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Comp 20243 Systems Analysis and Design
Comp 20243 Systems Analysis and Design
INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS
FOR
COMP 20243 SYSTEMS ANALYSIS AND DESIGN
COMPILED BY:
This module will learn and apply numerous techniques, methods, tools, and approaches.
But when the time comes to interpret what is happening in the organization and to develop
meaningful information systems from the application of rules to your analysis, your training
combines with creativity to produce a system that is in some ways a surprise: It is structured, yet
intuitive; multilayered and complex, in keeping with the character of the organization and
uniquely reflective of you as a systems analyst and a human being. The students by providing
feedback and suggestions for improvements and asking for increased depth in certain topics.
Students rapidly put to use the new material on object-oriented systems analysis and design as
well as that on agile modeling which is the new techniques for designing a new system.
Introduces the systems development life cycle (SDLC), the fundamental four-phase
model (planning, analysis, design, and implementation) common to all information systems
development projects. It describes the evolution of system development methodologies and
discusses the roles and skills required of a systems analyst. This lesson overviews the basic
characteristics of object-oriented systems and the fundamentals of object-oriented systems
analysis and design and closes with a description of the Unified Process and its extensions and
the Unified Modeling Language. Part I shows how a variety of emerging information systems,
including mobile and wireless technologies, and enterprise systems integrate IT and fit into
organizations; how to determine whether a systems project is worthy of commitment;
ecommerce project management; and how to manage a systems project using special software
tools. The three roles of the systems analyst as consultant, supporting expert, and agent of
change are introduced, and ethical issues and professional guidelines for serving as a systems
consultant are covered. There is also material on virtual teams and virtual organizations, and
the concept of HCI is introduced. The use of open source software (OSS) is also introduced.
Lesson 2 includes how to initially approach an organization by drawing context-level data flow
diagrams, using entity-relationship models, and developing use cases and use case scenarios.
Lesson 3 introduces expanded material on creating the project charter and introduces writing
the systems proposal early in the process, no matter what method of analysis and design has
been chosen. Expanded coverage of evaluating software and hardware, and when to use COTS
(commercial off-the-shelf software), is included. This lesson teaches several methods for
forecasting costs and benefits, which are necessary to the discussion of acquiring software and
hardware.
• Recall the basic types of computer-based systems that a systems analyst needs to
address.
• Understand how users working in context with new technologies change the dynamics of
a system.
• Realize what the many roles of the systems analyst are.
• Comprehend the fundamentals of three development methodologies: SDLC, the agile
approach, and object-oriented systems analysis and design .
• Understand what CASE tools are and how they help a systems analyst.
Course Materials:
Systems Analysts Recommend, Design, and Maintain Many Types of Systems for Users
Strategic Level
A systems analyst may be involved with any or
Higher Level all of these systems at each organization level.
Knowledge Level
Operational Level
Operational Level
• Transaction Processing System (TPS)
• Process large amounts of data for routine business transactions
• Boundary-spanning
• Support the day-to-day operations of the company
• Examples: Payroll Processing, Inventory Management
Knowledge Level
• Benefits
• Increasing user awareness of the availability of a service, product, industry, person, or
group
• The possibility of 24-hour access for users
• Improving the usefulness and usability of interface design
• Creating a system that can extend globally rather than remain local, thus reaching
people in remote locations without worry of the time zone in which they are located
Enterprise Resource Planning Systems (ERP)
• Problem solver
• Communicator
• Strong personal and professional ethics
• Self-disciplined and self-motivated
Systems Development Life Cycle (SDLC
• The systems development life cycle is a phased approach to solving business problems.
• Developed through the use of a specific cycle of analyst and user activities
• Each phase has unique user activities.
The Seven Phases of the Systems Development Life Cycle (Figure 1.3)
• The demand for analysts who are capable of incorporating HCI into the systems
development process keeps increasing, as companies begin to realize that the quality of
systems and the quality of work life can be improved by taking a human-centered
approach at the outset of a project.
Identifying Problems, Opportunities, and Objectives
• Activity:
• Interviewing user management
• Summarizing the knowledge obtained
• Estimating the scope of the project
Activity
• Interviewing
• Sampling and investing hard data
• Questionnaires
• Observe the decision maker’s behavior and environment.
• Prototyping
• Learn the who, what, where, when, how, and why of the current system.
Output:
The analyst understands how users accomplish their work when interacting with
a computer; and begin to know how to make the new system more useful and usable.
The analyst should also know the business functions and have complete information on
the people, goals, data, and procedure involved
Analyzing System Needs
• Activity:
• Create data flow, activity, or sequence diagrams.
• Complete the data dictionary.
• Analyze the structured decisions made.
• Prepare and present the system proposal.
• Output:
• Recommendation on what, if anything, should be done
Designing the Recommended System
• Activity:
• Design procedures for data entry.
• Design the human-computer interface.
• Design system controls.
• Design database and/or files.
• Design backup procedures.
Output
• Activity:
• System analyst works with programmers to develop any original software.
• Works with users to develop effective documentation.
Activities/Assessments:
1. Define a system. Explain the components of a system.
2. How do you explain system development life cycle?
3. Discuss the importance of system analysis and design in the
development of a system
4. List three roles that the systems analyst is called upon to play.
Provide a definition for each one
5. What personal qualities are helpful to the systems analyst? List them.
6. Describe the different phases and related activities of system development life cycle.
Learning Outcomes:
• Understand that organizations and their members are systems and that analysts need to
take a systems perspective.
• Depict systems graphically using context-level data flow diagrams, and entity-
relationship models, use cases, and use case scenarios.
• Recognize that different levels of management require different systems.
• Comprehend that organizational culture impacts the design of information systems.
Course Materials:
Organizations as Systems
Organizational Environments
• Community
Physical location
Demographic profile (education, income)
• Economic
Market factors
Competition
• Political
State and local government
• Legal
Federal, state, regional, local laws, and guidelines
• Open
• Focus is on the data flowing into and out of the system and the processing of the data.
• Shows the scope of the system:
What is to be included in the system.
The external entities are outside the scope of the system.
Entity-Relationship Model
• Focus is on the entities and their relationships within the organizational system
• Another way to show the scope of a system
Relationships
• Relationships show how the entities are connected.
• Three types of relationships:
• One-to-one
• One-to-many
• Many-to-many
Entity-Relationship Example (Figure 2.7)
An entity-relationship diagram
showing a many-to-one relationship
Attributes
Patron Name
Patron Patron address
Patron phone
Patron credit card
Creating Entity-Relationship Diagrams
• List the entities in the organization.
• Choose key entities to narrow the scope of the problem.
• Identify what the primary entity should be.
• Confirm the results of the above through data gathering.
A More Complete E-R Diagram Showing Data Attributes of the Entities (Figure 2-12 )
Some Components of Use Case Diagrams Showing Actors, Use Cases, and
Relationships for a Student Enrollment Example (Figure 2.13)\
Scope
Alternative Scenarios
• Extensions or exceptions to the main use case
• Number with an integer, decimal point, integer
• Steps that may or may not always be used
The Main Reasons for Writing Use Cases Are Their Effectiveness in Communicating with Users
and Their Capturing of User Stories (Figure 2.18)
Operations Control
• Make decisions using predetermined rules that have predictable outcomes.
• Oversee the operating details of the organization.
Managerial Planning and Control
• Make short-term planning and control decisions about resources and organizational
objectives.
• Decisions may be partly operational and partly strategic.
Strategic Management
• Look outward from the organization to the future.
• Make decisions that will guide middle and operations managers.
• Work in highly uncertain decision-making environment.
• Define the organization as a whole.
Managerial Levels
• Different organization structure
• Leadership style
• Technological considerations
• Organization culture
• Human interaction
• All carry implications for the analysis and design of information systems
Organizational Culture
• Organizations have cultures and subcultures.
• Learn from verbal and nonverbal symbolism.
Verbal Symbolism
Read
Lesson 2 Understanding and Modeling Organizational Systems
Systems Analysis and Design by Kendall & Kendall 8th ed.
Activities/Assessments:
1. What are the three groups of organizational fundamentals that carry implications for the
development of information systems?
2. What are enterprise systems?
3. What is ERP, and what is its purpose?
4. What problems do analysts often encounter when they try to implement an
ERPpackage?
5. What is an entity on a data flow diagram?
6. What is meant by the term entity-relationship diagram?
7. What symbols are used to draw E-R diagrams?
8. List the types of E-R diagrams.
Problem:
Learning Outcomes:
• Understand how projects are initiated and selected, define a business problem, and
determine the feasibility of a proposed project.
• Inventory and appraise current and proposed hardware and software and the way it
supports human interactions with technology.
Course Materials:
• Project initiation
• Determining project feasibility
• Activity planning and control
• Project scheduling
• Managing systems analysis team members
Project Initiation
Checking Output, Observing Employee Behavior, and Listening to Feedback Are all Ways to
Help the Analyst Pinpoint Systems Problems and Opportunities (Figure 3.1)
Problem Definition
• Problem statement
Paragraph or two stating the problem or opportunity
• Issues
Independent pieces pertaining to the problem or opportunity
• Objectives
Goals that match the issues point-by-point
• Requirements
The things that must be accomplished along with the possible solutions, and constraints,
that limit the development of the system
• Use the problem definition to create a preliminary test plan.
Problem Definition Steps
Technical Feasibility
• Can current technical resources be upgraded or added to in a manner that fulfills the
request under consideration?
• If not, is there technology in existence that meets the specifications?
Software Evaluation
• Performance effectiveness
• Performance efficiency
• Ease of use
• Flexibility
• Quality of documentation
• Manufacturer support
• Judgment methods
o Estimates from the sales force
o Surveys to estimate customer demand
o Delphi studies
o Creating scenarios
o Drawing historical analogies
• If historical data are available
o Conditional:
▪ There is an association among variables in the model.
o Unconditional:
o Do not need to find or identify any relationships
Estimation of Trends
• Graphical judgment
• Moving averages
Tangible Benefits
• Advantages measurable in dollars that accrue to the organization through the use of the
information system
Intangible Benefits
Intangible benefits are benefits from use of the information system that are difficult to measure.
• Examples:
o Improving the decision-making process
o Enhancing accuracy
o Becoming more competitive in customer service
o Maintaining a good business image
o Increasing job satisfaction
Tangible Costs
• Those that can be accurately projected by systems analysts and the business’
accounting personnel
• Examples:
o Cost of equipment
o Cost of resources
o Cost of systems analysts’ time
o Cost of programmers’ time
o Employees’ salaries
Intangible Costs
• Those that are difficult to estimate and may not be known
• Examples:
o Losing a competitive edge
o Losing the reputation of being first
o Declining company image
o Ineffective decision making
Break-Even Analysis
• The point at which the total cost of the current system and the proposed system intersect
• Useful when a business is growing and volume is a key variable in costs
• Disadvantage:
Benefits are assumed to remain the same
• Advantage:
• Can determine how long it will take for the benefits of the system to pay back the
costs of developing it
Cash-Flow Analysis
• Examines the direction, size, and pattern of cash flow that is associated with the
proposed information system
• Determines when cash outlays and revenues will occur for both; not only for the initial
purchase, but over the life of the information system
Estimating Time
• Project is broken down into phases.
• Further project is broken down into tasks or activities.
• Finally project is broken down into steps or even smaller units.
• Time is estimated for each task or activity.
• Most likely, pessimistic and optimistic estimates for time may be used.
Beginning to Plan a Project by Breaking it into Three Major Activities (Figure 3.16)
Refining the Planning and Scheduling of Analysis Activities by Adding Detailed Tasks and
Establishing the Time Required to Complete the Tasks (Figure 3.17)
• Gantt Charts
o Simple
o Lends itself to end user communication
o Drawn to scale
• PERT diagrams
Useful when activities can be done in parallel
Using a Two-Dimensional Gantt Chart for Planning Activities that Can Be Accomplished
in Parallel (Figure 3.18)
A Completed PERT Diagram for the Analysis Phase of a Systems Project (Figure 3.22)
Communication Strategies
• Teams often have two leaders:
o Task leader: leads members to accomplish tasks
o Socioemotional leader: concerned with social relationships
• The systems analyst must manage:
o Team members
o Their activities
o Their time and resources
• Successful projects require that reasonable productivity goals for tangible outputs and
process activities be set.
• Goal-setting helps to motivate team members.
Project Charter
• Describes in a written document what the expected results of the systems project
are and the time frame for delivery
Project Failures
• Project failures may be prevented by:
o Training
Read:
Lesson 3 Project Management
Activities/Assessment:
Problem:
Glenn’s Electronics, a small company, has set up a computer service. The table that follows
shows the revenue expected for the first five months of operation, in addition to the costs for
office remodeling, and so on. Determine the cash flow and accumulated cash flow for the
company. When is Glenn’s expected to show a profit?
Overview:
Module II (Lesson 4–6) emphasizes the use of systematic and structured methodologies
for performing information requirements analysis. Attention to analysis helps analysts ensure
that they are addressing the correct problem before designing the system. Lesson 4 introduces
a group of interactive methods, including interviewing, joint application design (JAD), and
Learning Outcomes:
Course Materials:
• Interviewing
• Interview preparation
• Question types
• Arranging questions
• The interview report
• Open-ended interview questions allow interviewees to respond how they wish, and to
what length they wish.
• Open-ended interview questions are appropriate when the analyst is interested in
breadth and depth of reply.
Advantages of Open-Ended Questions
• Puts the interviewee at ease
• Allows the interviewer to pick up on the interviewee’s vocabulary
• Provides richness of detail
• Reveals avenues of further questioning that may have gone untapped
• Puts the interviewee at ease
• Allows the interviewer to pick up on the interviewee’s vocabulary
• Provides richness of detail
• Reveals avenues of further questioning that may have gone untapped
Bipolar Questions
• Bipolar questions are those that may be answered with a “yes” or “no” or “agree” or
“disagree.”
• Bipolar questions should be used sparingly.
• A special kind of closed question
Probes
• Probing questions elicit more detail about previous questions.
• The purpose of probing questions is:
• To get more meaning
• To clarify
• To draw out and expand on the interviewee’s point
• May be either open-ended or closed
Arranging Questions
• Pyramid
• Starting with closed questions and working toward open-ended questions
• Funnel
• Starting with open-ended questions and working toward closed questions
• Diamond
• Starting with closed, moving toward open-ended, and ending with closed
questions
Pyramid Structure:
• Begins with very detailed, often closed questions
• Expands by allowing open-ended questions and more generalized responses
• Is useful if interviewees need to be warmed up to the topic or seem reluctant to address
the topic
Pyramid Structure for Interviewing Goes from Specific to General Questions (Figure 4.7 )
Diamond Structure
Who Is Involved
• Executive sponsor
• IS analyst
• Users
• Session leader
• Observers
• Scribe
Where to Hold JAD Meetings
Offsite
• Comfortable surroundings
• Minimize distractions
Attendance
• Schedule when participants can attend
• Agenda
• Orientation meeting
Benefits of JAD
• Time is saved, compared with traditional interviewing
• Rapid development of systems
• Improved user ownership of the system
• Creative idea production is improved
Drawbacks of Using JAD
• JAD requires a large block of time to be available for all session participants.
• If preparation or the follow-up report is incomplete, the session may not be successful.
• The organizational skills and culture may not be conducive to a JAD session.
Questionnaires
Open-ended
• Try to anticipate the response you will get.
• Well suited for getting opinions.
Closed
• Use when all the options may be listed.
• When the options are mutually exclusive.
Tradeoffs between the Use of Open-Ended and Closed Questions on Questionnaires
(Figure 4.12)
Questionnaire Language
• Simple
• Specific
• Short
• Not patronizing
• Free of bias
• Addressed to those who are knowledgeable
• Technically accurate
• Appropriate for the reading level of the respondent
Measurement Scales
The two different forms of measurement scales are:
• Nominal
• Interval
Nominal Scales
• Nominal scales are used to classify things.
Interval Scales
When Designing a Web Survey, Keep in Mind that There Are Different Ways to Capture
Responses (Figure 4.13)
Read:
Lesson 4: INFORMATION GATHERING: INTERACTIVE METHODS
Systems Analysis and Design by Kendall & Kendall 8th ed.
Activities/ Assessment:
1. What kinds of information should be sought in interviews?
2. List the five steps in interview preparation.
3. Define what is meant by open-ended interview questions. Give eight benefits and five
drawbacks of using them.
4. When are open-ended questions appropriate for use in interviewing?
5. Define what is meant by closed interview questions. Give six benefits and four
Problems:
The following is the first interview report filed by one of your systems analysis team
members: “In my opinion, the interview went very well. The subject allowed me to talk with him
for an hour and a half. He told me the whole history of the business, which was very interesting.
The subject also mentioned that things have not changed all that much since he has been with
the firm, which is about 16 years. We are meeting again soon to finish the interview, because
we did not have time to go into the questions I prepared.”
a. In two paragraphs, critique the interview report. What critical information is missing?
b. What information is extraneous to the interview report?
c. If what is reported actually occurred, what three suggestions do you have to help your
teammate conduct a better interview next time?
Learning Outcomes:
Unobtrusive Methods
• Less disruptive
• Insufficient when used alone
• Multiple methods approach
• Used in conjunction with interactive methods
Sampling
• A process of systematically selecting representative elements of a population
• Involves two key decisions:
• What to examine
• Which people to consider
Need for Sampling
The reasons systems analysts do sampling are:
• Containing costs
• Speeding up the data gathering
• Improving effectiveness
• Reducing bias
Sampling Design
To design a good sample, a systems analyst must follow four steps:
• Determining the data to be collected or described
• Determining the population to be sampled
• Choosing the type of sample
• Deciding on the sample size
Four Main Types of Samples the Analyst Has Available (Figure 5.1)
sp = i/z
i = interval estimate
STROBE
STROBE Elements
• Office location
• Desk placement
• Stationary equipment
• Props
• External information sources
• Office lighting and color
• Clothing worn by decision makers
Office Location
• Accessible offices
• Main corridors, open door
• The five symbols used to evaluate how observation of the elements of STROBE
compared with interview results are:
• A checkmark means the narrative is confirmed.
• An “X” means the narrative is reversed.
• An oval or eye-shaped symbol serves as a cue to look further.
• A square means observation modifies the narrative.
• A circle means narrative is supplemented by observation.
An Anecdotal List with Symbols for Use in Applying STROBE
(Figure 5.11)
Read:
Lesson 5 INFORMATION GATHERING: UNOBTRUSIVE METHODS
Systems Analysis and Design by Kendall & Kendall 8th ed.
Activities/Assessment:
1. Define what is meant by sampling.
2. List four reasons why the systems analyst would want to sample data or select
representative people to interview.
3. What are the four steps to follow to design a good sample?
4. List the three approaches to complex random sampling.
5. Define what is meant by stratification of samples.
6. What effect on sample size does using a greater confidence level have when sampling
attribute data?
7. What information about the decision maker does the analyst seek to gain from
observation?
8. List five steps to help the analyst observe the decision maker’s typical activities.
9. In the technique known as the analyst’s playscript, who is the actor?
10. In the analyst’s playscript, what information about managers is recorded in the right-
hand column?
• Understand the roots of agile modeling in prototyping and the four main types of
prototyping.
• Be able to use prototyping for human information requirements gathering.
• Understand the concept of RAD for use in human information requirements gathering
and interface design.
• Understand agile modeling and the core practices that differentiate it from other
development methodologies.
• Learn the importance of values critical to agile modeling.
• Understand how to improve efficiency for users who are knowledge workers using either
structured methods or agile modeling.
Course Materials:
Agile Modeling, but First Prototyping
• Agile modeling is a collection of innovative, user-centered approaches to systems
development.
• Prototyping is an information-gathering technique useful in seeking user reactions,
suggestions, innovations, and revision plans.
Patched-Up Prototype
• A system that works but is patched up or patched together.
• A working model that has all the features but is inefficient.
• Users can interact with the system.
• Retrieval and storage of information may be inefficient.
Nonoperational Scale Models
• A nonworking scale mode that is set up to test certain aspects of the design.
• A nonworking scale model of an information system might be produced when the coding
required by the application is too expensive to prototype but when a useful idea of the
system can be gained through prototyping of the input and output only.
First-of-a-Series Prototype
• Creating a pilot
• Prototype is completely operational
• Useful when many installations of the same information system are planned
• A full-scale prototype is installed in one or two locations first, and if successful,
duplicates are installed at all locations based on customer usage patterns and other key
factors.
Scrum
• Begin the project with a high-level plan that can be changed on the fly.
• Success of the project is most important.
• Individual success is secondary.
• Project leader has some (not much) influence on the detail.
• Systems team works within a strict time frame.
• Product backlog
• Sprint backlog
• Sprint
• Daily scrum
• Demo
Lessons Learned from Agile Modeling
• Short releases allow the system to evolve.
• Pair programming enhances the overall quality.
• Onsite customers are mutually beneficial to the business and the agile development
team.
• The 40-hour work week improves worker effectiveness.
• Balanced resources and activities support project goals.
• Agile values are crucial to success.
There Are Six Vital Lessons that Can Be Drawn from the Agile Approach to Systems
(Figure 6.9)
Read:
Lesson 6 AGILE MODELING AND PROTOTYPING
Systems Analysis and Design by Kendall & Kendall 8th ed.
Activities/Assessments:
1. What four kinds of information is the analyst seeking through prototyping?
2. What is meant by the term patched-up prototype?
3. Define a prototype that is a nonworking scale model.
4. Give an example of a prototype that is a first full-scale model.
5. Define what is meant by a prototype that is a model with some, but not all, essential
features.
Problem:
Harold, a district manager for the multioutlet chain of Sprocket’s Gifts, thinks that
building a prototype can mean only one thing: a nonworking scale model. He also believes that
this way is too cumbersome to prototype information systems and thus is reluctant to do so.
a. Briefly (in two or three paragraphs) compare and contrast the other three kinds of
prototyping that are possible so that Harold has an understanding of what prototyping can
mean.
b. Harold has an option of implementing one system, trying it, and then having it
installed in five other Sprocket locations if it is successful. Name a type of prototyping that would
fit well with this approach, and in a paragraph defend your choice.
Overview:
Module III (Lesson 7–10) details the analysis process. It builds on the previous two parts
to move students into analysis of data flows as well as structured and semistructured decisions.
It provides step-by-step details on how to use structured techniques to draw data flow diagrams
(DFDs). Lesson 7 provides coverage of how to create child diagrams; how to develop both
logical and physical data flow diagrams; and how to partition data flow diagrams. Lesson 8
Concludes with Lesson 10 on object-oriented systems analysis and design. This lesson
includes an in-depth section on using unified modeling language (UML). There is detailed
coverage of the use case model, creating the class model diagram with UML, sequence
diagrams, creating gen/spec diagrams, use case scenarios, and activity diagrams. Through
several examples and Consulting Opportunities, this Lesson demonstrates how to use an
object-oriented approach, diagrams, and problems enable students to learn and use UML to
model systems from an object-oriented perspective. Students learn the appropriate situations
for using an object-oriented approach.
• Comprehend the importance of using logical and physical data flow diagrams (DFDs) to
graphically depict movement for humans and systems in an organization.
• Create, use, and explode logical DFDs to capture and analyze the current system
through parent and child levels.
• Develop and explode logical DFDs that illustrate the proposed system.
• Produce physical DFDs based on logical DFDs you have developed.
• Understand and apply the concept of partitioning of physical DFDs.
Course Materials:
Data Flow Diagrams
• Graphically characterize data processes and flows in a business system.
• Depict:
• System inputs
• Processes
• Outputs
The Four Basic Symbols Used in Data Flow Diagrams, Their Meanings, and Examples
(Figure 7.1)
External Entities
• Represent another department, a business, a person, or a machine
• A source or destination of data, outside the boundaries of the system
• Should be named with a noun
Data Flow
• Shows movement of data from one point to another
• Described with a noun
• Arrowhead indicates the flow direction
• Represents data about a person, place, or thing
Process
• Denotes a change in or transformation of data
• Represents work being performed in the system
• Naming convention:
• Assign the name of the whole system when naming a high-level process.
• To name a major subsystem attach the word subsystem to the name.
• Use the form verb-adjective-noun for detailed processes.
Data Store
• A depository for data that allows examination, addition, and retrieval of data
• Named with a noun, describing the data
• Data stores are usually given a unique reference number, such as D1, D2, D3
• Represents a:
• Database
• Computerized file
• Filing cabinet
Drawing Diagram 0
• The explosion of the context diagram.
• May include up to nine processes.
• Each process is numbered.
• Major data stores and all external entities are included.
• Start with the data flow from an entity on the input side.
• Work backwards from an output data flow.
• Examine the data flow to or from a data store.
• Analyze a well-defined process.
• Take note of any fuzzy areas.
Note Greater Detail in Diagram 0
(Figure 7.3)
Data Flow Diagrams for the First Three Rows of the Internet
Storefront Event Response Table (Figure 7.13)
Activities/Assessment:
1. What is one of the main methods available for the analyst to use when analyzing data-
oriented systems?
2. What are the four advantages of using a data flow approach over narrative explanations
of data movement?
3. What are the four data items that can be symbolized on a data flow diagram?
4. What is a context-level data flow diagram? Contrast it to a level 0 DFD.
5. Define the top-down approach as it relates to drawing data flow diagrams
6. Describe what “exploding” data flow diagrams means.
7. What are the trade-offs involved in deciding how far data streams should be exploded?
8. Why is labeling data flow diagrams so important? What can effective labels on data flow
diagrams accomplish for those unfamiliar with the system?
9. What is the difference between a logical and physical data flow diagram?
10. List three reasons for creating a logical data flow diagram.
11. List five characteristics found on a physical data flow diagram that are not on a logical
data flow diagram.
12. When are transaction files required in the system design?
13. How can an event table be used to create a data flow diagram?
14. List the major sections of a use case.
15. How can a use case be used to create a data flow diagram?
16. What is partitioning, and how is it used?
17. How can an analyst determine when a user interface is required?
18. List three ways of determining partitioning in a data flow diagram.
19. List three ways to use completed data flow diagrams.
Problems:
1. One common experience that students in every college and university share is enrolling
in a college course.
a. Draw a level 1 data flow diagram of data movement for enrollment in a college course.
Use a single sheet and label each data item clearly.
b. Explode one of the processes in your original data flow diagram into
subprocesses, adding data flows and data stores.
c. List the parts of the enrollment process that are “hidden” to the outside observer
and about which you have had to make assumptions to complete a second-level
diagram.
2. Figure 7.EX1 is a level 1 data flow diagram of data movement in a Niagara Falls tour
agency called Marilyn’s Tours. Read it over, checking for any inaccuracies.
a. List and number the errors that you have found in the diagram.
b. Redraw and label the data flow diagram of Marilyn’s so that it is correct. Be sure that
your new diagram employs symbols properly so as to cut down on repetitions and
duplications where possible.
D1 COST OF TOUR
PRIVATE
TRAVEL
AGENT
1 2
CHECK DETERMINE
AIRLINE CREDIT TOURIST
TOUR
TRAVEL
AGENT
DESIRED
CASH
TOURIST WITH PAYING 3
CHARGE CARD TOURIST
D2 TRAVEL BROCHURE MAKE
RESERV
D3 TRAVEL ITENERARY ATION
D4 CREDIT HISTORY
Learning Outcomes:
After successful completion of this lesson, you should be able to:
Course Materials:
Cataloging
• Data flow diagrams can be used to catalog:
• Data processes
• Flows
• Stores
• Structures
• Elements
• Cataloging takes place with the data dictionary
The Data Dictionary
• A reference work of data about data (metadata)
• Collects and coordinates data terms, and confirms what each term means to different
people in the organization
Data Structure Example for Adding a Customer Order at World’s Trend Catalog Division
(Figure 8.4)
Structural Records
• A structure may consist of elements or structural records.
• These are a group of elements, such as:
• Customer name
• Address
• Telephone
• Each of these must be further defined until they are broken down into their component
elements.
Structural Records Used in Different Systems
• Structural records and elements that are used within many different systems are given a
non-system-specific name, such as street, city, and zip.
• The names do not reflect a functional area.
• This allows the analyst to define them once and use in many different applications.
Structural Record Example
Data Truncation
• If the element is too small, the data will be truncated.
• The analyst must decide how this will affect the system outputs.
• If a last name is truncated, mail would usually still be delivered.
• A truncated email address or Web address is not usable.
Type of Data
• Alphanumeric or text data
• Formats
• Mainframe: packed, binary, display
• Microcomputer (PC) formats
• PC formats, such as Currency, Number, or Scientific, depend on how the data
will be used
Some Examples of Data Formats Used in PC Systems(Figure 8.7)
Validation Criteria
• Ensure that accurate data are captured by the system
• Elements are either:
• Discrete, meaning they have fixed values
• Continuous, with a smooth range of values
Default Value
• Include any default value the element may have
• The default value is displayed on entry screens.
• Reduces the amount of keying
• Default values on GUI screens
• Initially display in drop-down lists
• Are selected when a group of radio buttons are used
Comment or Remarks Area
• This might be used to indicate the format of the date, special validation that is required,
the check-digit method used, and so on
Data Stores
• Data stores are created for each different data entity being stored.
• When data flow base elements are grouped together to form a structural record, a data
store is created for each unique structural record.
• Because a given data flow may only show part of the collective data that a structural
record contains, many different data flow structures may need to be examined to arrive
at a complete data store description.
Describing the Data Store
• The data store ID
• The data store name
• An alias for the table
XML Schemas
• A more precise way to define the content of an XML document
• Includes exact number of times an element may occur
• Includes type of data within elements
Read:
Lesson 8 ANALYZING SYSTEM USING DICTIONARIES
Systems Analysis and Design by Kendall & Kendall 8th ed.
Activity:
Based on Figure 7.EX1 in Chapter 7, Joe, one of your systems analysis team members, made
the following entry for the data dictionary used by Marilyn’s Tours:
DATA ELEMENT
TOURIST* * * * PAYMENT ALIAS
TOURIST PAY CHARACTERS
12–24 RANGE
$5.00–$1,000 VARIABLES
$5.00, $10.00, $15.00 up to $1,000, and anything in between in dollars and cents.
TO CALCULATE=TOTAL COST OFALLTOURS,ANYAPPLICABLE N.Y. STATE TAX, minus
any RESERVATION DEPOSITS made.
a. Is this truly a data element? Why or why not?
b. Rewrite the data dictionary entry for TOURIST PAYMENT, reclassifying it if necessary. Use
the proper form for the classification you choose.
Learning Outcomes:
After successful completion of this lesson, you should be able to:
Course Materials:
Logic of Decisions
• Documenting and analyzing logic:
• Structured English
• Decision tables
• Decision trees
• Logic and structured decisions are distinguishable from semistructured decisions.
• Structured decision analysis methods promote completeness, accuracy, and
communication.
Process Specifications
• Sometimes called minispecs
• Created for primitive processes as well as for some higher level processes on a data
flow diagram
• Created for class methods in object-oriented design and for the steps in a use case
Goals of Producing Process Specifications
• Reduce process ambiguity.
• Obtain a precise description of what is accomplished.
• Validate the system design.
Process Specifications Are Not Created
• Processes that represent physical input and/or output
• Processes that represent simple data validation
• Processes that use prewritten code
Structured English
• Used when the process logic involves formulas or iteration, or when structured decisions
are not complex
• Based on structured logic and simple English statements such as add, multiply, and
move
Writing Structured English
• Express all logic in terms of sequential structures, decision structures, case structures,
or iterations.
• Use and capitalize accepted keywords such as IF, THEN, ELSE, DO, and PERFORM.
• Indent blocks of statements to show their hierarchy (nesting) clearly.
• Underline words or phrases that have been defined in a data dictionary.
• Clarify the logical statements.
Examples of Logic Expressed in a Sequential Structure, a Decision Structure,
a Case Structure, and an Iteration(Figure 9.3)
Decision Tables
• A table of rows and columns, separated into four quadrants:
• Conditions
• Condition alternatives
• Actions to be taken
• Rules for executing the actions
Activities/Assessments:
1. List three reasons for producing process specifications.
2. Define what is meant by a structured decision.
3. What four elements must be known for the systems analyst to design systems for
structured decisions?
4. What are the two building blocks of structured English?
5. List five conventions that should be followed when using structured English.
6. What is the advantage of using structured English to communicate with people in the
organization?
7. Which quadrant of the decision table is used for conditions? Which is used for condition
alternatives?
8. What is the first step to take in developing a decision table?
9. List the four main problems that can occur in developing decision tables.
10. What is one of the major advantages of decision tables over other methods of decision
analysis?
11. What are the main uses of decision trees in systems analysis?
12. List the four major steps in building decision trees.
13. What three advantages do decision trees have over decision tables?
14. In which two situations should you use structured English?
15. In which two situations do decision tables work best?
16. In which two situations are decision trees preferable?
A computer supplies firm called True Disk has set up accounts for countless businesses in
Dosville. True Disk sends out invoices monthly and will give discounts if payments are made
within 10 days. The discounting policy is as follows: If the amount of the order for computer
supplies is greater than $1,000, subtract 4 percent for the order; if the amount is between $500
and $1,000, subtract a 2 percent discount; if the amount is less than $500, do not apply any
discount. All orders made via the Web automatically receive an extra 5 percent discount. Any
special order (computer furniture, for example) is exempt from all discounting.
a. Develop a decision table for True Disk discounting decisions, for which the condition
alternatives are limited to Yand N.
b. Develop an extended-entry decision table for the True Disk company discount
policy described in Problem 1.
c. Develop a decision tree for the True Disk company discount policy in Problem 1.
d. Write structured English to solve the True Disk company situation in Problem 1.
• Understand what object-oriented systems analysis and design is and appreciate its
usefulness.
• Comprehend the concepts of unified modeling language (UML), the standard approach
for modeling a system in the object-oriented world.
• Apply the steps used in UML to break down the system into a use case model and then
a class model.
• Diagram systems with the UML toolset so they can be described and properly designed.
• Document and communicate the newly modeled object-oriented system to users and
other analysts.
Course Materials:
Object-Oriented Analysis and Design
• Works well in situations where complicated systems are undergoing continuous
maintenance, adaptation, and design
• Objects, classes are reusable
• The Unified Modeling Language (UML) is an industry standard for modeling object-
oriented systems.
• Reusability
• Recycling of program parts should reduce the costs of development in computer-
based systems.
• Maintaining systems
• Making a change in one object has a minimal impact on other objects.
Four CRC Cards for Course Offerings Show How Analysts Fill in the Details for Classes,
Responsibilities, and Collaborators, as well as for
Object Think Statements and Property Names (Figure 10.3)
A Use Case Scenario Is Divided into Three Sections: Identification and Initiation,
Steps Performed, and Conditions, Assumptions, and Questions (Figure 10.7)
Activity Diagrams
• Show the sequence of activities in a process, including sequential and parallel activities,
and decisions that are made.
• Symbols
• Rectangle with rounded ends
• Arrow
• Diamond
• Long, flat rectangle
• Filled-in circle
• Black circle surrounded by a white circle
• Swimlanes
Specialized Symbols Are Used to Draw an Activity Diagram(Figure 10.8)
Communication diagrams show the same information that is depicted in a sequence diagram
but emphasize the organization of objects rather than the time ordering.
Class Diagrams
• Show the static features of the system and do not represent any particular processing.
• Show the nature of the relationships between classes.
• Show data storage requirements as well as processing requirements.
• Classes
• Attributes
• Private
• Public
• Protected
• Methods
• Standard
• Custom
A Class Diagram for Course Offerings: The Filled-In Diamonds Show Aggregation
and the Empty Diamond Shows a Whole-Part Relationship(Figure 10.13)
Generalization/Specialization Diagrams
• Generalization
• Inheritance
• Polymorphism
• Abstract classes
• Messages
Generalization
• Describes a relationship between a general kind of thing and a more specific kind of
thing
• Described as an “is a” relationship
• Used for modeling class inheritance and specialization
• General class is a parent, base, or superclass
• Specialized class is a child, derived, or subclass
Inheritance
• Helps to foster reuse
• Helps to maintain existing program code
Polymorphism
• The capability of an object-oriented program to have several versions of the same
method with the same name within a superclass/subclass relationship
• The subclass method overrides the superclass method.
• When attributes or methods are defined more than once, the most specific one is used.
Abstract Classes
• Abstract classes are general classes.
• No direct objects or class instances, and is only used in conjunction with specialized
classes
Finding Classes
• During interviewing or JAD sessions
• During facilitated team sessions
• During brainstorming sessions
• Analyzing documents and memos
• Examining use cases, looking for nouns
Determining Class Methods
• Standard methods
• Examine a CRUD matrix
Messages
• Used to send information by an object in one class to an object in another class
• Acts as a command, telling the receiving class to do something
• Consists of the name of the method in the receiving class, as well as the attributes that
are passed with the method name
• May be thought of as an output or an input
Packages
• Containers for other UML things
• Show system partitioning
• Can be component packages
• Can be physical subsystems
• Use a folder symbol
• May have relationships
Use Cases Can Be Grouped into Packages(Figure 10.23)
Problems:
1. Write a sample use case scenario for a patient who sees a physician in the Kirt Clinic.
2. Woody’s Supermarket, a small chain of grocery stores, is building a Web site to allow
customers to place orders for groceries and other items they sell. The customer places a
Web order, the customer master is updated, and an order record is created. The order
prints at a local store, and the goods are picked from the shelves by the store
employees. Customers are sent an email notification that their order is ready. When they
pick up the order, frozen goods, chilled products, and other items are assembled.
a. Draw an activity diagram showing the customer using the Web site to place an order,
verification of the order, order confirmation, order details sent to the local store, and
a customer email sent to the customer.
Module IV (Lesson 11–14) covers the essentials of design. It begins with designing
output, because many practitioners believe systems to be output driven. The design of Web-
based forms is covered in detail. Particular attention is paid to relating output method to content,
the effect of output on users, and designing good forms and screens. Lesson 11 compares
advantages and disadvantages of output, including Web displays, audio, DVD, and electronic
output such as email and RSS feeds. Designing a Web site for ecommerce purposes is
emphasized, and output production and XML is covered. Lesson 12 includes innovative material
on designing Web-based input forms, as well as other electronic forms design. Also included is
computer-assisted forms design. Lesson 12 features in-depth coverage of Web site design,
including guidelines on when designers should add video, audio, and animation to Web site
designs. The lesson also covers uses of Web push and pull technologies for output designs.
There is detailed consideration of how to create effective graphics for corporate Web sites and
ways to design effective onscreen navigation for Web site users. Coverage of intranet and
extranet page design is also included.
Output
• Examples:
• Utility bills
• Advertisements
• Paychecks
• Differs from internal output in:
• Distribution
• Design
• Appearance
• Internal Output
• Examples:
• Summary reports
• Detailed reports
• Historical reports
• Exception reports
• Might consist of material available on an intranet
Output Technologies
• Printers
• Advantages:
• Result in cost savings
• May be desirable from the user’s standpoint
• Easier to keep up to date
• Disadvantages:
• Different screen resolutions
• Fonts
Video, Audio, and Animation
• Video
o Combines the impact of audio with a visual channel
• Audio
o Transient, usually output for the benefit of one user
• Animation
o The presentation of different images in a series, one at a time
Video Clips
• Sound
• Music
• Sound effects
• Telephone
• Podcasting
• Technique of putting downloadable voice files on the Web as RSS files
Animation
• Email
• Faxes
• Bulletin board messages
RSS (Really Simple Syndication)
• A way of gathering and distributing news and other content from multiple sources
• RSS news readers can either stand alone or be integrated with your browser as plug-ins.
• Has the advantage of efficiently organizing news and other information from a variety of
sources chosen by the user
Push and Pull Technology
• Pull technology allows the user to take formatted data from the Web.
• Push technology sends solicited or unsolicited information to a customer or client.
A Comparison of Output Methods
(Figure 11.2)
• Analysts must avoid unnecessarily biasing output and make users aware of the possible
biases in output.
• Bias is introduced in three main ways:
• How information is sorted
• Setting of acceptable limits
• Choice of graphics
Avoiding Bias in the Design Output
• Detailed reports
• Print a report line for every record on the master file.
• Exception reports
• Print a line for all records that match a certain condition.
• Summary reports
• Print one line for a group of records that are used to make decisions.
Report Design Conventions
• Functional attributes
• Stylistic and aesthetic considerations
• Well organized
Designing Output for Displays
• Can be any type of a program that may be useful to any person interacting with a
computer
• Can empower users to take part in design of their own desktop
Designing a Web Site
Ajax
• Uses both JavaScript and XML to obtain small amounts of data from a server
without leaving the Web page
• The user does not have to wait for a new Web page to display after making a
selection.
Read:
Activities/Assessment:
Problem:
Elonzo’s Department Stores is a chain of about 50 retail stores, specializing in kitchen, bath,
and other household items, including many decorative and fashionable items. Recently Elonzo’s
decided to automate its gift registry to allow wedding and other event guests to be able to
browse for items that were selected by the wedding couple or others.
a. Design a Web page that would allow customers to enter a zip code and find the nearest
store.
b. Design a Web page for customers to browse gifts and order them online. Do not include the
actual ordering forms, simply the products. What sort of options should be available for
customers? Include buttons or links to change the sort sequence in your design.
c. Design a printed list that customers could request when they go to one of the stores. What
sequences would be optimal for a customer trying to find items? Would all items requested by
the wedding couple be included on the list? (Hint: Some may have been purchased already.)
Course Materials:
• Form flow
• Seven sections of a form
• Captioning
Form Flow
• Can minimize the time and effort expended by employees in form completion
• Should flow from left to right and top to bottom
• Line caption
o Putting the caption on the same line or below the line
• Boxed caption
o Providing a box for data instead of a line
• Check off caption
o Lining up choices or alternatives vertically
• Horizontal check off caption
o Lining up choices or alternatives horizontally
• Systems analysts may use different types of specialty forms for different purposes.
• Specialty forms
• Multiple-part
• Continuous-feed
• Perforated
Ensuring Accurate Completion
• To reduce error rates associated with data collection, forms should be designed to
assure accurate completion.
• Design forms to make people do the right thing with the form.
Keeping Forms Attractive
• Make sure that each form in use fulfills its specific purpose.
• Make sure that the specified purpose is integral to organizational functioning.
• Prevent duplication of information collected and of the forms that collect it.
• Design effective forms.
• Decide on how to reproduce forms in the most economical way.
• Establish procedures that make forms available, at the lowest possible cost.
Good Display and Web Forms Design
• Heading
• Body
• Comments and instructions
Keeping the Display Consistent
• Locate information in the same area each time a new display is accessed.
• Information that logically belongs together should be consistently grouped
together.
• Information should not overlap from one group to another.
Facilitating Movement
• The three-clicks rule says that users should be able to get to the screens they need within
three mouse or keyboard clicks.
• Movement among screens:
• Scrolling by using arrows or PgDn keys
• Context-sensitive pop-up windows
• Onscreen dialogue
Designing an Attractive and Pleasing Display
• Text boxes
• Check boxes
• Option or radio buttons
• List and drop-down list boxes
• Sliders and spin buttons
• Image maps
• Text area
• Message boxes
The Designer Has Many GUI Components that Allow Flexibility in Designing Input Screens for
the Web or Other Software Packages: This Example Is from Microsoft Access (Figure 12.4)
Text Boxes
•
Sliders and spin buttons are used to change data that have a continuous range
of values.
• Image map fields are used to select values within an image.
Sliders and Spin Buttons Are Two Additional GUI Components the Analyst Can Use to
Design Input Screens (Figure 12.5)
Text Area
• Message boxes are used to warn users and provide feedback messages in a dialog
box.
• Command buttons perform an action when the user selects it.
Form Controls and Values
• Each control in a GUI interface stores data associated with the control.
• Used to:
• List the variety of events that can occur.
• Show what should happen.
• Build a Web form that requires minimal action from the user.
• Explore improvements to the Web page.
• Events may be used to:
• Control navigation between Web pages.
• Change the contents of drop-down lists.
Dynamic Web Pages
• Web pages that change themselves as the result of some user action
• Advantage
• Modify themselves quickly
• Disadvantage
• Will not work if JavaScript is turned off
• Dynamic Web pages may not be compliant with the American Disabilities Act.
Three Dimensional Web Pages
• Ecommerce applications involve more than just good designs of Web sites.
• Customers need to feel confident in the site
• Shopping cart
Read:
Activities/Assessment:
1. What are the design objectives for paper input forms, input screens, or Web-based fill-in
forms?
2. List the four guidelines for good form design.
3. What is proper form flow?
4. What are the seven sections of a good form?
5. List four types of captioning for use on forms.
6. What is a specialty form? What are some disadvantages of using specialty forms?
7. List the four guidelines for good display design.
8. What are the three sections useful for simplifying a display?
9. What are the advantages of using onscreen windows?
10. What are the disadvantages of using onscreen windows?
11. List two ways display screens can be kept consistent.
12. Give three ways to facilitate movement between display pages.
Activity:
Name _____________________________________
Occupation _____________________________________
Address _____________________________________
a. Redo the captions so that the state census bureau can capture the same information
requested on the old form without confusing respondents.
b. Redesign the form so that it exhibits proper flow. (Hint: Make sure to provide an access and
identification section so that the information can be stored in the state’s computer system.)
Data Storage
• The data must be available when the user wants to use them.
• The data must be accurate and consistent.
• Efficient storage of data as well as efficient updating and retrieval
• It is necessary that information retrieval be purposeful.
• There are two approaches to the storage of data in a computer-based system:
• Store the data in individual files, each unique to a particular application.
• Store data in a database.
• A database is a formally defined and centrally controlled store of data
intended for use in many different applications.
Databases
• Reality
• The real world
• Data
• Collected about people, places, or events in reality and eventually stored in a file
or database
• Metadata
• Information that describes data
Reality, Data, and Metadata (Figure 13.1)
Entities
• Relationships
• One-to-one
• One-to-many
• Many-to-many
• A single vertical line represents one.
• A crow’s foot represents many.
Entity-Relationship Diagrams Associations
(Figure 13.2)
Metadata includes a description of what the value of each data item looks like.
• A file contains groups of records used to provide information for operations, planning,
management, and decision making.
• Files can be used for storing data for an indefinite period of time, or they can be used to
store data temporarily for a specific purpose.
File Types
• Master file
• Table file
• Transaction file
• Report file
Master and Table Files
• Master files:
• Contain records for a group of entities
• Contain all information about a data entity
• Table files:
• Contains data used to calculate more data or performance measures
• Usually read-only by a program
Transaction and Report Files
• Transaction records:
• Used to enter changes that update the master file and produce reports
• Report files:
•Used when it is necessary to print a report when no printer is available
•Useful because users can take files to other computer systems and output to
specialty devices
Relational Databases
Database design includes synthesizing user reports, user views, and logical and physical
designs.
Normalization
• Normalization is the transformation of complex user views and data stores to a set of
smaller, stable, and easily maintainable data structures.
• The main objective of the normalization process is to simplify all the complex data items
that are often found in user views.
Normalization of a Relation Is Accomplished in Three Major Steps (Figure 13.10)
• Remove any partially dependent attributes and place them in another relation.
• A partial dependency is when the data are dependent on a part of a primary key.
• A relation is created for the data that are only dependent on part of the key and another
for data that are dependent on both parts.
Second Normal Form (Figure 13.18 )
• Must be in 2NF
• Remove any transitive dependencies.
• A transitive dependency is when nonkey attributes are dependent not only on the
primary key, but also on a nonkey attribute.
Third Normal Form (Figure 13.20)
• When the relationship is one-to-many, the primary key of the file at the one end of the
relationship should be contained as a foreign key on the file at the many end of the
relationship.
• A many-to-many relationship should be divided into two one-to-many relationships with
an associative entity in the middle.
Guidelines for Master File/Database Relation Design
• Entity integrity
• Referential integrity
• Domain integrity
Entity Integrity
• You cannot add a record in the child (many) table without a matching record in the
parent table.
• You cannot change a primary key that has matching child table records.
• You cannot delete a record that has child records.
Implemented in two ways:
• A restricted database updates or deletes a key only if there are no matching child
records.
• A cascaded database will delete or update all child records when a parent record is
deleted or changed.
Domain Integrity
• Data redundancy
• Insert anomaly
• Deletion anomaly
• Update anomaly
Data Redundancy
• When the same data is stored in more than one place in the database
• Solved by creating tables that are in third normal form
Insert Anomaly
• Happens when a record is deleted that results in the loss of other related data
Update Anomaly
• When a change to one attribute value causes the database to either contain inconsistent
data or causes multiple records to need changing
• May be prevented by making sure tables are in third normal form
Retrieving and Presenting Database Data
• Denormalization is the process of taking the logical data model and transforming it into
an efficient physical model.
Data Warehouses
• Software
• Statistical analysis
• Decision trees
• Neural networks
• Intelligent agents
• Fuzzy logic
• Data visualization
Data-Mining Patterns
Data-Mining Problems
Activities/Assessment:
Professor’s
Course Number Course Title Professor Department Grade
Professor’s
Course Number Course Title Professor Department Grade
a. Draw a data model diagram with associations for the user view in Problem 2.
Human-Computer Interaction
• Awareness of HCI
• Existence of HCI in organizational settings
• Need to master the concepts surrounding HCI
• Guidelines for usability
Understanding Human-Computer Interaction
• Knowledge about the interplay among users, tasks, task contexts, IT, and the
environments in which the systems are used comprises the basis of human-computer
interaction.
Fit
• The “fit” between the HCI elements of the human, the computer, and the task that needs
to be performed leads to performance and well-being.
The “Fit” among the Human, Computer, and Task Affects Performance and Well-Being (Figure
14.1)
Task
• Complex tasks that require human, system, and task interaction are supported by
ecommerce and Web systems, ERP systems, and wireless systems inside and outside
of the organization.
• Can be structured and routine or ill-defined and without apparent structure.
Performance
• A combination of the efficiency involved in performing a task and the quality of the work
that is produced by the task
• A way for analysts to organize their thinking about whether users will accept and use
information technology
• Can be used to shape training after a system has been developed
• Can be used to garner user reactions to prototypes
• Examines perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use
• Attitudes
• Satisfaction
• Anxiety
• Enjoyment
• Playfulness
Usability
• A way for designers to evaluate the systems and interfaces they create with an eye
toward addressing as many HCI concerns as thoroughly as possible
• Usability standards
• Usability heuristics
Designing for Cognitive Styles of Individual Users
A Pivot Table Template Can Make It Easier for Users to See Information Displayed in Different
Ways (Figure 14.3)
• Vision
• Hearing
• Touch
Considering Human Limitations, Disabilities, and Design
The HCI Approach to Systems Design Emphasizes the Fit among the Human, Computer,
and Task (Figure 14.8)
• Natural-language interfaces
• Question-and-answer interfaces
• Menus
• Form-fill interfaces
• Command-language interfaces
• Graphical User Interfaces (GUIs)
• Web interfaces
Natural-Language Interfaces
• Permit users to interact with the computer in their everyday or “natural” language.
• Implementation problems and extraordinary demand on computing resources have so
far kept natural-language interfaces to a minimum.
Question-and-Answer Interfaces
• The computer displays a question to the user on the display.
• The user enters an answer.
• The computer acts on that input information in a preprogrammed manner.
• Users unfamiliar with applications may find question-and-answer interfaces the most
comfortable.
Menus
• Provides the user with an onscreen list of available selections
• Not hardware dependent
• Can be put aside until the user wants to use them
• Can be nested within one another to lead a user through options in a program
• GUI menus
• Object menu
• Form-Fill Interfaces
(Input/Output Forms)
• Allows the user to control the application with a series of keystrokes, commands,
phrases, or some sequence of these
• Affords the user more flexibility and control
• Require memorization of syntax rules
• May be an obstacle for inexperienced users
Graphical User Interfaces
• Pointing devices
• Touch-sensitive screens, also called touch screens or touch pads
• Speech recognition and synthesis
Speech Recognition and Synthesis
• The user speaks to the computer, and the system is able to recognize an individual’s
vocal signals, convert them, and store the input.
• Continuous speech systems
• Speaker independence
Voice Recognition Example (Figure 14.14)
Using software such as Dragon NaturallySpeaking by Nuance, a user can speak commands to
their computer. In this example, the user corrects a word by pulling up a menu of alternative
words that sound the same.
Evaluating Interfaces
• Meaningful communication
• Locating titles, date, time, and operator and feedback messages in the same places on
all displays
• Exiting each program by the same key or menu option
• Canceling a transaction in a consistent way
• Obtaining help in a standardized way
• Standardizing the colors used for all displays or Web pages
• Standardizing the use of icons for similar operations when using graphical user interface
• Using consistent terminology in a display or Web site
• Providing a consistent way to navigate through the dialog
• Using consistent font alignment, size, and color on a Web page
Feedback for Users
Types of Feedback
• Search function
• Creating flexibility
• Creating for users with different cognitive processing, or interests
• Keeping the customers on the Web site
Mashups
• Query Types
• Query Type 1
• What is the value of a specified attribute for a particular entity?
• Query Type 2
• What entity has a specified value for a particular attribute?
• Query Type 3
• What attribute(s) has (have) a specified value for a particular entity?
• Query Type 4
• List all the values for all the attributes for a particular entity.
• Query Type 5
• List all entities that have a specified value for all attributes.
• Query Type 6
Query Notation
Read:
Activities/Assessment:
1. Define HCI.
2. Explain how fit among the HCI elements of the human, the computer, and the tasks to
be performed leads to performance and well-being.
3. What are the components of the term performance in the HCI context?
4. What is meant by the word well-being when used in an HCI approach?
5. What are the two variables of the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM)?
6. List five of the eleven usability heuristics for judging the usability of computer systems
and ecommerce Web sites provided by Nielsen and others.
7. Describe some of the ways that a pivot table allows a user to arrange data.
8. List three physical considerations that HCI design addresses.
9. List three ways that analysts can improve task or interface design to help, respectively,
a person who is visually impaired, hearing impaired, or mobility impaired.
10. What are the five objectives for designing user interfaces?
11. Define natural-language interfaces. What is their major drawback?
12. Explain what is meant by question-and-answer interfaces. To what kind of users are
they best suited?
13. Describe how users use onscreen menus.
14. What is a nested menu? What are its advantages?
15. Define onscreen input/output forms. What is their chief advantage?
16. What are the advantages of Web-based fill-in forms?
17. What are the drawbacks of Web-based form-fill interfaces?
18. Explain what command-language interfaces are. To what types of users are they best
suited?
19. Define graphical user interfaces. What is the key difficulty they present for
programmers?
20. For what type of user is a GUI particularly effective?
21. What are the three guidelines for designing good screen dialog?
22. What are the roles of icons, graphics, and color in providing feedback?
23. List eight ways for achieving the goal of minimal operator action when designing a user
interface.
24. List five standards that can aid in evaluating user interfaces.
25. What are the seven situations that require feedback for users?
26. What is an acceptable way of telling the user that input was accepted?
Nick, a celebrity chef/restaurant owner from Williamsburg, New York, wants to be able to
receive clear feedback on the systems used to manage his many “show place” restaurants.
Design a display that provides appropriate feedback for a user whose command cannot be
executed.
Design a screen for a payroll software package that displays information telling Nick
from Problem 1 how to get more detailed feedback.
Design a Web-based display that shows an acceptable way to tell Nick that input to his
system was accepted.
There are three types of feedback messages:
A. Action successful
B. An error in the user entry
C. Please wait messages, indicating that a response time of more than 5 to 10
seconds will elapse.
The Web screen should include messages, such as those shown on the next pages,
along with an image that reinforces the message. Designs will vary widely from student
to student.
Module V (Lesson 15 and 16) Lesson 15 focuses on designing accurate data entry
procedures and includes material on managing the supply chain through the effective design of
business-to-business (B2B) ecommerce. Lesson 16 emphasizes taking a total quality approach
to improving software design and maintenance. In addition, material on system security and
firewalls is included. Testing, auditing, and maintenance of systems are discussed in the context
of total quality management. This lesson helps students understand how service-oriented
architecture (SOA) and cloud computing are changing the nature of information systems design.
In addition, students learn how to design appropriate training programs for users of the new
Learning Outcomes:
• Understand the uses of effective coding to support users in accomplishing their tasks.
• Design effective and efficient data capture approaches for people and systems.
• Recognize how to ensure data quality through validation.
• Articulate accuracy advantages of user input on ecommerce Web sites.
Course Materials:
Effective Coding
• When you do not wish to have someone read the code to figure out how many numbers
have been assigned
• When a more complex code is desirable to avoid a costly mistake
Alphabetic Derivation Codes
• When the alphabetic portion is small or when the name contains fewer consonants than
the code requires
Names like ROE—become RXX
Some of the data may change
Classification Information
• Used to distinguish one group of data with special characteristics from another
• Can consist of either a single letter or a number
• A shorthand way of describing a person, place, thing, or event
• Listed in manuals or posted so that users can locate them easily
• Use a single letter for a code
Grouping tax-deductible items through the use of a one-letter classification code
(Figure 15.3)
Using a Block Sequence Code to Group Similar Software Packages (Figure 15.5)
Concealing Information
The direct substitution of one letter for another, one number for another, or one letter for
a number
Revealing Information
Mnemonic Codes
• Instruct either the computer or the decision maker about what action to take.
• Function codes
Function Codes
• Short numeric or alphanumeric codes used to spell out precisely what activities are to be
accomplished
Function Codes Compactly Capture Functions that the Computer Must Perform
(Figure 15.9)
• Stability means that the identification code for a customer should not change each time
new data are received.
• Don’t change the codes in a mnemonic system.
Ensure that Codes Are Unique
• Make sure that users can do what you intend to do with the codes you create.
• Numerical codes are much easier to sort than alphanumeric data.
Avoid Confusing Codes
• Keyboards
• Optical character recognition
• Magnetic ink character recognition
• Mark-sense forms
• Bar codes
• RFID
Keyboards
• Special function keys to open programs
• Keys used to scroll and explore the Web
• Keys that can be programmed with macros to reduce the number of keystrokes required
• Ergonomic keyboards and infrared or Bluetooth-enabled keyboards
Optical Character Recognition
• Increased speed
• Eliminates many of the time-consuming and error-fraught steps of other input devices
• Decentralizes responsibility for quality data directly to the unit that is generating it
• The transformation of faxes into documents that can be edited
Magnetic Ink Character Recognition
• A reliable and high-speed method that is not susceptible to accepting stray marks
• If it is required on all withdrawal checks, it serves as a security measure against bad
checks
• Data entry personnel can see the numbers making up the code if it is necessary to verify
it.
Mark-Sense Forms
• Little training of entry personnel is necessary.
• A high volume of forms can be processed quickly.
• Stray marks on form can be entered as incorrect data.
• Choices are limited to the answers provided.
• Difficulty in capturing alphanumeric data.
• Easy to get confused and put a mark in an incorrect position
Bar Codes
RFID
• Allows the automatic collection of data using RFID tags that contain a chip and an
antenna
• Passive RFID tags
• Active RFID tags
• Privacy is a concern
Ensuring Data Quality through Input Validation
• The critical importance of catching errors during input, prior to processing and storage
cannot be overemphasized.
• Potential problems
o Validating input transactions
o Validating input data
Validating Input Is Important to Ensure that Most Potential Problems with Data Are
Eliminated Early (Figure 15.16)
Read :
Activities/Assessment:
1. What are the four primary objectives of data entry?
Problem:
A small, private university specializing in graduate programs needs to keep track of the list of
students who (a) apply, (b) are accepted, and (c) actually enroll in the university. For security
purposes the university also must send a report to the government with a list of foreign students
who enroll but fail to register. Suggest a kind of code for this purpose, and give an example of
its use in the university that demonstrates its appropriateness. What are its advantages?
• Recognize the importance of users and analysts taking a total quality approach to
improve the quality of software design and maintenance.
• Realize the importance of documentation, testing, maintenance, and auditing.
• Understand how service-oriented architecture and cloud computing is changing the
nature of information system design.
• Design appropriate training programs for users of the new system.
Six Sigma
How Services Are Called upon Throughout the System (Figure 16.4)
System Documentation
• Procedure manuals
• The FOLKLORE method
Procedure Manuals
• The English-language component of documentation
• Key sections:
Introduction
How to use the software
What to do if things go wrong
A technical reference section
An index
Information on how to contact the manufacturer
• Procedure manual complaints:
They are poorly organized.
It is hard to find needed information.
The specific case in question does not appear in the manual.
The manual is not written in plain English.
Cloud Computing
• Jointly bear the lowered cost.
• Realize increases in peak-load capacity.
• Companies also hope to improve their ability to perform disaster recovery.
Network Modeling
• Draw a network decomposition diagram to provide an overview of the system.
• Draw a hub connectivity diagram.
• Explode the hub connectivity diagram to show the various workstations and how they
are connected.
Use Special Symbols when Drawing Network Decomposition and Hub Connectivity
Diagrams
(Figure 16.9)
There Are Five Main Advantages to Creating Distributed Systems (Figure 16.13)
There Are Four Chief Disadvantages to Creating Distributed Systems (Figure 16.14)
Conversion Strategies
• Direct changeover
• Parallel conversion
• Gradual or phased conversion
• Modular prototype conversion
• Distributed conversion
Five Conversion Strategies for Information Systems (Figure 16.16)
Security Concerns
• Physical security
• Logical security
• Behavioral security
• Physical security is securing the computer facility, its equipment, and software through
physical means.
• Logical security refers to logical controls in the software itself.
Read:
Activities/Assessment:
1. What are the three broad approaches available to the systems analyst for attaining
quality in newly developed systems?
2. Who or what is the most important factor in establishing and evaluating the quality of
information systems or decision support systems? Why?
3. Define the total quality management (TQM) approach as it applies to the analysis and
design of information systems.
4. What is meant by the term Six Sigma?
5. What is an IS quality circle?
6. Define what is meant by doing a structured walkthrough. Who should be involved? When
should structured walkthroughs be done?
7. List the advantages of taking a top-down approach to design.
8. Define modular development.
9. List four guidelines for correct modular programming.
10. Name the two types of arrows used in structure charts.
11. What is service-oriented architecture?
12. Give two reasons that support the necessity of well-developed systems and software
documentation.
13. In what four categories does the FOLKLORE documentation method collect information?
Problem:
1. One of your systems analysis team members has been discouraging user input on
quality standards, arguing that because you are the experts, you are really the only ones
who know what constitutes a quality system. In a paragraph, explain to your team
member why getting user input is critical to system quality. Use an example.
References: