Chapter 14

Alternating voltages and

currents
At the end of this chapter you should be able to:
• appreciate why a.c. is used in preference to d.c.
• describe the principle of operation of an a.c. generator
• distinguish between unidirectional and alternating waveforms
• define cycle, period or periodic time T and frequency f of a waveform
1
• perform calculations involving T =
f
• define instantaneous, peak, mean and r.m.s. values, and form and peak factors for a sine wave
• calculate mean and r.m.s. values and form and peak factors for given waveforms
• understand and perform calculations on the general sinusoidal equation υ = Vm sin(ωt ± φ)
• understand lagging and leading angles
• combine two sinusoidal waveforms (a) by plotting graphically, (b) by drawing phasors to scale and (c) by
calculation
• understand rectification, and describe methods of obtaining half-wave and full-wave rectification
• appreciate methods of smoothing a rectified output waveform

14.1 Introduction 14.2 The a.c. generator

Electricity is produced by generators at power stations Let a single turn coil be free to rotate at constant angular
and then distributed by a vast network of transmission velocity symmetrically between the poles of a magnet
lines (called the National Grid system) to industry and system as shown in Figure 14.1.
for domestic use. It is easier and cheaper to generate An e.m.f. is generated in the coil (from Faraday’s
alternating current (a.c.) than direct current (d.c.) and Laws) which varies in magnitude and reverses its direc-
a.c. is more conveniently distributed than d.c. since its tion at regular intervals. The reason for this is shown in
voltage can be readily altered using transformers. When- Figure 14.2. In positions (a), (e) and (i) the conductors
ever d.c. is needed in preference to a.c., devices called of the loop are effectively moving along the magnetic
rectifiers are used for conversion (see Section 14.7). field, no flux is cut and hence no e.m.f. is induced.

DOI: 10.1016/B978-1-85617-770-2.00014-8
 Alternating voltages and currents 179

Figure 14.1

Part 2
Figure 14.3

Figure 14.2 A waveform of the type shown in Figure 14.3(g) is

called a sine wave. It is the shape of the waveform
In position (c) maximum flux is cut and hence maxi-
of e.m.f. produced by an alternator and thus the mains
mum e.m.f. is induced. In position (g), maximum flux is
electricity supply is of ‘sinusoidal’ form.
cut and hence maximum e.m.f. is again induced. How-
One complete series of values is called a cycle (i.e. from
ever, using Fleming’s right-hand rule, the induced e.m.f.
O to P in Figure 14.3(g)).
is in the opposite direction to that in position (c) and is
The time taken for an alternating quantity to complete
thus shown as −E. In positions (b), (d), (f) and (h) some
one cycle is called the period or the periodic time, T,
flux is cut and hence some e.m.f. is induced. If all such
of the waveform.
positions of the coil are considered, in one revolution
The number of cycles completed in one second is called
of the coil, one cycle of alternating e.m.f. is produced
the frequency, f , of the supply and is measured in
as shown. This is the principle of operation of the a.c.
hertz, Hz. The standard frequency of the electricity
generator (i.e. the alternator).
supply in Great Britain is 50 Hz.
1 1
T= or f =
14.3 Waveforms f T

If values of quantities which vary with time t are plot- Problem 1. Determine the periodic time for
ted to a base of time, the resulting graph is called frequencies of (a) 50 Hz and (b) 20 kHz.
a waveform. Some typical waveforms are shown in
Figure 14.3. Waveforms (a) and (b) are unidirectional
1 1
waveforms, for, although they vary considerably with (a) Periodic time T = = = 0.02 s or 20 ms
time, they flow in one direction only (i.e. they do not f 50
cross the time axis and become negative). Waveforms 1 1
(b) Periodic time T = = = 0.00005 s or
(c) to (g) are called alternating waveforms since their f 20 000
quantities are continually changing in direction (i.e. 50 µs
alternately positive and negative).
 180 Electrical Circuit Theory and Technology

value measured over a half cycle, (since over a complete

Problem 2. Determine the frequencies for
cycle the average value is zero).
periodic times of (a) 4 ms, (b) 4 µs.
area under the curve
1 1 1000 Average or mean value =
(a) Frequency f = = = = 250 Hz length of base
T 4 × 10 −3 4
The area under the curve is found by approximate
1 1 1 000 000 methods such as the trapezoidal rule, the mid-ordinate
(b) Frequency f = = =
T 4 × 10−6 4 rule or Simpson’s rule. Average values are represented
= 250 000 Hz or 250 kHz or 0.25 MHz by V AV , I AV , etc.
For a sine wave,
Problem 3. An alternating current completes
5 cycles in 8 ms. What is its frequency? average value= 0.637 × maximum value
(i.e. 2/π × maximum value)
8
Time for 1 cycle = ms = 1.6 ms = periodic time T The effective value of an alternating current is that cur-
5
rent which will produce the same heating effect as an
1 1 1 000 10 000
Frequency f = = = = equivalent direct current. The effective value is called
T 1.6 × 10−3
Part 2

1.6 16 the root mean square (r.m.s.) value and whenever an

= 625 Hz alternating quantity is given, it is assumed to be the r.m.s.
value. For example, the domestic mains supply in Great
Now try the following exercise Britain is 240 V and is assumed to mean ‘240 V r.m.s.
The symbols used for r.m.s. values are I , V , E, etc. For
a non-sinusoidal waveform as shown in Figure 14.4 the
Exercise 48 Further problems on frequency
r.m.s. value is given by:
and periodic time
 2 
i1 + i22 + · · · + in2
1. Determine the periodic time for the following I=
frequencies: n
(a) 2.5 Hz (b) 100 Hz (c) 40 kHz where n is the number of intervals used.
[(a) 0.4 s (b) 10 ms (c) 25 µs]
2. Calculate the frequency for the following
periodic times:
(a) 5 ms (b) 50 µs (c) 0.2 s
[(a) 0.2 kHz (b) 20 kHz (c) 5 Hz]
3. An alternating current completes 4 cycles in
5 ms. What is its frequency? [800 Hz]

Figure 14.4
14.4 A.c. values For a sine wave,
Instantaneous values are the values of the alternating r.m.s. value= 0.707 × maximum value
√
quantities at any instant of time. They are represented (i.e. 1/ 2 × maximum value)
by small letters, i, υ, e, etc. (see Figures 14.3(f) and (g)).
The largest value reached in a half cycle is called the r.m.s. value
peak value or the maximum value or the amplitude of Form factor= For a sine wave,
average value form factor =1.11
the waveform. Such values are represented by Vm , Im ,
etc. (see Figures 14.3(f) and (g)). A peak-to-peak value maximum value
Peak factor = For a sine wave,
of e.m.f. is shown in Figure 14.3(g) and is the difference r.m.s. value peak factor =1.41
between the maximum and minimum values in a cycle.
The average or mean value of a symmetrical alter- The values of form and peak factors give an indication
nating quantity, (such as a sine wave), is the average of the shape of waveforms.
 Alternating voltages and currents 181

(Note that the greater the number of intervals cho-

Problem 4. For the periodic waveforms shown in
sen, the greater the accuracy of the result. For
Figure 14.5 determine for each: (i) frequency
example, if twice the number of ordinates as that
(ii) average value over half a cycle (iii) r.m.s. value
chosen above are used, the r.m.s. value is found to
(iv) form factor and (v) peak factor.
be 115.6 V.)
r.m.s. value 114.6
(iv) Form factor = = = 1.15
average value 100
maximum value 200
(v) Peak factor = =
r.m.s. value 114.6
= 1.75

(b) Rectangular waveform (Figure 14.5(b))

(i) Time for 1 complete cycle =16 ms = periodic
time, T
1 1
Hence frequency, f = =

Part 2
T 16 ×10−3
1000
= = 62.5 Hz
16
(ii) Average value over half a cycle
area under curve
=
Figure 14.5 length of base
10 × (8 × 10−3)
=
(a) Triangular waveform (Figure 14.5(a)) 8 ×10−3
(i) Time for 1 complete cycle =20 ms = periodic = 10 A
time, T  
1 1 1000 i12 + i22 + · · · + in2
Hence frequency f = = = (iii) The r.m.s. value =
T 20 × 10−3 20 n
= 50 Hz
= 10 A
(ii) Area under the triangular waveform for a half
cycle however many intervals are chosen, since the
= 1
2 × base × height = 12 × (10 × 10−3) × 200 waveform is rectangular.
= 1 volt second r.m.s. value 10
(iv) Form factor = = =1
Average value of waveform average value 10
area under curve 1 volt second maximum value 10
= = (v) Peak factor = = =1
length of base 10 × 10−3 second r.m.s. value 10
1000
= = 100 V Problem 5. The following table gives the
10
corresponding values of current and time for a half
(iii) In Figure 14.5(a), the first 1/4 cycle is divided cycle of alternating current.
into 4 intervals.
Thus r.m.s. value time t (ms) 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
 2 
v1 + v22 + v32 + v42 current i (A) 0 7 14 23 40 56
=
4
 
25 + 752 + 1252 + 1752
2 time t (ms) 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0
=
4 current i (A) 68 76 60 5 0
= 114.6 V
 182 Electrical Circuit Theory and Technology

area under curve

Assuming the negative half cycle is identical in
shape to the positive half cycle, plot the waveform = (0.5 × 10−3)[3 + 10 + 19 + 30 + 49 + 63
and find (a) the frequency of the supply, (b) the + 73 + 72 + 30 + 2] (see Figure 14.6)
instantaneous values of current after 1.25 ms and
3.8 ms, (c) the peak or maximum value, (d) the = (0.5 × 10−3)(351)
mean or average value, and (e) the r.m.s. value of (0.5 × 10−3)(351)
the waveform. Hence mean or average value =
5 × 10−3
The half cycle of alternating current is shown plotted in = 35.1 A
Figure 14.6 (e) r.m.s. value

⎛ 2 ⎞
3 + 102 + 192 + 302 + 492 + 632 +


⎜ 732 + 722 + 302 + 22 ⎟
= ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 10 ⎠

 
19 157
Part 2

= = 43.8 A
10

Problem 6. Calculate the r.m.s. value of a

sinusoidal current of maximum value 20 A.

For a sine wave, r.m.s. value = 0.707 ×maximum value

= 0.707 ×20 = 14.14 A

Problem 7. Determine the peak and mean values

for a 240 V mains supply.

For a sine wave, r.m.s. value of voltage V = 0.707 × Vm

A 240 V mains supply means that 240 V is the r.m.s.
value, hence
V 240
Figure 14.6 Vm = = = 339.5 V = peak value
0.707 0.707
(a) Time for a half cycle = 5 ms. Hence the time for Mean value VAV = 0.637 Vm = 0.637 ×339.5 = 216.3 V
1 cycle, i.e. the periodic time, T = 10 ms or 0.01 s
1 1 Problem 8. A supply voltage has a mean value of
Frequency, f = = = 100 Hz 150 V. Determine its maximum value and its r.m.s.
T 0.01
value.
(b) Instantaneous value of current after 1.25 ms is
19 A, from Figure 14.6
For a sine wave, mean value = 0.637 ×maximum value
Instantaneous value of current after 3.8 ms is 70 A,
from Figure 14.6 mean value 150
Hence maximum value = =
(c) Peak or maximum value = 76 A 0.637 0.637
area under curve = 235.5 V
(d) Mean or average value =
length of base r.m.s. value = 0.707 ×maximum value = 0.707 × 235.5
Using the mid-ordinate rule with 10 intervals, each = 166.5 V
of width 0.5 ms gives:
 Alternating voltages and currents 183

Now try the following exercise

Exercise 49 Further problems on a.c. values

of waveforms

1. An alternating current varies with time over

half a cycle as follows:

current (A) 0 0.7 2.0 4.2 8.4 8.2

time (ms) 0 1 2 3 4 5

current (A) 2.5 1.0 0.4 0.2 0

time (ms) 6 7 8 9 10

The negative half cycle is similar. Plot the

curve and determine: (a) the frequency (b) the

Part 2
instantaneous values at 3.4 ms and 5.8 ms
(c) its mean value and (d) its r.m.s. value
[(a) 50 Hz (b) 5.5 A, 3.1 A
(c) 2.8 A (d) 4.0 A]

2. For the waveforms shown in Figure 14.7 deter-

mine for each (i) the frequency (ii) the average
value over half a cycle (iii) the r.m.s. value
(iv) the form factor (v) the peak factor.
[(a) (i) 100 Hz (ii) 2.50 A (iii) 2.87 A
Figure 14.7
(iv) 1.15 (v) 1.74
(b) (i) 250 Hz (ii) 20 V (iii) 20 V
6. A sinusoidal voltage has a maximum value of
(iv) 1.0 (v) 1.0 120 V. Calculate its r.m.s. and average values.
(c) (i) 125 Hz (ii) 18 A (iii) 19.56 A [84.8 V, 76.4 V]
(iv) 1.09 (v) 1.23
(d) (i) 250 Hz (ii) 25 V (iii) 50 V 7. A sinusoidal current has a mean value of
15.0 A. Determine its maximum and r.m.s.
(iv) 2.0 (v) 2.0]
values. [23.55 A, 16.65 A]
3. An alternating voltage is triangular in shape,
rising at a constant rate to a maximum of 300 V
in 8 ms and then falling to zero at a constant
rate in 4 ms. The negative half cycle is identical 14.5 Electrical safety – insulation and
in shape to the positive half cycle. Calculate fuses
(a) the mean voltage over half a cycle, and
(b) the r.m.s. voltage [(a) 150 V (b) 170 V] Insulation is used to prevent ‘leakage’, and when deter-
mining what type of insulation should be used, the
4. Calculate the r.m.s. value of a sinusoidal curve maximum voltage present must be taken into account.
of maximum value 300 V [212.1 V] For this reason, peak values are always considered
when choosing insulation materials.
5. Find the peak and mean values for a 200 V Fuses are the weak link in a circuit and are used to
mains supply [282.9 V, 180.2 V] break the circuit if excessive current is drawn. Exces-
sive current could lead to a fire. Fuses rely on the
 184 Electrical Circuit Theory and Technology

heating effect of the current, and for this reason, r.m.s

values must always be used when calculating the
appropriate fuse size.

14.6 The equation of a sinusoidal

waveform
In Figure 14.8, OA represents a vector that is free to
rotate anticlockwise about 0 at an angular velocity of
ω rad/s. A rotating vector is known as a phasor.
Part 2

Figure 14.8

After time t seconds the vector OA has turned through

an angle ωt. If the line BC is constructed perpendicular
to OA as shown, then
Figure 14.9
BC
sin ωt = i.e. BC = OB sin ωt
OB (v) Frequency, f = ω/2π Hz (since ω = 2π f )
If all such vertical components are projected on to a (vi) φ =angle of lag or lead (compared with
graph of y against angle ωt (in radians), a sine curve v = Vm sin ωt )
results of maximum value OA. Any quantity which
varies sinusoidally can thus be represented as a phasor.
A sine curve may not always start at 0◦. To show this Problem 9. An alternating voltage is given by
a periodic function is represented by y = sin(ωt ± φ), v = 282.8 sin 314 t volts. Find (a) the r.m.s. voltage,
where φ is the phase (or angle) difference compared with (b) the frequency and (c) the instantaneous value of
y = sin ωt . In Figure 14.9(a), y2 = sin(ωt + φ) starts voltage when t = 4 ms.
φ radians earlier than y1 = sin ωt and is thus said to
lead y1 by φ radians. Phasors y1 and y2 are shown in (a) The general expression for an alternating
Figure 14.9(b) at the time when t = 0. voltage is
In Figure 14.9(c), y4 = sin(ωt −φ) starts φ radians v = Vm sin(ωt ± φ).
later than y3 = sin ωt and is thus said to lag y3 by φ
radians. Phasors y3 and y4 are shown in Figure 14.9(d) Comparing v = 282.8 sin 314t with this general
at the time when t = 0. expression gives the peak voltage as 282.8 V
Given the general sinusoidal voltage, v =V m sin(ωt ± φ), Hence the r.m.s. voltage = 0.707 ×maximum value
then = 0.707 × 282.8 =200 V

(i) Amplitude or maximum value = Vm (b) Angular velocity, ω = 314 rad/s, i.e. 2π f = 314
314
(ii) Peak-to-peak value = 2 Vm Hence frequency, f = = 50 Hz
2π
(iii) Angular velocity =ω rad/s (c) When t = 4 ms, v = 282.8 sin(314 ×4 × 10−3)
(iv) Periodic time, T = 2π/ω seconds = 282.8 sin(1.256) = 268.9 V
 Alternating voltages and currents 185
 
180 ◦ When time t = 0, v = −20 V
(Note that 1.256 radians = 1.256 ×
π
i.e. −20 =40 sin φ
= 71.96◦ −20
so that sin φ = = −0.5
Hence v = 282.8 sin 71.96◦ = 268.9 V) 40
 π 
Hence φ = sin−1 (−0.5) = −30◦ = −30 × rads
Problem 10. An alternating voltage is given by 180
π
v = 75 sin(200πt − 0.25) volts. = − rads
6
Find (a) the amplitude, (b) the peak-to-peak value,  π
(c) the r.m.s. value, (d) the periodic time, (e) the Thus v = 40 sin 200πt − V
frequency, and (f ) the phase angle (in degrees and 6
minutes) relative to 75 sin 200πt .
Problem 12. The current in an a.c. circuit at any
time t seconds is given by:
Comparing v = 75 sin(200πt − 0.25) with the general
i = 120 sin(100πt + 0.36) amperes. Find:
expression v = Vm sin(ωt ± φ) gives:
(a) the peak value, the periodic time, the

Part 2
(a) Amplitude, or peak value = 75 V frequency and phase angle relative to
(b) Peak-to-peak value = 2 × 75 = 150 V 120 sin 100πt

(c) The r.m.s. value = 0.707 × maximum value (b) the value of the current when t = 0
= 0.707 ×75 = 53 V (c) the value of the current when t = 8 ms
(d) Angular velocity, ω = 200π rad/s (d) the time when the current first reaches 60 A,
2π 2π 1 and
Hence periodic time, T = = =
ω 200π 100 (e) the time when the current is first a maximum
= 0.01 s or 10 ms
(a) Peak value = 120 A
1 1
(e) Frequency, f = = = 100 Hz 2π 2π
T 0.01 Periodic time T = = (since ω = 100π)
ω 100π
(f) Phase angle, φ = 0.25 radians lagging 1
75 sin 200πt = = 0.02 s or 20 ms
50
 
180 ◦
0.25 rads = 0.25 × = 14.32 ◦ 1 1
π Frequency, f = = = 50 Hz
T 0.02  
Hence phase angle = 14.32◦ lagging 180 ◦
Phase angle = 0.36 rads = 0.36 ×
π
Problem 11. An alternating voltage, v, has a = 20.63◦ leading
periodic time of 0.01 s and a peak value of 40 V.
When time t is zero, v = −20 V. Express the
(b) When t = 0, i = 120 sin(0 + 0.36) = 120 sin 20.63◦
instantaneous voltage in the form
=49.3 A
v = Vm sin(ωt ± φ).
   
8
(c) When t = 8 ms, i = 120 sin 100π + 0.36
Amplitude, Vm = 40 V 103
2π
Periodic time T = hence angular velocity, = 120 sin 2.8733 = 31.8 A
ω
2π 2π
ω= = = 200π rad/s (d) When i = 60 A, 60 =120 sin(100πt + 0.36)
T 0.01
v = Vm sin(ωt + φ) thus becomes 60
thus = sin(100πt + 0.36)
v = 40 sin(200πt + φ) V 120
 186 Electrical Circuit Theory and Technology
π
so that (100πt + 0.36) = sin−1 0.5 = 30◦ = rads
6 4. An alternating voltage v has a periodic time of
= 0.5236 rads 20 ms and a maximum value of 200 V. When
time t = 0, v = −75 volts. Deduce a sinusoidal
0.5236 − 0.36 expression for v and sketch one cycle of the
Hence time, t = = 0.521 ms
100π voltage showing important points.
[v = 200 sin (100πt − 0.384) V]
(e) When the current is a maximum, i = 120 A
5. The instantaneous value of voltage in an a.c.
Thus 120 =120 sin(100πt + 0.36) circuit at any time t seconds is given by:
v = 100 sin (50πt − 0.523) V.
1 = sin(100πt + 0.36)
π Find:
(100πt + 0.36) = sin−1 1 = 90◦ = rads
2 (a) the peak-to-peak voltage, the periodic
= 1.5708 rads time, the frequency and the phase angle
(b) the voltage when t = 0
1.5708 − 0.36 (c) the voltage when t = 8 ms
Hence time, t = = 3.85 ms
100π
Part 2

(d) the times in the first cycle when the voltage

For a practical laboratory experiment on the use of is 60 V
the CRO to measure voltage, frequency and phase, see (e) the times in the first cycle when the voltage
the website. is −40 V, and
(f) the first time when the voltage is a
Now try the following exercise maximum.
Sketch the curve for one cycle showing rele-
Exercise 50 Further problems on the vant points.
equation of a sinusoidal [(a) 200 V, 0.04 s, 25 Hz, 29.97◦ lagging
waveform (b) −49.95 V (c) 66.96 V
1. An alternating voltage is represented by (d) 7.426 ms, 19.23 ms
v = 20 sin 157.1 t volts. Find (a) the maximum (e) 25.95 ms, 40.71 ms (f) 13.33 ms]
value (b) the frequency (c) the periodic time.
(d) What is the angular velocity of the phasor
representing this waveform?
[(a) 20 V (b) 25 Hz (c) 0.04 s (d) 157.1 rads/s] 14.7 Combination of waveforms
2. Find the peak value, the r.m.s. value, the peri- The resultant of the addition (or subtraction) of two
odic time, the frequency and the phase angle sinusoidal quantities may be determined either:
(in degrees and minutes) of the following
alternating quantities: (a) by plotting the periodic functions graphically (see
(a) v = 90 sin 400πt volts worked Problems 13 and 16), or
[90 V, 63.63 V, 5 ms, 200 Hz, 0◦ ] (b) by resolution of phasors by drawing or calculation
(b) i = 50 sin(100πt + 0.30) amperes (see worked Problems 14 and 15).
[50 A, 35.35 A, 0.02 s, 50 Hz,
17.19◦ lead] Problem 13. The instantaneous values of two
(c) e = 200 sin (628.4t − 0.41) volts alternating currents are given by i1 = 20 sin ωt
[200 V, 141.4 V, 0.01 s, 100 Hz, 23.49◦ lag] amperes and i2 = 10 sin(ωt + π/3) amperes. By
plotting i1 and i2 on the same axes, using the same
3. A sinusoidal current has a peak value of
scale, over one cycle, and adding ordinates at
30 A and a frequency of 60 Hz. At time t = 0,
intervals, obtain a sinusoidal expression for i1 + i2 .
the current is zero. Express the instantaneous
current i in the form i = Im sin ωt  π
[i = 30 sin 120πt A] i1 = 20 sin ωt and i2 = 10 sin ωt + are shown plot-
3
ted in Figure 14.10.
 Alternating voltages and currents 187

Figure 14.10

Ordinates of i1 and i2 are added at, say, 15◦ intervals

Part 2
(a pair of dividers are useful for this).
For example,
at 30◦ , i1 + i2 = 10 +10 =20 A Figure 14.11
at 60◦ , i1 + i2 = 8.7 +17.3 =26 A
at 150◦, i1 + i2 = 10 +(−5) = 5 A, and so on. (ii) Join v2 to the end of v1 at the appropriate angle,
i.e. ab of Figure 14.11(b)
The resultant waveform for i1 + i2 is shown by the bro-
ken line in Figure 14.10. It has the same period, and (iii) The resultant v R = v1 + v2 is given by the length
hence frequency, as i1 and i2 . The amplitude or peak Ob and its phase angle φ may be measured with
value is 26.5 A. respect to v1
The resultant waveform leads the curve i1 = 20 sin ωt Alternatively, when two phasors are being added the
by 19◦ resultant is always the diagonal of the parallelogram, as
 π  shown in Figure 14.11(c).
i.e. 19 × rads = 0.332 rads
180 From the drawing, by measurement, v R = 145 V and
angle φ = 20◦ lagging v1 .
Hence the sinusoidal expression for the resultant i1 + i2 A more accurate solution is obtained by calculation,
is given by: using the cosine and sine rules. Using the cosine rule on
i R = i 1 + i 2 = 26.5 sin (ωt + 0.332)A triangle Oab of Figure 14.11(b) gives:

Problem 14. Two alternating voltages are v 2R = v12 + v22 − 2v1 v2 cos 150◦
represented by v1 = 50 sin ωt volts and = 502 + 1002 − 2(50)(100) cos 150◦
v2 = 100 sin(ωt − π/6) V. Draw the phasor diagram
and find, by calculation, a sinusoidal expression = 2500 + 10 000 − (−8660)
√
to represent v1 + v2 . v R = (21 160) = 145.5 V

Phasors are usually drawn at the instant when time t = 0. 100 145.5
Using the sine rule, =
Thus v1 is drawn horizontally 50 units long and v2 is sin φ sin 150◦
drawn 100 units long lagging v1 by π/6 rads, i.e. 30◦.
100 sin 150◦
This is shown in Figure 14.11(a) where 0 is the point of from which sin φ = = 0.3436
rotation of the phasors. 145.5
Procedure to draw phasor diagram to represent v1 + v2 : and φ = sin−1 0.3436 = 0.35 radians, and lags v1
(i) Draw v1 horizontal 50 units long, i.e. Oa of Hence v R = v1 + v2 = 145.5 sin(ωt − 0.35)V
Figure 14.11(b)
 188 Electrical Circuit Theory and Technology

Problem 15. Find a sinusoidal expression for Problem 16. Two alternating voltages are given
(i1 + i2 ) of Problem 13, (a) by drawing phasors, by v1 = 120 sin ωt volts and v2 = 200 sin(ωt − π/4)
(b) by calculation. volts. Obtain sinusoidal expressions for v1 − v2
(a) by plotting waveforms, and (b) by resolution of
(a) The relative positions of i1 and i2 at time t = 0 are phasors.
shown as phasors in Figure 14.12(a). The phasor
diagram in Figure 14.12(b) shows the resultant i R , (a) v1 = 120 sin ωt and v2 = 200 sin(ωt − π/4) are
and i R is measured as 26 A and angle φ as 19◦ or shown plotted in Figure 14.13. Care must be taken
0.33 rads leading i1 . when subtracting values of ordinates especially
Hence, by drawing, i R = 26 sin(ωt + 0.33) A when at least one of the ordinates is negative. For
example
Part 2

Figure 14.12

(b) From Figure 14.12(b), by the cosine rule:

i 2R = 202 + 102 − 2(20)(10)(cos 120◦)
Figure 14.13
from which i R = 26.46 A
10 26.46 at 30◦ , v1 − v2 = 60 − (−52) = 112 V
By the sine rule: =
sin φ sin 120◦
at 60◦ , v1 − v2 = 104 −52 = 52 V
◦
from which φ = 19.10 (i.e. 0.333 rads)
at 150◦ , v1 − v2 = 60 − 193 =−133 V and so on
Hence, by calculation iR = 26.46 sin(ωt + 0.333)A
An alternative method of calculation is to use complex The resultant waveform, v R = v1 − v2 , is shown by
numbers (see Chapter 23). the broken line in Figure 14.13. The maximum
 π value of v R is 143 V and the waveform is seen to
Then i1 + i2 = 20 sin ωt + 10 sin ωt +
3 lead v1 by 99◦ (i.e. 1.73 radians)
π
≡ 20∠0 + 10∠ rad Hence, by drawing, v R = v1 −v2
3
= 143 sin(ωt + 1.73) volts
or 20∠0◦ + 10∠60◦
= (20 + j 0) + (5 + j 8.66) (b) The relative positions of v1 and v2 are shown at
time t = 0 as phasors in Figure 14.14(a). Since the
= (25 + j 8.66) = 26.46∠19.106◦ resultant of v1 − v2 is required, −v2 is drawn in
or 26.46∠0.333 rad the opposite direction to +v2 and is shown by the
broken line in Figure 14.14(a). The phasor dia-
≡ 26.46 sin(ωt +0.333) A gram with the resultant is shown in Figure 14.14(b)
where −v2 is added phasorially to v1
 Alternating voltages and currents 189

(By complex number: v R = v1 − v2

π
= 120∠0 − 200∠ −
4
= (120 + j 0)
−(141.42 − j141.42)
= −21.42 + j141.42
= 143.0∠98.61◦
or 143.9∠1.721 rad

Hence, vR = v 1 − v 2 = 143.0 sin(ωt + 1.721) volts)

Now try the following exercise

Part 2
Exercise 51 Further problems on the
combination of waveforms

1. The instantaneous values of two alternating

voltages are given by v1 = 5 sin ωt and
v2 = 8 sin(ωt − π/6). By plotting v1 and v2 on
the same axes, using the same scale, over one
cycle, obtain expressions for (a) v1 + v2 and
(b) v1 − v2
Figure 14.14
[(a) v1 + v2 = 12.6 sin(ωt − 0.32) V
(b) v1 − v2 = 4 sin(ωt + 2.0) V]

By resolution: 2. Repeat Problem 1 by calculation

[(a) 12.58 sin(ωt − 0.324)
Sum of horizontal components of v1 and v2
(b) 4.44 sin(ωt + 2.02)]

= 120 cos 0◦ + 200 cos 135◦ = −21.42 3. Construct a phasor diagram to represent i1 + i2
where i1 = 12 sin ωt and i2 = 15 sin(ωt + π/3).
Sum of vertical components of v1 and v2 By measurement, or by calculation, find a
sinusoidal expression to represent i1 + i2
= 120 sin 0◦ + 200 sin 135◦ = 141.4 [23.43 sin(ωt + 0.588)]
4. Determine, either by plotting graphs and
From Figure 14.14(c), resultant adding ordinates at intervals, or by calculation,
√ the following periodic functions in the form
vR = [(−21.42)2 + (141.4)2 ] = 143.0,
v = Vm sin(ωt ± φ)
141.4
and tan φ  = = tan 6.6013, from which (a) 10 sin ωt + 4 sin(ωt + π/4)
21.42 [13.14 sin(ωt + 0.217)]
φ  = tan −1 6.6013 = 81.39◦ and
(b) 80 sin(ωt + π/3) + 50 sin(ωt − π/6)
φ = 98.61◦ or 1.721 radians [94.34 sin(ωt + 0.489)]

Hence, by resolution of phasors, (c) 100 sinωt − 70 sin(ωt − π/3)

[88.88 sin(ωt + 0.751)]
v R = v 1 − v 2 = 143.0 sin(ωt + 1.721) volts
 190 Electrical Circuit Theory and Technology

5. The voltage drops across two components

when connected in series across an
a.c. supply are v1 = 150 sin 314.2t and
v2 = 90 sin(314.2t − π/5) volts respectively.
Determine (a) the voltage of the supply, in
trigonometric form, (b) the r.m.s. value of the
supply voltage, and (c) the frequency of the
supply. [(a) 229 sin(314.2t − 0.233) V Figure 14.15
(b) 161.9 V (c) 50 Hz]
the equipment from direct connection with the mains
6. If the supply to a circuit is 25 sin 628.3t volts supply and enables the mains voltage to be changed.
and the voltage drop across one of the com- Thus, an alternating, sinusoidal waveform applied to
ponents is 18 sin(628.3t − 0.52) volts, calcu- the transformer primary is rectified into a unidirectional
late (a) the voltage drop across the remainder waveform. Unfortunately, the output waveform shown
of the circuit, (b) the supply frequency, and in Figure 14.15 is not constant (i.e. steady), and as such,
(c) the periodic time of the supply. would be unsuitable as a d.c. power supply for electronic
[(a) 12.96 sin(628.3t + 0.762) V
Part 2

equipment. It would, however, be satisfactory as a bat-

(b) 100 Hz (c) 10 ms] tery charger. In Section 14.8, methods of smoothing the
7. The voltages across three components in a output waveform are discussed.
series circuit when connected across an a.c. Full-wave rectification using a
supply are: centre-tapped transformer
 π
v1 = 30 sin 300πt − volts, Two diodes may be used as shown in Figure 14.16 to
6
 π  obtain full-wave rectification where a centre-tapped
v2 = 40 sin 300πt + volts and transformer T is used. When P is sufficiently posi-
4
 π  tive with respect to Q, diode D1 conducts and current
v3 = 50 sin 300πt + volts. flows (shown by the broken line in Figure 14.16). When
3
S is positive with respect to Q, diode D2 conducts
Calculate (a) the supply voltage, in sinusoidal and current flows (shown by the continuous line in
form, (b) the frequency of the supply, (c) the Figure 14.16).
periodic time, and (d) the r.m.s. value of the
supply.
[(a) 97.39 sin(300πt + 0.620) V (b) 150 Hz
(c) 6.67 ms (d) 68.85 V]

14.8 Rectification

The process of obtaining unidirectional currents and

voltages from alternating currents and voltages is called
rectification. Automatic switching in circuits is achieved
using diodes (see Chapter 11). Figure 14.16

The current flowing in the load R is in the same

Half-wave rectification
direction for both half-cycles of the input. The output
Using a single diode, D, as shown in Figure 14.15, waveform is thus as shown in Figure 14.16. The output
half-wave rectification is obtained. When P is suffi- is unidirectional, but is not constant; however, it is bet-
ciently positive with respect to Q, diode D is switched ter than the output waveform produced with a half-wave
on and current i flows. When P is negative with respect rectifier. Section 14.8 explains how the waveform may
to Q, diode D is switched off. Transformer T isolates be improved so as to be of more use.
 Alternating voltages and currents 191

A disadvantage of this type of rectifier is that centre- a large variation is unacceptable since it produces ‘hum’
tapped transformers are expensive. in the output. Smoothing is the process of removing the
worst of the output waveform variations.
Full-wave bridge rectification To smooth out the pulsations a large capacitor, C, is
Four diodes may be used in a bridge rectifier circuit, connected across the output of the rectifier, as shown in
as shown in Figure 14.17 to obtain full-wave rectifica- Figure 14.18; the effect of this is to maintain the output
tion. (Note, the term ‘bridge’ means a network of four voltage at a level which is very near to the peak of the
elements connected to form a square, the input being output waveform. The improved waveforms for half-
applied to two opposite corners and the output being wave and full-wave rectifiers are shown in more detail
taken from the remaining two corners.) As for the recti- in Figure 14.19.
fier shown in Figure 14.16, the current flowing in load R
is in the same direction for both half cycles of the input
giving the output waveform shown.

Current flow when P

is positive w.r.t. Q Figure 14.18
P
Current flow when Q

Part 2
is positive w.r.t. P
E
Voltage across capacitor
INPUT
D1 D.C. voltage X
⫹ Z
v H D4 F output
D2 D3 Ripple
0 t OUTPUT
⫺ Y
R
⫹ 1
G v
0 t 0 Time
⫺
Q 2
(a) Half-wave rectifier

Voltage across capacitor

Figure 14.17
D.C. voltage

X Z
output

Ripple
Following the broken line in Figure 14.17: Y
When P is positive with respect to Q, current flows from 1
the transformer to point E, through diode D4 to point F,
0 Time
then through load R to point H, through D2 to point G, 2
and back to the transformer.
(b) Full-wave rectifier
Following the full line in Figure 14.17:
Figure 14.19
When Q is positive with respect to P, current flows from
the transformer to point G, through diode D3 to point F, During each pulse of output voltage, the capacitor C
then through load R to point H, through D1 to point E, charges to the same potential as the peak of the wave-
and back to the transformer. The output waveform is not form, as shown as point X in Figure 14.19. As the
steady and needs improving; a method of smoothing is waveform dies away, the capacitor discharges across
explained in the next section. the load, as shown by XY. The output voltage is then
restored to the peak value the next time the rectifier
conducts, as shown by YZ. This process continues as
14.9 Smoothing of the rectified shown in Figure 14.19.
output waveform Capacitor C is called a reservoir capacitor since
it stores and releases charge between the peaks of the
The pulsating outputs obtained from the half- and full- rectified waveform.
wave rectifier circuits are not suitable for the operation The variation in potential between points X and Y is
of equipment that requires a steady d.c. output, such called ripple, as shown in Figure 14.19; the object is
as would be obtained from batteries. For example, for to reduce ripple to a minimum. Ripple may be reduced
applications such as audio equipment, a supply with
 192 Electrical Circuit Theory and Technology

A L B

V V V V
⫹ ⫹ ⫹ ⫹

0 C1 0 0 C2 0
⫺ ⫺ ⫺ ⫺

A B

Figure 14.20

even further by the addition of inductance and another As the ripple voltage increases and the load current
capacitor in a ‘filter’ circuit arrangement, as shown in increases, the induced e.m.f. in the inductor will oppose
Figure 14.20. the increase. As the ripple voltage falls and the load
The output voltage from the rectifier is applied to current falls, the induced e.m.f. will try to maintain the
capacitor C1 and the voltage across points AA is current flow.
shown in Figure 14.20, similar to the waveforms of The voltage across points BB in Figure 14.20 and
Part 2

Figure 14.19. The load current flows through the induc- the current in the inductance are almost ripple-free. A
tance L; when current is changing, e.m.f.’s are induced, further capacitor, C2 , completes the process.
as explained in Chapter 9. By Lenz’s law, the induced For a practical laboratory experiment on the use of
voltages will oppose those causing the current changes. the CRO with a bridge rectifier circuit, see the website.
 Revision Test 4

This revision test covers the material contained in Chapters 13 and 14. The marks for each question are shown in
brackets at the end of each question.

1. Find the current flowing in the 5  resistor of the 2. A d.c. voltage source has an internal resistance of
circuit shown in Figure RT4.1 using (a) Kirchhoff’s 2  and an open-circuit voltage of 24 V. State the
laws, (b) the superposition theorem, (c) Thévenin’s value of load resistance that gives maximum power
theorem, (d) Norton’s theorem. Demonstrate that dissipation and determine the value of this power.
the same answer results from each method. Find (5)
also the current flowing in each of the other two
3. A sinusoidal voltage has a mean value of 3.0 A.
branches of the circuit. (27)
Determine it’s maximum and r.m.s. values. (4)
4. The instantaneous value of current in an a.c. circuit
at any time t seconds is given by:
i = 50 sin(100πt − 0.45) mA

Part 2
10 V 3V
Determine
(a) the peak to peak current, the frequency, the
5V periodic time, and the phase angle (in degrees
2V 1V and minutes)
(b) the current when t = 0
(c) the current when t = 8 ms
(d) the first time when the current is a maximum.
Sketch the current for one cycle showing relevant
Figure RT4.1 points. (14)