Zymurgy IBUs
Zymurgy IBUs
CALCULATING BITTERNESS
IBU
lone molecule. The alpha acids will dissolve
?
in hot wort, up to 250 mg/L at a pH of 5 and
a temperature of 212 degrees F (100 degrees
C). They are not very soluble in beer, with
its lower pH and temperature, and will pre-
cipitate out if their concentration is higher
than 5 mg/L at a pH of 4 and temperature of
32 degrees F (0 degrees C) (Hough et al.,
1982). During the kettle boil, the alpha acids
undergo a molecular rearrangement called
isomerization. The resultant chemicals are
called iso-alpha acids, and there is a corre-
sponding version for each humulone (iso-
humulone, isocohumulone, etc.). The iso-
alpha acids are much more soluble in wort
and beer, and they are the primary source
of bitterness in beer.
By Michael L. Hall, Ph.D. The beta-fraction of the hop resins is
composed of the beta acids and many other
chemicals, including the oxidation products
of the alpha and beta acids that result from
O
aging (De Clerck, 1957). The beta acids are
known as lupulones and occur in varieties
similar to the humulones. The same side
ne of the most important contributions of chains of the humulone molecule applied to
hops to beer is bitterness. Bitterness pro- the lupulone molecule give rise to lupulone,
vides a counterpart to the sweetness of the colupulone, adlupulone, prelupulone and
malt to create a balanced beer. If you’ve postlupulone (Fix, 1989). The beta acids are
ever made an IPA that turned out more like less soluble than the alpha acids (0.7 mg/L
a bock, you know that making an accurate at a pH of 4 and a temperature of 32 degrees
estimate of the amount of bitterness impart- F or 0 degrees C) (Hough et al., 1982), but
ed by the hops is paramount to success in they do contribute some bitterness to beer
brewing. This article will compare several through their oxidation products. The bit-
methods used to estimate hop bitterness. terness from oxidized beta acids, in beer
The bitterness of hops is derived from made from aged hops, has been described
the bitter resins in the yellow lupulin glands. as an unpleasant bitterness that is not as
These resins, or crystalline weak acids, orig- refined as the bitterness derived from iso-
inally were categorized into alpha-, beta- alpha acids (Fix, 1989; Garetz, 1994b).
and gamma-fractions (De Clerck, 1957). The hard resins do not contribute to the
The alpha- and beta-fractions are collec- bitterness of the finished beer.
tively known as the soft resins because they
are soluble in hexane. The gamma resin
fraction is now referred to as the hard resin Quantifying Hop Bitterness
fraction because it is insoluble in hexane.
The alpha-fraction is composed of a The simplest way to quantify hop bit-
group of related chemicals called the alpha terness in beer is by specifying the weight of
acids. Alpha acid, often referred to in litera- hops added to the wort. Many excellent
ture simply as humulone, is comprised of homebrews have been made with recipes
the chemicals humulone, cohumulone, specifying simply “three ounces of hops,”
adhumulone, prehumulone and posthumu- but repeating such a success can be difficult.
lone (Fix, 1989). Each variety differs only by The main problem with this technique is it
what is present on a side chain of the humu- doesn’t take into account the alpha-acid
Woz A% 7489
IBUideal = ———— x ——— .
Vgal 100
25%
Methods of Estimating IBUs
Utilization Rate
20%
If you ever tell a commercial brewer that
you calculated the IBU level in your beer he
15% or she will think you’re crazy. The big brew-
Rager eries are very different from homebreweries:
Garetz they make the same beer over and over
10% Mosher again, allowing for modification of the
Tinseth
recipe; they can blend different batches to
Noonan
Daniels achieve a consistent bitterness level; and
5%
they can afford to have the bitterness level
of their beers measured often. As a home-
0% brewer, you’re probably making lots of dif-
0 15 30 45 60 75 90
ferent beers, and even when you repeat a
Kettle Boil Time (Minutes)
beer it’s usually a little different from the last
Utilization rate as a function of boil time for wort of SG 1.050, boiled at sea level, using low hopping rates, using time you made it. You can’t spend a lot of
fresh leaf hops without a hop bag, with an average yeast flocculation rate, and with no filtration. money analyzing the last batch, and you
need to be able to predict the bitterness of
can reduce the bitterness of beer over depend directly on the temperature of the tomorrow’s batch. Calculation, rather than
extended storage periods and create boil, which varies with the altitude of the measurement, is imperative.
“cheesy” aromas in its place. brewery. How fast and to what extent the But how is bitterness measured? The
iso-alpha acids go into solution depends American Society of Brewing Chemists has
on the quality of the contact between adopted a standard method of measurement
Problems with undissolved iso-alpha acids and unsatu- that involves a centrifuge and a spec-
Estimating IBUs rated wort. This is in turn affected by the trophotometer (1992). Unfortunately, these
boil vigor, the boil gravity (via the viscosi- pieces of equipment are beyond the range
There are many difficulties associated ty) and the hopping rate. of the average homebrewer. You can, how-
with bitterness level estimation. First, all of The physical form of the hops also can ever, have your beer measured for bitterness
the processes previously mentioned occur change the alpha-acid utilization. Pellet at various laboratories, for example the
to different degrees and at different rates hops have been observed to give a greater Siebel Institute of Technology in Chicago,
under the varying conditions of the brew- utilization than loose leaf hops. Several rea- for a fee of about $40. (Siebel, 1997) Mark
house. Quantifying their effect on hop uti- sons have been postulated: pellet hops dis- Garetz also describes a taste-titration
lization can be a challenging task. perse more easily in the wort; pellets retain method for estimating IBUs at home using
With whole leaf hops, variation of alpha- their alpha-acid content during storage bet- dilutions of iso-alpha extract and your own
acid content from the measured sample can ter than leaf hops and the pelletization palate (Garetz, 1994b).
be a problem. Analyses can vary by as process ruptures the lupulin glands and Before we get to the utilization factor
much as 11 percent from bale to bale, and spreads the resins over the hop particles, estimation techniques, a couple of caveats.
the sampling rate can be as low as one out giving a larger surface area for isomerization First, realize that estimating hop bitterness
of every 10 bales. (Hardwick, 1995; Ram- and solution. (Hardwick, 1995; Lewis, 1994) is a rough science, and it doesn’t need to be
sey, 1990) This is less of a problem with pel- Even if the level of iso-alpha acids in a more exact. The human threshold for detect-
letized hops because several bales are beer could be determined exactly, the per- ing bitterness is about 4 IBUs (Kuroiwa et
blended to achieve consistency. ception of bitterness can vary greatly. The al., 1973), so controlling bitterness levels
The characteristics of the boil can have ionic composition of the brewing water can tighter than that tolerance probably won’t
a great effect on the rate of hop utilization. accentuate hop bitterness; magnesium, car- be noticed. Also, the processes involved in
The isomerization and solution rate bonate, chloride and sulfate ions all increase getting alpha acids from the hops into your
58
Z Y M U R G Y S p e c i a l 1 9 9 7
CALCULATING BITTERNESS
beer involve many steps that are not well
known or are hard to quantify. You should TABLE 1: Utilization Rates (%) as a Function of Boil Time (min.)
evaluate your need for precise bitterness
Boil Time RAGER GARETZ MOSHER TINSETH NOONAN DANIELS
level knowledge and only do as many cal-
culations as you need to satisfy it. 0.0 5.0 0.0 0.0 0.000 5.0 5.0
The second caveat is that the following 2.5 5.0 0.0 1.8 2.414 5.0 5.0
descriptions constitute my versions of the 5.0 5.0 0.0 3.5 4.598 5.0 5.0
various authors’ methods. I have corrected 7.5 6.0 0.0 4.8 6.575 5.8 5.0
obvious errors in some cases and elucidat- 10.0 6.0 0.0 6.1 8.363 6.5 12.0
ed confusing areas in others. Sometimes I 12.5 8.0 2.0 7.4 9.981 7.2 12.0
have even added equations that should 15.0 8.0 2.0 8.7 11.446 8.0 12.0
have been included by the author. I have 17.5 10.1 5.0 9.3 12.770 9.2 12.0
tried to remain true to the original works, but 20.0 10.1 5.0 9.9 13.969 10.3 15.0
you should consult the references if you 22.5 12.1 8.0 10.6 15.054 11.5 15.0
have any questions. 25.0 12.1 8.0 11.2 16.035 12.7 15.0
Simple method: I’ll start off with a 27.5 15.3 11.0 11.8 16.924 13.8 15.0
bare-bones estimation of the IBU level in a 30.0 15.3 11.0 12.4 17.727 15.0 19.0
beer. For the kettle or bittering hops, which 32.5 18.8 14.0 12.9 18.454 16.1 19.0
are boiled for an hour or longer, use a uti- 35.0 18.8 14.0 13.4 19.112 17.2 19.0
lization of 25 percent. For the flavoring hops, 37.5 22.8 16.0 13.9 19.707 18.2 19.0
which are boiled for around 10 to 30 min- 40.0 22.8 16.0 14.3 20.246 19.3 19.0
utes, use a utilization of 10 percent. For the 42.5 26.9 18.0 14.8 20.733 20.4 19.0
aroma or finishing hops (or dry hops), use a 45.0 26.9 18.0 15.3 21.174 21.5 22.0
utilization of 0 percent. Using the Simple 47.5 28.1 19.0 15.6 21.574 22.6 22.0
method, the IBU equation becomes: 50.0 28.1 19.0 15.9 21.935 23.7 22.0
52.5 30.0 20.0 16.2 22.261 24.8 22.0
18.7 Woz A% 55.0 30.0 20.0 16.6 22.557 25.8 22.0
IBUkettle = ——————— ,
Vgal 57.5 30.0 20.0 16.9 22.824 26.9 22.0
60.0 30.0 20.0 17.2 23.066 28.0 24.0
7.5 Woz A% 62.5 30.0 21.0 17.5 23.285 28.2 24.0
IBUflavor = ——————— ,
Vgal 65.0 30.0 21.0 17.8 23.484 28.5 24.0
IBUaroma = 0. 67.5 30.0 21.0 18.1 23.663 28.8 24.0
70.0 30.0 21.0 18.4 23.825 29.0 24.0
Therefore, one ounce of a 1 percent alpha- 72.5 30.0 22.0 18.7 23.972 29.2 24.0
acid hop in five gallons gives 3.75 IBUs if 75.0 30.0 22.0 19.0 24.105 29.5 27.0
used for bittering and 1.5 IBUs if used for 77.5 30.0 22.0 19.3 24.225 29.8 27.0
flavor. This means that, for a five-gallon 80.0 30.0 22.0 19.6 24.334 30.0 27.0
batch, the Simple method can be used to 82.5 30.0 23.0 19.9 24.432 30.2 27.0
convert AAUs/HBUs into IBUs: 85.0 30.0 23.0 20.2 24.521 30.5 27.0
87.5 30.0 23.0 20.5 24.602 30.8 27.0
IBUkettle = 3.75 (HBUs or AAUs), 90.0 30.0 23.0 20.8 24.675 31.0 27.0
IBUflavor = 1.5 (HBUs or AAUs).
Boil-time-dependent methods: The low hopping rates, using fresh leaf hops boiling times as well as a correction factor for
rest of the methods discussed in this article without a hop bag, with an average yeast boil gravity. No other correction factors are
give a utilization rate that is a function of the flocculation rate and with no filtration. The given. The plot has a stair-step form because
amount of time the hops are boiled. All of correction factors to account for situations single values of utilization for ranges of tem-
the methods apply one or more correction different from these will be discussed in peratures were given in the original article.
factors to this rate to account for various the next major section. (Papazian gives a method for estimating uti-
perturbations to the hop utilization rate. Fig- Rager method: Jackie Rager’s Zymurgy’s lization [Papazian, 1991], but his method is
ure 1 and Table 1 give the utilization per- article (1990) was the first article in the home- an abbreviated version of Rager’s method,
centages for all of the methods, with no cor- brew literature that attempted to estimate including the gravity correction, and will not
rection factors used. These values should be hop utilization rates. It still is widely used be discussed further here.)
assumed to correspond to a wort of specific because of its accuracy and simplicity. His Garetz method: Mark Garetz pub-
gravity of 1.050, boiled at sea level, using method gives utilization values for different lished a relatively complex method to esti-
59
Z Y M U R G Y S p e c i a l 1 9 9 7
CALCULATING BITTERNESS
mate hop utilization rates in his book, acid loss during storage is given (Garetz, boil times. The graphs in the Mosher
Using Hops. (1994b) The Garetz method 1994a, b). method give an effective correction factor
includes a table of utilization values for Mosher method: Randy Mosher pub- for boil gravity and hop form.
different boil times, like the earlier Rager lished a method for estimating hop uti- Tinseth method: As far as I know,
method, but the new values are signifi- lization that was based on graphical Glenn Tinseth has only published his
cantly lower than the Rager values. The lookups (Mosher, 1994). Unfortunately, method on the World Wide Web to date
correction for boil gravity given in the this makes it difficult to precisely deter- (Tinseth, 1997; Pyle, 1997). The Tinseth
Rager article is used, and new formulas for mine the utilization percentages, so the method is the first to use a formula instead
correction factors for boil temperature and values quoted in this article should be of a graph or table for the relationship
hopping rate are developed. Rough ranges assumed to have an error of at least plus between hop utilization and boil time. The
for correction factors for yeast flocculation or minus 0.1 percent. The Mosher method Tinseth formula is set up so the boil gravity
rate, hop form, hop bags and filtration are gives utilization values that are even lower correction factor is unity at a specific gravi-
given. Also, a formula to predict alpha- than the Garetz method values for long ty of 1.0557. Modifying it slightly so it is on
an equal footing with the other methods
(boil gravity correction factor of unity at
Vinothèque U.S.A. is proud to announce that we where tboil is the boil time in minutes and
Over s
ar
25 yeomer will be distributing the Soda Stream Home U% bt is the utilization rate that is only
t
of cusaction! Carbonation System. dependent on the boil time, the uncor-
satisf rected rate. Tinseth notes that this curve
corresponds to the solution of a chemical
Now you can first-order reaction. The Tinseth method
make your own does not include any correction factors
softdrinks, wine except the boil gravity correction factor.
coolers, fruit However, the 25.367715 factor in front of
flavoured drinks the equation represents the maximum
at just pennies a value of utilization that can be achieved
glass! with extended boiling (at this boil gravity),
Soda Stream Home
so a homebrewer easily can modify the
Carbonation System
Please call us equation to fit his or her own circum-
for more details. LET US stances. For long boils, the Tinseth method
gives utilization values between the Rager
Supplies HELP YOU Ingredients and Garetz methods.
GROW! Noonan method: The first mention
for beer & wine Hops: I’ve seen of IBUs in the homebrewing lit-
• Filters and accessories • Pellets, Plugs, Leaf erature was in the original edition of Gre-
• Huge assortment of • Hop Extract/Oil gory Noonan’s Brewing Lager Beer (1986).
hardware In his recent work Noonan provides a
• Demijohns to 15 gallons Grains: method for calculating hop utilization
• Largest supplier of wine • Harrington (Canada) using tabular values (Noonan, 1996).
concentrate • Hugh Baird (U.K.) There are implicit corrections for boil grav-
• New Cider kits • Ireks (Germany) ity and hop form, in addition to the stan-
• E-Z Brew/Better Brew • DeWolf-Cosyns (Belgium) dard boil time factor. The Noonan method
Beer ingredient kits • Scotmalt (Scotland) gives utilization values on the high side for
Belgian items also available! Fresh Malt Extracts from over 12 sources! long wort boils.
Daniels method: Another recent
CONSTANTLY EXPANDING STOCK! method was published by Ray Daniels
SALES TO LICENSED RETAILERS AND BREWERIES ONLY! (1996). The Daniels method gives tabular
VINOTHÈQUE U.S.A. values for utilization rate versus boil time.
420 Northboro Rd. 1-800-481-VINO (8466) The boil gravity correction by Rager is
Marlboro, MA 01752 fax: 1-800-635-0035
included in the method, as is the correction
60
Z Y M U R G Y S p e c i a l 1 9 9 7
CALCULATING BITTERNESS
for hopping rate from Garetz. Daniels also
FIGURE 2. Boil Gravity Correction Factor
provides some tables which can be used to
scale the utilization rate dependent on the
results from laboratory testing. 1.3
Rager
Modifications to the 1.2 Mosher (scaled)
Tinseth (scaled)
Utilization Factor Noonan (30 min)
Noonan (60 min)
1.1
The overall utilization rate is the product
U% = U%bt Fbg Fhf Fhr Fbp Fst Fhb Fyf Ffil , 0.9
where the Fs stand for correction factors for
boil gravity, hop form, hopping rate, boiling-
0.8
point temperature, storage losses, hop bags,
yeast flocculation rate and filtration, respec-
tively. All of the F variables are nominally 0.7
equal to unity, so you may omit any that
don’t seem necessary to you. Also, because
of the way I have structured the formulas, 0.6
1.030 1.040 1.050 1.060 1.070 1.080 1.090 1.100
any of the correction factors may be used Specific Gravity of the Boil
with any of the other correction factors, and
with any of the boil time utilizations given
61
Z Y M U R G Y S p e c i a l 1 9 9 7
CALCULATING BITTERNESS
in the previous section. First, choose one of mon formula for this correction was given (30 and 60 minutes for leaf hops) in Figure
the methods to determine the basic boil time by Rager: 2 and Table 2, but if you want to use his
utilization (this may be a table lookup). method it would be better to consult his
1 tables directly.
Then, pick and choose which of the follow- Fbg = ———————————— ,
1 + 5 (SGboil – 1.050) From the graph you can see there is a
ing correction factors to apply.
Boil gravity factor: All of the meth- where SGboil is the specific gravity of the boil certain amount of agreement. In general,
ods employ a boil gravity factor. Figure 2 (which may differ from the original specific hop utilization rates decrease with increas-
and Table 2 show the behavior of several gravity of the wort). This equation is only ing boil gravity above 1.050. Below 1.050,
boil gravity factor formulas. The most com- used if SGboil is greater than 1.050; other- Rager and Noonan set the boil gravity fac-
tor to unity, while Mosher and Tinseth allow
higher values.
Hop form: Correcting the utilization to
account for the hop form also is common.
Leaf hops or hop plugs do not need a cor-
rection, but hops in the pellet form are
reported to have an increased utilization.
The Garetz method sets Fhf equal to 1.1 for
pellets boiled from 10 to 30 minutes, and
unity otherwise. The Mosher method sets
Fhf equal to 1.33 for pellets in general, inde-
pendent of gravity and boil time. Noonan
again uses a table, which gives Fhf between
1.0 and 1.5 for pellets, with maximum val-
ues centering around 15 minutes of boil
time and low boil gravities. Daniels does not
give a value for F hf , although he recom-
mends using something between 1 and 1.25
for pellets. The other methods do not give
a correction factor for hop form, but any of
the above methods may be used with them.
62
Z Y M U R G Y S p e c i a l 1 9 9 7
CALCULATING BITTERNESS
Hopping rate: As more hops are added where Eft is the elevation in feet. None of months before use. If you do want to calcu-
to the boil, the utilization factor decreases. the other methods correct for boiling-point late the storage losses, Garetz (1994a, b) pro-
The Garetz method includes a factor, or temperature. vides a formula for the correction factor:
rather an equation, to account for this: Storage losses: The alpha acids in
Fst = e –k Mt Mst tst ,
hops deteriorate over time, reducing the bit-
1
Fhr = —————————————— , tering power of the hops. It is unclear
1 + (Vfinal / Vwort)(IBU/260) where k is the base rate constant, Mt is a
whether or not the gain in bitterness from the
modification factor for the storage tempera-
where Vfinal is the final volume of the beer oxidation of the beta acids offsets this effect
ture, Mst is a modification factor for the type
(the same as Vgal above), Vwort is the volume to the extent that no correction is necessary.
of storage and t st is the storage time in
of wort in which the hops are boiled, and The best solution for the homebrewer is to
months. Mt is given by
IBU is the number of IBUs extracted from buy only fresh hops in vacuum-sealed bags
the hops. Garetz suggests that an iterative and store them in a freezer for less than three Mt = 2 (T – 20)/15 ,
procedure should be used because this fac-
tor includes the IBU value that is unknown
at the start of the calculation. However, plac-
ing this factor into the original formula,
IBU =
130 Vwort
IBU = —————— x [ -1 +
Vgal
1
Fbp = ————————— ,
1 + Eft / 27500
63
Z Y M U R G Y S p e c i a l 1 9 9 7
CALCULATING BITTERNESS
where T is the storage temperature in Cel-
sius. Mst is unity for hops exposed to air TABLE 3: Sample Beer Utilization Correction Factors
(either unsealed or in polybags), 0.75 for METHOD Fbg Fhf Fhr Fbp Fst Fhb Fyf Ffil Product
hops stored in airtight but oxygen-permeable
containers, and 0.5 for vacuum-packed SIMPLE 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
hops or hops stored under nitrogen or car- RAGER 0.9662 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0.9662
bon dioxide. The base rate constant, k, is GARETZ 0.9662 1 0.9227[1] 0.7888 0.8881 1 1.05 1 0.6558
dependent on the hop variety and can be MOSHER 0.9758 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0.9758
calculated from either the Hop Storage TINSETH 0.9390 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0.9390
Index (HSI) or the “% Loss” value for the NOONAN 0.9286[2] 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0.9286
hop variety, which you can get from your DANIELS 0.9662 1 0.8842[3] 1 1 1 1 1 0.8543
hop supplier or from Garetz (Garetz, 1994a, [1] 20 min. = 0.9911.
b). If you start with the HSI, first calculate [2] 30 min. = 0.9333, 15 min. = 1.0, 5 min. = 1.0.
[3] 20 min. = 0.9655, 5 min. = 0.9880.
%Loss = 110 log (HSI/0.25),
• 2 oz (20 min.) province of the Garetz method. Note that
which is actually the fraction (not the per-
• 2 oz (five min.) the product of correction factors is much
cent) of alpha acids lost during storage at 68
• 4 oz (dryhopped for five days) lower for the Garetz method.
degrees F (20 degrees C) for six months.
%Loss: 0.45 Combining the correction factors with
Now that you know the “%Loss,” the base
Storage: Hops were used in the springtime, the boil time utilization factors from Table
rate constant is given by
right after receiving them via mail order, so 1 and using the IBU equation gives the esti-
k = – ln (1 – %Loss)/6. assume hops were stored at 32 degrees F (0 mates for the IBUs of the sample beer
degrees C) for four months in airtight bags shown in Table 4, which range from 24 to
This corrects an error in the original work
at the supplier. 57. The actual bitterness, as measured by
and is somewhat simpler.
Hop form: plugs Siebel, was 45.5 IBUs.
Other factors: There are many other
Hop bags: no So what does this mean? Are some meth-
factors that affect the iso-alpha-acid uti-
Filtration: no ods better at predicting bitterness than oth-
lization in beer, but most of them are very
Elevation: 7,365 ft. ers? Keep in mind this is only a single data
hard to quantify. The only method that even
Yeast: Wyeast No. 1968 Special London Ale point, and there are many intangibles in the
attempts to quantify any other effects is
Flocculation: high brewing process that can affect the bitter-
the Garetz method.
Table 3 shows the calculated utilization ness level. Some methods may be better for
Garetz recommends Fhb = 1.0 for hops
correction factors for this beer for all of the certain brewers. Justifications aside, three of
loose in the boil, Fhb = 0.9 for hops in a hop
methods. With the exception of the Simple the methods came very close to the mark:
bag, and F hb = 0.8 for hops in a hop bag
method, all of the methods include a boil Tinseth, Daniels and, surprisingly, the Sim-
stuffed full. A yeast flocculation rate factor
gravity correction. Most of the methods ple method. The Simple method worked
(Fyf) of 0.95 is recommended for slow floc-
include a correction for hop form, but this well because the beer was close to an aver-
culation, 1.0 for average flocculation and
beer only used plug hops, so no correction age brew; the correction factor product was
1.05 for fast flocculation. The filtration fac-
was necessary. The Garetz and Daniels close to unity. The Tinseth and Daniels
tor (Ffil) varies from 1.0 for no filtration to
methods include a hopping rate calculation, methods have similar boil time utilization
0.975 for aggressive filtration.
and the rest of the corrections are the sole factors (see Figure 1) and correction factors
9240 Albemarle Rd. Charlotte, NC 28227 • 1 (888) 785-7766 Toll-free Vgal final volume of beer in gallons, = Vfinal
e-mail [email protected] V wort volume of wort that the hops are
visit our web site at http://www.homebrewadventures.com boiled in, in gallons
Woz weight of the hops in ounces
66
Z Y M U R G Y S p e c i a l 1 9 9 7
CALCULATING BITTERNESS
T hop storage temperature in Celsius Hough, J.S.; D.E. Briggs; R. Stevens and Rager, Jackie. “Calculating Hop Bitterness
tboil boil time in minutes T.W. Young. Malting and Brewing Sci- in Beer,” Zymurgy Special Issue 1990
ence, Chapman and Hall, 1982. (Vol. 13, No. 4), pp. 53-54.
Kuroiwa, Y.; E. Kokubo and N. Hashimoto. Ramsey, Michael. “Factors Influencing Hop
References “Advanced Hop Chemistry in Connec- Utilization or Where Does It All Go?”
tion with Beer Flavor,” MBAA Technical Zymurgy Special Issue 1990 (Vol. 13,
American Society of Brewing Chemists, Quarterly, 10:4, pp. 215-219, 1973. No. 4), pp. 46-52.
Methods of Analysis (8th Edition), 1992. Lewis, Gregory K. “Kiss of the Hops,” The Rehberger, A.J. and L.H. Bradee. “Hop
Daniels, Ray. Designing Great Beers – The New Brewer, pp. 10-19, 11:4, July/Aug. Oxidative Transformations and Control
Ultimate Guide to Brewing Classic Beer 1994. of Beer Bitterness,” MBAA Technical
Styles, Brewers Publications, 1996. Line, Dave. The Big Book of Brewing, Argus Quarterly, 12:1, pp. 1-8, 1975.
De Clerck, Jean. A Textbook of Brewing, Books Ltd., 1985. Siebel Institute of Technology home page,
Chapman and Hall Ltd., 1957. Mosher, Randy. The Brewer’s Companion, http://www.breworld.com/welcome/, as
Fix, George. Principles of Brewing Science, Alephenalia Press, 1994. of June 1997.
Brewers Publications, 1989. Noonan, Gregory J. Brewing Lager Beer, Tinseth, Glenn. The Hop Page, http://
Garetz, Mark. “Hop Storage: How to Get – Brewers Publications, 1986. realbeer.com/hops/, as of June 1997.
And Keep – Your Hops’ Optimum Noonan, Gregory J. New Brewing Lager Beer, Michael L. Hall, Ph.D., is a computational physi-
Value,” BrewingTechniques, pp. 26-32, Brewers Publications, 1996. cist at Los Alamos National Laboratory in New
2:1, Jan/Feb 1994a. Papazian, Charlie. The New Complete Joy of Mexico. He has been brewing for eight years, is
Garetz, Mark. Using Hops – The Complete Home Brewing, Avon Books, 1991. a BJCP Certified judge and was one of the found-
Guide to Hops for the Craft Brewer, Papazian, Charlie. The Home Brewer’s Com- ing members of the Los Alamos Atom Mashers.
HopTech, 1994b. panion, Avon Books, 1994. Michael is a member of the AHA Board of Advis-
Hardwick, William A., ed., Handbook of Pyle, Norm. Hops FAQ, http://realbeer. ers and can be reached at [email protected] via E-mail.
Brewing, Marcel Dekker Inc., 1995. com/hops/FAQ.html, as of June 1997. © 1997 Michael L. Hall
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