Lecture 1

1.1 What is a report?

A report is a structured form of writing which involves identification of a problem, its detailed examination
and an organized provision of all the results and discussions followed by some suggestions and
recommendations.

1.1.1 Characteristics of a Report

A report is to be structured with the use of headings and subheadings. It should be comprised of sections
which can stand independently when it comes to the comprehension of these sections without referring
to the other sections. A report is a form of impartial communication based on facts and figures to maintain
objectivity in language.

1.1.2 Expectations
A report is based on a problem solving hypothetical situation for which a solution has to be provided. This
has to be is highlighted as the topic of a report. A report has to be developed keeping in view the fact that
it has to be submitted as a proposal. In other words, you have a clear purpose and you prepare your report
on this clearly defined objective. Thus, a report has a clearly defined audience (client, manager, etc). A
report is given a proper structure and format with the use of headings and subheadings. The information
has to be provided with the use of objective language instead of being personal or subjective. That is, the
author must avoid the use of first person singular and plural. A good report is based on good research and
analysis. This add credibility and authenticity to the results and makes a successful and target-oriented
report.

1.1.3 General Purpose of Writing a Report

In general, a report is used to provide information which is used to persuade your target audience. This
leads to a change in their perspectives. In other words, you are influencing your audience to take a
decision. As a result, you initiate an action.

1.1.4 Significance of a Report

A report is used to maintain a written account of all the tasks and activities being performed within an
organization. Furthermore, a report also acts as a source of written communication within an organization
in a hierarchical manner. It can be upward communication starting from employee moving towards the
employer or vice versa i.e. downward communication. Likewise, it can be a source of parallel
communication i.e. employee to employee (peer to peer communication).

1.1.5 Relevance of a Report

A report acts as a mean of internal communication within an organization. It facilitates not only in the
planning of a project but also as a source of initiating an action based on a unanimous decision taken by
higher authorities. A report becomes the source of an unknown information as it provides results based
on an analysis of a subject matter. Thus, it adds information into the existing body of knowledge. It
becomes a channel of disseminating information among all the employees of an organization.
1.2 Report Attributes
 A report is a methodical, well-planned document which outlines and evaluates a subject or
problem.
 Essentially, a report is a short, sharp and concise document which is written for a particular
purpose and audience.
 It basically analyzes a situation or problem, often making recommendations for future actions.
 It is a factual paper and needs to be clear and well-structured.
1.3 Features of a Well-Written Report
A report reflects a clear picture of your clarity of thought. It also elaborates the fact that your knowledge
is comprehensive and you have provided information in a manner which is self-explanatory. The
information should not only be comprehensive but also compact. In other words, maximum information
is provided with a minimum use of words. The overall structure of a well-written report is presentable and
legible.

1.4 Report vs. Essay

A report can be compared with an essay as these two formats of writing have certain similarities and
differences.

1.5 Similarities
Common features of these two formats include:

1. an introductory section;
2. a detailed body;
3. a conclusive section;
4. analytical thinking;
5. formal style;
6. careful proofreading, and
7. a neat presentation.

1.6 Differences
The differences between a report and an essay are as follows:

1. A report is based on the provision of information whereas in an essay, the basic idea is to argue
for a particular topic.
2. Factual information is meant to be scanned quickly by the reader in a report since a report is well-
structured by use of numbered headings and subheadings. This is absent in an essay as a reader
has to go through the essay completely to understand the subject matter.
3. A report is generally based on short and concise paragraphs whereas an essay uses a more
complex sentence structure.
4. A report also includes tables, graphs and other illustrations whereas an essay is simply a collection
of words. If needed, informal figures are included.
5. A report begins with a short abstract also known as the executive summary whereas the outline
of an essay is presented in the introductory paragraph.
6. A report provides suggestions and recommendations at the end of a detailed analysis and
discussion of results whereas an essay concludes by reviewing the arguments and does not always
provide recommendations and suggestions.
Lecture 2
2.1 Audience Nature
The nature of the audience is essential in determining the structure to be used for drafting a report. There
are three different types of readers.

2.1.1 Technical Readers

Technical Readers have sufficient knowledge with respect to the subject matter which is why all they
require is the factual information which they can use to interpret and draw a conclusion.

2.1.2 Managerial Readers

Managerial Readers have a hectic schedule which is why they are interested to get the gist of the content.
In other words, they are interested in reading the executive summary of your report.

2.1.3 General Readers

General Readers do not have sufficient knowledge with respect to the subject matter. Thus, they require
details for the comprehension of information provided within the report.

2.2 Purpose of Report Writing

As may already be inferred, a report must provide a valid reason for why it is written. In general, a purpose
covers the following:

1. Information regarding a subject matter;

2. Instructions regarding the use of some instrument;
3. Description of a survey;
4. Explanation of some event, and
5. Mechanism of collecting data and its analysis, among others.

2.3 Technical Report Writing

Technical Report Writing can be defined as:

1. A written account of events related to a scientific inquiry;

2. As an exercise in effectively communicating technical information;
3. As an interpretation of graphs, tables and figures using language, and
4. As the foundation of drafting a well-written report, which is reflected in the organization of
information.
2.4 Characteristics of a Report
Report writing involves the use of active voice with the use of active verbs to make it more effective and
appealing for the audience. It is written in third person to remove the element of subjectivity from the
content. The use of personal pronouns is avoided to maintain objectivity. The conventional structure of a
report has page margins of usually one inch on all sides. Credible authors and their content is cited to
ameliorate the authenticity of the content and discussion provided within a report.
2.5 Structure of a Report: Overview
A report is generally comprised of the following sections:

2.5.1 Title Page

A title page is also known as the cover page and provides the details of addresser (From), addressee (To),
date of submission and the title itself.

2.5.2 Abstract
The cover page or the title page is followed by a short summary of the whole report. This short summary
is technically called the executive summary. It is supposed to be qualitative, thus the adjective
“executive”. This executive summary should clearly define the purpose and the outcome of the whole
study with pertinent results without using any abbreviation to confuse readers.

2.5.3 Table of Contents

The Table of Contents (ToC) is a page which provides the details of all the sections and subsections along
with a reference of pages where those sections can be studied in a tabulated form.

2.5.4 Introduction
The introductory section of a report describes the problem for the readers, elaborates the objectives,
explains the methodology used for the collection and analysis of data followed by highlighting the most
interesting results to catch the attention of readers and to draw a conclusion. The information is provided
using the technique of conciseness.

2.5.5 Design and Procedure

This section involves the theoretical description of the research design used for the analysis of the report.
This section can also cover the previous testing of the particular design under consideration. No specific
measurements are needed at this point. This section to has to be kept brief and clear.

2.5.6 Results and Discussion

The results and their interpretation is provided in this section with the application of figures, tables and
diagrams etc.

2.5.7 Conclusion
This section sums up all the results of the study in a quantitative manner, maintaining brevity. Authors
must strive to avoid the use of abbreviations as it will be read by readers who have earlier read only the
executive summary without any idea of the body content. The conclusion must simply highlight the
studied problem; explain the basic objectives, the procedure to collect and analyze the data and the most
important results once again to get the attention of readers

2.5.8 Work Cited/Bibliography

A detailed list of all the resources which have been studied to develop understanding of the subject matter
may be included in the bibliography. Works on which the report is based on may be cited and included in
the work cited or references section. There are different formats of citations to prepare the work cited
page or bibliography. Some authors use end notes for this purpose. The inclusion of this section at the
end follows a certain format, as well. Most of the researchers related to social sciences, arts and
humanities use the MLA (Modern Language Associations) style whereas the studies based on natural
sciences use the APA (American Psychological Associations) style.

2.6 Language of a Report

Clarity within a report can be maintained with the use of active verbs rather than the passive verbs. Brevity
can be ensured with the use of simple and declarative sentences. Objectivity can be achieved by avoiding
the use of first person singular and plural.

2.7 Deductive Report vs. Inductive Report

There are two types of report based on the manner of reasoning and drawing conclusion for initiating an
action.

2.7.1 Deductive Report

This is the form of report where a general information itself is used to draw a specific conclusion. It is used
to deliver routine messages with reference to neutral information which is presented openly and clearly.

2.7.2 Inductive Report

In this form of report, the discussion precedes the conclusion. In other words, you generalize your
conclusion based on a specific discussion at the outset of report. It requires the provision and use of
factual information to draw a conclusion. Such types of reports are used in case of informed readers who
offer a strong and anticipated resistance with respect to the problem under investigation.
Lecture 3
3.1 Sections of a Report
A report is structured according to the following sections:

1. Title page
2. Executive summary
3. Table of contents
4. Introduction
5. Discussion
6. Conclusion
7. Recommendations
8. Bibliography
9. Appendices

3.1.1 Title Page

The title page is the face of a report. It should be clear and proper both in terms of content and formatting
so that the reader may form a good idea of what is the report about.

There are four basic components that should be present in the title page:

1. It should have a clear title.

2. It should have date of submission.
3. It should have the detail of the person who has prepared the report, that is, addresser’s name.
4. It should have the addressee’s name.

PRELIMINARY REPORT
BAKERY

PREPARED FOR
MANAGING COMMITTEE
HAYATCHI ENTERPRISES

PREPARED BY
INCUBE-RESEARCH
JANUARY 25, 2012
Figure 1 Sample title page
3.1.2 Executive Summary
The next section is executive summary, also known as Abstract. This section provides the gist of the whole
report. Findings, objectives and recommendations in the report are put in a nutshell in this section.

There are six points that are to be considered for structuring the executive summary:

1. You should be clear about your aims and objectives. Identify them by keeping in view the
environment (business/organizational/academia) and the person by whom you have been
assigned the task of composing the report.
2. The design and methodology comes next.
3. The findings of the report that you have found after carrying out the analysis should be provided.
4. The conclusion should cover all the important points covered in the main body.
5. A set of recommendations is outlined on the basis of conclusion.
6. Limitations of the report may also be given at the end. As the findings of any report cannot be
considered absolute, the limitations may be identified so that other people know the areas where
they may work further in future.

Figure 2 Sample Executive Summary, covering purpose, method, result, conclusion and recommendation

3.1.2.1 Points to Consider while composing Executive Summary

1. It is always written in the end when the report is complete in all respects.
2. It should be written in a manner that grabs reader’s attention.
3. Keep in mind the nature of the target audience. The language used to compose the executive
summary may be modified according to the audience’s background and level of knowledge.
4. The central idea or theme must be presented in the executive summary.
5. It should clearly define your main aim and purpose of writing the report.
6. Prepare a mind map/business plan so that you are able to compose the report in an orderly
manner and within the given time limit.

3.1.3 Table of Contents

The Table of Contents is a sequential list of the report’s organizational structure. It is important because
it gives reference to the scope of the report and provides references with page numbers.

The decimal system for numbering and differentiating different levels of headings should be used. Such
numbering also shows that there are subsections of a section.
 Figure 3 Sample Table of Contents

3.1.3.1 Level of headings

First degree of heading is written using whole numbers; for example,

1. Introduction to Economics

The second degree of heading is written using one decimal place:

1.1 Debit and Credit

The third degree indicates sub-sub-section and is written as follows:

1.1.1 Expenditure and Finances

3.1.4 Introduction
Introduction gives the big picture of the overall report. It builds up the context and sets the scenario in
which the study/analysis will be carried for the target reader. The subject matter should be explained in
a clear and explicit manner in the Introduction. For example, in a report about the behavioral problems
of teenagers of Rawalpindi, the general behavioral problems of these teenagers should be your subject
matter. The problem description follows; the main problem/issue to be investigated/explored must be
stated clearly in a concise manner in this subsection. For the investigation of the main problem, you set
some aims and objectives. These aims and objectives are your research questions whose answers you will
try to find through analysis. However, in the introductory section, you indicate the probable answers and
your expected results. Defining the scope of your report comes next. It gives the reader a clear idea of
areas your study covers; it makes your study specific and the reader is able to limit his perception in a
certain area. Report preview follows scope. This heading informs readers about what is coming ahead in
the report. The last heading in the introduction part is Limitations. It indicates the boundaries within
which the study shall be carried out; it also mentions the time constraints and specifies the sample.

3.1.4.1 Example 1

Today, many organizations and employees are experiencing the effects of stress on work
performance. The effects of stress can be either positive or negative. What is perceived as positive
stress by one person may be perceived as negative stress by another, since everyone perceives
situations differently. According to Barden (2001), negative stress is becoming a major illness in
the work environment, and it can debilitate employees and be costly to employers. Managers
need to identify those suffering from negative stress and implement programs as a defense
against stress. These programs may reduce the impact stress has on employees' work
performance.

3.1.4.2 Example 2
This is a Report on the rise of computer gaming addiction among teenagers.

1. Introduction

1.1 Purpose

The purpose of this report is to investigate the reasons behind the rise in computer gaming
addiction among teenagers. The report will also recommend preventive measures for computer
gaming addiction.

1.2 Background

A recent study on game technology (Tan, 2010) shows that nearly 75% of teenagers in Singapore
play computer games regularly and the majority of them show signs of addiction. The rise in
computer gaming addiction among teenagers is a growing concern and the Ministry of Media
Development (MDD) would like to find out the reasons behind this trend.

The report was commissioned by the Director of Corporate Communications, Ms Julie Sim, on 31
May 2010.

1.3 Method of Investigation

Questionnaires were issued to 100 teenagers from 25 educational institutions on 25 June 2010.
Three teenagers who were former addicts were also interviewed to get more in-depth views.
References were also made to books and newspaper articles.

1.4 Scope

Besides respondents’ profile, this report looks into four possible reasons for the rise in gaming
addiction among teenagers: boredom, stress, societal influence and addictive game features.
Lecture 04
4. Report Structure
4.1 Sections
A report has the following sections:

1. Title Page

2. Executive Summary

3. Table of Contents

4. Introduction

5. Discussion

6. Conclusion

7. Recommendations

8. Bibliography

9. Appendices

In Lecture 03, we finished discussing the Introduction section. In this Lecture 04, we are going to start
with the Discussion section.

4.2 Discussion
This section goes into the detail of the process through which you have collected your data. When you
structure this section, provide all the details of your results and findings. The discussion section varies
according to the type of report

4.2.1 Status Report

In the discussion part of a Status Report, discuss the problems that were encountered while conducting
the study.

4.2.2 Trip report

Record your observation and course of action when you are required to compose a trip report in which a
survey has been conducted.

4.2.3 Lab report

After performing an experiment in lab, state all findings and overall learning in detail here.

4.2.4 Proposal
When composing a proposal report, discuss in detail all the feasible solutions of the problem that are
going to be investigated in the study.
The overall design of research, the methodology, and tools should be discussed in detail in this section,
as it was just touched upon in the Introduction section. In the end, provide recommendations on the basis
of findings.

Moving on to the second part of Discussion section, reflections and insight on the subject matter can now
be included along with the problem that was investigated. However, opinion as a writer of the report
should be well-informed, logical and should show in-depth understanding of the solution and problem
that was posed in the study.

Lucid and comprehensive prose style should be observed while composing this section.

If findings include any generalizations, be cautious to support them with facts and statistics of the findings.

4.2.5 Characteristics of Discussion Section

The following features must be present in your write-up of Discussion section:

1. Critical thinking about a problem

2. Creative solutions of the problem
3. In-depth understanding of the problem

4.3 Findings
The findings section can be composed by answering the following two questions:

Findings that are factual, deduced after authentic research survey and are statistically sound are
considered reliable. Moreover, the scope of the study and its utility in real-life human setting determines
its significance.

4.4 Conclusion
Conclusions are logical deductions based on the data in the findings section. They are a comprehensive
summary of the findings and sum up the main points of the report along with highlighting the significant
elements. They relate to the objectives and end with a statement which will lead to the recommendations
section.

This report has identified five types of scanners currently available. Some are primarily used for
professional purposes such as the drum scanner; others are used more broadly in the workplace and
home such as flatbed scanners and, to a lesser extent, sheet fed scanners.

Specialized scanners are currently being incorporated into other types of technologies such as digital
cameras, printers and photocopiers
Example
4.5 Recommendations
Recommendations are useful for researchers who want to work in the same area as the author. Thus, the
author should ensure to give only those recommendations that can be implemented by researchers in a
practical way. Purely imaginative recommendations are just a waste of space. Moreover, they should be
based on the findings. For instance, what more could be done in the same area may be stated from a
certain point of view. Do not give general recommendations; it only shows you want to fill space. Rather,
suggest topics for further research so that others may benefit from them.

4.5.1 How to write Recommendations?

Brief – write concisely; any reason for recommendation should only be given if necessary.

Clear – do not be ambiguous as to how the suggestion should be implemented.

Precise – vague recommendations usually result from insufficient research/analysis.

4.6 Bibliography or Work Cited

Keep in mind the following points while composing bibliography:

4. All the sources of information are included in the report.

5. Use the standard format: APA/MLA or whichever style the work demands
6. Ensure that all the work cited in the body of the report is listed in the reference list.

4.7 Appendices
An appendix contains material which is too detailed, technical, or complex to include in the body of the
report. That is why it is placed at the very end of your report. Specifications, questionnaires and Long
complex tables of figures are usually included in the report as appendices.
Lecture 05
Types of Report
A report is generally divided into two major categories: Informal Report and Formal Report

4.1 Informal Report

A report which is short in length and used to deliver information within an organization is known as
Informal Report. It deals with the analysis of everyday problems and issues along with some suggestions
and recommendations. There are many types of informal report. Some of these are discussed below:

4.1.1 Sales Activity Report

This type of report exists as a template used by a salesperson to keep a record of all the sales activity of
an organization. It also acts as a picture of all the progress made by an organization for the manager. An
example is shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1 Sales Activity Report

4.1.2 Progress Report

A progress report is generally used to present the status of an ongoing project and the attained progress.
This category is used in different forms of scientific projects and is generally drafted for providing all the
details to a funding agency supporting the project. An example of such a report is also shown in Figure 2.
 Figure 2 Progress Report

4.1.3 Personnel Evaluation Report

The type of report which is used to assess and present the performance of an individual working in an
organization is known as Personnel Evaluation Report. An example of a personnel evaluation report,
shown in Figure 3, is an Annual Report, which shared with an employee to fill in his/her personal details
and to be verified by his/her direct supervisor.

4.1.4 Financial Report

Type of report which is used to provide a detailed description of all the financial activities of some person,
business, market or an organization in the form of a statement is known as Financial Report. Examples of
such details may be found in Figure 4.
 Figure 3 Personnel Evaluation Report.

4.1.5 Feasibility Report

Such types of report are used to provide a description of the assessment carried out to evaluate the
recommended solutions and recommendations with respect to a problem or analyzed subject matter. The
example shown in Figure 5 covers basics of a feasibility report, which include the necessary background
for the assessment, scope of what the proposal covers and some financial details.
Figure 4 Financial Report
 Figure 5 A feasibility report

4.1.6 Review Report

Review Reports are used to present a review on the studied literature or subject matter. Such reports are
used with an intent to make a detailed content more specific for the readers of your draft so that they
may not have to scan the details of a text. Generally, the audience for this is high-tech but may be modified
to be read by the low-tech audience, if necessary.
4.1.7 Credit Report
Credit reports are usually prepared by a Credit Bureau to provide details of an individual’s or an
organization’s credit history. Such reports help in maintaining a written record of all the transfers of
money in the form of loans or mortgage.

Figure 6 A Credit Report

 Figure 7 An Information Report

4.2 Formal Report

The second major type of a report which is long, detailed and complex is called a formal report. These are
separately classified as these reports cover a written account of a major project and provide a review or
results of a study based on the data collected and its interpretation. A formal report is generally divided
into three major categories: Informational Report, Analytical Report, Recommendation Report. These are
discussed separately below.

4.2.1 Information Report

As the name implies, these reports focus on the provision of specific information. In such reports, specific
information refers to the status or updates regarding an ongoing project. If some mechanism is being
applied to carry out a survey or an experiment, an information report is used to provide details about the
extent to which this mechanism is getting successful in achieving the set goals and objectives. In other
words, the focus of this report remains on the provision of results in general or the outcomes. An example
could be a report on the payment of electricity bills by consumers. The example shown in Figure 7 provides
details regarding the analysis of an interview of an existing employee.

Figure 8 A recommendation report

4.2.2 Analytical Report

The type of report which is used to provide a detailed analysis of the results and outcomes to draw a
conclusion is known as Analytical Report. This type is used to focus on the interpretation of the incident,
event or subject matter being investigated (analysis of what happened). An example could be of a report
analyzing the results of a report on traffic accidents, so that the outcome could be achieved in the form
of suggestions.

4.2.3 Recommendation Report

These reports are used to advocate a particular course of action based on the study of suggestions and
recommendations. Such a report should include discussion on results either supporting or negating a
proposed suggestion. The example shown in Figure 8 analyzes why a certain medicine may be replaced
with another and discusses required details to support the particular recommendation.

Figure 9 Review Report

4.3 Some Additional Forms of Report
4.3.1 Narrative Report
A narrative report is a report which has information in a logical sequence of events, usually in a
chronology. Case Studies can be considered as an example of these reports.

4.3.2 Non-chronological Report

A report which provides a discussion of various aspects of a subject matter irrespective of the order in
which the information is being provided.

4.3.3 Specialized Report

To accommodate the need for a report to provide a summary of all the other reports related to a single
subject matter, specialized reports are made. This is different from a review report; a review report will
discuss a particular subject matter whereas a specialized report may consider reports related to allied
subject matter, as well. The example in Figure 9 is one such report intended for high-tech readers.

4.3.4 Accident Report

A report which provides all the documentation and investigation regarding an accident.
Lecture 06
Four Skills of Language Learning
The communication process starts when a child starts cooing and babbling. With the passage of time this
process becomes complex. The child acquires different words and sometimes, the child learns two
languages at a time. Gradually the child learns to combine words to make phrases and sentences. This
helps the child become a good interlocutor. As time passes, the need arises for written communication.
It is the most advanced of the four skills and helps to preserve culture and history. Civilizations pass on
their cultural knowledge and interpretations of scripture through books and sometimes engravings on
tablets.

6.1 Receptive Skills & Productive Skills

Reading and listening are called receptive skills as knowledge is coming towards you from some sender.
Whereas, speaking and writing are productive skills as you are sending out information towards your
audience. If you observe, you cannot develop productive skills without using your receptive skills. If a child
is hearing impaired, he/she won’t be able to speak as there is no input. Similarly, if you are not reading
anything, you won’t be able to compose anything well as your brain won’t have the knowledge of sentence
structure, punctuation and organization patterns.

Writing skill develop at the end as it is the most advanced of the four skills. Then, there are different types
of writing skills according to the audience, context and objective. Report writing comes under the general
category of Technical writing.

6.2 What is Technical Writing?

Involving special knowledge, language, etc., that is used or understood by experts but usually not by
others”
 (Merriam-Webster Dictionary, 2015)

According to Merriam Webster (2015), technical writing involves special knowledge that is not used by
lay people. For example, a mechanical engineer describing the working of a boiler plant would be sharing
specialized knowledge using technical vocabulary.

“Relating to the knowledge, machines or methods used in science and industry”

(Cambridge Dictionary, 2015)

Similarly, according to Cambridge dictionary, a link is established between the knowledge of science and
industry and machines when technical writing is used to describe their working.

Thus, we come to the conclusion that technical writing communicates specific and factual information to
a defined audience for a defined purpose. When composing any report, letter or memo, the information
you are giving is of specific nature; it is related to your topic and focuses on facts. The facts you state need
to be authentic and reliable. Even information present on Wikipedia cannot be cited in your report. Proper
research and citation is necessary if you are stating statistics or figures. This erases out the possibility of
assumption and conjecture and makes your writing factual. The next thing to focus is your defined
audience. The report is structured according to your target audience. The target audience may be low
tech, high tech or lay audience as discussed in earlier lectures. The identification of purpose for which you
are composing the report comes next. At the very outset, you should be clear about the objectives that
you have to achieve through your write-up. An analytical report has different objectives as compared to
an informative report.

Specific
Defined Defined
Factual
Audience Purpose
Information

6.2.1 Three Criteria to Make your Writing Technical

The following figure provides three criteria that your writing should meet in order to become technical.
First, it should provide technical information. Second, the audience should get the knowledge they seek
through your write-up. If a report is about the effects of aerosol sprays on ozone layer, the audience
should receive authentic, up-to-date and comprehensive knowledge on the topic. Third, as your report is
in black and white, you need to follow all the rules of language and of report writing that you are learning
in this module.
6.2.2 Definition of Technical Writing by Markel
If you look at the definition provided by Markel, you notice the word ‘practical’. As technical writing is
carried out in the field of business, science and industry, the language and format should be such that it
helps the target audience understand the working of a machine, for example, or such that it provides
them instructions to carry out a task successfully. Imagine getting a manual with an air-conditioner that
you have purchased. If the manual is composed in obscure language and you fail to comprehend it, you
won’t be able to set up your appliance and the manual will fail to achieve its objective.

“Technical writing conveys specific

information about a technical subject to a
specific audience for a specific purpose…
The words and graphics of technical writing
are meant to be practical: that is, to
communicate a body of factual information
that will help an audience understand a
subject or carry out a task.”
-Michael H. Markel
6.3 Origin of Technical Writing
The origins of technical writing date back to the time of Da Vinci. He gave the idea to set up a machine by
composing an instruction manual. That machine was helicopter. Moving on in history, there is another
prominent name, Copernicus. He gave the heliocentric theory and rejected the geocentric theory.
According to heliocentric theory, sun is the center around which all other planets revolve. When he
documented that theory, it certainly needed the proper use of technical language.

Increasing rate of literacy in the 19th century also increased the need of technical writers as knowledge of
science and technology needed to be preserved in writing. The Second World War augmented the need
even further as manuals were published along with the massive production of weapons. Similarly, books
and manuals were composed describing the technology of nuclear bombs. Computer revolution at the
end of 19th century made technical writing essential for anybody who wanted to become a member of the
global village as composing content for websites, webinars, videos and audios demanded the use of
technical writing.
Lecture 07
Purpose of Technical Writing

Purpose of
technical writing

To inform To persuade

In general, technical writing has two basic purposes, which are to inform and to persuade. As technical
writing is carried out in the field of science, industry and business, its basic purpose is to inform by
providing the audience with factual information in the form of reports, instructions and descriptions.
Along with stating facts, it persuades the audience enough information to make inferences.

Example:
A brochure on the harmful effects of CFCs on Ozone layer persuades the
audience to minimize the use of products that contain CFCs.

7.2 What do Technical Writers Create?

7.2.1 Instructions
Technical writers create a link between knowledge and its application, usually the machine. Their job is
significant as they describe the knowledge and concepts that are at work in the machine.

Example:
Operation manual of an air compressor gives instructions regarding the standard
operating procedure of the machine; it also instructs users about the probable
faults the machine may develop, its reasons and remedies.
7.2.2 Directions
In business settings, memos and business letters are composed both when employees of an organization
communicate with each other and when communication is carried out between two or more
organizations. Directions are provided by composing business reports, letters and memos.

Example
A CEO calls a meeting to decide with which organization they should collaborate for a
future project. A report is prepared after the meeting, describing in detail the
proposal, the decision, the directions on how to go about it and its possible benefits.

7.2.3 Technical Reports

Progress reports are composed on weekly, monthly and/or yearly basis to record and communicate the
progress of an organization in general and employees in particular. Likewise, proposals and feasibility
studies are carried out to discuss probable solutions of a problem or to describe the best possible and
feasible option. Summaries of staff meetings are also recorded on a regular basis to preserve the
happenings of the meeting in black and white. Advertisements like tender notices and job vacancies
are also created using technical writing. A sample advertisement may be found in Figure 1.

7.3 Recognizing Your Audience

Identifying your target audience holds great importance before you start composing your report. Their
needs and wants have to be kept in consideration before choosing the content of your write-up. The
manner of writing, information provided in the report and recommendations given will be different
when the audience changes, for example, from your boss to your colleagues.

Audience Analysis
Analyze Who is/are the recipient(s)?
Understand What is their knowledge of your message?
Demographics What is their age, gender, education level and position?
Interest What are their interests or investment to your message?
Environment What is your relationship to the audience? What is their likely attitude to your
message? Have you taken cultural differences into consideration?
Needs What information does your audience need?
Customize How do you adjust your message to your audience?
Expectations What is your audience’s expectation?
 Figure 1 A sample advertisement, as appeared in a local newspaper

7.4. Technical Writing Scenarios

Based on the general purpose of information and persuasion, following are some of the technical writing
scenarios that you may come across. Apart from reports, documents you may create in technical writing
include:

▪ E-mails
▪ Memos
▪ Letters
▪ Reports
▪ Proposals
▪ User manuals
▪ Websites
▪ Brochures
 ▪ Newsletters

7.4.1 Emails
Emails are one of the most commonly used forms of communication today. However, composing emails
for your boss or supervisor is different from writing emails to your friends. Composing formal email
messages demand the usage of a proper format, and appropriate language.

Example: As a chemist working in a university laboratory, you may receive an email that asks about the
current status of the chemical supplies you have in stock, and the new supplies you need for future
experiments. You need to reply to this email by citing authentic facts so that the authorities get a true
picture of what is needed.

7.4.2 User Manuals

User manuals are a form of instructions that we discussed in the previous section. They are written for
explaining the steps for building a piece of equipment, performing preventative maintenance, or for
shipping and handling procedures. For example, for an automatic washing machine, its user manual
comes with clear instructions regarding the handling of its parts, their functions and precautions.

7.4.3 Proposals
In an academic setting, proposal is composed to present the hypothesis and overall framework of your
research study. Once it gets approved, you proceed with conducting the study.

In a business setting, proposals are sale offers from a seller to prospective buyers. Example: As a trust
officer in a bank you may compose proposals for potential clients. To do so, you must write a 20- to 30-
page proposal about your bank’s services.

7.4.4 Letters
Letters composed in a business setting or in the field of science and industry are different from the ones
you compose for a friend. You need to follow all the principles of technical writing when composing one.

Example: You are a customer who ordered an automotive part from a national manufacturer.
Unfortunately, the part was shipped to you five days later than promised, it arrived broken, and you
were charged more than the agreed-upon price. You need to write a letter of complaint.

7.4.5 Websites
A website is a collection of content and images related to a specific topic published with a common
domain name. The expertise of technical writers is needed when the content for a website has to be
written.

Example: Your job is to create a corporate website. The website gives information to clients about
locations, pricing, products and services, mission statement, and job openings. The drop-down help
screens provide easy-to-access answers for both customer and employee questions.

7.4.6 Brochures
Brochures are written to give information and to persuade the audience to make certain inferences
based on that information.
Example: As a professor of genetics, you are asked to write and design a brochure for a community
where cousin marriages are rampant. Your task is to spread awareness among them regarding its
negative outcomes like Down’s Syndrome.

7.4.7 Résumés
Resumes are the written description of your personality. They describe your background and skills in an
appealing manner to your prospective employer.

Example: You have just graduated from your university/college and it’s time to get a job. You need to
write a résumé and a letter of application to show corporations what assets you will bring to their
company.

7.5 Examples

Figure 2 An instructional manual for repairing machinery

Figure 3 A memo on reporting incidents
Lecture 08
Objectives/Traits in Technical Writing
The first question that comes up when you are preparing to compose a report is ‘Why are you
writing?’
There are three basic components that decide the answer of this question: information needed,
persuasion required, and audience’s needs and wants.

Exercise:
As a health advisor in an atomic plant, imagine writing a report for technicians on
the harmful effects of radiation. As you are writing for low-tech audience, give
detailed information (facts, stats, references) and move on to recommend ways
to reduce exposure time in radiation area, measures to be taken if exposed to
radiation and precautions to be observed while working there.
Your task is to make them aware of the potential hazards of radiation so that
they are persuaded to practice caution.

8.1 Understanding Audience

The first step in understanding audience is to consider their level of education. For instance, while
composing a report on how to tackle bullying in educational institutions, the nature of content and the
manner of writing will differ for students of Grade 05 and students of O levels.

The second step in understanding audience is to gauge their level of knowledge about the subject you
are writing. The background knowledge of the audience on the topic provides the foundation on which
you will build up further. It helps you avoid giving out information that they already know and focus on
knowledge that they lack. Third, keep in mind your relationship with the audience. Your audience
maybe your boss, your students or your colleagues. Choose your content, tone and language
accordingly.
According to Guffey and Du-Babcock (2008), if you give priority to audience’s benefit by putting yourself
in their shoes, your writing will appeal to the audience. To develop empathy for the readers, they
suggest, adopt a positive tone, cultivate a “You-Attitude”, sound conversational, and use familiar
vocabulary (p.33).

8.2 How to enhance the probability of comprehension for the audience?

If you consider the following points while composing your report, the probability of comprehension
increases for the audience:

▪ Clarity
▪ Conciseness
▪ Accessible document design
▪ Audience recognition
▪ Accuracy (grammar)

8.2.1 Clarity
By clarity we mean that your writing is easily understood by your intended audience. Murphy,
Hildebrandt, & Thomas suggest these two guidelines for achieving clarity (2008, p. 48):

- Use of ‘precise, concrete and familiar’ vocabulary

- Make ‘effective sentences and paragraphs’

Example:
Unfamiliar: Employees’ remuneration is still not decided.
Familiar: Employees’ pay hasn’t been decided yet.

Keeping sentence length to about 17 to 20 words, introducing single main idea in the beginning of
paragraph and supporting it with vivid details help you create effective sentences and paragraphs.

Example:
Unclear: Students should be confident and have clear understanding of the subject,
and these qualities are the prerequisites that we need.
Clear: Prerequisites in students include clear understanding of the subject and
confidence.

Here are some more points to be practiced to achieve clarity:

i. Avoid ambiguity
ii. Prefer the active voice
iii. Exclude personal introduction and conclusion
iv. Use transition words

i. To avoid ambiguity, choose a clear sentence structure.

Example:
Ambiguous: When the presentation was going on, our students
expressed dislike for it.
Clear: Our students expressed dislike for the presentation when it was
going on.

ii. When active voice is used, the subject is the doer of the action, comes first and gets the
emphasis. It results in making sentences clearer.

Example:
Passive: The pact was signed and approved in the last meeting.
Active: The President signed and approved the pact in the last
meeting.

However, passive voice should be used if you want to deemphasize bad news or want to
avoid blaming a certain individual for some wrong deed of her.

Example:
Passive: Your laptop has not been repaired yet.
Active: We have not repaired your laptop yet.

Example:
Passive: This loss has been caused due to delayed response.
Active: The delayed response of Mr. Naveed caused this loss.
iii. Excluding personal introduction and conclusion makes your writing neutral and free of bias.

Example:
I think that Pakistani society was more liberal and tolerant back in
1990s.
Pakistani society was more liberal and tolerant in 1990s.

iv. Use of transition words create cohesion in your writing. They combine thoughts between
sentences for making the flow smoother and the switching of idea less abrupt. Some
commonly used transition words are as follows:

Nevertheless However
Likewise Therefore
Alternatively Although
Consequently Furthermore

Example:
It rained heavily last night. Several streets got flooded with water
and there was no electricity.
As a consequence of heavy rain last night, several streets flooded
with water and power failed.

Example:
Pour one cup milk in the saucepan, then add one egg, add
sugar and then mix it.
First, pour a cup of milk in the saucepan; second, add an egg
and sugar; and third, stir the mixture.
8.2.2 Conciseness
Conciseness means communicating in the shortest possible way without compromising meaning. A
concise text is complete but is not wordy. Moreover, it saves time and lets you emphasize important
details. Observe the following guidelines in your writing to make your document concise:

i. Write positively
Using positive language makes your text concise.

Consider this example

Wordy: You did not attend the class yesterday.
Concise: You missed the class yesterday.

ii. Paragraph often

When you paragraph often, you divide lengthy ideas in small paragraphs with vivid details
and examples. Reader finds the main idea and supporting details laid out neatly in the form
of a small paragraph and there is no need to go into unnecessary detail. Also, the average
length of your paragraph should not exceed 60 to 100 words.

iii. Use reasonable sentence length

Keep sentences short so that readers don’t have to remember too much information to
understand the sentence. Most sentences should have an average of 20 words. If a sentence
exceeds 40 words, try to find a way to break it up into smaller sentences.

Example:
Wordy: The instructor taught us several new ways to make our
writing to-the-point, and less wordy.
Concise: The instructor taught us ways to write concisely.

iv. Avoid redundant expressions

Wordy Concise

We are working together in collaboration. We are working together.

Any specific type of pasta dish is fine with Any pasta dish is fine with me.
me.
 The toy is round in shape. The toy is round.

My clutch is shiny in appearance. My clutch is shiny.

v. Avoiding prepositional phrases

Wordy Concise

The obvious effect of such a The wide-ranging references in this talk

range of reference is to assure the assure the audience that the author is
audience of the author's range of learning and intelligent and well-read.
intellect. (Heffernan, Lincoln, & Atwill, 1996,
p. 55)

She needs to put up with their tantrums. She should tolerate their tantrums.

It was such an unexpected surprise. It was a surprise!

At the current point in time we ought to have, As always, we should trust our
as has always been the case in the past, some President now.
trust in our worthy President.

vi. Delete meaningless words

Avoid words that do not add any meaning to a sentence:
▪ Basically
▪ Generally
▪ Kind of
▪ Actually

Wordy Concise

Basically, a report is structured according A report is structured according to its

to its purpose. purpose.

I was kind of confused. I was confused.

Generally speaking, they played well. They played well.

vii. Delete doubled words

Do not use word pairs that mean the same thing.

Concise Wordy

Be clear about the aims and objectives. Be clear about the objectives.
 Each and every one of my classmates Each of my classmates attended the party.
attended the party.

First and foremost, look for hypothesis. First, look for hypothesis.

viii. Deleting redundant categories

▪ Round in shape
▪ Large in size
▪ Blue in color
▪ Heavy in weight
▪ Sour in taste
▪ Shiny in appearance
▪ Smooth in texture
▪ Honest in character

Concise Wordy

The latest happenings are unusual in The latest happenings are unusual.
nature.

Alfredo is creamy and delicious in taste. Alfredo is creamy and delicious.

Often times, I forget to remind him. I often forget to remind him.

ix. Reduce phrases to words

Many phrases can be expressed in fewer words or even in a single word.

Phrases Words

For this reason So

Due to the fact that Because

At a much greater rate than Faster

Despite the fact that Although

A great deal of Much

References
Guffey, M. E., & Du-Babcock, B. (2008). Writing for business audiences. In Essentials of business
communication (p. 33). Pakistan: Cengage Learning.
Heffernan, J. A., Lincoln, J. E., & Atwill, J. (1996). Writing, a college handbook. New York: W.W. Norton.
Murphy, H., Hildebrandt, H. W., & Thomas, J. P. (2008). The seven C's of effective communication.
In Effective Business Communication (7th ed., p. 48). Tata McGraw Hill Education Private Limited.
Lecture 09
Objectives/Traits in Technical Writing
In previous lecture, two C’s of Communication viz. clarity and conciseness were discussed. These C’s
enhance the probability of comprehension for the audience. The list of traits that we have been
following is as follows:

- Clarity
- Conciseness
- Accessible document design
- Audience Recognition
- Accuracy (Grammar)

9.1 Accessible document design

Document design means your report (or any other technical piece of writing) should have a clear format,
legible printing, and accessible layout. You have to guide your audience so that they can easily access
content.

9.1.1 How to create an accessible document design?

Follow the techniques of highlighting given below to make a clear, accessible document design:

- Use graphics
● The use of graphics (tables and figures) organizes information. It presents a vivid layout
and division, especially when you are dealing with statistics.

Figure 1 Available Microsoft Word® features for charts

- Use white spaces
● Use of white spaces provide focus within the layout of your document. By white space,
we mean a space on the page where there is no text, usually used to add visual clarity to
a document.
● White spacing may be accomplished by using margins, adding space between lines and
paragraphs. Indentation, lead-ins and arranging bullet text, as in this document, offer a
more accessible document. This was accomplished using Styles and Formatting option in
the Format Menu of Microsoft Word®.
● White spaces make sure you don’t overcrowd the document with text and important
info is not missed out by the reader. See the poor example given in Figure 2, which
provides better insight on this matter. At the first look, the document looks messy and
overwhelming and the reader is discouraged to read it.
● Avoid using extra white spaces as this may negatively impact the presentation of your
document. See Figure 3 as an example which offers comparison between different levels
of white spacing.

Figure 2 A memo with poor spacing

- Use different font formatting options

● If you want to highlight certain terms of your text, make them bold. This way they get
more prominent than rest of the text, and the reader understands that you want them
to pay more attention to it.
 Figure 3 Balancing use of white space

Figure 4 Use of bold font style as a highlighting technique

● In APA style of formatting, italics are used when you mention titles of books, journals
and periodicals, films, and videos.
 ● Italics and underlining serve the same purpose. You can use underlining when the
document is handwritten as then it may be difficult to use italics.
● Use of bullets makes details of your text look neat, clearly laid out and accessible.
● Numbered lists are formed to describe the order in which things have been mentioned.
● Tabular representation of information is another way of offering a clearer presentation
and falls under the category of highlighting techniques.

- Use different heading levels

● Use of headings and sub-headings provide a skeleton to your report. It organizes your
document details by giving it proper divisions. The reader can easily make out what is
discussed and in what order by just glancing at the document.

Figure 5 Heading options

● Varied font sizes are used to determine the level of headings. Notice in this handout,
the first level of heading (9.1) is written in a bigger font than second (9.1.1) and third
(9.1.1.1) level of heading.
9.2 Audience Recognition
Audience involvement is necessary for achieving the basic purposes of report writing. Do not make your
audience feel you have not taken their needs and wants into account. Use a personalized tone to step
into their shoes, and make them recognize their benefits.

9.2.1 Types of Audience

The level of education, and background knowledge of the audience determine their type.

● High tech audience

Your boss, supervisor, CEO, Head of the department are categorized as high tech audience. They
are knowledgeable, informed and thus require minimum background knowledge. What they are
looking for is new knowledge that you are presenting in your report. For example, updates
regarding the status of a project.

● Low tech audience

Your colleagues working in some other department, or your batchmates are examples of low
tech audience. They are familiar with the technology you are using but their job responsibilities
are peripheral to the subject matter. To ensure that low tech readers understand your content,
define your terms and abbreviations. For example, the abbreviation “VLSI”, which stands for
Very Large Scale Integration, cannot stand alone; you will have to define it parenthetically.
Since low tech reader is not in your normal writing domain, i.e., as someone to whom you don’t
write often regarding your field of expertise, you need to provide more background
information.

● Lay audience
Lay readers are unfamiliar with your subject matter. They don’t understand your technology;
therefore, write simply. Explain in-house jargon abbreviations or acronyms. Along with providing
background information, give details, interpret data and make inferences. Do not expect them
to read between the lines.
Clients or customers, students, peons, and clerks are examples of lay audience.

● Multiple Audience (Multi-level)

Along with your primary audience, your document might be read by other people that will form
your secondary audience. It means you have to choose the content in order to cater for a multi-
level audience. Some of them will have background information while some will need it. It is,
 therefore, recommended to give some background information. If your readers are diverse, you
might need to define your jargons, acronyms and abbreviations. Keep your tone neutral and
positive.

Figure 6 An example of multi-level audience

● Multi-Cultural Audience
The considerations for mutli-level audience apply in for this audience, as well. Additionally, you
will need to watch for cultural biases. Also, avoid figurative language and puns to increase its
comprehension.

9.2.2 Defining Terms for Different Audience Levels

Since every industry has its own specialized vocabulary, so a writer must use:

- glossary items
- familiar terms
- short and precise sentences to define terms
- extended definitions for explanations
- endnotes/footnotes
- electronic communication (pop-up screen)

9.2.3 Techniques to Avoid Sexist Language

As both genders contribute to the successful functioning of society, do not refer to either gender as
secondary nor ignore them. Have the same courtesy for transgenders, as well.

Example:

Biased: “Radium was discovered by a woman, Marie Curie.”

Unbiased: “Radium was discovered by Marie Curie.”

 Example:

Biased: Every member should come with his notebook.

Neutral: All members should come with their notebooks.

Or

Neutral: Every member should come with his/her notebook.

Example:

Biased: A teacher should plan his lesson carefully.

Neutral: A teacher should plan the lesson carefully.

Or

Neutral: A teacher should plan his/her lesson carefully.

Some more examples are presented in the table below:

Sexist Gender Neutral

Spokesman Spokesperson, representative
Manpower Staff, workforce
Chairman Chairperson
Man the counter Staff the counter
Man-made Synthetic, manufactured
Mankind Humanity, people, human beings
The common man The average person, ordinary people
Businessman Business executive, business person
Steward and stewardess Flight attendant

9.3 Accuracy
Accuracy means right, proper and correct content. There are three types of accuracy that you need to
take care of:

1. Document accuracy
This refers to proper formatting, line spacing, font size, font color, margins, page numbers and
headings in the document. If there are tables and graphs, place them properly within the
document.
2. Style accuracy
 This refers to correct language use. There should be no grammar and spelling errors. The
sentences and paragraphs should be of moderate length, clear and coherent. The document
should be free of typos as well.
3. Technical accuracy
The content presented in the document should have a sound theoretical basis. The statistic
should be accurate. Also, the document should reflect the concepts of the subject clearly.
9.3.1 How to proofread the text?
Accuracy in technical writing requires that you proof read your text. Tips of proofreading are as follows:

- Let someone else read it.

- Use the delay approach.
- Read one line at a time.
- Read long words syllable by syllable.
- Use technology.
- Check figures, scientific and technical equations, and abbreviations.
- Read it out loud.
- Use a dictionary.
- Try scattershot proofing.
- Use the computer’s spell check – remember, however, that a spell check may not be able to
catch:
▪ form if you mean from
▪ to if you mean too
▪ except if you mean accept
- Let it sit – for a day or a weekend. When the document is cold, you are more objective about
the writing.
- Use peer evaluations as others see the errors we miss.
- Read it out loud as sometimes we can hear errors.
- Read it backwards because then you read words out of context. You cannot anticipate the next
word.

9.3.2 Organization Patterns

There are five patterns to organize your content: spatial, chronological, order of importance,
comparison/contrast and problem/solution.

i. Spatial
If you are describing the parts of a machine or a plot of ground, you might organize your text
spatially. You would describe what you see, as it appears in space, left to right, top to
bottom, inside to outside or clockwise. These spatial sequences help your readers visualize
what you see and therefore better understand the physical qualities of the subject matter.

ii. Chronological
At 1:15 PM, we arrived at the site and assessed the patient's condition, taking vitals (pulse,
respiration, etc.). At 1:17 PM, after stabilizing the patient, we contacted the hospital and
relayed the vitals. By 1:20 PM, the patient was on an IV drip. Our vehicle arrived at the
hospital at 1:35 PM and hospital staff took over the patient's care.
 iii. Importance
If spatial and chronological patterns don’t suit your writing, organize your ideas by
importance by deciding which ideas you want to emphasize and then place that information
on the page accordingly.

iv. Comparison/Contrast
Many times, in business, you will need to document options and ways in which you surpass
a competitor. These require that you organize your text by comparison/contrast. You
compare similarities and contrast differences. For example, if you are writing a sales
brochure, you might want to present your potential client alternatives regarding services,
personnel, timetables and fee structures.

v. Problem/Solution
Every proposal and sales letter is problem/solution oriented. When you write a proposal for
instance, you are proposing a solution to an existing problem. Similarly, if your sales letter
promotes a new product, your customers will purchase it only if their current product is
inferior.

9.4 Summary of Objectives/Traits in Technical Writing

Lecture 10
10.1 The Writing Process
Writing is the ultimate outcome or goal of a language. It has three different stages divided
chronologically, i.e., Pre-Writing, Writing and Post-Writing. One stage leads to the next one, so writing
process also called as a cycle through which we produce writing again and again. The three stages are:

● Pre-writing (Planning)
● Writing (Drafting)
● Post-writing (Finishing)

10.2 Pre-writing
Pre-writing is the first stage of writing process. As its name suggests, the prefix “pre” means ‘before’,
which is something you do before you write a paragraph or an essay or other writing work. In pre-
writing, your aim should be to discover and explore ideas about your chosen subject. This requires you

to brain-storm a little and jot down different ideas.

The Pre-Writing stage is also called invention stage, because it gives you the ground on which you can
come up with the final product. Writing, in this stage, should be done by looking at the purpose and
nature of the audience; this will help to simply pick up the right kind of structure and organization in
mind regarding the type and mode of writing. As a guide, you may use the following:

o I am curious about…

o I am confused about…

o Recently, I have been thinking a lot about…

After planning your writ out, the next step is to narrow down the topic. A topic, within itself, may
generate sub-topics from it and good writers, during their brain-storming session, are able to overcome
the temptation to write out whatever it is they think of first.
For example, the broad subject would be Pakistan Studies and an interest from this would be The
Partition Movement, War of independence or Partition of Bengal. These may be further narrowed
down to a particular scope.

As another example, if you’re asked to write on Education, you may narrow the topic down to your
Experience with Hybrid Learning.

After this first step, you then use different techniques to generate ideas. Some of the techniques are the
following:

• Listing
• Rapid sketches
• Conversation
• Doodling or sketching
• Circle technique
• Clustering
• Freewriting
• Note keeping
• Brain storming
• Mind mapping
• Journalistic questions
10.2.1 Listing
The use of free mental associations is primarily called listing. In this technique, one generates a list of
ideas which might eventually lead to another list. After the list has been exhausted, you will need to
review your list for best ideas. This brainstorming technique does not require much organization; simply
list one idea after the other.

10.2.2 Rapid Sketches

By rapid sketches, we mean a rough design without much detail. In rapid sketches, a writer is supposed
to write down all the points as quickly as they come to his or her mind. Later, items on this list can be
grouped, categorized, or deleted as your topic becomes narrower. This technique, too, narrows down
your topic.
10.2.3 Conversation
Conversation is a two-way traffic to share your ideas and simultaneously, getting feedback. This
technique is useful if you have a friend or a mentor to help you explore and discover better ideas also.

10.2.4 Doodling or Sketching

In this technique, you just scribble (write or draw) your ideas for linking some ideas together e.g.

scribbling or doodling the contribution of ICT technologies in human life.

10.2.5 Circle Technique:

This technique is simple and easy to make progress more visible. In circle technique, you can look past
your own perspective to a broader perspective. The idea is to start with yourself and your opinion in the
center and then broaden it further. As an example, consider the China–Pakistan Economic Corridor
(CPEC)
 Pak-china
relationship

CPEC ( given
by media)

OBOR(one
belt one road)

10.2.6 Clustering:
The general idea behind clustering is the use of several ideas of the same kind, growing or held together.
This get a sense of how the essay could eventually be organized. Like doodling, this technique is also
more apt for visual learners. This technique allows the writer to generate different ideas which may be
logically related.

10.2.7 Questioning
Asking questions can be an important early step in the writing process. In a sense, we could even say
that an essay answers questions about its subject, so a good early step can be to ask questions about
the subject of the essay. Use the reporter's questions: Who, What, When, Where, Why, and How.
10.2.8 Free Writing
For these techniques, the basic premise is that to write down everything that comes to mind without
censoring yourself or worrying about grammar. Give yourself a set amount of time to write, and don't
let yourself stop writing for the entire time, even if you get off track. Then, read back through your

notes, find the best ideas, and repeat the process until you have enough ideas for an essay.

10.2.9 Heuristic Methods

Heuristic method is a problem-solving approach and its basically implied as practically sufficient to
achieve goals. The first and most common heuristic method is the simple brain-storming which has
already been covered. There are others, as well, to bring out different ideas. No technique can be
considered absolute because what works for one individual may not work for another.

The following are different heuristic methods:

 ● Cubing
● Tagmemics
● Aristotle’s Common Topics
● Dramatism
● Journalistic Questions
10.2.9.1 Cubing
This technique gets its name from the geometrical object “cube” because there are six angles to
approach, that is, asking six questions and working with six different angles. These “angles” are
describing, comparing, associating, analyzing, applying and arguing.

10.2.9.2 Tagmemics
Tagmemics contains three main parts. A particle, which describes a self-contained object, a wave which
changes over time and a field, which describes how something fits into a bigger picture. The
corresponding examples are example a reason, its evolution and its outcome.

10.2.9.3 Aristotle’s Common Questions

There are five main questions which should be asked. These are named after the famous philosopher
Aristotle because he was known to ask such questions. The questions relate to definition of an object
under consideration, its circumstances, its relationship with other objects, a comparison with other
similar ideas and finally a testimony or facts supporting the idea.
10.2.9.4 Dramatism
The technique of dramatism draws its name courtesy of five element, which may be found in any drama.
These are Act, Agent, Agency, Scene and Purpose.

10.9.2.5 Note Keeping

The practice of keeping notes and jotting ideas down in a notebook is a good way to jot down different
views, whenever they come to mind. This include daily diary writing by using such a collection of notes
with short phrases. This interesting technique rids author of judgement, assessment and grammatical
mistake because it’s a private piece of work.

10.9.2.6 Mind Mapping

Mind Mapping is the technique which is used to create an image of the ideas which come in mind in a
non-linear train of thought by using imagery. First think, then develop a map to navigate different ideas
and then draw the map in front of you for help. We can use this technique to organize ideas and link
them together in the shape of image or phrases.
10.9.2.7 Journalistic Questions
The journalistic questions are also known as WH questions. Consider a host on a TV channel. What sort
of questions does this journalist ask? These are usually the WH questions: what, where, who, when, why
and how. Asking these questions in conjunction with different ideas may help refine them.
Lecture 11
11.1. Writing
Writing is a recursive process, which means there is an idea of repetition and refinement involved. Writing
occupies a central role in the development of any civilization and indeed is a point of departure from other
animals.

The iterative process involved in any piece of writing revolves around three stages viz. prewriting, writing
and rewriting. Whenever we start writing, we first gather our ideas. This was discussed in Lecture 10.
These are then written out in the shape of a draft. This draft is refined over and over again during the
rewriting stage after we feel that some aspects are amiss. These three steps are dynamic and overlap.

The ultimate aim of this process is to improve correspondence and enhance professionalism.

10.2. Drafting
Drafting refers to a preliminary form of writing. It’s a tentative piece of writing, which is subject to
improvement. This draft leads us towards the final shape of the content which by organizing our ideas
and considering the audience. In order to complete the draft, we organize paragraphs considering aspects
of unity, support and coherence.

10.2.1. Generation of Ideas

Ask yourself questions regarding your knowledge, your requirements and your audience. Experiment with
different ways to organize your ideas. Write content in such a way that it is comprehensive and readable
to your audience. Before making a draft, write all the points so that the core idea doesn’t get mixed up.

To generate ideas, ask yourself the following:

• How can I group my ideas in paragraphs?

• What is the focus and purpose of each paragraph.
• In what order, should I present my idea?

10.2.2. Rough Draft

Remember, the first draft is always a rough draft and is formed by letting ideas follow freely. You can then
craft a structure for our thoughts by shaping the rough draft by

• following a specific structure;

• restructuring your ideas to follow a certain order;
• having a strong sense of organization that supports your main idea; or
• having a clear reason to choose a specific structure for our ideas.
10.2.3. Steps in Writing a Draft
There are three parts of writing a draft.

1. Research
2. Organizing Ideas
3. Composing/Drafting

10.2.4. Research
Research is based on collecting specific data for your piece of writing by different means and resources.
Such resources may include books, newspapers, research journals, magazine articles, internet etc. What
must be ensured is that the source us credible enough.

10.2.5. Organizing
Organizing is somehow tricky. There are two basic ideas to organize content. One method is called the
“divergent” method and other, “convergent”. The “divergent” method applies when argument stems
from one focal point and branches off. This is usually assumed to be a productive strategy. This way, the
argument probably develops into different directions. The convergent method, on the other hand, is
about gathering information and then coming close to an objective. This method may work well for those
who subject experts and know which area to branch off and which to stop. Thus, for beginners, this
approach may not be very productive.

10.2.6. Composing/Drafting
After the preliminary research has been done, you can then move on to write your first draft. This will
usually be a rough draft wherein you let the ideas come freely. This rough draft is then refined to develop
connection between ideas.

10.3. Structure of a Draft

When we begin to write a draft, we need to keep in mind the following:

10.3.1. Thesis Statement

A thesis statement usually appears at an appropriate place in the introductory paragraph of a paper, and
it offers a concise summary of the main point or claim of the essay, research paper, etc. A thesis
statement is usually one sentence that appears at the beginning, though it may occur more than once.
This statement should form the basis for your entire draft.

10.3.2 Topic sentence

A sentence that expresses the main idea of the paragraph in which it occurs is usually the topic sentence.
This differs from the thesis statement in that the topic sentence is more local whereas the thesis
statement is global.

10.3.3. Sufficient Support

Supporting details aren’t just meant to give more information about a situation – they’re also meant,
literally, to support your point, meaning that without them, you may not succeed in making your argument
successfully. Using supporting details properly could be crucial in a variety of situations, whether you’re
defending your innocence or just your thesis.
10.3.4. Coherence
Coherence is combination of many different factors, which combine to make every paragraph, every
sentence, and every phrase contribute to the meaning of the whole piece. It is supposed to relate each
paragraph to each and other and develop connection between them. To achieve coherence, you may
resolve to using transitional words such as “however”, “otherwise”, “in contrast”, “nevertheless” etc.

10.3.5 Unity
Unity is a very important characteristic of good paragraph writing. Paragraph unity means that one
paragraph is about only one main topic. That is, all the sentences, the topic, supporting sentences, the
detail sentences, and sometimes the concluding sentence are all telling the reader about one main topic.
This differs from “coherence” in this it is more local.

10.4. Sequence of a Draft

The above can help organize your draft according to a sequence which your readers can follow. To
achieve the above, you can develop a sequence based on one or a mix of the following approaches:

10.4.1 Chronological Writing

The word “chronologic” refers to movement in a temporal sequence. Writing chronologically is the
method of organization to present events and actions as they occurred in time.

10.4.2 Spatial Writing

Spatial writing method describes and explains items according to their physical position or relationship.
This may be, for example, in the form the top-to-bottom approach or the left-to-right approach.

10.4.3 Writing for Importance

Another way to organize a draft is in increasing or decreasing order of significance to highlight and
emphasize the significance of a subject matter. For example, the sentence “CIIT-pioneered Hybrid learning
is gaining momentum across Pakistan, offering education at par with international standards” starts with
a general observation and then emphasizes its importance.

10.4.4 Writing for a problem

This type of logical sequencing is used to provide a solution for a problem. Consider the sentence “Eco-
Idle system has been integrated in the modern automobiles to reduce the percentage of Global Carbon
Emission, which are responsible for increasing the greenhouse effect and consequently Global Warming.”
This method first talks about an implementation and then about the problem the implementation
addresses.

10.4.5 Writing for Comparison/Contrast

As the term implies, this method is used in writing for comparing and contrasting two different ideas and
to furnish an analysis. This may include comparison between two car companies, universities, airlines etc.

After finalizing a draft, remember to make your piece of writing clear and follow logical formatting. The
use of white space, headings, bullets, graphics, numbering, font size, color etc. as discussed in Lecture 10,
all apply.
Lecture 12
The Writing Process
The three stages of the writing process are as follows:

1. Pre-writing – Planning
2. Writing – Drafting
3. Post-writing – Finishing
We have discussed two stages of the writing process in Lecture 10 and Lecture 11. In this lecture, Post-
writing stage will be discussed.

12.1 Post-writing
This stage comes when the writing stage is complete. You groom and prune your text, remove errors
and fix formatting problems. There are five steps that are involved in this stage:

i. Responding
ii. Revising
iii. Editing
iv. Proofreading
v. Publishing

12.1.1 Responding
Responding to the text is a cyclical process. You may have to move back and forth through the text while
editing it. For example, you go through your text once to fix spelling errors and consider it final. In
second reading, you may find another error that you missed in the first and you fix it. In short, the
process of proofreading and editing requires several careful readings. You respond to each detail of your
writing so that the final product is correct and concrete. This is called self-evaluation.

Self-evaluation does not ensure that the document is sound and correct in all respects. Peer-evaluation
is necessary for that. Ask your classmate, friend or colleague to go through it to find errors and give
suggestions for fixing them. This gives you feedback of the reader and any information gap or confusing
pattern of organization is fixed before you pass it on to its target audience.

12.1.2 Revising – A.R.R.R Approach

The revision stage is sometimes summed up with the A.R.R.R approach:

i. Adding
ii. Rearranging
iii. Removing
iv. Replacing
i. Adding
This step involves filling information gaps, adding points/figures and tables if you have missed any.
One good tip is to go back to your prewriting notes and verify if you have covered all the headings
and relevant details.

ii. Rearranging
While going through the document, you may need to rearrange sections. Reordering paragraphs
may also be done for better flow of argument. For instance, a report that drags in the middle but
packs in too much at the end requires rearrangement.

iii. Removing
Sometimes, one of your ideas don’t work out while composing the report. Perhaps you’ve gone
over the word count, and you need to take out a few paragraphs. Similarly, you may want to
remove unfamiliar, extra words that are not adding any meaning.

iv. Replacing
Some paragraphs/sentences of your report may have to be rewritten if they are not cohesive and
coherent. There might be a better example that you want to include in place of some
inappropriate one.

12.1.2.1 Examples of Revision

The following sentences have been revised to avoid flabby (weak) expressions, long lead-ins, and
unnecessary fillers:

The following sentences have been revised for conciseness:

The following sentences have been revised to avoid redundancies, dull and overused expressions,
jargon, and slang.

In the following sentences, the use of verbs and exuberance has been controlled:
 The paragraph has been turned into a concise, bulleted vertical list.

12.1.3 Editing
The editing stage is distinct from revision, and needs to be done after revising. It involves a close-up
view of individual sentences and words. It needs to be done after you’ve made revisions on a big scale.
When editing, go through your text line by line, and make sure that each sentence, phrase and word is
as strong as possible. Here are some strategies that you may follow:

- Use a thesaurus to find alternatives if you are using one word many times in one sentence or
paragraph.
- If sentences are hard to understand, rewrite them to make your thoughts clear.
- Words like “just” “quite”, “very”, “really” and “generally” can often be removed.
- Keep a careful look out for problems like subject-verb agreement and stay consistent in the use
of tense.
- Don’t trust your spell-checker; it won’t pick up every mistake. Proofread as many times as
necessary.
- Check the use of punctuation marks. Commas often cause difficulties. You might want to check
out the Daily Writing Tips articles on punctuation.
- Re-reading is a key part of editing; make sure everything is exactly how you want it.
12.1.4 Proofreading
Proofreading is the final phase of post-writing stage. Make a final check and fix mechanical or technical
flaws, such as grammar, punctuation, names and numbers, and format. Also, check different elements
of layout (such as headlines, paragraphs, illustrations, and colors) for their correct dimensions,
placement, type, etc. Follow these phases to proofread your document:

First-Phase Review

- Appropriate format (reports or correspondence?)

- Consistent style, including headings, terminology, spacing, fonts
- Correct numbering of figures and tables
Second-Phase Review

- Specific grammar and usage problems

- Appropriate punctuation
- Correct abbreviations and capitalization
- Correct spelling (especially names and places)
- Complete web or e-mail addresses
- Accurate data in tables and lists
- Cut-and-paste errors; for example, a result of moved or deleted text and numbers
Final-Phase Review

- Survey of your overall goals, audience needs and purpose

- Appearance of the document (see layout and design)
- Review by a trusted colleague, especially for crucial documents

12.1.4.1 Proofreading Marks

While proofreading a document, you may use these marks for convenience.
 Figure 1 Example of a proofread text

12.1.5 Publishing
The final step of the writing process is publishing. It’s the step where you’re given an opportunity to
share your work. This often means adding a bibliography, ensuring that citations are correct, to secure
copyrights of your original work and securing any necessary co-authorship and/or copyright permissions.
Lecture 13
Communication
Communication concerns itself with sharing or conveying of information through experience,
speech or behavior and it is usually two-sided. Any source of information is ineffective if it is not
communicated well. Thus, communication per se is considered as a great skill and its importance
is not negligible at all.

13.1. Communication Process

To identify the communication process, one first needs to identify the stakeholders involved in
communication. These are the Sender (who sends a message) and Receiver (who receives the
message or report, to whom the message is sent). These two members form core of the
communication process. Additionally, feedback is also an integral part, in which the response of
the receiver and sender are gauged.
Generally, there are 5 elements of this communication process:
▪ Sender’s initiative
▪ Receiver’s reception
▪ Message or content
▪ Medium of instruction
▪ Feedback of both sender and receiver

Integral parts of communication include the following:

➢ Be very specific. That is, use only actual information and not any distracting,
overwhelming or unnecessary information. Time is of crucial importance.
➢ Use supporting facts and figures, whenever possible, to be more credible.
➢ Keep the reader benefit and interest in mind. As for reports, this is covered with your
audience analysis.
➢ Your communication should be coherent and clear in meaning, with one basic idea.
When it comes to report writing, bear in the mind the previous discussion on thesis
statement, unity and coherence.
➢ Consider using the right level of language. This is based on the level of the person for
whom you are writing a report for or generally with whom you are communicating.
➢ Ensure that your communication has no emission or errors. That is, do not let important
information be omitted or erased from the report. Furthermore, errors must be avoided.

13.2. Reasons to Communicate

• To persuade an audience to accept your point of view
• To instruct an audience by directing actions
• To inform an audience of facts, concerns, or questions you might have
• To build trust and rapport by managing work relationships

13.3. Seven C’s of Effective Communication

On a professional level, there is no space for mistake in our communication. To achieve this, a popular
checklist called Seven C’s of Communication help you improve your professional communication skills
and increases the chance that the message will be understood in the same way as it was intended. On
Professional level, we communicate through meetings, emails, conference calls, reports, presentations
etc.

These Seven C's are likewise known by the name of the “Principles of Effective Communication (EBC)”.
The name “Seven C's” stems from two facts viz. that each letter starts with a “C” and that they are seven
in number. These Seven C’s may look innocuous but do act as good aides with a significant standing. These
are listed out in Figure 1.

Figure 1 The 7 C's of Communication

13.3.1. Clarity
This C aims to getting the meaning from your head to the head of your reader, accurately. This is not
as simple as it sounds. The process is muddled by the fact that we all carry around our own unique
interpretations, ideas and experiences associated with each word or non-verbal gesture.
To achieve clarity in communication, choose precise, concrete and familiar words. Consider the
following examples:

Unfamiliar: After our perusal of pertinent data, the conclusion is that a

lucrative market exists for the subject property.

Familiar: The data we study show that your property is profitable and in
high demand.

Another way to achieve clarity is by constructing effective sentences and paragraphs

The core approach to achieving clarity lies in the construction of the sentences. Any grammatically
correct statement, when clearly expressed, moves thoughts within a paragraph. The important
mnemonic to help you remember is LUCE, which stands for Length, Unity, Coherence and Emphasis.
13.3.1.1. Length
Constructing effective sentences and paragraphs requires a balanced consideration of length. In
order to manage any sentence properly, there is recommended strength of words in a sentence.
▪ The upper limit of recommended length of words for sentences is 17 to 20 words. It can
exceed to 30 words, if there is such a need. The only emphasis lies in helping the receiver to
get a full grip or understanding of the sentence.
▪ If the length of a sentence exceeds 40, then divide the sentence into 2 sentences.
13.3.1.2. Unity
The sentences must be constructed in such a way that the idea must stand united. The ideal approach
is to have a single idea per sentence. However, if a supporting idea is needed, you may add these, with
appropriate use of transition words and phrases. The very aim must still be constructing sentences in
which ideas which are related to each other.

For example: “Economics is taught at CIIT to prepare students to contribute to Pakistani economy in a
better way.” In this sentence, two interrelated ideas are shown but they are connected.

13.3.1.3. Coherence
This may sound synonymous with “unity”, and indeed, the fundamental purpose is the same. However,
what makes this different is that coherence is more global than unity. By this, we mean that sentences
together should be weaved together to discuss a common theme.

13.3.1.4. Emphasis
The quality that gives force to important parts of sentences and paragraphs is emphasis. Good writers
understand what should be emphasized and what shouldn’t be. There are various ways to emphasize
different ideas which include the use of headings, tabulations, pie charts, graphs, underlining, Italics,
colored fonts etc. The following examples may be of more help:
Little Emphasis Better Emphasis
Candidates should be motivated and have Prerequisites in candidates should include
interest in static and dynamic testing of expertise in static and dynamic testing of
material, and have those prerequisites and material.
other.

Collectively, the LUCE approach is applied in the following examples:

In the first “bad” example, we do not know who Waseem is, what his duties are, let alone the
purpose of the conversion. The “good” example corrects this.

Flawed Example Better Example

Hi Ahmad, Hi Ahmad,
I wanted to write you a quick note I wanted to write you a quick note
about Waseem, who's working in your about Waseem Khan, who's working in your
department. He's a great asset, and I'd like department. In recent weeks, he's helped the
 to talk to you more about him when you IT department through several pressing
have time. deadlines on his own time.
Best, We've got a tough upgrade project due to run
Kamran over the next three months, and his
knowledge and skills would prove invaluable.
Could we please have his help with this
work?
I'd appreciate speaking with you about this.
When is it best to call you to discuss this
further?
Best wishes,
Kamran

Similarly, in the following example, the flawed example doesn’t inform readers which conversation
Ali is referring to. If Ali had met Saba on multiple occasions that day, then he wouldn’t know what Ali
is actually talking about. In the corrected example, the reader knows exactly what is expected of him
because the message is clear.
Flawed Example Better Example
Hi Saba, Hi Saba,
I would like to schedule a meeting with you I would like to schedule a meeting with you
in regards to yesterday’s conversation. The in regards to your presentation on email
topics you covered were great, and I’d like to marketing. The topics you covered were
speak about it in detail. Please let me know great, and I would like to discuss
when you would like to have this meet. implementation on our current clients.
Regards, Please let me know when you have the time
Ali so that we can discuss it in detail.
Regards
Ali

13.3.2. Conciseness
The word “concise” means “to the point”. In our context, in simple terms, this means avoiding the use
a lot of words. A concise message saves time and expense for both sender and receiver. Conciseness
contributes to emphasis; by eliminating unnecessary words you let important ideas stand out. When combined
with “you-view”, concise messages are more interesting to the recipients. Conciseness includes, but is not
limited to:
▪ Eliminating wordy expressions: Use single word substitute instead of phrases without changing
meaning.
Wordy Concise
As this time Now
Due to the fact that Because
In due course Soon
Allow me to say how helpful your response was Your last response was helpful.
 ▪ Including only relevant material: Stick to the purpose of the message. Delete irrelevant words and
sentences. Omit information obvious to the receiver. Avoid long introductions, unnecessary
explanations, excessive preposition and adjectives etc. Get to the important point, concisely.
Wordy Concise
At this time, I am writing to you to enclose an Please return the enclosed interview card to
interview card, which has been post-paid, for the setup a convenient time for an interview.
purpose of arranging a convenient time when we
might get together for a personal interview.

▪ Avoiding unnecessary repetition:

➢ Use short forms the second time e.g. instead of ‘Benazir Income Support Program’,
‘BISP’ should be used and instead of citing “American Association of Technical
Analysts” again and again use “it” or “they” or AATA.
➢ Use pronouns.
Single Word Substitutes
With regard to About
Despite the fact that Although
At the present writing Now
Is of opinion that Thinks
In the first place First
At a rapid rate Fast

Following are some other examples:

Flawed Example Better Example

Hi Ayyan, Hi Ayyan,
I wanted to touch base with you I wanted to quickly discuss the email
about the email marketing campaign we kind marketing campaign that we analyzed last
of sketched out last Thursday. I really think Thursday. Our target market will want to
that our target market is definitely going to know about the company's philanthropic
want to see the company's philanthropic efforts, especially regarding our goals to
efforts. I think that could make a big impact, become sustainable and to help local
and it would stay in their minds longer than schools.
a sales pitch. This would make a far greater impact, and it
For instance, if we talk about the company's would stay in the minds of people longer
efforts to become sustainable, as well as the than a traditional sales pitch.
charity work we're doing in local schools, What do you think?
then the people that we want to attract are Ali
going to remember our message longer. The
impact will just be greater.
What do you think?
Ali
The flawed example is too long! There's repetition, and there's plenty of "filler" taking up space. The
better example corrects this.

Flawed Example Better Example

Dear Zakir, Dear Zakir,
I wanted to talk about the video editing ideas I wanted to discuss the video editing ideas
we sort of planned the other day. Don’t you we planned yesterday. It would be better to
think it would make a lot of sense to also add add additional elements to the video to have
additional elements to the videos? I mean, I a stronger impact on the client’s message.
think that would sort of improve the quality A dissolve transition would give a seamless
of the videos as well as have a stronger flow to each movie and make the videos
impact on the client’s message. cleaner and appealing in the minds of the
For instance, we could add a dissolve target audience.
transition on each movie, which would then What do you think?
give it a seamless flow. This would then make Regards
the video cleaner and be more appealing in Bilal
the minds of the people. The impact would
just be a lot greater. This makes a lot more
sense according to me.
What do you think?
Regards
Bilal

Again, this email is quite long and there is a lot of repetition. The email has been made shorter and to
the point.

13.3.3. Completeness
Business message is complete when it contains all facts the reader or listener needs for the reaction
you desire. As you strive for completeness, keep the following guidelines in mind:
• Provide all necessary information
• Answer all questions asked
• Give something extra when desirable

Answer all questions that are asked. Give something extra when desirable. Check for five W’s & one H
(Who, What, When, Where, Why and How). Answering the five W’s helps make messages clearer. Look
for questions: some may even appear buried within a paragraph. Locate them and then answer them
precisely. Use your good judgment in offering additional material if the sender’s message was
incomplete.

Flawed Example Better Example

Hi all, Hi all,
Let us meet tomorrow to discuss the product Let us meet tomorrow at 11 AM at
lunch event. Please be there on time. Conference Room 3 to discuss the product
 Thanks launch event. We should decide the keynote
Muraad speakers and complete the event invite draft
tomorrow. Please be there on time.
Thanks
Muraad
In the flawed example, there is no agenda, no location and no time is given in this example. If the
flawed example above, there is another error. The writer has spelled “launch”. Spell checkers don’t
always work so make sure you proof read everything.

Flawed Example Better Example

Hi everyone, Hi everyone,
I just wanted to send you all a I just wanted to remind you about
reminder about the meeting we're having tomorrow's meeting on the new
tomorrow! telecommuting policies. The meeting will be
See you then, at 10:00AM in the second-level Conference
Asad Room. Please let me know if you can't
attend.
See you then,
Asad

The flawed example misses the following:

• What meeting?
• Where is this meeting?
• When will it begin?
Note: Example are taken from
1. http://www.stpaulsice.com/Students/Blog/7-C-s-of-Effective-Communication
2. https://www.invensislearning.com/blog/7-rules-of-effective-communication-with-examples/
3. https://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newCS_85.htm
4. Murphy, H. (2008). Effective Business Communication. Tata McGraw Hill Education Private Limited.
Lecture 14
Communication
We’ve covered 3 C’s in the previous Lecture. In this Lecture, we will proceed with the rest.

14.1 Concreteness
Concreteness literally means something real, particular or solid. This C, too, is an important part of 7 C’s
of communication. In the context of communication, concreteness requires us to be specific in giving
information instead of being generic or general with reader or audience. Thus, concreteness is an aspect
of communication that means being specific, definite, and vivid rather than vague and general.
Communication is concrete if it uses specific facts and figures.

An impact (strong effect) must be created by the sender so that the receiver feels comfortable to provide
a positive response. This C is connected with the C’s of clarity, conciseness and consideration. This is
because concreteness depends on facts and figures, which should come up with interpretation.

Since concreteness refers to the quality of being correct, it must be kept in mind that communication must
be clear by providing factual information with grammatical precision, so that your audience don’t ask you
for any other information. We should avoid vague words, particularly with similar meanings. For example,
“several” and “multiple” give us only part of information and are not to the point. Furthermore, both may
be synonymous but there are situations in which the meanings differ.

Another aspect to consider regarding concreteness is the avoidance of avoid non-reliable sources. Always
go for valid, reliable, authentic and credible sources for giving any type of information. We should use the
right level of language keeping in mind the standards of languages.

To achieve concreteness, we may follow these four rules:

1) Use specific facts and figures:

Only the important information should be provided to the receiver. If extra information is included, then
the receiver would lose the concentration and important information may be overlooked or ignored by
the receiver. Relevant and important facts or information must be included so that the receiver gets the
whole idea and no query remains unanswered. Answer of all the questions like “when, where, why, who,
whom, what” should be included.

Active form of verbs should be used because:

➢ Fewer words cover the whole plan or idea in the better way.
➢ It is simple.

2) Put action in your verbs:

 Sometimes, if verbs are not used in Active form, they take the shape of Noun. e.g., “She compiles
the data.” Here, the verb “compiles” is in Active form but if we rewrite this sentence, then the verb
transforms into a noun as follows: “Data compilation is done by her.” Here, “compilation” is a noun
and the information becomes a bit complex.

Consider the following examples to hit this point home:

Action hiding in a “quiet” noun Action in the verb

The function of this office is the collection of This office collect payments and compiles
payments and the compilation of statements. statements.
Professor H. will give consideration to the report. Professor H. will consider the report.
The proposal has a requirement for Concept X The proposal requires Concept X
Students held a meeting in the office Students met in the office.

Action is hidden in passive

form. Action must,
preferably, not be hidden.

3) Choose vivid (brilliant), image-building words:

Use attractive words or terms, which can stay in the memory of the receiver. If some new idea or
mode of expression is used, then automatically the receiver would focus on it and positive
response would be generated.

Flawed Example Better Example

The function of this office is the collection of “Hilltop Resort is the jewel of the western hills.
payments and the compilation of statements. Take a break from your work. Escape from life’s
chaos and stress. Relax and rejuvenate yourself at
Hilltop. Go back fresh and energized!”
Source: www.invensislearning.com/blog/7-rules-of-effective-communication-with-examples/

This example on the left is flawed because it is a vague ad message. It is made to sound like just
another resort advertisement among a hundred others. The audience will never remember this ad
message. There are no concrete details to take away from this message.

4) Be accurate

Check the accuracy (exactness) of figures, facts and words. This requires the information you
provide to be correct and exact. As an example, consider the case that a single 0 can create
problems: there is great difference between Rs. 100 and Rs. 1,000.

Secondly, grammar and punctuation are another important aspect. Place the commas, questions
mark and other punctuation on their proper place.

Facts may change with time, so before writing about anything, verify that your fact still holds. For
example, C++ used to be the most used programming language but now other programming
 languages have taken the place. So, this fact that “C++ is the most used programming language” is
not true now, even if this was valid for a period after its release.

Wrong placement of words can also cause problems. There are many words which are used at the
place of each other because they have similar sounds or they have somehow similar meanings. But
in Report writing, be careful while using the words; confirm the exact meaning of the word. Consider
this example, “Most of the time, travelers worry about their luggage.” Now delete the comma after
the fourth word to totally change the meaning of this sentence: “Most of the time travelers worry
about their luggage”.

14.2. Consideration
Consideration generally means to show importance or respect or to show some care. For the purposes of
communication, importance must be shown to the receiver and, in this regard, a popular rule of thumb is
the “you-attitude”. In this approach, instead of using “I”, “you” is used to make the receiver feel important.
This, however, should not be blindly adopted. In some cases, “I-attitude” may be preferred over the “You-
attitude” as it can be harsh in such situations. For example, the sentence “You have not paid the bill this
month” not only sounds impolite but may be a downright accusation. The consideration C requires that
this sentence be paraphrased in line with the “I-attitude” as follows: “I am waiting for the bill this month”.

In general, it is better to use “I” when:

➢ You disagree with someone.

➢ You refer to the mistake of the receiver.
➢ You are irritated and want to hide that irritation or frustration.

With the help of the Consideration C, you may be able to attract the receiver towards your new project
or business, show some benefits to the receiver so that the receiver understands his/her place or
importance in that project or business and decides to provide you positive response.

To show consideration, give positive and friendly response to the receiver. In this regard, use polite
language so that even a harsh message does not disappoint or hurt the receiver.

What can be done What should be avoided

Show possibilities Avoid discouragements
Introduce other options Don’t end up with the only option
The following examples illustrate these points:
Flawed Example Better Example
Dear Mr. Sadan Dear Mr. Sadan
I'm sorry that we are presently out of stock of black Thank you for ordering a black hand bag.
hand bags and will be unable to fill your order now. The color you chose proved to be very popular, and
An order has been placed with the manufacturer in we quickly sold all we had in stock. However, we've
the color you want. We will receive shipment after placed a rush order for more and are promised
ten days. delivery within ten days. Yours will be shipped the
I trust this delay will not inconvenience you. same day our new supply arrives. I know you'll be
Sincerely, delighted with the unique carry-on bag Mr. Hassan.
Mudassir
 It's not only very handsome, but incredibly
inexpensive.
Sincerely,
Mudassir
You will be (or customers will be) able to do We are happy to announce that transaction can be
transactions after office hours, at the Teller counter made even after 3.00 PM till 5.00 PM at the teller-
till 5.00 PM. counter.
It is not possible for us to extend locker facility to Extending locker facility will be attended to as soon
you since you do not have a fixed/term deposit in as we receive an investment in fixed/term deposit
our bank. from you.

14.3. Courtesy
True courtesy involves being aware not only of the perspective of others, but also their feelings. Courtesy
stems from a sincere you-attitude. It’s not merely politeness with mechanical instructions of “please” and
“thank you” although applying socially accepted manners is a form of courtesy. Rather, it is politeness
that grows out of respect and concern for others.

In addition to following the guidelines discussed under “consideration”, courteous communicators

generate a special tone in their writing and speaking.

The following are suggestions for generating a courteous tone.

• Be sincerely tactful, thoughtful and appreciative.

• Use expressions that show respect.
• Choose nondiscriminatory expressions.

Be sincerely tactful, thoughtful and appreciative

Though few people are intentionally abrupt or blunt, these negative traits are a common cause of
discourtesy. Sometimes, they stem from a mistaken idea of conciseness, sometimes from negative
attitudes, sometimes from not knowing the culture of a country or even groups of people.

Inconsiderate, Blunt Considerate

Stupid letter; I can’t understand any of it. It’s my understanding that…
Clearly, you didn’t read my latest fax. Sometimes, my wording may not be precise.
I rewrote the letter three times. Let me try again
Point I’m sorry the point wasn’t clear; here is another
version.

Offensive Considerate
Hey man, what’s this I hear about the good news? Warm congratulations on your wedding!
You sure pulled a fast one this past weekend – and Well, you certainly took us by surprise. In fact, just
they didn’t tell any of us about. Give my regards to a few of us even suspected you were taking off to
the little lady, and wish her the best; she’ll need it. get married. But even though we didn’t hear about
it until later, we my wife and I wish you the best.
Give our regards to your new partner.
Hi Ali, Hi Ali,
 I really do not appreciate how your IT team ignores I understand that the IT team is swamped with
the requests of my team, alone. My team is an work and gets requests from every department in
important function in this organization, too, and we the organization. My team, however, is working on
have our own IT requirement. Can you ensure that a high-priority project and I would greatly
your team responds promptly to my team’s appreciate if you could ask your team members to
requests hereon? respond to my team’s queries promptly and help
Regards us complete this project on time. Please do let me
Muzammil know if you need anything from me.
Regards
Muzammil

Note: Some examples are taken from Business Communication 7th Edition Herta A. Murphy, Jane P.
Thomas and Herbert W. Hildebrandt
Lecture 15
Memorandum
The word memorandum (plural: memoranda) is a Latin word, which means “something to remember” Or
“reminder” it is often shortened to ‘memo’ (plural: memos). Memo is an informal type of report. Memo
may be a note, document or other communication that helps memory by recording events or observations
on a topic, such as may be used in an organization. With this background, it might helpful to note that a
memo is also called “in house communication”.

Thus, memos are generally used for internal communication between executives and subordinates or
between the officers of the same level of an organization. It is also called as inter-office memorandum. As
they may convey important information, clarity, careful arrangement, and neatness. A memo does not
require a salutation and closing remarks. However, it is alright to initial the memo – beside the name types
at the top or at the bottom of the memo – or even sign your name at the bottom. The style and tone of
your memo should be the same, whether you are writing to your colleague or your superior. An over-
friendly memo in an informal style to the manager may be a sign of disrespect. Paragraphs, however short,
must always be numbered to make it easy to read. Memo is also used as a covering note.

15.1. Structure
A memorandum is considered the primary source of correspondence within an organization, just as a
letter is the primary corresponding document between organizations. In this way, memo is an informal
type of report, whereas a letter may be a formal report.

Some organizations have their own printed memo format and template. In case there is no printed memo
form, then you write a memo or interoffice correspondence at the center and top of the page. Your memo
must be brief and simple. If your memo is long, then it may be sent as an attachment. The information
should be directed.

15.2. Key Points

• Avoid personal statements: Focus on objectivity without personal bias, preference, or interest on
display. Avoid subjectivity. Stick to the relevant material.
• Use a professional tone: Your tone should be courteous and professional always, and it should
convey strength and confidence.
Flawed Example Better Example
This letter is to inform you that you will We appreciate your attendance at the upcoming
attend the upcoming mandatory meeting mandatory meeting.
You did not assemble the parts correctly, and The product may not work correctly if any errors
so the product is malfunctioning. occur during assembly
• Use easy to understand language: Language is always more powerful when you use active, rather
than passive verbs. For example, say “agricultural runoff worsens eutrophication” instead of
“eutrophication is worsened by agricultural runoff.”
 • Conciseness and clarity should go in line with adequate development of thought: Make your
sentences, paragraph, and overall memo as brief and as focused as possible. Get your purpose
straight before you start, then plan what you want to say and in what order. Use your memo
layout to help your reader (headings, bulleted lists, white space, as appropriate).

15.3. Purpose
The main purpose that a memorandum fulfills is that it aims to record and relay information, and to make
brief appeals. Memo is written to persuade others to take action, give feedback on an issue, or react to a
situation. However, most memos communicate basic information, such as meeting times or due dates.

In addition, memo is used to establish accountability of things and saves you hassle and time, compared
to writing a letter or a detailed, long report. A memorandum is also essential in the field of business as it
helps build good relationships between higher authority and employees. In establishments and offices,
memos are used to relay information to employees regarding events or any other changes that have been
made in the company. Memos are generally less formal than a letter. Memos are an effective way to
announce events such as office parties, death, incentives, new employees and holidays etc. Though such
activities aren’t directly work related, they do serve to unite employees and boost morale.

15.4. Elements of an Effective Memo

An effective memo:

• grabs the reader's attention

• provides information, makes a recommendation, or asks for action
• supports your position or explains benefits to reader
• mentions next steps and deadlines
When composing a memo, always consider the three stages of writing: plan what you want to say, write
a draft, revise the draft, edit and proofread it and then finally publish it.

15.5. Audience analysis

Audience analysis involves assessing the audience to make sure the information provided to them is at
the appropriate level. If you have typical audience, e.g., co-workers and colleagues, their focus will be on
the main point since they share a similar background as you. Known if talk about Separate department
they are less familiar about the issue, project or event so they provided by detailed back gourd
information. It is better to provider a context because if someone out outside the organization want to
know about the project they have some context in form of information so that they know what is going
on.

15.6. Conclusion
By following these memo examples and addressing your audience in clear, concise language, you'll be able
to effectively communicate with your coworkers in all your correspondence.
 To: All Staff
From: The Manager
Date: May 27, 2010
Subject: Inappropriate use of time on Google Doodle games
Coworkers,
It has come to my attention that many in the office have been spending time on the Google home
page microgames. This memo is a reminder to use your work hours for work.

According to a recent article, the estimated daily cost of people collectively playing these games
instead of working is over $120 million—which is calculated based on the daily average increased time
spent on the Google home page (36 seconds).

If these estimates are applied to our 600 office employees, this results in a nearly $700 weekly loss.
This is a conservative estimate considering the extensive discussions that occur about beating the
office's current high score. The extra cost quickly adds up.

Of course, we don't want you to view our organization as a place of drudgery and draconian rules. I
encourage a fun and competitive environment, and I recognize that we certainly won't be profitable if
you are unhappy or dissatisfied with your jobs. This is just a reminder to be careful with your use of
company time.

Thank you,
The Manager
Example of general office memo

15.7. Guidelines and Tips

• Clear subject line: The subject line should be very specific to the topic or purpose of the memo.
Subject lines are important to memos (as well as emails) because they have a large impact on
whether or not the recipient reads the message. A vague subject line could cause the recipient to
discard the memo (or delete the email) without reading it.
• State your purpose in the first paragraph: This is clubbed under the pre-writing stage of the
memo. In this stage, an audience analysis should be kept in mind and purpose of writing a memo
should be well-identified. Supply any relevant background information. Identify any task the
memo is related to.
• Summarize any potential objections: Convey the information and supporting details relevant to
the memo's purpose. Keep sentences tight and informative. Use bullets to list information.
• Keep paragraphs short: Keep paragraphs short and focused; one main idea per paragraph is a
good rule of thumb for easy reading.
• Use subheads between paragraph groups: In long memos, headings are a great way to divide the
material into manageable segments. They not only call attention to main topics but they let the
reader know when there is a change in topic.
• Use bulleted and numbered lists: These help in clarification and ease of reading. It is easy to
lose track in long lists separated by comas.
• Request action: With a closing, be precise on what needs to be done.
 • Be concise: Include as much information as necessary. Memos should be short and concise; try to
keep them to one page. If it is necessary to include lists, charts and graphs at the end, mention
how these attachments are important to your memo.

To: Computer Programming Division

From: Vice President Lumbergh
Date: February 19, 2016
Subject: Attaching cover sheets to TPS reports
This is to remind the division that, starting today, we are now filing all Testing Procedure Specification
(TPS) reports with new cover sheets.

The reason for this change is simple. In addition to a new format, the cover sheets provide a summary
of the report as well as the updated legal copy. The new cover sheets also include Initech's new logo.
Though this change may initially seem like a headache and an extra step, it is necessary to include the
new cover sheets due to their updated information. Failing to do so will result in a confusing and
inaccurate product delivered to our customers.

Please be sure to follow this new procedure.

Best regards,
Vice President Lumbergh
Example of departmental memo

15.8. Types of Memorandum

There are many types of memos and may roughly be categorized as either one of the following:

• Information Memo
• Problem Solving Memo
• Persuasion Memo
• Internal Memo Proposal
• Directive Memo
• Response to an Inquiry Memo
• Trip Report Memo
• Field Report/Lab Report Memo

15.8.1. Information Memo

Information memo is used to deliver or request information or assistance.

Structure:

▪ First part provides main idea.

▪ Second part expands on the details.
▪ Third part outlines the action required.
Figure 1 An information memo
15.8.2. Problem Solving Memo
This type of memo suggests a specific action to improve a situation.

Structure:

▪ First part states the problem and gets right to it.

▪ Second part analyzes the problem with details pertaining to who and what is affected by the
problem.
▪ Third part makes a recommendation. When making a recommendation, include not only the
positive details but also the drawbacks and diffuse them yourself to minimize the problem.

Reference: https://image.slidesharecdn.com/tbwritingbook-140206004733-phpapp01/95/tb-writing-book-40-638.jpg?cb=1391647668

Figure 2 Example of problem solving memo

 Reference: https://www.slideshare.net/ullery1989/problem-solution-memo
Figure 3 Another example of a problem-solving memo

15.8.3. Persuasion Memo

Persuasion memo is used to encourage the reader to cooperate in a desired action.

Structure:

• First part begins with an agreeable point

• Second part introduces the idea
• Third part states benefit to the reader
• Fourth part outlines the action required
• Final part ends with a call to action
 Figure 4 A persuasion memo
15.3.4. Internal Proposal Memo
Such a memo is used to convey suggestions to senior management.

Structure:

• First part states reason for writing

• Second part outlines present situation and states writer's proposal
• Third part describes advantage(s)
• Fourth part mentions and diffuses disadvantage(s)
• Fifth part ends with a call to action
 Figure 5 Internal proposal memo
15.3.5. Directive Memo
A directive memo states a policy or procedure you want the reader or co-worker to follow.

Structure:

• Length depends on space required for explanation. This is determined by nature of the audiences.
• The memo should begin with a clear and concise statement of purpose. Example: The purpose of
this memo is to let all members of the ABC Department know that doughnuts will be provided
every Friday morning at 9:00 AM.
• Purpose is followed by statements providing a rationale.
 To: Design Team #362
From: W.B. Working
Date: May 27, 1997
Subject: Project Schedule
As a result of yesterday's meeting, I suggest we follow the project schedule listed below. Remember,
we must submit a proposal by noon on July 2.

Sample directive memo. Reference: http://writing.colostate.edu/guides/documents/memo/pop2c.cfm

15.3.6. Response to an Inquiry Memo

The purpose of this memo is to provide the audience with desired information.

Structure:

• First part states purpose statement, which is to respond to a request.

• Second part summarizes the requested information.
• Third part has a discussion, highlighting and emphasizing the important information.
• Final part is call to action.

Remember to state the additional action to be taken to rightly address the issue.

To: Design Team #362

From: W.B. Working
Date: May 27, 1997
Subject: Project Schedule
Purpose: This memo responds to your request that the weekly meeting be moved from 9am to 10am.
Summary: This request is satisfactory as long as it is approved by management.
Discussion: Management usually has no problem with the individual time changes in meetings, as long
as meeting minutes are turned in by noon to Cathy.
Action: I have asked Cathy if she thinks this would be a problem and she said no, so all we need to do
now is get approval from Steve.
Sample response to an inquiry memo. Reference:
http://writing.colostate.edu/guides/documents/memo/pop2c.cfm

15.3.7. Trip Report Memo

In professional scenarios, a trip memo is used for a supervisor after an employee returns from a business
venture.
Structure:

• First part has statement of purposes, i.e., provides information on trip.

• Second summarizes clearly and concisely (ideally!) outline of your trip.
• Third part involves a discussion, which highlights and emphasizes important information.
• Final part includes action to be taken to rightly address the issue.

To: Design Team #362

From: W.B. Working
Date: June 27, 1997
Subject: Weekly Meeting
Purpose: This memo presents my impressions of the meeting last week at ABC organization in XYZ
country.
Summary: In general, I felt that the meeting went well and much progress was made.
Discussion: Barb and Jeff were able to make progress on the graphics and should have them finished
next week. Kyle and Sandy are on chapter 2 of the user manual.
Recommendation: Kyle will meet with Jeff to see how they want the graphics integrated into the text.
Sample trip memo. Reference: http://writing.colostate.edu/guides/documents/memo/pop2c.cfm

15.3.8. Field Report Memo

Memos are often used to report on inspection and procedures. These memos, known as field or lab
reports, include the problem, methods, results, and conclusions, but spend less time on the methods
section.

To: Dean of Journalism

From: Steve Nash
Date: June 27, 1999
Subject: Computer Lab
Purpose: This memo presents the findings of my visit to the computer lab at Clark c252.
Summary: In general, I felt that the lab needs new equipment and renovation.
Problem: The inspection was designed to determine if the present equipment was adequate to
provide graduate students with the technology needed to perform the tasks expected of them by their
professors and thesis research.
Methods: I ran a series of tasks on SPSS and WordPerfect, and recorded memory capacity and
processing time for each task.
Results: The inspection found that the hardware used to run the computers is outdated and that the
computers themselves are very slow.
Conclusions: This lab is inadequate for the everyday needs of graduate students in this department.
Recommendations: Four new computers running on windows 10 and a processing speed of at least
2.0ghz with four cores should be purchased immediately.
A field report memo. Reference: http://writing.colostate.edu/guides/documents/memo/pop2c.cfm

Structure:
Naturally, a field or report memo should begin with a purpose. This varies according to nature of work. In
the next section, a summary of the complete memo should be provided. Problem leading to the decision
to perform the procedure is discussed next followed by methods, results, conclusions and
recommendations. The details for these have already been extensively discussed.

Note: Other references used to construct this handout are following

1. http://www.kean.edu/~cpdonova/HowtoWriteaMemo2.pdf
2. https://www.scribendi.com/advice/memo_examples.en.html
3. https://www.slideshare.net/ullery1989/problem-solution-memo
4. http://blog.rescuetime.com/2010/05/24/the-tragic-cost-of-google-pac-man-4-82-million-hours/
Lecture 16
16.1. Format
A format is pre-established lay out for data and assumes the role of a pattern, plan or arrangement. This
may generally be categorized in global or outer settings and inner or local settings.

16.1.1. Outer Frame

Generally, memorandum have 1-inch margins around the page. All lines of memorandum begin from the
left side. The text begins two spaces after the subject line. The body of memo is single spaced with two
spaces between paragraphs.

16.1.1.1. Sender’s details

The sender usually signs the memo using initials, first name or complete name at the end. It is important
to keep in mind the designations and ranks of people who will be reading the memorandum. In
electronic copy of memorandum, signature or initials are not required because the sender’s name is
already visible. The memo, short for memorandum, contains the organization’s name, its logo and,
sometimes, other details.

16.1.1.2. Additional page

In case the memo exceeds one page, a header is used to develop a link between the pages by specifying
page numbering. Thus, a header may contain recipient name, page number and date as shown in Figure
1.

Figure 1 Memo header

16.1.2. Inner Frame

Text structure refers to how the information within a written text is organized.

16.1.2.1. Recipients
For informal memos, the receiver name is enough. In case there are two people with the same name
within an organization, specifying designation or department may be necessary. In formal memos, if
receiver is in another department, it is necessary to specify designation and department. In practice,
specifying full name was an integral practice but has become outdated, depending on the type of the
organization. If the memo is sent to several people, they are listed after “To”. If the recipient’s list
exceeds a dozen, then it is preferable to write their names at the end of the memo. This should be
referenced in the “To” line.

Figure 2 A sample memo. Source: Alred, G. J. Brusaw, C. T. Oliu, W. E., Handbook of Technical Writing, 10th Ed., St. Martin's
Press. p.329

16.1.2.2. Sender
The “From” section contains the name of the sender. The writer’s name and professional title come
after this heading. For informal memos, the sender’s first name usually suffices, again, but may be
necessary to add further details if there are two people with the same name. If the memo is not formal,
then you skip titles, which include Dr., Mr., Mrs., Ms. or Miss. By the way, there is a fundamental
different between the use of Ms. and Miss. Be sure to know them before hand and these vary from
country to country.

In more formal memos, the use of full name is mandatory. Some organizations may require details
regarding designation and department, as well, if this is not specified on the letter head. However,
again, if the receiver(s) is/are from another department, then details pertaining to designation and
department are usually required.

16.1.2.3. Date
Organizations use date for record-keeping and it helps with organizing past events and information.
Thus, writing up a date is mandatory. Preferably, write the month or its abbreviation to avoid confusion
between British and American date system.
16.1.2.4. Subject
A subject line is the introduction that identifies the emails intent. This subject line, displayed to the
email user or recipient, when they look at their list of messages in their inbox, it should tell the recipient
what the message is about, what the sender wants to convey.

Use the exact topic words in subject to communicate the point of memo. For example, “Changes in
Employee Medical Benefits” is more specific than “Employees Benefits Program”.

These general guidelines are usually applicable but the order of placement of these headings may vary
from organization to organization. For example, the “To” lines furnish the need for a salutation, as may
be evident from the opening, “Dear Mrs. Bernstein”.

To: Joe Campos, VP of Sales

From: Kate Chaplain, Senior Sales Associate
Date: April 5, 2013
Subject: Quarterly Review
Mr. Campos,
I’ve attached my quarterly review report to this email, but I also wanted to quickly discuss the trends
I’ve noticed in our sales data over the past few months.

We’ve sold over 10,000 new memberships over the past quarter, which is a 22% increase from Q4 of
last year. Our data analysis shows that this upswing corresponds with the creation of company pages
on various social media sites, including Facebook and Twitter, which allows more people to connect
with us virtually. In fact, over half of our new memberships were purchased from links that were
posted on our Facebook and Twitter profiles.

We’ve also had an 82% renewal rate in memberships that were set to expire in Q1. This is 16% higher
than our renewal rate in Q4, which suggests that our new program—having sales associates contact
members directly about renewing their memberships—is working even better than we had expected.
Unfortunately, we haven’t seen the same rapid growth in the purchase of family memberships. While
the number of FMs has increased by 2% over last quarter’s numbers, I believe we can get that number
even higher. I’ve listed some suggestions in my report, but I would also like to add it to the agenda for
our quarterly review meeting later this week.

Please let me know if you have any questions.

Best,
Kate Chaplain
Senior Sales Associate
Body Rock Fitness
Sample memo to boss. Source: wikihow.com
16.1.2.5. Message
The content of memo should have a concise introduction, middle paragraph for details and a brief
conclusion. Some memos are as short as one paragraph or even one sentence. Memo length is set by
purpose and audience. Unless the memo is a brief note, a well-organized memo message should contain
situation, a problem, a solution, action and politeness.

A long memo has different sub-sections. These are explained hereafter.

16.1.2.6. Summary
For longer memos, a summary is placed at the beginning of the memo. This summary should condense
the subject in five or ten lines with simple language.

16.1.2.7. Introduction
The introduction consists of memo’s purpose and scope. It may be used to ask questions or to provide

To: Customers of Chloe’s Cupcakes

From: Dan Lionel, Public Relations Liaison
Date: May 12, 2012
Subject: Publication of Nutrition Facts

Due to extensive customer feedback, we at Chloe’s Cupcakes would like to demonstrate our
commitment to making healthy choices by publishing nutrition information for all of our baked goods.
Although our stores would not be required by law to provide the nutrition facts of our products, we
agree that customers should have access to as much information as they desire before making a
purchase.

We are confident that that you, the customer, will feel better about choosing Chloe’s Cupcakes once
you are aware of these facts. We are committed to use the best locally grown ingredients in our baked
goods, and we freshly prepare all our desserts each morning. Moreover, we have a line of vegan treats
that substitute some of the highest-calorie ingredients in non-vegan goods with healthier options—
while still delivering great flavor. For those customers who are looking to splurge, we have an
exquisite selection of decadent treats too, including our famous crème brûlée macaroon sundae.

All our nutrition information will be available online, along with a list of ingredients and possible
substitutes for those with dietary restrictions. We will also provide pamphlets in stores with the same
information, to be updated periodically. As it is cumbersome to obtain accurate nutritional analyses of
handmade food products, we are unable to guarantee access to nutritional information for seasonal
flavors and promotional items.
Best,
Dan Lionel
Sample memo for customers. Source: wikihow.com

answers, and even to thank the readers. If the memo concerns refusal of a request, be sure to give out a
reason prior to a blunt no. This stems from the need to cushion unwelcoming news. In analytical
memos, your tone should be unemotional and objective. Explain what you are writing and why there is a
need for it.

16.1.2.8. Discussion
The facts of a situation need to be accurately identified and the arguments should be supported
carefully.

To: All Staff and Interns

From: Ana Lucily, Executive Assistant to the President
Date: July 15, 2012
Subject: Dishes in the Sink
It has come to our attention that there has been a pile of unwashed dishes that accumulates in the
sink by the end of each week. It has gotten so bad that washing one’s hands in the kitchen sink
becomes an uncomfortable undertaking. Therefore, we are introducing a new policy that mandates
that employees wash their dishes as soon as they are done with them, keeping the sink clear for other
uses.

If you do not have the time to wash your lunch container or coffee mug, leave it by your desk until you
are ready to wash it. Even two or three dirty plates will encourage every person thereafter to leave
their unwashed, food-stained dishes and silverware in the sink. Conversely, studies have shown that
when a sink is empty, people are more likely to wash their dishes immediately.

Thank you for your cooperation!

Best,
Ana Lucily
Sample memo to colleagues. Source: wikihow.com
16.1.2.9. Analysis
Before undergoing an analysis, you need to inform your readers the following:

● Data: What date will you be using? How did you get the data? Where was it collected from?
● Method: What is the procedure for analyzing your data?
● Assumptions: Are there some key assumptions in your analysis?

16.1.2.9.1. Scientific Analysis

The scientific analysis is a process of studying the nature of an abstract or tangle concept or determine
its essential features and its relations with its environment.

16.1.2.9.2. Significance of Data

Most analytical reports require the incorporation of data to be convincing. This encourages objectivity.
Data are usually expressed in either tables or graphs. All tables and graphs should have a title and a
numerical reference.

16.1.2.10. Conclusion
The conclusion summarizes the main points and discuss what action is required of the reader. At this
stage, you may want to mention when you expect a follow-up or why that date is important.

16.1.2.11. Writer’s Initials

A memo is completed by the writer’s initials and usually not by his/her signatures immediately after the
last sentence. The “from” line eliminates the need for a complementary close.

16.1.2.12. Distribution List

Names on the distribution list are usually typed in alphabetical or by seniority in designation.

16.1.2.13. Attachments
If you’ve attachments, you may list them at the top of the memo or at the end.

16.2. Copies
A duplicate copy of the memo should be held for the future reference.