Human Embryonic Stem Cell Science in Muslim Context Ethics of Human Dignity and Ethics of Healing
Human Embryonic Stem Cell Science in Muslim Context Ethics of Human Dignity and Ethics of Healing
1 School of Social Science and Public Policy, King's College London, United Kingdom 2 Department of Stem Cells, Faculty
of Developmental Biology, Royan Institute, Iran
Abstract
The governance of innovative bioscience could extensively influence the growth of science, economy, society and law of
every country. Similar to many countries, Muslim nations are experiencing a variety of socio-cultural and political conflicts
relating to emerging bioscience, including human embryonic stem (hES) cell research and therapy. Among Muslims, the
discussion of the ethics and regulatory policy related to hES cell research is mostly seen as a restrictive position, however,
some Muslim nations take an intermediate stance, e.g. Iran as a leading country among Muslim nations. Islam, similar to
other religions, significantly influences the moral, social and legal debates around hES cell science. The main argument
is about the level of protection of the human embryo as it is used to obtain stem cells and then destroyed. This essay
broadly portrays the fundamental moral constructions of Islamic deliberations on bioscience and technology in general,
and particularly hES cell science in Shi’a tradition. The paper helps us to understand how scientific knowledge, bioethical
discourses and legal deliberations are produced in the Muslim countries. After introducing some background information,
it delves into the core themes framing the discussion, with reference to the moral controversy surrounding hES cell science
and Islamic faith. This account is intended to present the main highlighted debates and controversial questions. The essay
concludes that given continuing conflicts between science, politics and religion in many countries, in some countries, for
example in the Shi’a Iran, hES cell science converges with religious beliefs and government policies.
Keywords: Human embryonic stem cell science, Ethics; Islam, Shi’a, Policy
Citation: Saniei M, Baharvand H (2018) Human Embryonic Stem Cell Science in Muslim Context: “Ethics of Human Dignity” and
“Ethics of Healing, Adv Med Ethics 4:1. doi: 10.12715/ame.2018.4.3
Received date: July 12, 2018; Accepted date: July 28, 2018; Published date: August 04, 2018
Copyright: © 2018 Saniei M. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution
License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
*
E-mail: [email protected]
utilise human embryos for research purposes that cause be forbidden. In this term, therefore, the foundational
them to be destroyed. The former group presumes that question is “At what point is a human being entitled to
in the early stage of their development the embryos dignity and the protection?. At other times, the moral
are usually left-over from IVF procedures and can and legal status of the human embryo (i.e. the embryo
morally be utilised in this research. The latter group debate) is discussed in terms of whether human rights
sees the embryo as a human being from the moment of apply to embryos, a debate which often focuses on
fertilisation which deserves the full protection similar whether the concept of human dignity applies to the
to any individual [1,7]. As Sarah Parry observed, usage subjects of research, for instance, embryos and women
of human embryos has thus been one of the most who donate eggs for SC research. The embryo debate
debatable and scrutinised features of hES cell science, ultimately boils down to another question: should a
in which it has received continuing ethical, social, human embryo be awarded the same protection of life
political, legal, and religious consideration since 1998 as a born human being? or, it is just a bunch of cells
[8]. In this process boundaries between science and without any moral status and human dignity?
such considerations are often blurred [9].
Some cultures and religions award a “special status”
Ethics of hES Cell Science to embryos which lies between these two extremes.
A way to weaken this question is to set up a timeline
The application of hES cells offers health and for the embryo which describes certain periods and
biomedical benefits, and shows a great promise for turning points of development. Religious bodies have
society; nonetheless, the progress of this field of generally been the front-line associations establishing
bioscience caused fresh moral debates in association this timeline and speaking out for or against any
with creating in vitro embryos and discarding them form of embryo research. The conservative Christian
for research purposes. Indeed, the embryo debates are viewpoint maintains that human life begins at the
currently considered as one of the most controversial moment of fertilisation and embryos should then be
bioethical subjects. It is therefore important to consider treated as living human beings. They note that no
how these promises may contribute to the development research-related use of embryos, which is not for the
of human beings, and helps us to understand what kinds benefit of those particular embryos, should be allowed.
of ethical principles and virtues should be sought. It In contrast, the Jewish tradition believes that an embryo
is essential to find out how people’s moral reasoning does not become human until 40 days after conception,
in bioscientific research can deliberate about and form and Muslim faith considers human life to begin when
their character and individuality as human beings and the soul meets the developing embryo or foetus, which
as a society. The following subsections describe two takes place weeks or months after fertilisation [10].
main ethical claims and debates surrounding hES cell Although different religious traditions present varying
science and the use of human embryo for research. levels of flexibility as to when life begins, hES cells
are currently recognised as a key scientific, social,
Moral status of the embryos: “Ethics of Human economic and political advancement among many
Dignity” nations.
Over the last few decades, issues surrounding the moral Promise of hES cell science: “Ethics of Healing”
status of the human embryo have been addressed in the
context of increasing scientific advances in biomedicine Since the successful derivation of hES cells in 1998,
and technology, such as abortion, in vitro fertilisation this type of SCs has been faced with tremendous
(IVF) treatment, embryo research, embryo banking, expectations, which are closely connected to its
SC research and genetic engineering. In this context, therapeutic promise – hope of alleviating human
opposition to hES cell science looks to the principle suffering and curing disorders. This therapeutic
of human dignity as the protection of embryonic life possibility is generally classified as a real therapeutic
at its early stage of development. According to this method and as a pathway to model disorders to devise
position, the creation and destruction of embryos must treatments. Most parts of SC therapies are situated in
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the regenerative capabilities of these cells to generate In Islam, moral debates draw on a large number of
a range of tissues in the human body and in vitro. As sources. For Sunni schools of thought, the Holy Qur’an
hES cells are pluripotent, theoretically they are able to (The Muslims’ holy book), Sunnah (the Prophet’s life
develop into any cell type, and through any procedure and narrations), and hadiths (the Prophet’s sayings and
of cell differentiation and then to produce just that cell actions) are the constitutional and main sources used
we may wish [11]. This bioscientific knowledge might by clerics and religious scholars in concluding what
help to grow specific tissues or even entire organs. is halal (permitted) and haram (prohibited) in Islam.
The promise of hES cell lines is that they can promote Shi’a intellectuals also utilise these three major sources
the regenerative medicine and provide the healthy for making moral discussions, but apply them to the
replacement or supplement for damaged organs and broader collection of hadiths, such as narrations of the
tissue, although SC therapies are presently limited to Shi’a imams (the Prophet’s offspring, who were leaders
adult SCs. In addition, scientists have started clinical in Shi’a tradition). The Holy Qur’an is the first source
trials for generating induced pluripotent stem (iPS) of reference, and then the Sunnah, which is supposed
cells to study various human disorders [12]. Hence, to complete what the Holy Qur’an has not specified
pluripotency of hES cells is at the centre of therapeutic about the religious guidelines. The hadith establishes
expectations and hope for curing degenerative diseases. the third source of reference dictating Islamic codes of
Therefore, societal discussions about uses of the human practice. Contemporary Muslim scholars apply theses
embryo usually oscillate between “embryo debate” and three major sources to find what is religiously legitimate
“therapeutic promise” [6]. In terms of the opposition, and what is not [15]. Furthermore, for the Shi’a, ijtihad
hES cell research should be restricted because the (to put forth effort, a methodology of reasoning and an
embryo is destroyed; as for advocate of hES cell independent interpretation of a matter in hand) and ‘aql
research, the therapeutic hope offered by these cells (reason) are used in moral deliberations and to create
and the needs of ill people outweigh moral concern fatwas. The fatwas guide the mughaleds (followers) of
about the status of the human embryo. However, such different mujtahids (Shi’a religious authorities) about
moral decision is not limited to the realm of science and how to live as good Muslims. Most religious scholars
bioethics, and policy deliberation is required in each consider ijtihad to simply mean reason [13,15]. In
society, including the Muslim nations. What follows is Shi’a, only mujtahids can decree fatwa and all Shi’a
a general overview of the main arguments of Muslim mughaleds must follow these religious teachings and
scholars about how embryos could be used for research draw upon ijtihad and ‘aql in their day-to-day lives.
purposes. In Sunni traditions, they are urged to read Islamic
teachings and texts more strictly.
Scientific Innovation and Ethical
Deliberations in Islam These different approaches within Islamic schools
of thought have a close association with policy on
Sources and methods health and medical care as well as science. National
and local mujtahids translate and interpret Islamic
Islam is a monotheistic Abrahamic religion. Its values and principles to define Islamic law and
teachings offer a broad pathway of life for its believers, generate religious decrees. In Islam, there is no central
encompassing all dimensions of individual, social, institution governing regulation; instead, several
moral, spiritual and material life as well as political, organisations act as facilitators in these processes
economic, and national and international plans [13]. for mujtahids: for instance, there are two leading
Shari’a (Islamic Law) regulates day-to- day Muslim institutions for the Sunni branches: the Mojamaa Al-
life everywhere and at all times, including emerging Behooth Al-Islamaya (Islamic Research Foundation)
bioscience and technologies like hES cell research. and Dar Al-Iftah (House of Fatwas) in Egypt; and
Some Muslim scholars believed that bioethical several seminaries for Shi’a in Qom in Iran , and
deliberations and religion are inseparable, and bioethics Karbala and Najaf in Iraq. Indeed, fatwas introduce the
in the Islamic context is interpreted in the light of guidelines for bioscience and medical treatment and
Shari’a [14]. offer a broad range of descriptions about the meaning
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of the beginning and end of life, modern assisted Muslim jurists that leads them to rule on the beginning
reproductive technologies, abortion, women’s health of life and related issues differently. Determination
and rights, sexual reassignment surgery and other of the moment of ensoulment is based on how the
health and medical policies [16,17]. Sunni and Shi’a following Qur’anic scripture is interpreted:
similarly select their sources of emulation according to
their closeness to a particular mujtahid’s interpretation “He Who created all things in the best way and He
and religious philosophy. Though all Islamic schools began the genesis of man from clay; then made his
of thought pursue more and less the same methods of progeny from a quintessence of despised liquid; then
reasoning and the processes through which science and He created him in due proportion, and breathed into
biotechnologies can be accepted, adapted or rejected, him of His spirit. And He gave you [the faculties of]
Islam does not have absolute specifications for hearing and sight and hearts. Little thanks do ye give!”
practice. The integration of Islamic codes and scientific [20]
innovations varies among schools of thought and from
one Muslim society to another. Each school of thought Another verse tells us about ensoulment during
also has various branches, particularly in Sunni. intrauterine life:
The moral status of the embryos in Islamic context “We created man [khalaqna] of an extraction of clay,
then We set him, a drop [nutfa] in a safe lodging [i.e.,
All monotheistic religions agree that “personhood” is the womb], then We created of the drop a clot (‘alaqah),
the most crucial issue in hES cell research, and there then We created of the clot a tissue [mudgha], then We
is a wide range of viewpoints. As noted earlier, at one created of the tissue bones (‘azm), then we covered the
end of the spectrum, the view is that human life and bones in flesh [yaksu lahman]; thereafter We produced
personhood begin when the gametes are combined; at it as another creature [khalaqan akhar]. So blessed be
the other end, the view is that for the first few days God, the Best of creators [khaliqin].” [21]
the embryo is merely a “ball of cells” [10]. It therefore
This passage has been interpreted to mean that an
cannot be considered fully human and does not deserve
embryo is considered a human being after several
a special moral status. Between these extremes, there
stages of biological growth since “thereafter We
is the opinion that acknowledges the embryo as being
produced it as another creature.” This verse passage
unique in its nature but from a legal and theological
classifies the process of the beginning of life into
standpoint it is only a potential human being, and
three main stages. First is the moment when egg and
full personhood and the rights connected with it are sperm merge and generate a zygote. This drop phase
acquired during its gradual development [18]. These (nutfa) forms the genetic code for a singular person
views tend to differ by nation and culture (e.g., social which will emerge as the fertilised egg develops. The
norms and religion). For instance, countries strongly second, as the blood phase (‘alaqa), commences when
influenced by Catholicism favour the first viewpoint, the fertilised egg (the embryo) lodges inside a woman’s
while most Muslim and Jewish communities tend womb. The third step, the flesh phase (mudhga), ends
toward the other pole. when the ruh meets the body of the embryo. Although
the Holy Qur’an explains the embryonic journey to the
Islamic passages and verses take an interest in the details personhood, it does not specify any actual and exact
of how the human develops inside the woman’s uterus, moment when the ruh meets the body [19]. However,
talking about the breathing-in of ruh (soul), although one hadith gives the following indication:
there is no specific description of that moment as the
starting point of life either in the Holy Qur’an or in the “Verily your creation is on this wise. The constituents
Sunnah [19]. Hence, there are opposite perspectives of one of you are collected for forty days in his mother’s
about the onset of life and the moment when ensoulment womb; it becomes something that clings [‘alaqa] in
(infusion of the soul into the body of the foetus) occurs. the same [period] [mithla dhalik], then it becomes a
Different interpretations of the Qur’anic verses related chewed lump of flesh [mudgha] in the same [period]
to the time of ensoulment cause a cleavage between [mithla dhalik]. And the angel is sent to him with
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instructions concerning four things, so the angel writes to the moral evaluation of bioscientific research and
down his provision [sustenance], his death, his deeds, practices influencing the embryo. Ensoulment seems
and whether he will be wretched or fortunate. Then the to be associated with personhood which evidently
soul is breathed into him” [22]. provides a clear definition of time at which human
moral status is applied.
According to this hadith each of the first three stages
(lodging nutfa in the woman’s womb, ‘alaqa and When assessing ethical debates in accordance with
mudgha) takes up forty days, for a total of 120 days Shari’a, Muslim intellectuals apply case-based
[1]. Another hadith shows how an angel by God starts arguments and reasoning. These scholars then utilise
to make a distinction between the foetal organs on the constitutional codes and principles of Islamic law as
the forty-second night after ejaculation in the womb; well as take into account similar cases; in other words,
however, this saying makes no mention of ensoulment they draw an analogy (qias). Thus, before dealing with
[13]. Other hadiths differ and give forty days as the the debate over embryo research it is necessary to
total of the four stages: consider related subjects that have already been ruled
upon, e.g. clinical abortion and the new ARTs, including
“After the zygote [nutfa] has been established in the the third-party donation of embryo, egg and sperm and
womb for forty or forty-five nights, the angel comes surrogacy [1,26]. By discussing the interlinking of
and says: ‘My Lord, will he be wretched or fortunate?’ abortion, new ARTs and the hES cell research debates,
And both these things would be written. Then the angel it can be demonstrated that any regulation adopted will
says: ‘My Lord, would he be male or female?’ And both depend on the position taken regarding the protection
these things are written. And his deeds and actions, his of life. Because this interrelationship is synergistic, the
death, his livelihood; these are also recorded. Then his legal position on one aspect, e.g. abortion or embryo
document of destiny is rolled and there is no addition to donation, will be crucial in determining whether a
and subtraction from it.” [22]. platform for regulating hES cell science can be built.
However, a clear majority of scholars view ensoulment Clinical abortion in the Shi’a and Sunni schools of
as occurring at the 120th day of pregnancy [23,24]. thought
The Qur’anic position on embryological development Most of Muslim scholars see abortion as forbidden.
and the creation of humans presents a focal point for Moreover, on the basis of classical jurisprudence
discussion of embryonic sanctity. Also, reasoning and contemporary scholarship, all intellectuals from
from different hadiths, some schools of jurists have the different Islamic schools of thought agree that an
determined that until the stages are complete, the foetus abortion cannot be performed after the fourth month
has no soul—God has not breathed His spirit into it (120 days) of fertilisation except to save the woman’s
and therefore it has not yet been created [1]. In other life [27]. The arguments are associated with the moral
words, creation of the human being happens just after and religious status of the foetus before the fourth month
it has reached a certain stage of embryonic or foetal of gestation [28]. In this debate Sunni intellectuals have
development rather than at the moment of conception taken three main stances:
[25]. Moreover, many religious intellectuals note that
life at the early stage of embryonic growth occurs in (1) The Maliki Sunni and Al-Ghazali of the Shafi’i
two steps, the biological and the human. These scholars Sunni see the foetus as a sacrosanct complete human
generally support the idea that ensoulment makes a being from the time of conception. Any violence to
distinction between biological life, which begins at the embryo at any time during pregnancy is deemed
the moment of fertilisation, and human life [25]. In the an offence. The reason for this strictness is that the
Islamic tradition, ensoulment is therefore assumed to embryo is considered “creature waiting to receive its
be a central value in the discourse about the embryo soul from God.” [13] For this reason, the zygote should
debate or even the foetus. Ensoulment thus grants the not be touched when it is implanted “into the uterus in
foetus a special moral status [19], which is decisive the form of a clot adhering to the wall” [27].
(2) The Shafi’i and some Hanbali and Hanafi Sunni when the woman’s life is in severe risk, otherwise
allows abortion only until the foetus shows the first it is considered as homicide. Furthermore, current
signs of human form, which, according to a hadith, intellectuals have considered the impact of some severe
happens on the 42nd night of pregnancy. They consider foetal malformations on the women, the families and
the embryo to obtain its sacrosanct human character society [36]. In 2005 the Iranian parliament ratified
when it begins forming human features, such as eyes, the Therapeutic Abortion Act, which permits clinical
ears, limbs, flesh, bones, and skin. For them, abortion abortion after a definite diagnosis by three experts
before the phase of ensoulment is seen merely as and confirmation by the Iranian Legal Medicine
unethical, but aborting a post-ensoulment foetus is Organisation. Accordingly, abortion is allowed if the
considered illegal and fully unacceptable [28]. consequence of the pregnancy would be intolerable
for the parents, including growing the foetus or birth
(3) Some Hanbalis and Hanafi regard the embryo as a of a child with such genetic abnormalities as major
sacred living being 120 days after conception. Indeed, thalassemia or haemophilia [37]. This has persuaded
this is the moment when the embryo receives the ruh other religious intellectuals in Muslim nations to rethink
and becomes a human being [29,30]. the prohibition of abortion under certain conditions.
Muslims are invited to analyse and interpret classic
According to Shi’a teaching, conception starts when religious texts and sources to find answers to current
the nutfah (the fertilised egg) is implanted in the womb, problems, which differ from country to country [36]. It
and whatever aborts the implanted zygote is haram. is noteworthy that every Muslim country has chosen its
Contemporary Shi’a ayatollahs (high-ranking religious own regulatory policy (Table 1).
intellectuals in Shi’a) generally agree about abortion
Table 1. Grounds for Abortion in Predominantly Muslim
before ensoulment, at 120 days after conception. Grand Countries.
Ayatollah Ali Al-Sistani, the highest-ranking Shi’a
religious scholar, stated that abortion is not allowed Grounds Countries
unless continuation of the pregnancy unbearably Risk to woman’s life All countries
Jordan, Kuwait, Morocco,
endangers a woman’s health [31]. Ayatollah Ruhollah Risk to physical health Qatar, Saudi Arabia
Khomeini (an Iranian religious intellectual and Risk to physical and mental health Algeria
politician, and leader of Iranian Revolution, 1979) Foetal impairment Kuwait, Qatar, Saudi
Arabia
stated, “Termination of pregnancy even at the earliest
Genetic disorder Iran
possible stage under normal circumstances without any Rape Sudan, Egypt
reason is not allowed” [32]. Ayatollah Ali Khamenei (an All grounds in the first trimester Tunisia, Turkey
Iranian religious intellectual and politician, and Iran’s
Supreme Leader) also stated that “The Shari’a does not Assisted reproductive technologies and the fate of
permit the abortion of a foetus. In the consideration of spare embryos
the honourable Shari’a, there is no difference between
a foetus less than or greater than four months gestation In the 1970s, the IVF technique for treating human
with regard to this matter” [33]. This is accepted by infertility marked the beginning of a revolution in
all Shi’a scholars, although Ayatollah Yousef Saanei making possible what is naturally impossible. The
considered certain social aspects and affirmed that technique basically involves collecting the eggs,
“Any foetal or maternal condition that brings extreme fertilising them in a Petri dish and then implanting
difficulties [’usr va haraj] for the mother or the family embryos into the woman’s womb. Beyond the two to
allows for abortion” [34]. Another scholar, Ayatollah three embryos that are implanted for gestation, surplus
Makarim-Shirazi, considers it permitted in cases of embryos are frozen for use in future attempts. One of
“extreme difficulty” [35]. the major ethical and social concerns about IVF is the
fate of frozen embryos no longer needed for infertility
With respect to the termination of pregnancy, treatment – also known as “spare” or “surplus”
Islamic intellectuals have reached consensus that embryos. They are sometimes donated to other infertile
after ensoulment abortion should be permitted only couples or for scientific purposes, such as SC research.
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Some Muslim countries prohibit surrogate parenting might benefit from that scientific knowledge. Islam
and adoption of human embryos because of the encourages exploration of “new horizons”, seeking
importance of nasab (kinship), descent and inheritance, “cure for disease”, and providing for the “welfare of
which shape the moral issues of [third-party] gamete people” [25]. Promoting good actions is in accordance
and embryo donation. It is argued that because donation with the principles of zarurat (necessity) and maslahat
destroys a child’s kinship and violates the right of (general good).
inheritance, those countries forbid donating embryos
to other couples [38]. There are also cases in which for To this end, Islamic viewpoints on hES cell science
religious reasons couples cannot use their own frozen revolve around the notion of the sanctity of life, which
embryos. In Shari’a, for instance, any form of IVF is considered to begin later in foetal life, when the
implying procreation outside an existing legal marriage ensoulment occurs, and then the foetus becomes subject
would be forbidden. Therefore, the embryo cannot be to the ethics of human dignity. The obligation to save
implanted after divorce or if the donor of either the lives via hES cell research also strongly supports ethics
egg or the sperm has died [27]. Accordingly, spare of hES cell science, and the ethics of healing in Islamic
frozen embryos would suffer no legal harm by being context. Therefore, when hES cell research can be
destroyed because they could not have developed into conducted on spare IVF embryos still in the early stage
a human being. This reasoning would free up the spare of the development that otherwise would be discarded,
embryos for research as well as for being discarded. and if the research has the goal of alleviating suffering,
In practice, a few Muslim countries, for instance, Iran doing such research would not be controversial [42].
allows donation of embryos to both third parties and Leaving the surplus embryo to die without utilising
researchers. Based on the fatwa of Ayatollah Khamenei, them when their use might save human life is itself
Iran’s Supreme Leader, donor technologies have been considered a form of killing [18].
permitted since 1989. Based on this fatwa, the Iranian
Islamic Organisations, embryo research and policy
parliament in 2003 ratified the Act for Embryo Donation
to Infertile Spouses. While embryo donation is legal in In 1989, debate about the surplus IVF embryos was
Iran, however, gamete donation as well as gestational discussed by a committee of physicians and religious
surrogacy are still controversial and practice depends thinkers from the Islamic Organisation of Medical
on religious permission. It is noteworthy that these Science (IOMS). This committee subsequently issued
regulations and bylaws allow transfer of both fresh and a guidance that clearly permitted the use of the
frozen embryos to infertile couples [39], but the Act is frozen embryos for research purposes on the basis of
silent about how many embryos may be donated and the Shari’a [43]. One of the main assertions of this
about the fate of spare embryos that are not donated to guidance was that:
other couples.
“The opinion of the majority (with which some
“Therapeutic promise” of hES cells and “ethics of disagreed) is that the destruction of the fertilised egg
healing” before their nidation [implantation] in the uterus is
allowed, no matter how this destruction is brought
In Islam, saving lives is of paramount importance about. So according to this opinion there is no reason
because the Holy Qur’an stresses that “If any one to forbid scientific experiments in accordance with the
saves the life of one [human], it would be as if he shari’a. During these experiments, the egg cells must
saved the life of all human kind” [40]. Some Islamic not be multiplied. Some disagreed entirely with this
injunctions specifically encourage education and view” [44].
research as ways to relieve suffering. Indeed, it is
conceived to be fard kifayah or an absolute moral After the IOMS guidance was issued, the majma’ al-fiqh
obligation [41]. Accordingly, scientists and scholars al-islami (Islamic Fiqh [Jurisprudence] Association,
have a duty to undertake biomedical research that may IFA) held a similar meeting in 1990. The IFA examined
result in beneficial treatments for currently incurable several research projects using frozen embryos which
debilitating diseases and to assist those in society who were almost equal to those studies assessed at the IOMS
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meeting a year before. However, the IFA disagreed Three years later, an IOMS meeting in Cairo concluded
with the usage of frozen embryos for research goals. Its that embryonic research for therapeutic purposes (non-
decree emphasised that: reproductive cloning) is Islamically acceptable [46].
Moreover, Muslim organisations elsewhere in the
“In view of what has become reality concerning the world, such as the Fiqh Council of North America,
possibility to store non- fertilised oocytes for later use, the Malaysian National Fatwa Council and the Islamic
it is necessary to restrict the number of fertilised eggs Institute of Turkey, have approved the use of human
to the number necessary for a single treatment, in order embryos for SC research [25]. Shi’a scholars have
to avoid a surplus of fertilised eggs [embryos]. If for generally supported SC research, including hES cell
any reason such a surplus of fertilised eggs is brought science and technology. In 2002, Ayatollah Khamenei,
about, they are supposed to be left without medical Iran’s Supreme Leader, issued the “stem cell fatwa”
help, so that the life of this surplus may end in a natural and has publicly supported and encouraged human
way” [45]. embryo research [1, 47].
Later, one Muslim scholar explained that this statement In their empirical study, Engeli and Allison affirmed
was based on “fear of the ‘misuse’ of embryos rather that “no one single regulatory path leads to permissive
than on theological or philosophical reasoning”. He or restrictive frameworks for ESCR [embryonic
also argued that “allowing the embryo to die constitutes stem cell research], but in any of these trajectories,
killing the embryo, but this time by means of not taking whether in the secular or the religious world.” [48, p.
any steps to save the potential human being” [18, p. 420] Instead, bioscientific and technological growth,
402]. In 2003, the decree issued by the International religious backgrounds, ethical standards may play
Islamic Fiqh Academy (IIFA) in Jaddah allowed use of the significant role in forming and reforming hES cell
embryos for research on the condition that they should research policies. The finding of this study is along the
same line as works conducted by Isasi and Knopper and
not be implanted for impermissible pregnancies. In the
they contributed to the debates about the factors behind
same year, a fatwa of the Fiqh Council for the Muslim
the divergence of hES cell regulatory policy across the
World League permitted researchers to use SCs for
world [9]. Even the discussion of the United Nation
therapeutic reasons if their source is legitimate [13],
Declaration on Human Cloning in 2005 illustrated the
and said:
pluralisation of world views on this subject. As noted
“It is permissible to use stem cells for either legitimate earlier, individual countries have adopted various
policies to the usage of embryos for SC research for
scientific research or for therapy as long as its sources
socio-cultural, political, religious, and even economic
are legitimate, for example, adults if they give
reasons [1]. As Isasi and Knoppers observed that:
permission as long as it does not inflict harm on them;
children with their guardian’s permission for a legal “The historical, cultural and sociological context,
benefit without inflicting harm on them; placenta or the institutional framework, and the mobilisation
umbilical cord blood with the permission of the parents; of stakeholders are factors that help explain why
spontaneously aborted embryos or those aborted for a countries that seemingly share similar socio-religious
legally acceptable cause and with the permission of beliefs [and perhaps scientific interest] have adopted
the parents; excess fertilised eggs [embryos] produced diametrically opposite public policies” [9, p.9].
during the course of IVF and donated by the parents
with assurance that they are not to be used to produce During 2001, German and French members of
an illegal pregnancy. It is forbidden to obtain or use the United Nation (UN) drafted a proposal which
stem cells if the source is illegitimate as, for example, suggested the countries around the world to forbid
intentionally aborted foetuses (abortion without a legal reproductive cloning. Later, in 2002, the United
medical reason); intentional fertilisation between a State (US) introduced a plan to the UN to ban all
donated ovum and sperm; and therapeutic cloning” form of human cloning including hES cell research.
[25, p. 132). Nonetheless, in November 2003, Iran invited nations
to join a coalition which suggested a two-year deferral intellectuals. Over the last decade, SC science and
of debates about the UN International Convention therapy have been evolving in some of the Muslim
against Human Cloning. The Iranian proposal passed states in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA). In
by 80 votes, with 15 abstentions. Many members of an invaluable review, Flynn and Matthews showed that
the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC) also 11 Muslim nations—Iran, Turkey, Lebanon, Egypt,
supported this group [49]. In the same year, a fatwa Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, Jordan, Kuwait, Morocco,
issued by a Sunni Egyptian scholar supported hES cell Tunisia, and Emirates—have published at least one
research, as Al-Tayyeb explained in 2003, “Cloning paper on SC science [54]. Turkey has published 23 per
parts of the human body so as to replace parts that ill cent of total MENA papers on SC science, followed by
and sick people have lost or as a therapeutic tool to Iran with 12 per cent and then about 7 per cent from
treat some diseases would be considered lawful” [50, each of the other nations. Iran and Turkey were also
p.98]. This fatwa, which the OIC disseminated, might the first in the MENA to set up ethical and religious
help to clear up issues related to human cloning [51]. frameworks for hES cell science [54,55], and Saudi
Arabia and some other countries are now formulating
Later, in 2004, the World Health Organisation – the policy for SC research.
Eastern Mediterranean Regional Office (WHO-EMRO)
called on all Muslim nations to come to a consensus on At the 2012 SC research conference in Qatar, scientists,
improving the regional viewpoint on human cloning sociologists, ethicists, and policy makers from the
before voting on the UN convention to address human MENA region—mainly Iran, Turkey, Qatar, Egypt,
cloning. Although this statement considered cloning and Saudi Arabia—presented their work. They also
positive for research into its therapeutic applications, described their national policies and highlighted moral,
a considerable number of Muslim countries voted for social, legal, and political discussions connected to this
a ban on all forms of hES cell science and technology region [55]. The following subsections briefly present
in the UN General Assembly for the United Nations the legal, ethical, and policy situation of SC science and
Declaration on Human Cloning in 2005 [52,53]. embryo research in these Muslim states, as evidenced
by their hES cell science and policy.
Since 2005, some Muslim countries both within and
beyond the Middle East have seen rapid development Iran
in SC science and technology in general, and hES cell
In 2002, Iran expressed one of the most clear-
research in particular. Although in some countries (e.g.
cut positions when its Supreme Leader, Ayatollah
Italy), policy on the use of embryos for research and
Khamenei, issued the “Stem Cell Fatwa” and then
human cloning is unchanged, many - even among
publicly supported hES cell research:
Muslim nations - increasingly carry out research on
therapeutic cloning which is considered to override the “Tell [scientists] to pursue the great objectives of this
possible harm due to its potential benefits for biology, [stem cell] research with diligent efforts, and to achieve
medicine, etc. [53]. The following section briefly that human enormous wealth for themselves and the
describes ethical, social and legal positions for hES country [and] to be careful that producing identical
cell research in several Muslim countries, those have parts of human beings does not lead to producing a
published one or more papers on the various fields of human being.” [56]
hES cell science and policy.
While Catholics in some Western nations, including
Status of the Embryo and SC Research in US, Germany, and Italy effectively blocked most
Selected Muslim Countries funding of hES cell science; in Shi’a Iran, it was a
religious duty to carry out this type of research in order
In general, constructive views about scientific and to identify treatments that can benefit humanity [57].
technological research and development seem to be The “Stem Cell Fatwa” by Iran’s Supreme Leader
dominant in Muslim countries; nevertheless, there are on the acceptability of the destruction of surplus IVF
critical variations of opinion among individual Muslim cycle in order to generate stem cells (SCs) for research
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OPEN ACCESS Freely available online
purposes was considered as permission for hES cell established at all research and development centres
science in the country [58]. This positive fatwa was and in universities in compliance with the directives
issued in response to the religious question on using of the MOHME. The members of these committees
a human embryo for research, asked by Dr Kazemi are selected from the internal scientific staff and
Ashtiani, a scientist and founder of the Royan Institute invited religious consultants. They fulfilled their duties
(a leading research institute for hES cell research) in on relying on unified guidelines that are drafted and
Iran. According to this fatwa, experimentation with approved under the general title, “Specific National
a human embryo was compatible with Shi’a faith in Ethical Guidelines for Biomedical research”. The
Islam. Following this positive decree, the Department separated parts of the guidelines provided working
of Stem Cells in the Royan Institute, Tehran, Iran, models on “Clinical Trial”, “Genetic Research”,
was established in the same year with the aim of “Gamete and Embryo research”, and “Research on
producing, cultivating and freezing hES cell lines and Animals” [47,65]. These guidelines were compiled in
developing effective methods to differentiate these 2005 by a task force, including in religion, law, ethics,
lines into difference mature cell types, such as neural medicine, and related fields of science, initiated by the
cells, cardiomyocytes, etc. [59]. Iran’s clerics and MOHME, in collaboration with Centre for Medical
political leaders have also actively promoted this field Ethics and History in Tehran University of Medical
of bioscience and technology, in an attempt to enhance Sciences. The guidelines have been developed to put into
the country’s international status [60]. effect ethical codes in research and to protect different
stakeholders’ rights (e.g. patient research participants
In 2003, the Islamic Republic News Agency, the or vulnerable groups). Then, these guidelines were
official Iranian press agency, reported that Iran was communicated to universities and research centres
among the first ten nations in the world, which could
after their adoption by the Policy-Making Council of
establish hES cell lines. Moreover, Iran was the first
the MHME, and several committee workshops and
Muslim state to create these cells in the Middle East
educational sessions, which was supposed to be held
and North Africa [13 47]. Since then, Iranian scientists
by universities and research centres, through which
have conducted many activities in various fields of
the members become familiar with the guidelines [66].
hES cell science, including the establishment of 6
Later, the guidelines developed in 2005 was brought
lines of human embryonic SCs and 8 lines of mouse
up to date in 2013 in the Iranian Guidelines for Stem
embryonic SCs, as well as registration of one hES
Cell Research and Therapy [64,67]. However, the
cell line in the International Society of Stem Cell
governance of hES cell science and therapy in Iran
Research [59,60]. In addition, Iran has announced the
is based on the stem cell fatwa and these guidelines,
first hES cell proteomics in the world [61]. In 2008,
rather than any parliamentary law.
the Royan Institute researchers claimed that they could
successfully reprogramme human skin cells to an Turkey
embryonic-like state to generate iPS cells [62].
With a population that is over 95 per cent Muslim,
Iran’s Supreme Leader often cites the Holy Qur’an Turkey has a secular governance system, but Islam is
emphasis on preventing human illness and suffering as still important in addressing and interpreting personal
evidence that SC research and Islam are compatible. points of view on debatable subjects in the modern
Limits do exist: Iran’s Supreme Leader has warned era [19]. In the field of SC science and technology,
Iranian scientists to “be careful that producing identical Turkey mainly does research on adult SCs, although
parts of human beings does not lead to producing a there is some evidence of research being conducted on
human being,” as human cloning is not accepted [63,64]. hES cells [68,69]. The country has taken a permissive
With regard to the legality and regularity aspects, the approach which allows researchers both to work on
Ministry of Health and Medical Education (MOHME) existing hES cell lines and to create embryos via IVF
is in charge of supervising hESC research in Iran. The specifically for research purposes. It has also adopted
first set of procedures is based on the decentralised national policies to regulate this field of research, while
decisions of the in-house ethics committees that are some other Muslim nations still use fatwa (religious
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OPEN ACCESS Freely available online
decree) for that purpose [54]. Moreover, both the and it does not conform to our Islamic religion as it
Turkish Ministry of Health and the Turkish Bioethics stands now” [72]. However, it now seems that religious
Association have prepared guidelines and reports on authorities in Egypt tend to accept hES cell research: in
various aspects of hES cell research [70]. 2007 the Egyptian Fatwa Council said in Dar AlIftaa
(the House of Fatwa), chapter 4, “Stem Cell Transfer
In 2008, the Turkish Academy of Sciences (TÜBA: in Egypt”:
Türkiye Bilimler Akademisi) published the report
“Current Concepts in Stem Cell Research” which “It is allowed to obtain and use stem cells for research
was drafted by a multidisciplinary group. This report or therapeutic purposes provided that no damage is
endorsed working on human cloning only under the inflicted on the person from whom the stem cells
umbrella of SC science and regulation [19]. Also, the originated. It is, for example, permitted to use stem cells
Turkish Religious High Council, part of the Directorate from surplus embryos and legally aborted foetuses,
of Religious Affairs, published a series on Islamic provided that the parents’ consent is obtained” [73].
viewpoints related to assisted reproductive technologies
(ARTs), SC research, and foetal rights, and emphasised Similarly, the Academy of Scientific Research and
that IVF clinics should create a minimum number of Technology and Gamal Serous, director of the
embryos for treating infertility. On the basis of this report, International Islamic Centre for Population Studies
embryos would be considered human beings; therefore, and Research at Al-Azhar University, supported use of
destruction of leftover IVF embryos is problematic surplus IVF embryos for SC research. Thus there is a
from a religious point of view. Accordingly, it is better possibility that hES cell research might ultimately be
to preserve surplus IVF embryos for SC research rather adopted [19]. According to UNESCO, Egypt does not
than dispose of them. It concludes that use of embryos presently have any official policy or law on hES cell
in the early stage of development is permissible if there science [73].
is no any alternative source, for instance, adult SCs, for
Saudi Arabia
a particular research purpose [54].
Saudi Arabia is the Arab state most prominently
Egypt
involved in SC science and technology. This country
Egypt noticeably dominates the whole Sunni world. Its opened the Stem Cell Therapy Program at King Faisal
Islamic institutions are highly influential, and it tends Specialist Hospital and Research Centre in 2007 and
to lead international Islamic meetings. Moreover, it is in 2009 invested heavily to establish King Abdullah
University of Science and Technology. At the moment,
the residence of the main Sunni religious authorities,
the main sources for SC research are umbilical cord
whose decrees most Sunni associations follow strictly
blood and aborted foetuses [25]; according to Abdulaziz
[71]. In Cairo, private IVF clinics mostly use umbilical Alswailem of the National Committee of Bioethics at
cord blood (UCB) for SC research rather than hES cells the King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology,
because the Egyptian Medical Syndicate opposes the hES cell research is forbidden in Saudi Arabia [74].
use of embryos for experimentation [25]. Indeed, most
of the debates in Egypt deal with human cloning, which Saudi Arabia has successfully established reproductive
is not permitted anywhere in the Muslim world. The medicine, regulating it under the In vitro Fertilisation
mufti of Egypt states that human cloning “contradicts Act (No. 2870/1/12). Indirectly, the act regulates
Islamic legislation and is prohibited in all its forms” embryo research and allows embryos and gametes to
[71]. be stored with permission of the couple [26]. However,
religious views on using a human embryo for research
In 2005, when SC research first began in Egypt, Hamdy purposes vary. In reference to Islamic guidance, Saudi
Al-Sayed, head of the Egyptian Medical Syndicate, Arabia in 2002 established the National Committee
approved of adult SC research but opposed the use of of Medical and Bioethics and addressed the debates
embryonic cells. He said: “[Destroying embryos for about SC research. The committee has held workshops
research] is not ethically right, it's not morally right, about SC research, biobanking, genetic information,
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OPEN ACCESS Freely available online
and clinical trials, and has also drafted the national life and the moral duty not to harm a human being.
code of ethics, established local ethics committees, and While the hES cell research itself is seen as good in
conducted online ethics courses [55]. According to the view of its overriding aim to seek cures for diseases,
Baker Institute, it is believed that Saudi Arabia recently the nature of research that entails the destruction of
developed hES cell lines to treat genetic metabolic human embryos has generated ethical controversies.
disorders—a major cause of disability among children The question of when an embryo is entitled full moral
in the region [55]. protection has been discussed in this work, which also
explained how Islam frames the moral issues prevailing
Qatar in hES cell debates and briefly reflected on how such
notions as “pre-implantation” and “ensoulment” may
Qatar is currently launching hES cell research. Cornell be accommodated in effective policies to prevent
Medical College has recently built an SC research wrongdoing and protect embryos.
laboratory there in order to expand, maintain, and
validate the hES cells currently available and develop Bioethics in Islamic context endorses efforts to save
new SC lines, a signal that its researchers are preparing human lives. In reviewing the ethical viewpoints
to carry on hES cell research [75]. According to the of Muslim scholars, it appears that donation of IVF
Qatar Supreme Council of Health (SCH), hES cell embryos for research that may lead to saving lives
research is permissible if the cells are obtained from is accepted; while permissibility of hES cell science
spare IVF embryos no older than six days, and the is conditioned on the fact that these embryos are not
embryos are donated voluntarily [74]. Faleh Mohamed produced specifically for research. Moreover, the notion
Hussein Ali, assistant to the SCH general secretary of donation is applied in arguing for the permissibility
for policy affairs, has drawn attention to the fact that of using “spare” or “surplus” IVF embryos. Islam also
Qatar policy has recently approached the progressive holds knowledge-seeking in high regard. This tradition
and encourages “the conduct of responsible and considers good intentions driving hES cell research and
scientifically worthy” human SC research, including science as a knowledge-seeking endeavor to be noble
work on hES cells [55, p.10]. Ethical sourcing of hES and highly esteemed. Islam expands the arguments that
cell research uses surplus IVF embryos donated by in special circumstances allow abortion, for example,
couples who have given voluntary informed consent, danger to the the mother’s life must be given greater
without any commercial incentive. Ali also believed weight than the life of the foetus. This review illustrated
that Qatar’s SC policy is flexible enough to allow the that the Islamic texts and Shi’a religious scholars take a
SCH to draw up regulations and standards for any remarkably flexible stance for any new matter in hand.
innovative scientific field [55].
Acknowledgements
Jordan
The work upon which this piece is based is funded by
In January 2014, although not currently active in the Wellcome Trust Biomedical Ethics Developing
hES cell research, Jordan passed a law on hES cell Countries (Grant No. 086072). The authors warmly
science and therapy. The law allows governmental thank Professor Clare Williams, Department of
organisations and academic institutions to work in this Sociology & Communications, Brunel University
area, but not private companies. The new rules also ban London, Professor Alan Cribb, Centre for Public
the use of modified and manipulated cells for human Policy Research, King’s College London, and Dr.
reproduction and any payment for eggs, embryos, and Silvia Camporesi, Global Health & Social Medicine,
SC donations [76]. This law has been approved by King’s College London for their insightful and
the Majlis Al-Iftaa, the Jordanian council of Muslim constructive comments during data collection, analysis
scholars. and discussion.
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