A

TECHNICAL SEMINAR
REPORT
ON
INDUSTRIAL AUTOMATION
Report submitted in partial fulfillment for the award of the degree of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY

IN

ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

By

BISWAJIT DASH
ROLL NO:184006

Department of Electrical Engineering

GITA,Bhubaneswar
 GANDHI INSTITUTE
FOR TECHNOLOGICAL ADVANCEMENT,BBSR

Ref no:-GITA/EE/2018-22 Date : -

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the seminar report entitled “INDUSTRIAL
AUTOMATION” submitted by BISWAJIT DASH (1801287076), is an authentic
work carried out by them at GITA under my guidance.The matter embodied in this
seminar report has not been submitted earlier for the award of any degree or
diploma to the best of my knowledge and belief.

Prof. (Dr) Saroj Kumar Dash Prof.(Dr) Saroj Kumar Dash

Head of the Department External Examiner Project Guide
 GANDHI INSTITUTE
FOR TECHNOLOGICAL ADVANCEMENT ,BBSR

ACKKNOWLEDGEMENT

The satisfaction that accompanies the successful completion of any

task wouldn’t be complete without the people, whose constant guidance
and encouragement crowns all efforts with success. I express my deep
sense of gratitude to Dr. Saroj Kumar Dash Head of the Department
Electrical Engineering for his initiative constant inspiration.

Lastly, I express my gratitude to all the faculties of Electrical

Engineering Department and friends for their support, co-operation,
constructive criticism and valuable suggestion during preparation of this
project report.

Thanking all……….

BISWAJIT DASH
Registration No. (1801287076)

Place - Bhubaneswar Date-

 CONTENT…….
Name Page no

1. Industrial Automation.
1.0 Introduction 01

1.1 Other goals of automation 01

1.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Automation 02

2. Programmable Logic Controllers 03

2.0 Introduction to Programmable Logic Controller 03

2.1 Development of PLC 04

2.2 Components of PLC 04

3. Comparison with Hard Wired Relay 06

3.0 A Brief overview about Hard wired Relay 06

3.1 Disadvantages of a classic control panel 06

3.2 Advantages of PLC Control Panel 07

4. Key concepts to understand PLC computing 08

4.0 Real Time Computing 08

4.1 The Importance of Time Based Control 08

4.1.0 Scan-Based Control 09

4.1.1 Event-Triggered Control 09

 Name Page No
4.1.2. Time-Based Control 09

5. Ladder Logic 11

5.0 Introduction 11

5.1 Comparison to Relay Logic 11

6. Ladder Logic Programming 6.0 Basics of Ladder Logic 15

6.1 Basic Symbols and Notations 15

6.1.1 Normally Open Contact 15

6.1.2 Normally Open Coil 15

6.1.3 Normally Closed Contact 16

6.1.4 Normally Closed Coil 16

6.1.5 Basic AND & OR Gates 16

6.2 Basic Timers & Counters 16

7. Building a PLC/Ladder Logic Program 17

7.0 Ladder Logic Programming 18

8. Input and Output Components 18

8.0 Human Machine Interface 21

8.1 Use of Optocoupler 21

References 23
List of figures
Name Page no.

1 Figure 2.0 Pictorial View of PLC in Industry 03

2 Figure 2.1 Example of a PLC: Festo IPC PSI
Professional 04
3. Figure 2.2: Components of PLC 05
4 Figure 3.0 Typical Small Scale Control P 06
5. Figure 3.1 Typical PLC Control Panel 07
6. Figure 4.0 Jitter delays for Input-Process-Output
Sequence 08
7. Figure 5.0 Basic Ladder Logic Program 11
8. Figure 5.1 Electromechanical Relay 12
9. Figure 5.2. Basic Relay Logic Circuit 12
10. Figure 5.3 Relay Logic Circuit with Jog function added 13
11. Figure 5.4 Relay Logic Circuit with Jog function
and Status Indicators 13
12. Figure 5.5 Complex Ladder Diagram 14
13. 13. Figure 6.0 Simplified Logic Circuit 15
14. Figure 6.1 Simplified AND gate 16
15. Figure 6.2 Simplified OR gate 16
16. Figure 6.3 On-Delay Timer (RTO) 17
17. Figure 6.4 Up Counter 17
18. Figure 7.0 Ladder Diagram in Relay Logic 18
19. Figure 7.1 Relay Diagram with overload removed 18
20. Figure 7.2 Relay Circuit with Addition of Jog Function 19
21. Figure 7.3 Relay Circuit with Addition of Status Indicators. 19
22. Figure 7.4 Relay Logic Diagram Converted to PLC
Ladder Logic 20
23, Figure 8.0 Human Machine Interface (HMI) 21
24. Figure 8.1 Schematic diagram of an opto-isolator 22

List of tables:
1. Table 4.1 Relative delta jitter delay 10
 ABSTRACT

Industrial Automation is a field that requires a vast involvement in

the safety and the security aspects. The intensity towards this concept
may vary according to the nature of the industry. For industries that
involve heavy and sophisticated installations such that of a chemical
plant etc, the security feature must be more intense as compared to
less complicated industrial plants. Here we are proposing an idea that
well suits the kind of industries formerly mentioned. The system is
designed to monitor three very important parameters-the fluid level,
the temperature, and the operating voltage In any chemical plant these
three parameters forms the three factors that can define not only the
efficient working of the plant, but also the safety of the workers and
the installations involved. In the proposed design, if any of these values
exceeds beyond a particular limit, then immediately the entire system
will be shut down ensuring that any further damages are blocked The
three parameters will be constantly monitored by the microcontroller
and each time a check will be carried out to ensure that the threshold
limits have not exceeded. For this, the controller will be employing the
ADC peripheral. If exceeded, the microcontroller of course will make
sure that the system disabled in no time.
Chapter 1. Industrial Automation

1.0 Introduction

Automation[1] is the use of control systems and information technologies to reduce the
need for human work in the production of goods and services. In the scope of
industrialization, automation is a step beyond mechanization. Whereas mechanization
provided human operators with machinery to assist them with the muscular requirements
of work, automation greatly decreases the need for human sensory and mental
requirements as well. Automation plays an increasingly important role in the world
economy and in daily experience.

Automation has had a notable impact in a wide range of highly visible industries beyond
manufacturing. Once-ubiquitous telephone operators have been replaced largely by
automated telephone switchboards and answering machines. Medical processes such as
primary screening in electrocardiography or radiography and laboratory analysis of
human genes, sera, cells, and tissues are carried out at much greater speed and accuracy
by automated systems. Automated teller machines have reduced the need for bank visits
to obtain cash and carry out transactions. In general, automation has been responsible for
the shift in the world economy from industrial jobs to service jobs in the 20th and 21st
centuries.

1.1 Other goals of automation (beyond productivity gains and cost reduction)
In manufacturing, the purpose of automation has shifted to issues broader than
productivity and costs.
1) Reliability and precision
The old focus on using automation simply to increase productivity and reduce
costs was seen to be short-sighted, because it is also necessary to provide a skilled
workforce who can make repairs and manage the machinery. Moreover, the initial
costs of automation were high and often could not be recovered by the time
entirely new manufacturing processes replaced the old. (Japan's "robot junkyards"
were once world famous in the manufacturing industry.)
Automation is now often applied primarily to increase quality in the
manufacturing process, where automation can increase quality substantially. For
example, automobile and truck pistons used to be installed into engines manually.
This is rapidly being transitioned to automated machine installation, because the
error rate for manual installment was around 1-1.5%, but has been reduced to
0.00001% with automation.
2) Health and environment
The costs of automation to the environment are different depending on the
technology, product or engine automated. There are automated engines that
consume more energy resources from the Earth in comparison with previous

1
 engines and those that do the opposite too. Hazardous operations, such as oil
refining, the manufacturing of industrial chemicals, and all forms of metal
working were always early contenders for automation.

3) Convertibility and turnaround time

Another major shift in automation is the increased demand for flexibility and
convertibility in manufacturing processes. Manufacturers are increasingly
demanding the ability to easily switch from manufacturing Product A to
manufacturing Product B without having to completely rebuild the production
lines. Flexibility and distributed processes have led to the introduction of
Automated Guided Vehicles with Natural Features Navigation.
Digital electronics helped too. Former analogue-based instrumentation was
replaced by digital equivalents which can be more accurate and flexible, and offer
greater scope for more sophisticated configuration, parameterization and
operation. This was accompanied by the fieldbus revolution which provided a
networked (i.e. a single cable) means of communicating between control systems
and field level instrumentation, eliminating hard-wiring.

1.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Automation

The main advantages of automation[2] are:
 Replacing human operators in tasks that involve hard physical or monotonous
work.
 Replacing humans in tasks done in dangerous environments (i.e. fire, space,
volcanoes, nuclear facilities, underwater, etc.)
 Performing tasks that are beyond human capabilities of size, weight, speed,
endurance, etc.
 Economy improvement: Automation may improve in economy of enterprises,
society or most of humanity. For example, when an enterprise invests in
automation, technology recovers its investment; or when a state or country
increases its income due to automation like Germany or Japan in the 20th Century.
The main disadvantages of automation are:
 Technology limits. Current technology is unable to automate all the desired tasks.
 Unpredictable development costs. The research and development cost of
automating a process may exceed the cost saved by the automation itself.
 High initial cost. The automation of a new product or plant requires a huge initial
investment in comparison with the unit cost of the product, although the cost of
automation is spread in many product batches.

2
Chapter 2. Programmable Logic Controllers

2.0 Introduction to Programmable Logic Controller

A programmable logic controller (PLC)[3] or programmable controller is a digital
computer used for automation of electromechanical processes, such as control of
machinery on factory assembly lines, amusement rides, or lighting fixtures. PLCs are
used in many industries and machines. Unlike general-purpose computers, the PLC is
designed for multiple inputs and output arrangements, extended temperature ranges,
immunity to electrical noise, and resistance to vibration and impact. Programs to control
machine operation are typically stored in battery-backed or non-volatile memory. A PLC
is an example of a real time system since output results must be produced in response to
input conditions within a bounded time, otherwise unintended operation will result.

A PLC is subject to many a conventions varying with the kind of manufacturer. The
notations or what is called the ‘syntax’ in the programming language is specific to the
manufacturer too.

Figure 2.0 Pictorial View of PLC in Industry

2.1 Development of PLC

Early PLCs were designed to replace relay logic systems. These PLCs were programmed

3
in "ladder logic", which strongly resembles a schematic diagram of relay logic. This
program notation was chosen to reduce training demands for the existing technicians.

Modern PLCs[4] can be programmed in a variety of ways, from ladder logic to more
traditional programming languages such as BASIC and C. Another method is State Logic,
a very high-level programming language designed to program PLCs based on state
transition diagrams.

Many early PLCs did not have accompanying programming terminals that were capable
of graphical representation of the logic, and so the logic was instead represented as a
series of logic expressions in some version of Boolean format, similar to Boolean algebra.
As programming terminals evolved, it became more common for ladder logic to be used,
for the aforementioned reasons. A primary reason for this is that PLCs solve the logic in a
predictable and repeating sequence, and ladder logic allows the programmer to see any
issues with the timing of the logic sequence more easily than would be possible in other
formats.

Figure 2.1 Example of a PLC: Festo IPC PS1 Professional

2.2 Components of PLC

The function of an input module is to convert incoming signals into signals, which can be
processed by the PLC, and to pass these to the central control unit. The reverse task is
performed by an output module. This converts the PLC signal into signals suitable for the
actuators. The actual processing of the signals is effected in the central control unit in
accordance with the program stored in the memory. The program of a PLC can be created
in various ways: via assembler type commands in ’statement list’, in higher-level,
problem-oriented languages such as structured text or in the form of a flow chart such as
represented by a sequential function chart. In Europe, the use of function block diagrams
based on function charts with graphic symbols for logic gates is widely used. In America,
the ’ladder diagram’ is the preferred language by users. Depending on how the central
control unit is connected to the input and output modules, differentiation can be made
between compact PLCs (input module, central control unit and output module in one
housing) or modular PLCs[5].

4
The PLC mainly consists of a CPU, memory areas, and appropriate circuits to receive
input/output data. We can actually consider the PLC to be a box full of hundreds or
thousands of separate relays, counters, timers and data storage locations. They don't
physically exist but rather they are simulated and can be considered software counters,
timers, etc. Each component of a PLC[6] has a specific function.

 Input Relays (contacts) - These are connected to the outside world. They
physically exist and receive signals from switches, sensors, etc. Typically they are
not relays but rather they are transistors.
 Internal Utility Relays - These do not receive signals from the outside world nor
do they physically exist. They are simulated relays and are what enables a PLC to
eliminate external relays. There are also some special relays that are dedicated to
performing only one task. Some are always on while some are always off. Some
are on only once during power-on and are typically used for initializing data that
was stored.
 Counters - These are simulated counters and they can be programmed to count
pulses. Typically these counters can count up, down or both up and down. Since
they are simulated they are limited in their counting speed. Some manufacturers
also include high-speed counters that are hardware based. We can think of these
as physically existing.
 Timers - These come in many varieties and increments. The most common type
is an on-delay type. Others include off-delay and both retentive and non-retentive
types. Increments vary from 1 millisecond through 1 second.
 Output Relays (coils) - These are connected to the outside world. They
physically exist and send on/off signals to solenoids, lights, etc. They can be
transistors, relays, or triacs depending upon the model chosen.
 Data Storage - Typically there are registers assigned to simply store data. They
are usually used as temporary storage for math or data manipulation. They can
also typically be used to store data when power is removed from the PLC. Upon
power-up they will still have the same contents as before power was removed.

Figure 2.2: Components of PLC

5
Chapter 3. Comparison with Hard Wired Relay
3.0 A Brief overview about Hard wired Relay

At the outset of industrial revolution, especially during sixties and seventies, relays were
used to operate automated machines, and these were interconnected using wires inside
the control panel. In some cases a control panel covered an entire wall. To discover an
error in the system much time was needed, especially with more complex process control
systems. On top of everything, a lifetime of relay contacts was limited, so some relays
had to be replaced. If replacement was required, machine had to be stopped and
production as well. Also, it could happen that there was not enough room for necessary
changes. A control panel was used only for one particular process, and it wasn’t easy to
adapt to the requirements of a new system. As far as maintenance, electricians had to be
very skillful in finding errors. In short, conventional control panels proved to be very
inflexible. Typical example of conventional control panel is given in the following
picture.

Figure 3.0 Typical Small Scale Control Panel

In the Figure 3.0, you can see a large number of electrical wires, relays, timers and other
elements of automation typical for that period. The pictured control panel is not one of
the more complicated ones, so you can imagine what complex ones looked like.

3.1 Disadvantages of a classic control panel

The most frequently mentioned disadvantages of a classic control panel [7] are:

 Large amount of work required connecting wires

 Difficulty with changes or replacements
 Difficulty in finding errors; requiring skillful/experienced work force
 When a problem occurs, hold-up time is indefinite, usually long

6
With invention of programmable controllers, much has changed in how a process control
system is designed. Many advantages appeared. Typical example of control panel with a
PLC controller is given in the following picture.

Figure 3.1 Typical PLC Control Panel

3.2 Advantages of PLC Control Panel

Advantages of control panel that is based on a PLC controller [8] can be presented in few
basic points:

 Compared to a conventional process control system, number of wires needed for

connections is reduced by approximately 80%
 Use of PLC results in appreciable savings in Hardware and wiring cost
 Diagnostic functions of a PLC controller allow for fast and easy error detection.
 Change in operating sequence or application of a PLC controller to a different
operating process can easily be accomplished by replacing a program through a
console or using PC software (not requiring changes in wiring, unless addition of
some input or output device is required).
 Needs fewer spare parts.
 It is much cheaper compared to a conventional system, especially in cases where a
large number of Input/Output instruments are needed and when operational
functions are complex
 Reliability of a PLC is greater than that of an electro-mechanical relay or a timer,
because of less moving parts.
 They are compact and occupy less space
 Use of PLC results in appreciable savings in Hardware and wiring cost

7
Chapter 4. Key concepts to understand PLC computing
4.0 Real Time Computing
In computer science, real-time computing (RTC) [9], or reactive computing, is the study
of hardware and software systems that are subject to a "real-time constraint"—i.e.,
operational deadlines from event to system response. Real-time programs must execute
within strict constraints on response time. By contrast, a non-real-time system is one for
which there is no deadline, even if fast response or high performance is desired or
preferred. The needs of real-time software are often addressed in the context of real-time
operating systems, and synchronous programming languages, which provide frameworks
on which to build real-time application software.

A real time system may be one where its application can be considered (within context)
to be mission critical. The anti-lock brakes on a car are a simple example of a real-time
computing system — the real-time constraint in this system is the short time in which the
brakes must be released to prevent the wheel from locking. Real-time computations can
be said to have failed if they are not completed before their deadline, where their deadline
is relative to an event. A real-time deadline must be met, regardless of system load.

4.1 The Importance of Time Based Control

In traditional sequential control systems where input sensors, output actuators, and
industrial controllers are distributed over a local area network, the control algorithms are
typically scan-based and asynchronous, and consequently suffer from significant
processing jitter. Some systems employ change of state or event- triggered techniques to
improve performance. However, time-based control provides the best performance
alternative.

Figure 4.0 Jitter delays for Input-Process-Output Sequence

8
4.1.0 Scan-Based Control

For scan-based control [10], the process is as follows for a simple input, control, output
sequence. Input data from sensor devices are sent to the controller at a periodic rate. The
controller runs its control algorithm at a periodic rate and output results are sent to the
output actuators at a periodic rate. The inputs and outputs change state asynchronously to
the periodic input and output scan.

This input-process-output sequence creates a very elastic or jittery input to output delay.
The delay jitter will be a function of when the input changes in relation to the
asynchronous periodic scans of the input, controller and output transfer, network
transport delays, and internal device delays. These delays are illustrated in

4.1.1 Event-Triggered Control

Event-triggered or change-of-state control [11] can significantly reduce jitter. With

change-of-state operation the input, control, and output, scan delays are eliminated. When
an input transition is detected by the input device, it immediately sends it to the controller.
The controller is interrupted when the input arrives and immediately executes its
processing algorithm and sends the result to the output device. When the output message
arrives at the output device it immediately actuates the output.

This approach will still incur jitter delays due to network transport. If a large number of
input transitions occur at once, network congestion and packet loss may occur resulting in
additional jitter delays and possibly machine failure. Also, since many I/O devices do not
support event trigger mechanisms, this approach is often less viable. In practice, a
traditional control system will use a combination of scan-based and event-based control
mechanisms.

4.1.2. Time-Based Control

For many applications, the jitter won’t matter as long as the application response times
are satisfied. However, some applications require more precision and have a low
tolerance to jitter. For these applications, a time-based control system can solve these
problems more effectively.

In a time-based system, an association is made between input and output events and time.
Time becomes an integral function of the control system and control algorithms. All
devices in the system have the same notion of time. In such a system, the input events are
time-stamped and output events are scheduled. The control system precisely knows when
the input was sampled and can precisely determine when the output should be actuated.
The output device can schedule the output to actuate at a predetermined time.

9
The only jitter sources for this system are those associated with accurately time-stamping
inputs and outputs.

Jitter or Delay Delay Delta Jitter (Max - Min)

Source Scan-Based Event-Triggered Time-Based
Input 0.2 msec 10 msec 0 0
Input Network 1 msec 1 msec 1 msec 0
Controller 10 msec 100 msec 10 msec 0
Output Network 1 msec 1 msec 1 msec 0
Output 0.2 msec 10 msec 0 0
Total 12.4 msec 122 msec 12 msec 0

Table 4.1 shows relative delta jitter delays for the three control mechanisms discussed.
The delay numbers indicate the processing delays for the component. The delta jitter is
the maximum minus the minimum jitter for the component.

10
Chapter 5. Ladder Logic
5.0 Introduction

Ladder logic [12] is one form of drawing electrical logic schematics, and is a graphical
language very popular for programming Programmable Logic Controllers. Ladder logic
was originally invented to describe logic made from relays. The name is based on the
observation that programs in this language resemble ladders, with two vertical "rails" and
a series of horizontal "rungs" between them. Figure 5.0 below is a very basic example of
ladder logic used in a programmable logic controls program.

Figure 5.0 Basic Ladder Logic Program

5.1 Comparison to Relay Logic

The program used in a controls schematic, called a ladder diagram[13], is similar to a

schematic for a set of relay circuits. An argument that aided the initial adoption of ladder
logic was that a wide variety of engineers and technicians would be able to understand
and use it without much additional training, because of the resemblance to familiar
hardware systems. This argument has become less relevant lately given that most ladder
logic programmers have a software background in more conventional programming
languages, and in practice implementations of ladder logic have characteristics such as
sequential execution that make the analogy to hardware somewhat imperfect. Electricians
and data cabling or control technicians still argue that this is the best graphical interface
as they generally do not have any computer science or digital systems background, and
are therefore taught with this interface in sequence with relay logic.

11
Figure 5.1 Electromechanical Relay

Relay logic is the precursor to ladder logic, and is a method of controlling industrial
electronic circuits by using relays and contacts. Figure 5.1 shows an average mechanical
relay used in older relay logic systems. The schematic diagrams for relay logic circuits
are often called line diagrams, because the inputs and outputs are essentially drawn in a
series of lines, with the lines representing actual wires run in the circuit. A relay logic
circuit is an electrical network consisting of lines, in which each input/output group must
have electrical continuity with all components in that group of devices to enable the
output device. The Relay logic diagrams represent the physical interconnection of devices,
while the relay logic circuit forms an electrical schematic diagram for the control of input
and output devices. This is why electricians and control technicians can easily understand
and interpret relay logic and ladder logic diagrams. Figure 5.2 below shows a basic relay
logic circuit. Notice how it differs from the ladder logic circuit in Figure 5.0 in that the
“virtual” inputs and outputs in the ladder logic circuit have replaced the actual relays and
coils in the relay logic circuit.

Figure 5.2. Basic Relay Logic Circuit

Figure 5.2 is a small, basic relay logic circuit. You can see how in relay logic circuits the
pushbuttons are represented with graphical drawings of a normally closed pushbutton for
the stop button, and a normally open pushbutton for the start button. The coil that is
marked “M” is a motor coil, and is a physical piece of equipment in the same location as
the motor, which is represented by a circle with the letter M in the middle. The over
current or overload device is represented by a normally closed coil symbol with “O.L.”
over it. There would only be seven wires to connect in this circuit, so this would not be
very difficult to wire, but when more inputs and outputs are added, the difficulty grows
exponentially. Figure 5.3 shows an expanded relay circuit of Figure 5.2 in that a double
pole single throw pushbutton is added into the diagram to be used as a “jog function”. As
the diagram shows, a jog switch is used to run the output (motor). Only one component is
added, but three wires need to be installed in the circuit for the component to be utilized
in the intended manner.

12
Figure 5.3 Relay Logic Circuit with Jog function added

Figure 5.4 below adds four more components to the system. Two of them are just coils
from the motor apparatus that are used as inputs and the other two are a red and green
light to be utilized as output/motor status indicators for the user.

Figure 5.4 Relay Logic Circuit with Jog function and Status Indicators

This circuit adds 6 additional wires to the original circuit in Figure 5.3. If both of the
additions from Figure 5.3 and 5.4 were added to the original circuit, this would add 5
components and 9 additional wires. This illustrates how using a programmable logic
controller is advantageous in that adding any number of relays takes much less effort. It
doesn’t seem like a large amount of work to connect just 9 additional wires, but in a real
world situation, the motor in question may be on top of a grain silo, and the start/stop
station may be a few hundred feet away in a control booth. Pulling all these control wires
would take hours instead of a few minutes sitting in front of a programming terminal.
Programmable logic controllers coupled with ladder logic can make some of the most
labor intensive tasks become easy, enjoyable projects.

13
Figure 5.5 Complex Ladder Diagram

Ladder logic is the most widely used program for programmable logic controllers where
sequential control of a process or manufacturing operation is required. Ladder logic is
useful for simple but critical control systems, or for reworking old hardwired relay
circuits. As programmable logic controllers became more sophisticated it has also been
used in very complex automation systems. Figure 5.5 above shows a much more
complicated ladder logic diagram than the one shown in Figure 5.0. It is relatable to the
relay circuits in Figures 5.2, 5.3, and 5.4 as well in that some of the outputs are motors
and status lights. In addition there are holding/latching contacts included, but they are not
a piece of hardware. In fact, they are just the address of the respective output being
referenced, which will be discussed in greater detail later. This is still not a very large
program. Ladder logic programs can easily grow to more than 500 “rungs” to finish some
functions.

14
Chapter 6. Ladder Logic Programming
6.0 Basics of Ladder Logic

Ladder logic or ladder diagrams [14] are the most common programming language used
to program a PLC. Ladder logic was one of the first programming approaches used in
PLCs because it borrowed heavily from the relay diagrams that plant electricians already
knew. The symbols used in relay ladder logic consist of a power rail to the left, a second
power rail to the right, and individual circuits that connect the left power rail to the right.
The logic of each circuit (or rung) is solved from left to right. A common mistake made
by most people is trying to think of the diagram as having to have current across the rung
for the output to function. This has given many people trouble because of the fact that
some inputs are “not” inputs, which will be true when there isn’t current through this
sensor. The symbols of these diagrams look like a ladder - with two side rails and circuits
that resemble rungs on a ladder.

Figure 6.0 Simplified Logic Circuit

The logic of the rung above is such:

 If Input1 is ON (or true) - power (logic) completes the circuit from the left rail to
the right rail - and Output1 turns ON (or true).
 If Input1 is OFF (or false) - then the circuit is not completed and logic does not
flow to the right - and Output 1 is OFF (or false).

6.1 Basic Symbols and Notations

There are many logic symbols available in Ladder Logic - including timers, counters,
math, and data moves such that any logical condition or control loop can be represented
in ladder logic. With just a handful of basic symbols such as a normally open contact,
normally closed contact, normally open coil, normally closed coil, timer and counter
most logical conditions can be represented.

6.1.1 Normally Open Contact

This can be used to represent any input to the control logic such as a switch or sensor, a
contact from an output, or an internal output. When solved the referenced input is
examined for a true (logical 1) condition. If it is true, the contact will close and allow
logic to flow from left to right. If the status is FALSE (logical 0), the contact is open and
logic will not flow from left to right.

15
6.1.2 Normally Open Coil

This can be used to represent any discrete output from the control logic. When "solved" if
the logic to the left of the coil is TRUE, the referenced output is TRUE (logical 1).

6.1.3 Normally Closed Contact

When solved the referenced input is examined for an OFF condition. If the status is OFF
(logical 0) power (logic) will flow from left to right. If the status is ON, power will not
flow.

6.1.4 Normally Closed Coil

When "solved" if the coil is a logical 0, power will be turned on to the device. If the
device is logical 1, power will be OFF.

6.1.5 Basic AND & OR Gates

The AND is a basic fundamental logic condition that is easy to directly represent in
Ladder Logic. Figure 6.1 shows a simplified AND “gate” on a ladder rung.

Figure 6.1 Simplified AND gate

In order for Light1 to turn TRUE, Switch1 must be TRUE, AND Switch2 must be TRUE.
If Switch1 is FALSE, logic (not power) flows from the left rail, but stops at Switch1.
Light1 will be TRUE regardless of the state of Switch2. If Switch1 is TRUE, logic makes
it to Switch2. If Switch2 is TRUE, power cannot flow any further to the right, and Light1
is FALSE. If Switch1 is TRUE, AND Switch2 is TRUE - logic flows to Light1 solving
its state to TRUE.

The OR is a logical condition that is easy to represent in Ladder Logic. Figure 6.2 shows
a simple OR gate. Notice the differences in logic between the OR and AND gates.

Figure 6.2 Simplified OR gate

If Switch1 is TRUE, logic flows to Light1 turning it to TRUE. If Switch2 is TRUE, logic
flows through the Switch2 contact, and up the rail to Light1 turning it to TRUE. If
Switch1 AND Switch 2 are TRUE Light1 is TRUE. The only way Light1 is FALSE is if

16
Switch1 AND Switch2 are FALSE. In other words, Light1 is TRUE if Switch1 OR
Switch2 is TRUE.

6.2 Basic Timers & Counters

Many times programs will call for action to be taken in a control program based on more
than the states of discrete inputs and outputs. Sometimes, processes will need to turn on
after a delay, or count the number of times a switch is hit. To do these simple tasks,
Timers & Counters are utilized.

Figure 6.3 On-Delay Timer (RTO)

A timer is simply a control block that takes an input and changes an output based on time.
There are two basic types of timers. There are other advanced timers, but they won’t be
discussed in this report. An On-Delay Timer takes an input, waits a specific amount of
time, and allows logic to flow after the delay. An Off-Delay Timer allows logic to flow to
an output and keeps that output true until the set amount of time has passed, then turns it
false, hence off-delay. Figure 6.3 above shows an On-Delay Timer with a 10 second
delay before it passes the logic through it.

Figure 6.4 Up Counter

A counter simply counts the number of events that occur on an input. There are two basic
types of counters called up counters and down counters. As its name implies, whenever a
triggering event occurs, an up counter increments the counter, while a down counter
decrements the counter whenever a triggering event occurs. Figure 6.4 shows the typical
graphical representation of an Up Counter.

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Chapter 7. Building a PLC/Ladder Logic Program

7.0 Ladder Logic Programming

Building a small ladder logic program to run on a PLC network is quite easy. For the
beginner, it is easier to see the ladder diagram in the form of relay logic. Figure 7.0 below
shows a basic start/stop station for a motor in relay logic.

Figure 7.0 Ladder Diagram in Relay Logic

Just as in Figure 7.0 above, relay logic shows all components in the system. This is
because relay logic is the same as the wiring diagrams that the electricians use, so all the
wiring needs to be shown for the logic to work. Because of this, some components may
not need to be included in the plc ladder logic diagram.

Figure 7.1 Relay Diagram with overload removed

Figure 7.1 above shows the same circuit as in Figure 7.0 with the overload removed. The
overload is needed in relay logic because you have to have an overload device on any
circuit; therefore it needs to be in the wiring diagram. This way, if you push too much
current to the motor, the overload device will interrupt the circuit. Overloads are included
internally in most any device anymore, but you will still see this in diagrams. There is
still an overload device in a plc ladder logic circuit, but ladder logic shows only those
components that have an input or output address, so you do not see it. In Figure 7.1, you
can see that the start and stop buttons along with the motor relay will all be turned to
inputs in the plc diagram and the motor, signified by a circle with an ‘M’ in the middle
will be an output. The motor relay will not be a physical entity in the plc ladder diagram
as it is in this relay logic. It will simply be an input that uses the same I/O address as the
motor output. The stop button input can be located on either side of the start button/relay
gate, as long as it is still in series with it.

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Figure 7.2 Relay Circuit with Addition of Jog Function

Figure 7.2 above shows the addition of a ‘Jog Function” to the relay circuit. The jog
function is generally added to any circuit for troubleshooting purposes only. Most jog
functions are set up so that the only time the motor will run with the help of the jog
function is when the ‘Jog Button’ is pushed. In Figure 7.2 above, you can see this with
the relay logic. As the circuit looks right now, when the Start Button is pressed, the motor
will start, energizing the relay, and going across the Jog Button’s normally closed
contacts. The motor will stay running this way until the Stop Button is pressed. If instead
the Jog Button is pressed, the current will travel across the normally open Jog contacts
that are now closed. The motor will stay running until the Jog Button is no longer pressed.

Figure 7.3 Relay Circuit with Addition of Status Indicators

Figure 7.3 above shows that same circuit with Status Indicators added. These are used in
control rooms to inform users of the status of their motors or other moving parts. Green is
the generally accepted color for a motor going, while red is stopped. The green light is
energized when the normally open contact is energized by the moving motor, closing it.
The red light is energized whenever a normally closed relay is closed, so it will turn off
whenever the motor starts to run. From Figure 7.0 to Figure 7.3, one can see that with
every component added, many wires need to be connected as well. Depending on how far
away these components are away from each other, this can be very difficult and time
consuming.

19
Figure 7.4 Relay Logic Diagram Converted to PLC Ladder Logic

Figure 7.4 above was converted from the relay logic in Figure 7.3 to the PLC ladder logic
seen here. If the PLC logic here was used in Figures 7.0-Figures 7.3, adding the various
component would’ve taken much less time than physically wiring each component. PLC
ladder logic can differ from relay logic in that different components are used as well. In
the relay diagrams, a single button double pole switch was used so that it could perform
two different functions. In PLC ladder logic, just a single pole button is needed, because
the computer can be asked to look for a on or off state. For the status lights, instead of
running wires to the motor relays the PLC diagram just looks for a true or false state of
the motor output.

20
Chapter 8. Input and Output Components
8.0 Human Machine Interface

In the industrial design field of human- machine interaction [12], the user interface is (a
place) where interaction between humans and machines occurs. The goal of interaction
between a human and a machine at the user interface is effective operation and control of
the machine, and feedback from the machine which aids the operator in making
operational decisions. Examples of this broad concept of user interfaces include the
interactive aspects of computer operating systems, hand tools, heavy machinery operator
controls and process controls. The design considerations applicable when creating user
interfaces are related to or involve such disciplines as ergonomics and psychology.

A user interface is the system by which people (users) interact with a machine. The user
interface includes hardware (physical) and software (logical) components. User interfaces
exist for various systems, and provide a means of:

 Input, allowing the users to manipulate a system, and/or

 Output, allowing the system to indicate the effects of the users' manipulation.

Generally, the goal of human-machine interaction engineering is to produce a user

interface which makes it easy, efficient, and enjoyable to operate a machine in the way
which produces the desired result. This generally means that the operator needs to
provide minimal input to achieve the desired output, and also that the machine minimizes
undesired outputs to the human.

Ever since the increased use of personal computers and the relative decline in societal
awareness of heavy machinery, the term user interface has taken on overtones of the
(graphical) user interface, while industrial control panel and machinery control design
discussions more commonly refer to human-machine interfaces.

Figure 8.0 Human Machine Interface (HMI)

21
8.1 Use of Optocoupler

In electronics, an opto-isolator [15], also called an optocoupler, photocoupler, or optical

isolator, is "an electronic device designed to transfer electrical signals by utilizing light
waves to provide coupling with electrical isolation between its input and output". The
main purpose of an opto-isolator is "to prevent high voltages or rapidly changing voltages
on one side of the circuit from damaging components or distorting transmissions on the
other side." Commercially available opto-isolators withstand input-to-output voltages up
to 10 kV and voltage transients with speeds up to 10 kV/μs.

Figure 8.1 Schematic diagram of an opto-isolator showing source of light (LED) on

the left, dielectric barrier in the center, and sensor (phototransistor) on the right

An opto-isolator contains a source (emitter) of light, almost always a near infrared light-
emitting diode (LED), that converts electrical input signal into light, a closed optical
channel (also called dielectrical channel), and a photosensor, which detects incoming
light and either generates electric energy directly, or modulates electric current flowing
from an external power supply. The sensor can be a photoresistor, a photodiode, a
phototransistor, a silicon-controlled rectifier (SCR) or a triac. Because LEDs can sense
light in addition to emitting it, construction of symmetrical, bidirectional opto-isolators is
possible. An optocoupled solid state relay contains a photodiode opto-isolator which
drives a power switch, usually a complementary pair of MOSFET transistors. A slotted
optical switch contains a source of light and a sensor, but its optical channel is open,
allowing modulation of light by external objects obstructing the path of light or reflecting
light into the sensor.

22
CONCLUSION

Application specific networking architectures.

Densely distributed sensor network.
Development platforms are now available for PLC[5].

The network is self-monitoring and secure.

Now it is possible to secure the border with an invisible wall of
thousands or even millions of tiny interconnected sensor.
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[1] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automation

[2] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programmable_logic_controller

[3]http://www.allaboutcircuits.com/vol_4/chpt_6/6.html

[4] http://www.controldesign.com/

[5] http://www.festo-didactic.com/int-en/

[6] http://www.webstergriffin.com/

[7] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Realtime_computing

[8] www.google.com

[9] www.wikipedia.org

[10] www.studymafia.org

[11] Madhuchhanda Mitra, Samarjt Semgupta,

“Programmable Logic Controllers and Industial
Automation”.
[12] Stephen P Tubbs , “Programmable Logic
Controller (PLC) Tutorial, Siemens Simatic S7-
200”.
[13] Ayman Aly El-Nagger, “Fundamentals of
Automation and Industrial Control Systems Using
PLC”.
[14] Kevin collins, “PLC Programming for Industrial
Automation 2016”.
[15] Stephen Philip Tubbs, “Programmable Logic
Controller (PLC) Tutorial”