were known with
order-of-magnitude accuracy. Thus, by measuring the apparent
brightnesses of these Cepheids in a few of the largest extra-
galactic nebulae, and by knowing the luminosities of these
variables, Hubble determined the first reliable extragalactic
distances, which were of the order of a million light-years—
far greater than any previously measured. He then extended
this research to determinations of secondary distance criteria,
such as estimates of luminosities of the brightest nonvariable
stars in spiral nebulae, and finally of the total luminosities
of the nebulae themselves, which provided a distance indicator
so bright as to be useful for distances hundreds of times greater
than those measurable by Cepheids. With these observationally
developed methods of distance measurement, he was able to
sound the depths of space to distances out to 500 million light-
years.
Hubble combined his results on extragalactic distances with
the radial velocities from the pioneering spectroscopic work
of V. M. Slipher on bright nebulae, and with those from
the work on fainter ones by his colleague Milton Humason,
to develop a relationship between distance and velocity of
recession for these extragalactic nebulae. The straight line
relationship between these observational quantities, now known
as Hubble's law of red-shifts, had immediate and far-reaching
influence on all subsequent cosmological theories, particularly
those given by Einstein's theory of relativity.
Hubble's observational approach to the study of extra-
galactic nebulae is set forth in his classical book The Realm of
the Nebulae, based on his Silliman Lectures given at Yale in
1935. This monograph, first published in 1936, met with im-
mediate acclaim from both scientific and lay readers. Sir James
Jeans's review of Hubble's book, the first review he had con-
sented to write in ten years, states: "The author sets to work
to record, in simple language and with much charm, the story
of the recent enlargement of the visible universe. . . . It is a
chapter of scientific history which has stirred the imagination
not only of professional astronomers but also of the public at
large. . . . Such is the arresting feast of 'plums' which Dr.
Hubble might have served up in sensational setting had he
elected to play the sensation-monger. He has preferred, and
we will all thank him, to give a straight-forward record of
patient and often laborious work, carried through with a skill,
persistence and flair which often reminds us of Faraday. He
sees the whole exploration as 'a case history of scientific research
in a rather simple form,' and this determines the style of his
record."
In the preface to a 1958 reprint of this book, Allan R.
Sandage wrote: "The Realm of the Nebulae is important be-
cause it is still a source of inspiration in the scientific methods
in this field. . . . Of course many of the details of the subject
have changed since 1936 . . . but these are changes in numerical
detail and not in fundamental philosophy or direction of at-
tack. Hubble's original approach to observational cosmology
remains."
In addition to his renowned study of the red-shifts of neb-
ulae, Hubble undertook a detailed and comprehensive study
of the nebulae as individuals, and he set up in 1926 a classifica-
tion system generally used as the standard to the present time.
A revision of this system based on manuscript notes left by
Hubble has recently been included by Allan Sandage in his
discussion of the magnificent collection of photographs re-
produced in The Hubble Atlas of Galaxies (Carnegie Institu-
tion of Washington, Publication No. 618, 1961).
SCIENTIFIC WORK
In addition to being an active observer in astronomical

research, Hubble also was a keen student of the history of
science. He collected many books on this subject, because he
held the opinion that, whenever possible, one should go to the
original source materials; books written by the men them-
selves were of greater interest and significance than books
written about them. In deference to his opinion, this account of
his multifarious contributions to astronomy will consider chron-
ologically his most outstanding papers, with copious use of
his own words because they are so well chosen.
1920: "Photographic Investigations of Faint Nebulae."
"Extremely little is known of the nature of nebulae, and no
significant classification has yet been suggested; not even a pre-
cise definition has been formulated. The essential features are
that they are situated outside our solar system, that they pre-
sent sensible surfaces, and that they should be unresolved into
separate stars. . . . Some at least of the great diffuse nebulosities
. . . lie within our stellar system; while others, the great spirals,
with their enormous radial velocities and insensible proper
motions apparently lie outside our system." Thus Hubble
summarized the state of knowledge of nebulae in the year
1920. This paper, based on his doctoral dissertation, deals with
a statistical study of the "numerous small faint nebulae, vague
markings on the photographic plate, whose very forms are
indistinct." Hubble studied several clusters of these small, faint
nebulae that he had discovered by photographing fields with
the 24-inch reflector of the Yerkes Observatory. Until this
time only 76 nebulae were known in clusters; Hubble added
512 more in seven well-defined clusters. These objects he classi-
fied according to form, brightness, and size, and he measured
their positions accurately.
Hubble went on to estimate the minimum sizes of these
objects by reasoning that "the spirals form a continuous series
from the great nebula of Andromeda to the limit of resolution,
the small ones being much more numerous. Considering them
fo be scattered at random as regards distance and size, some
conception may be formed of their dimensions from the data
at hand. The average radial velocity of those so far observed is
about 400 km/sec, while the proper motion is negligible. Putting
the annual proper motion at O".O5 the lower limit of the average
distance is found to be 7500 light years. If they are within our
sidereal system, then, as they are most numerous in the direction
of its minimum axis, the dimensions of our system must be much
greater than commonly supposed." Hubble continued with an
estimate of the velocity of escape from a spiral, which he found
to be comparable to that of the galaxy. Thus he concluded,
"Considering the problematic nature of the data, the agreement
is such as to lend some color to the hypothesis that the spirals
are stellar systems at distances to be measured often in millions
of light years."
1922: "A General Study of Diffuse Galactic Nebulae." This
paper contains a wealth of information concerning the galactic
nebulae, obtained by Hubble with the Mount Wilson tele-
scopes. In it Hubble laid the cornerstone upon which rest
many contemporary theories of the nature of galactic nebulae.
By first setting up an unambiguous classification system of
nebulae "based upon the fundamental differences between
galactic and non-galactic nebulae," and by subdividing the ga-
lactic nebulae into planetary and diffuse (in turn subdivided
into luminous and dark), Hubble paved the way to a piercing
analysis of both the distribution of galactic nebulae and the
origin of their luminosity. The following excerpt is quoted
not only for its basic importance in the study of galactic neb-
ulae but also because it is a typical example of the mastery of
scientific thought, ease, and clarity of style characteristic of
all of Hubble's writings.
"Association of Galactic Nebulosity with Stars—This inti-
mate relation between spectral type of nebula and of involved
stars raises a presumption that one is a consequence of the
other. It seems more reasonable to place the active agency
in the relatively dense and exceedingly hot stars than in the
nebulosity, and this leads to the suggestion that nebulosity is
made luminous by radiation of some sort from stars in certain
physical states. The necessary conditions are confined to certain
ranges in stellar spectral type and hence are possibly phenom-
ena of effective temperature. The nebulous material itself
must be in a physical state sensitive to the stellar radiation, and
close enough for the density of radiation to be effective. The
abrupt transition from emission to 'continuous' nebulosity be-
tween spectral type BO and Bl suggests a critical point in the
spectral sequence or possibly effective temperature below which
stellar radiation is incapable of exciting nebulous material to
emission luminosity. From thence down the spectral sequence
the luminosity gives a continuous spectrum and probably par-
takes more and more of the nature of reflected light." More
than forty years later, this conclusion still stands, except that
the large amount of subsequent work indicates the division
into emission and reflection nebulae is not so sharp.
1922: "The Source of Luminosity in Galactic Nebulae."
Hubble continued his study of galactic nebulae in this paper,
and he presented the observational evidence necessary to sup-
port his theory of the source of luminosity of galactic nebulae
described in the above quotation. To test his theory he ob-
tained for 82 nebulae data on angular extent of the nebulosity
as a function of the apparent brightness of the stars associated
with them. For nebulae showing continuous spectra, Hubble
reported the general conclusion from this investigation:
"Within the errors of observation, the data can be represented
on the hypothesis that diffuse nebulae derive their luminosity
from involved or neighboring stars and that they re-emit at
each point exactly the amount of light radiation which they
receive from the stars. Where stars of sufficient brightness are
lacking in the neighborhood, or, if present, are not properly
situated to illuminate the nebula as seen from the earth, the
clouds of material present themselves as dark nebulosity." The
second section of this paper is devoted to a study of planetary
nebulae, for which he shows that the luminosities of planetaries
do not follow the relation found for galactic nebulae.
1925: "NGC 6822, a Renote Stellar System." With this
paper Hubble returned to the field of extragalactic nebulae.
In this "faint irregular cluster of stars with several small neb-
ulae involved," Hubble was able to identify eleven variables
as Cepheids. By using the period-luminosity relation, he found
a distance of 214,000 parsecs for this object. From star counts
and measurements of surface brightnesses he determined the
absolute luminosity and the mean density of the system, and
compared it with the Magellanic Clouds. The importance of
this study for the extragalactic distance scale is clearly stressed
by Hubble himself in his conclusion:
"The present investigation identifies NGC 6822 as an iso-
lated system of stars and nebulae of the same type as the Magel-
lanic Clouds, although somewhat smaller and much more distant.
A consistent structure is thus reared on the foundation of the
Cepheid criterion, in which the dimensions, luminosities and
densities, both of the system as a whole and of its separate
members, are of orders of magnitude which are thoroughly
familiar. The distance is the only quantity of a new order.
"The principle of the uniformity of nature thus seems to
rule undisturbed in this remote region of space. This principle
is the fundamental assumption in all extrapolations beyond
the limits of known and observable data, and speculations
which follow its guide are legitimate until they become self-
contradictory. It is therefore a matter of considerable impor-
tance that familiar relations are found to be consistent when
applied to the first system definitely assigned to the regions
outside the galactic system.
"Of especial importance is the conclusion that the Cepheid
criterion functions normally to this great distance. Cepheid
variables have recently been found in the two largest of the
spiral nebulae, and the period-luminosity relation places them
at distances even more remote than NGC 6822. This criterion
seems to offer the means of exploring extra-galactic space;
NGC 6822 furnishes a critical test of its value for so ambitious
an undertaking and the results are definitely in its favor."
1926: "A Spiral Nebula as a Stellar System: Messier 33."
Hubble continued his study of the nearest nongalactic nebulae
by using "the highest resolving power available—the full
aperture of the 100-inch reflector working under exceptionally
fine conditions of mirror surface and seeing." His results, as
presented in this paper and the following one, were epoch-
making. A study of the plates clearly established the stellar
appearance of the images of the condensations: "They are as
small and as sharp as those of ordinary stars of the same magni-
tude. The two most successful plates, each of 30 minutes ex-
posure . . . show images with angular diameters smaller than
any previously obtained on any astronomical photograph." On
the collection of photographs available to him, Hubble was
able to identify forty-five variables and two novae. Thirty-five
of the variables were shown to be typical Cepheids; using the
period-luminosity relation, Hubble found a distance about 8.1
times that of the small Magellanic Cloud. Hubble emphasized
that "hitherto, wherever Cepheids have been found in isolated
systems, the criterion has led to distances entirely consistent
with other characteristics that could be observed. . . . Here also,
the period-luminosity relation functioned normally and the
order of resulting distances was confirmed by several independ-
ent criteria. A presumption is thus raised in favor of the
general validity of the Cepheid criterion, which only strong
and cumulative evidence to the contrary will destroy."
1926: "Extra-Galactic Nebulae." In Part I of this paper
Hubble set forth his classification of nebulae, with detailed
discussion of his classification of extragalactic nebulae. He
emphasized that "the basis of the classification is descriptive
and entirely independent of any theory." The photographs of
typical elliptical, irregular, normal, and barred spirals ap-
pearing in this paper are perhaps the most familiar set of
photographs in present-day astronomy books. This classifica-
tion system, later revised by Hubble, and completed by Sand-
age after Hubble's death, is the standard system used today.
Part II of this paper contains a statistical study of some
400 extragalactic nebulae. Hubble reported that "the various
types are homogeneously distributed over the sky, their spectra
are similar, and the radial velocities are of the same general
order. These facts, together with the equality of the mean
magnitudes and the uniform frequency distribution of magni-
tudes, are consistent with the hypothesis that the distances and
absolute luminosities as well are of the same order for the dif-
ferent types. This is an assumption of considerable importance,
but unfortunately it cannot yet be subjected to positive and
definite tests."
Hubble next proceeded to give detailed analyses of the
relations between luminosities and diameters of spiral and
elliptical nebulae. He reported that "among the nebulae of
each separate type are found linear correlations between total
magnitudes and logarithms of diameters. . . . The residuals
without regard to sign average 0.87 mag., and there appears
to be no systematic effect due either to type or luminosity. The
scatter, however, is much greater for the spirals, especially in
the later types, than for the elliptical nebulae. The limiting
cases are explained by peculiar structural features. The neb-
ulae which fall well above the line usually have bright stellar
nuclei, and those which fall lowest are spirals seen edge-on in
which belts of absorption are conspicuous."
!94 BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIRS
In those extragalactic systems in which individual stars had

been resolved, Hubble used them as distance criteria to make
estimates of the total absolute magnitudes of the parent neb-
ulae, because from the Cepheid criterion "the number of
nebulae of known distance is too small to serve as a basis for
estimates of the range in absolute magnitude among the neb-
ulae in general. Further information, however, can be derived
from a comparison of total apparent magnitudes with apparent
magnitudes of the brightest stars involved, on the reasonable
assumption, supported by such evidence as is available, that
the brightest stars in isolated systems are of about the same
intrinsic luminosity." Finally, using what observational evi-
dence was available, he determined the mean density of neb-
ulae in space, and applied this result in the theory of general
relativity to get the radius of curvature of the finite universe
—"600 times the distance at which normal nebulae can be de-
tected with the 100-inch reflector." This calculation represented
the boldest probe of the universe yet made, and it greatly
stimulated theoretical work in cosmology.
1929: "A Spiral Nebula as a Stellar System, Messier 31."
This paper, 55 pages long, contains a detailed discussion of the
Andromeda nebula, the first giant spiral nebula for which Hub-
ble was able to get a reliable distance, by use of the period-
luminosity relation for Cepheids. "The present discussion,"
Hubble wrote, "is based on the study of about 350 photographs
taken with the 60- and 100-inch reflectors, distributed over an
interval of about eighteen years. Two-thirds of the total number
were obtained by the writer during the five years 1923-1928."
The same procedure used by Hubble in his 1926 paper on
M33 was adopted in his study of M31, with the result that forty
Cepheids were identified and used to construct the period-
luminosity relation for this great stellar system. "The distance
of M31 has been derived by comparing Figure 2 [the period-
luminosity relation for M31] with corresponding diagrams
for Cepheids in M33 and in the Small Magellanic Cloud. . . .
The distance of M31 is about 0.1 mag., or 5 percent, greater
than that of M33, and 8.5 times the distance of the Small Cloud.
Using Shapley's value for the Cloud (m — M = 17.55) we
find for M31 . . . Distance = 900,000 light years. . . . The
accuracy of the relative distances is very satisfactory. . . . The
accuracy of the distances in parsecs or light-years, however,
depends largely upon the accuracy of the zero-point of the
period-luminosity curve. Accumulating evidence indicates that
Shapley's value is certainly of the right general order of magni-
tude, but there still remains the possibility of a considerable
correction when more data on galactic Cepheids become avail-
able."
The extensive amount of observational data assembled by
Hubble enabled him to make a detailed study of the charac-
teristics of the 85 novae observed photographically in the
Andromeda nebula. He reported that "their mean light-curve
is of the same general character as that for galactic novae," and
that the distribution of novae in M31 "follows the distribution
of luminosity in the nebula."
Hubble was unable to resolve the nuclear region of M31
with the 100-inch reflector, but he summarized what evidence
he was able to obtain regarding this particularly interesting
portion of the nebula: "The observational data bearing on
the composition of the nuclear region are: (1) the lack of
absorption, (2) the infrequency of very bright giants, (3) the
appearance of novae, and (4) the characteristic dwarf-solar-
type spectrum with broad, fuzzy lines. A superficial interpreta-
tion of these data suggests a star cloud in which bright giants
are rare, in contrast with the outer arms of the spiral, where
giants are abundant. The Cepheids would then follow the dis-
tribution of the giants, while the novae would follow that of
the faint stars, or possibly that of the stars in general."
Finally, Hubble estimated the mass, luminosity, and den-
sity distribution in M31, and concluded that "the galactic sys-

tem is five or six times the diameter of the spiral." This dis-
parity in size nearly vanished when, within a year, Trumpler
demonstrated the existence of interstellar absorption of light
in the galaxy—a phenomenon that gave too large a measure
of distance.
1930: "Distribution of Luminosity in Elliptical Nebulae."
This paper is concerned with "a preliminary attempt to deter-
mine the actual luminosity distribution in the images of a
selected list of elliptical nebulae. The results emphasize the
dynamical pattern on which they are constructed." Hubble
photographed 15 of these nebulae at the Newtonian focus of the
100-inch reflector. From these plates he then derived the distri-
bution of luminosity within the nebulae, i.e., the spatial light
density, and compared the results with the distribution in den-
sity of the Emden isothermal gaseous sphere. From the compari-
son he concluded: "The nuclei of the nebulae appear to be
relatively more concentrated, and in the outer regions the lumi-
nosity falls off faster than the density, as would be expected in
the case of finite rotating bodies such as the nebulae." At the
time, no elliptical nebula had been resolved into stars, and this
result was available for consideration by rival theories of
ellipticals as gaseous or stellar systems. Hubble did not venture
an interpretation in this respect in the present paper. He was
content to offer the new data with the hope "that they may
furnish an observational basis for the dynamical study of ellip-
tical nebulae."
1931: "The Velocity-Distance Relation among Extra-Galac-
tic Nebulae" (with Milton L. Humason). In Part I, "Distances
of Nebulae," Hubble and Humason listed the 10 nebulae in
which types of stars were identified, which enabled them to
determine the individual distances of the nebulae from the
criterion of brightest-star absolute magnitude. They stated:
"The range in the magnitudes of the brightest stars is about
1.8, with an average residual of 0.4 around the mean value
—6.1. . . . These facts lend color to the assumption of a fairly
uniform upper limit to the luminosity of stars in the great
isolated systems, which may be used as a criterion of distance
where stars can be seen but no types identified." Thus they
derived a formula for the distance of a nebula, "as indicated by
the brightest stars involved," as
logD = 0.2ms + 2.2,
where D = distance in parsecs and ms = photographic mag-
nitude of the brightest star. For the restricted types of objects
studied, they found the mean absolute total magnitude, or
luminosity, of these 10 extragalactic nebulae to be —14.9.
The measurement of total apparent magnitudes of nebulous
objects is, however, a very difficult technical problem of photo-
graphic photometry. In this paper, therefore, the authors de-
scribed in detail the method developed and adopted at Mount
Wilson. Based upon extra-focal exposures, this method gave
results of improved accuracy mainly for distances of clusters
of nebulae, because "the luminosity criterion is purely statistical
and is reliable only when large numbers of nebulae are avail-
able. One direct application concerns the great clusters of neb-
ulae. The mean or most frequent apparent magnitude of the
many members is a good indicator of the distance of the cluster,
and hence clusters offer the greatest distances that can definitely
be assigned to individual objects. If observations of very remote
objects are desired, the brightest members of very faint clusters
may be selected."
In Part II, "The Velocity-Distance Relation," the writers
compiled data on 26 new velocities of nebulae belonging to
8 clusters or groups, together with 14 new velocities for isolated
objects. These highly significant results were summarized as
follows: "The relation [between radial velocity and distance]
is a linear increase in the velocity amounting to about -f-500
km/sec per million parsecs of distance." The cosmological
consequences and implications of this simple statement have
had enormous influence on astronomical and philosophical
thought.
The authors pointed out, nevertheless, that "the interpreta-
tion of red-shifts as actual velocities does not command the same
confidence, and the term 'velocity' will be used for the present
in the sense of 'apparent' velocity, without prejudice as to its
ultimate significance."
1932: "Nebulous Objects in Messier 31 Provisionally Identi-
fied as Globular Clusters." Hubble continued his detailed studies
of the nearer spiral systems, and in this paper he reported the
discovery of 140 "nebulous objects" in and around the Androm-
eda nebula. These objects he described as "nebulous stars—
small, highly concentrated, round and perfectly symmetrical.
. . . The observed characteristics of the objects appear to admit
of but one interpretation. On the basis of structure, luminosity,
diameters and colors, the objects are provisionally identified as
globular star clusters. Their absolute magnitudes are systemati-
cally fainter by one or two magnitudes than the absolute magni-
tudes of the globular clusters in the galactic system derived from
Shapley's distances." Hubble lived to learn the reason for this
discrepancy: the Cepheid distance criterion as formulated by
Shapley gave distances too small by a factor of two, as reported
in 1952byBaade.
1932: "The Surface Brightness of Threshold Images." The
problem of the measurement of apparent total magnitudes of
nebulae is difficult photographically, because it involves the
comparison of surfaces (nebulae) with point sources (stars).
Since Hubble's greatest distance criteria were based on such
measurements, and since he himself was engaged in extensive
counts of faint nebulae, he was naturally concerned to develop
as accurate a method as possible for detemining nebular mag-
nitudes. This paper discusses one practical aspect of the prob-
lem: "The photographic photometry of threshold images in-
volves an effect depending on the areas. It is well known that
the photometry of surfaces differs from that of point-source
images, but the manner in which one merges into the other
is seldom discussed in the literature. The question bears on the
estimates of limiting magnitudes of nebulae recorded under
given exposure conditions."
The results of Hubble's studies of both nebular and stellar
images produced under threshold conditions with the 100- and
60-inch reflectors resulted in "a relation between surface bright-
ness and size of image, according to which the surface brightness
diminishes as the size increases, at first rapidly and then more and
more slowly. . . . For very small images the total magnitudes
are independent of the size; for very large images the surface
brightness is independent of the size. The observed relation is
a smooth transition between these limiting conditions." With
this relationship he was able to obtain more accurate magnitudes
of nebulae from those of stars used as standards.
1934: "Red-Shifts in the Spectra of Nebulae." In this beauti-
fully written paper, the Halley Lecture of the Royal Astronomi-
cal Society delivered in London on May 8, 1934, Hubble dis-
cussed "some of the more recent explorations in the realm of
the nebulae which bear more or less directly on the structure
of the universe." Here he invoked the "Principle of the Uni-
formity of Nature, which supposes that any other equal portion
of the universe, chosen at random, will exhibit the same gen-
eral characteristics. As a working hypothesis, serviceable until
it leads to contradictions, we may venture the assumption that
the realm of the nebulae is the universe—that the Observable
Region is a fair sample, and that the nature of the universe may
be inferred from the observable characteristics of the sample."

After a condensed description of observational techniques for
determining the velocity-distance relation, Hubble considered
briefly its significance: "The significance of this strange char-
acteristic of our sample of the universe depends upon the in-
terpretation of red-shifts. The phenomena may be described in
several equivalent ways—the light from distant nebulae is redder
than normal, the light waves are longer, the vibrations are
slower, the light quanta have lost energy. Many ways of pro-
ducing such effects are known, but of them all, only one will
produce large red-shifts without introducing other effects which
should be conspicuous but actually are not found. This one
known permissible explanation interprets red-shifts as due to
actual motion away from the observer. . . . We may say with
confidence that red-shifts are due either to actual motion or to
some hitherto unrecognized principle of physics. Theoretical
investigators almost universally accept the red-shifts as indicat-
ing motion of recession of the nebulae, and they are fully
justified in their position until evidence to the contrary is forth-
coming."
1934: "The Distribution of Extra-galactic Nebulae." In an
introduction to this long paper containing an immense amount
of new material, Hubble referred to his work on distance esti-
mates of the nebulae as giving a "hasty sketch of some of the
general features of the Observable Region as a unit. The next
step," he said, "was to follow the reconnaissance with a survey
—to repeat carefully the explorations with an eye to accuracy
and completeness. The program, with its emphasis on methods,
will be a tedious series of successive approximations, but the
procedure is necessary, since extrapolations beyond the frontiers
will be significant only in proportion to the accuracy with which
the trend of correlations has been established out to the frontier
itself." These words were prophetic, for the remainder of Hub-
ble's research reflected his belief expressed in these thoughts.
This paper, 69 pages in length, incorporates counts of about
80,000 nebulae identified on photographs taken with the Mount
Wilson 60- and 100-inch reflectors. In this work, generally rec-
ognized as a classic, Hubble obtained on a firm quantitative
basis, for the first time, information on the large-scale occur-
rence of obscuring matter along the plane of the galaxy, on the
numbers of the nebulae to successively fainter magnitude limits,
on the tendency of nebulae to cluster, and on the average density
of matter in extragalactic space. The impact of these new data
on cosmology and galactic structure investigations can hardly
be overestimated. There are innumerable references to this work
in many subsequent papers by theorists and observers.
1935: "Two Methods of Investigating the Nature of Nebular
Red-Shift" (with Richard C. Tolman). Although Hubble had
no official connection with the California Institute of Tech-
nology until he served on the Advisory Committee for the con-
struction of the large Palomar telescopes, he had many friends
and colleagues on its faculty. In particular, he enjoyed many sci-
entifically productive associations with H. P. Robertson and
R. C. Tolman, and this paper is an example of the cooperative
spirit that existed between Hubble and these theoreticians at
Cal Tech.
In Part I of the paper, their empirical approach to the
analysis of the nebular red-shift was stated as follows: "Until
further evidence is available, both the present writers wish to
express an open mind with respect to the ultimately most sat-
isfactory explanation of the nebular red-shift and, in the presen-
tation of purely observational findings, to continue to use the
phrase 'apparent' velocity of recession." Surely this seems a
warning for some not to "rush in where angels fear to tread."
On the basis of (a) an expanding cosmological model using
relativistic mechanics and (b) the case in which "the red-shift
is due to some cause other than recession," the authors derived
a theoretical relation between locations in space and photo-
graphic magnitudes of nebulae, for tests of the nature of the
red-shift. The derived formula contained the distance to a
nebula as an unobservable quantity. It was eliminated by con-
necting "either nebular dimensions with observed luminosities,
or nebular counts with observed luminosities."
Part II of the paper presented the existing status of the ob-
servational work pertinent to the problem. The authors con-
cluded: "In the case of the relation between nebular dimen-
sions and luminosities, the observations are such as to confirm
our general ideas as to the extra-galactic character of the objects
in question, but are not yet sufficient to permit a decision be-
tween recessional or other causes for the red shift."
They next considered in some detail the uncertainties in
the counts of galaxies, such as the difficulties in determining
the number of nebular images per plate, in measuring the limit-
ing magnitudes, in evaluating the fractional red-shift, and in
determining the spectral energy correction term K. They con-
cluded finally that "the observations now available show a
rate of increase in counts with distance which seem rather
large compared with what would be expected for a homo-
geneous distribution of nebulae on the basis of either a re-
cessional or a non-recessional theory."
1936: "Effects of Red Shifts on the Distribution of Nebulae."
In this paper Hubble added two additional groups of nebular
counts to the three groups already discussed in his 1935 paper
with Tolman. After a detailed analysis of the observational
data, and a comparison with the theoretical models computed
with Tolman, Hubble found that "the observations may be
fitted into either of two quite different types of universes. If
the red-shifts are velocity shifts, the model is closed, small and
dense. It is rapidly expanding, but over a long period the rate
of expansion has been steadily diminishing. Existing instru-
ments range through a large fraction of the entire volume and,
perhaps, through a considerable fraction of past time since the
expansion began.
"On the other hand, if red-shifts are not primarily due to
velocity shifts, the Observable Region loses much of its sig-
nificance. The velocity-distance relation is linear; the distribu-
tion of nebulae is uniform; there is no evidence of expansion,
no trace of curvature, no restriction to the time scale. The
sample, it seems, is too small to indicate the particular type
of universe we inhabit.
"Thus the surveys to about the practical limits of existing
instruments present as alternatives a curiously small-scale uni-
verse, or a hitherto unrecognized principle of nature. A de-
finitive choice, based upon observational criteria that are well
above the threshold of uncertainty may not be possible until
results with the 200-inch reflector become available."
1936: "The Luminosity Function of Nebulae." "Consider all
the nebulae in a given volume of space," Hubble wrote in
The Realm of the Nebulae (p. 59). "The relative numbers of
giants and dwarfs and normal objects—more precisely, the fre-
quency-distribution of absolute magnitudes (candle powers)
among these nebulae—form the 'luminosity-function.' It was
assumed that the luminosity-function remains constant through-
out the regions covered by the surveys—that the function is
independent of distance or direction—that the giants do not
tend to congregate in one region and the dwarfs in another
region. The assumption has not been fully established by direct
observations, but it seems reasonable and it is consistent with
all information available at the present time."
In this paper Hubble attempted to estimate the luminosity
function for the nebulae, and he did so by two separate methods:
(1) the luminosity function of resolved nebulae as indicated
by their brightest stars, and (2) the luminosity function as in-
dicated by residuals in velocity-magnitude relations. The first of
these methods utilizes the criterion of the brightest star in a
nebula, "which is arbitrarily defined as the mean of the three
or four brightest objects which are judged to be individual,
non-variable stars situated in a nebula." Hubble pointed out
the observational pitfalls in identifying these stars, and added:
"Regardless of their true nature, the objects selected as bright-
est stars . . . form a homogeneous group in which the absolute
magnitudes do not vary systematically with apparent magnitudes
(or distances)." Therefore, the difference in the apparent mag-
nitude of the brightest star within the nebula and the magnitude
of the nebula itself should give an indication of the intrinsic
luminosity of the nebula; and the compilation of a large number
of such differences for many nebulae should give a reasonable
evaluation of the luminosity function of the nebulae. Hubble
listed about 125 nebulae in which stars were identified "with
some confidence." From these he determined the frequency dis-
tribution of the differences between apparent magnitudes of
nebulae and of their brightest stars. His general conclusion was
that the luminosity function of nebulae approximates a normal
error-curve.
The second method used by Hubble in determining the
nebular luminosity function employed the velocity-distance re-
lation. He pointed out that this relation furnishes individual
distances of unresolved field nebulae, and that the percentage
errors actually diminish as distances increase. Following a new
evaluation of the velocity-magnitude relation, Hubble derived
the residuals from the relation for 109 field nebulae. Of these
objects, 29 are resolved nebulae included in the first method,
and Hubble found that the luminosity function derived from
their residuals agrees closely with that determined in the first
method from the brightest stars in resolved nebulae alone.
1939: "The Motion of the Galactic System among the Neb-
ulae." In this paper Hubble analyzed the residual radial mo-
tions of the nebulae, after removing the systematic red-shifts.
His analysis of these residual motions of many nebulae well
distributed over the sky assumed that the peculiar motions tend
to cancel out, since they are presumably distributed at random
in all directions; thus there was left only the reflection of the
motion of the galactic system. Hubble concluded: "A relatively
small velocity and a high inclination to the plane of the Milky
Way seem to be definitely indicated, although precise numerical
values cannot be derived from the data now available."
1943: "The Direction of Rotation in Spiral Nebulae." Hub-
ble's survey of the nearby nebulae led him to the recognition of
four spirals in which the direction of rotation could be deter-
mined unambiguously from the silhouetting of absorption lanes
against the bright nuclear regions. For fifteen other spirals for
which spectrographic rotation had been observed, spiral arms
could be traced, and the dissymmetry of obscuration offered a
general criterion of tilt. He found that the consistent applica-
tion of this general criterion indicated all these nebulae appear
to be rotating in the same direction; the sense of this direction
could be found from the four spirals for which the tilt could
be determined without ambiguity. By this process he found
that in all these nebulae the arms are trailing—the outer parts
lag behind as the inner regions rotate faster.
1949: "First Photographs with the 200-inch Hale Telescope."
Here Hubble reported that the photographs taken while testing
the 200-inch telescope recorded stars and nebulae fully 1.5 mag-
nitudes fainter than the extreme limit of the 100-inch reflector
on Mount Wilson, and that at high galactic latitudes the 200-
inch telescope records many more nebulae than stars, as he
had predicted about fifteen years earlier. This paper also con-
tains a reproduction of the first photograph taken with the
Hale Telescope on January 26, 1949, about 10:00 P.M. (after
waiting more than a week for a break in the weather). The object
was NGC 2261, a well-known galactic nebula, now generally
known as Hubble's Variable Nebula because of the remarkable
changes in its brightness that he discovered.
1951: "Explorations in Space: The Cosmological Program
for the Palomar Telescope." Few astronomers have equaled Hub-
ble's impressive eloquence in popular lectures. This paper, pre-
sented as the Penrose Memorial Lecture to the American Philo-
sophical Society, is a prime example of such talks. It contains a
resume of extragalactic research already done, and then con-
centrates on the program for Palomar: "The cosmological pro-
gram for the Palomar telescope has been formulated to get
new answers to the observational problems, free from system-
atic errors and with the accidental errors sufficiently small to be
unimportant. Specifically, the problems are, first, to find the
mean density of matter in space, and the rate of increase of
red-shifts in our immediate vicinity—say within 50 million light-
years of our own system—and second, to determine whether or
not there are any appreciable systematic changes with distance
or direction in either of the two data."
1954: "The Law of Red-Shifts." This paper, the George Dar-
win Lecture delivered by Hubble on May 8, 1953, in London,
was edited by Sandage, and published after Hubble's death. In
it, he discussed the emergence of the law of red-shifts, first in
its discovery phase, which ended with a crude formulation in
1928-1929, then its rapid extension and improved formulation
out to the limit of the 100-inch reflector in 1929-1936, and finally
the recent attempts to reach the limit of the 200-inch reflector
with the definite formulation of the law. He discussed in some
detail the current efforts at this definitive formulation with the
200-inch reflector, including the problems of magnitude stand-
ards, measurement of nebular magnitudes, and effects of red-
shifts on apparent magnitudes. He concluded by reporting
the latest evaluation of the red-shift magnitude relation, stating
that the correlation is linear within the uncertainties of the
data, and that the residuals are surprisingly small.
It seems fitting to conclude this memoir with Hubble's own
words, to indicate how he viewed the continuation of extragalac-
tic research in a field he had made so much his own:
"As for the future, it is possible to penetrate still deeper into
space—to follow the red-shifts still farther back in time—but
we are already in the region of diminishing returns; instru-
ments will be increasingly expensive, and progress increasingly
slow. The most promising programmes for the immediate future
accept the Observable Region as presently denned, hope for
only modest extensions in space, but concentrate on increased
precision and reliability in the recorded description. The re-
connaissance is being followed by an accurate survey; the ex-
plorations are pushed towards the next decimal place instead
of the next cipher. This procedure promises to reduce the array
of possible worlds as surely as did the early inspections of the
new territory. And later, perhaps in a happier generation, when
the cost of a battleship can safely be diverted from insurance of
survival to the consolations of philosophy, the march outward
may be resumed.
"For I can end as I began. From our home on the Earth,
we look out into the distances and strive to imagine the sort
of world into which we are born. Today we have reached
far out into space. Our immediate neighborhood we know rather
intimately. But with increasing distance our knowledge fades,
and fades rapidly, until at the last dim horizon we search among
ghostly errors of observations for landmarks that are scarcely
more substantial. The search will continue. The urge is older
than history. It is not satisfied and it will not be suppressed."
BIBLIOGRAPHY
KEY TO ABBREVIATIONS
Am. Astron. Soc. Publ. = American Astronomical Society Publications
Astrophys. J. = Astrophysical Journal
Carnegie Inst. Wash. News Serv. Bull. = Carnegie Institution of Washing-
ton News Service Bulletin
Contrib. Mt. Wilson Obs. = Contributions from the Mount Wilson
Observatory
Leaflet Astron. Soc. Pacific = Leaflet of the Astronomical Society of
the Pacific
Monthly Notices Roy. Astron. Soc. = Monthly Notices of the Royal
Astronomical Society
Mt. Wilson Obs. Commun. = Mount Wilson Observatory Communica-
tions
Mt. Wilson Palomar Obs. Reprint = Mount Wilson and Palomar
Observatories Reprint
Popular Astron. = Popular Astronomy
Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. = Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences
Publ. Astron. Soc. Pacific = Publications of the Astronomical Society
of the Pacific
Sci. Monthly = Scientific Monthly
Smithsonian Inst. Ann. Rept. = Smithsonian Institution, Annual Report
1916
Twelve faint stars with sensible proper-motions. Astronomical
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Changes in the form of the nebula N.G.C. 2261. Proc. Nat.
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1917
Recent changes in the variable nebula N.G.C. 2261. Astrophys.
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With Frederick H. Seares. The color of the nebulous stars. As-
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1921
Twelve new planetary nebulae. Publ. Astron. Soc. Pacific, 33:
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A general study of diffuse galactic nebulae. Astrophys. J., 56:
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BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIRS
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A spiral nebula as a stellar system, Messier 31. Astrophys. J.,
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1932
Nebulous objects in Messier 31 provisionally identified as globular
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1934
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The award of the Bruce Gold Medal to Professor Alfred Fowler.
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Angular rotations of spiral nebulae. Astrophys. J., 81:334-35;
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Edwin Powell Hubble: National Academy of Sciences

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Edwin Powell Hubble: National Academy of Sciences

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national academy of sciences

Any opinions expressed in this memoir are those of the author(s)

by his inspired use of the largest telescope

In a conversation with the author Bernard Jaffe, Hubble is

In order truly to appreciate the remarkable contributions

In addition to being an active observer in astronomical

In those extragalactic systems in which individual stars had

sity distribution in M31, and concluded that "the galactic sys-

be inferred from the observable characteristics of the sample."

Non-galactic nebulae. I. Classification and apparent dimensions;

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