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By Surendra Kumar, Shashi and Salman Zafar
By Surendra Kumar, Shashi and Salman Zafar
Properly controlled, composting can be a highly suitable
option for diverting MSW from landfill.
By Surendra Kumar, Shashi and Salman Zafar
The composting process is a complex interaction between the
waste and the microorganisms within the waste. The
microorganisms that carry out this process fall into three groups:
bacteria, fungi, and actinomycetes. Actinomycetes are a form of
fungilike bacteria that break down organic matter. The first stage
of the biological activity is the consumption of easily available
sugars by bacteria, which causes a fast rise in temperature. The
second stage involves bacteria and actinomycetes that cause
cellulose breakdown. The last stage is concerned with the
breakdown of the tougher lignins by fungi.
Central solutions are exemplified by lowcost composting without
forced aeration, and technologically more advanced systems with
forced aeration and temperature feedback. Central composting
plants are capable of handling more than 100,000 tons of
biodegradable waste per year, but typically the plant size is about
10,000 to 30,000 tons per year. Biodegradable wastes must be
separated prior to composting: Only pure foodwaste, garden
waste, wood chips, and to some extent paper are suitable for
producing goodquality compost.
The composting plants consist of some or all of the following
technical units: bag openers, magnetic and/or ballistic separators,
screeners (sieves), shredders, mixing and homogenization
equipment, turning equipment, irrigation systems, aeration
systems, draining systems, biofilters, scrubbers, control systems,
and steering systems. The composting process occurs when
biodegradable waste is piled together with a structure allowing for
oxygen diffusion and with a dry matter content suiting microbial
growth. The temperature of the biomass increases due to the
microbial activity and the insulation properties of the piled material.
The temperature often reaches 65 degrees C to 75 degrees C
within a few days and then declines slowly. This high temperature
hastens the elimination of pathogens and weed seeds.
Composting Strategies
The methodology of composting can be categorized into three
major segments—aerobic composting, anaerobic composting,
and vermicomposting.
In anaerobic composting, the organic matter is decomposed in the
absence of air. Organic matter may be collected in pits and
covered with a thick layer of soil and left undisturbed six to eight
months. The compost so formed may not be completely converted
and may include aggregated masses.
Aerobic composting, the processes by which organic wastes are
converted into compost or manure in presence of air, may be of
different types. The most common is the Heap Method, where
organic matter needs to be divided into three different types and to
be placed in a heap one over the other, covered by a thin layer of
soil or dry leaves. This heap needs to be mixed every week, and it
takes about three weeks for conversion to take place.
In the Pit Method the same process as above is done but in pits
specially constructed/dug out for this purpose. Mixing has to be
done every 15 days, and there is no fixed time in which the
compost may be ready (depends on soil moisture, climate, level of
organic material, etc.).
The Berkley Method uses a laborintensive technique and has
precise requirements of the material to be composted. Easily
biodegradable materials, such as grass, vegetable matter, etc.,
are mixed with animal matter in the ratio of 2:1. This is piled and
mixed at regular intervals. Compost is usually ready in 15 days.
Vermicomposting involves use of earthworms as natural and
versatile bioreactors for the process of conversion.
Vermicomposting is done in specially designed pits where
earthworm culture also needs to be done. As compared to above,
this is a much more precisionbased option and requires
overseeing of work by an expert. It is also a more expensive option
(O&M costs especially are high). However, unlike the above two
options, it is a completely odorless process making it a preferred
solution in residential areas. It also has an extremely high rate of
conversion, so quality of the end product is very high with rich
macro and micronutrients. The end product also has the advantage
that it can be dried and stored safely for a longer period of time.
Composting Systems
The traditional turned aerobic windrow method of composting is
the predominant method of composting used within the United
Kingdom. However, for the composting of nongreen municipal
solid waste and commercial waste, it is not necessarily the most
appropriate method to use. Within the identification of aerobic and
anaerobic systems, five main methods are as follows:
l Turned/static aerobic windrow composting—aerobic and
biological;
l Static piles—aerobic and biological;
l Invessel aerobic windrow composting—aerobic and
biological;
l Mechanical breakdown—nonbiological;
l Anaerobic digestion—anaerobic and biological.
The turned aerobic windrow composting, invessel aerobic
composting, and static piles may be considered conventional
methods of composting. Static windrow composting is a newer
idea still being tested that allows aerobic composting to take place
without the need for turning. The mechanical breakdown approach
is a more radical attempt to produce a lowcost useable product
from nongreen municipal solid waste and commercial waste but
within the current legislation. Anaerobic digestion is a novel
approach adopted from the treatment of wastewater sludge to
stabilize the waste materials before they are finally composted
using a more conventional method.
Aerobic Windrows
Aerobic windrow composting is the least technologically advanced
and the oldest form of controlled composting. To be fully successful
when composting nongreen municipal solid waste and
commercial waste the method relies heavily on operator
experience and the quality of the onsite management procedures.
Research into the different systems highlighted open turned
aerobic windrow composting as the lowestcost system to both set
up and operate.
Turned Windrows
The operation of turned aerobic facilities can take place either in
the open or under cover. This factor influences the time taken for
the materials to compost, the investment required for the site and
the materials to compost, the investment required for the site and
the importance of environmental issues such as odor and leachate.
Levels of mechanization will also vary. The most basic method is to
use frontend loaders and conventional agricultural machinery. This
helps keep capital investment at a minimum. The alternative is to
go for a more sophisticated system, which involves permanent
windrow bays, and machinery that turns the windrow in situ by
traveling along the bay wall. This system is more expensive to both
install and operate but can be more effective at ensuring a good
turn, and mix of the windrow is achieved every time.
Static Windrows
Static windrowing can be undertaken in one of two ways.
Air is artificially blown into the windrow—this requires that an
aeration system be present. An accelerator can be added to the
windrow, which speeds up the process and enables it to remain
aerated. Both of these systems can be undertaken either open or
enclosed. Static windrow composting works in the following
manner: 1.) Feedstock material arrives onsite and is either
normally shredded or macerated. This helps remove moisture and
reduce particle size. 2.) Feedstock material containing the correct
ratio of carbon and nitrogen is mixed together and formed into
windrows. The size of the windrow will depend on space available
and the composition of the material. 3.) Either air is blown into the
windrow or an accelerator is added. After the windrow has reached
the required time temperature profile, it is removed for maturation.
A number of merits can be seen from using aerobic windrow
systems. One primary advantage is the low level of capital
investment required to set up the facility and the low level of
maintenance cost required. This does increase if the system is
housed in a building and uses the more advanced windrow turning
systems. Even so, turned aerobic windrowing is the lowestcost
option.
Another advantage is that the levels of technology involved are
fairly low and standard equipment can be used. This helps keep
costs low and ensure that operator familiarity with equipment is
rapid.
There are several disadvantages with aerobic windrow
composting, though. If the system is outside, there is lack of control
over the environmental conditions (e.g., rain, temperature, wind
direction). These conditions, if outside the optimal, have a negative
impact on the composting operation. The time required for
composting may increase if the weather is cold or wet or turning
cannot be conducted due to wind direction. This will then add strain
to other areas of the facility and may result in additional costs to the
facility.
As conditions cannot be controlled and if the system is outside,
there is a greater potential for the formation of malodors. The
formation and dispersion of malodors can be very damaging to the
reputation of a facility and lead to its closure. The use of static
windrows can help alleviate the problem with odor, as the windrow
is not turned. However, any malodor production is still able to vent
directly to the atmosphere if the windrow is uncovered. Problems
may also arise if the windrow turns anaerobic; there will be little
provision for effectively treating it and returning it to an aerobic
state.
InVessel Composting
Invessel composting uses slightly more advanced technologies
than open windrows to ensure that the materials are composted
effectively under more controlled conditions. Invessel systems
work in broadly the following way: (1) Feedstock materials arrive
onsite and are shredded and mixed to ensure that they contain the
correct ration of carbon and nitrogen. (2) The mixed feedstock
materials are placed into the vessel. Conditions are controlled by
altering the flow of air into and out of the system. Any malodors are
removed as air is drawn out of the system. (3) Monitoring takes
place and the airflow is altered accordingly. (4) The compost is
removed and sent for maturation.
The systems used tend to be of box designs. The differences exist
in how the boxes are loaded and emptied and in how the airflow is
monitored and controlled into the units. Invessel composting can
be classified into three categories: vertical, horizontal, and rotating
composting reactors.
Vertical composting reactors are generally over 4 meters (yards)
high and can be housed in silos or other large structures. Organic
material is typically fed into the reactor at the top through a
distribution mechanism and flows by gravity to an unloading
mechanism at the bottom. Process control is usually by pressure
induced aeration, where the airflow is opposite to the downward
materials flow. The height of these reactors makes process control
difficult due to the high rates of airflow required per unit of
distribution surface area. Neither temperature nor oxygen can be
maintained at optimal levels throughout the reactors, leading to
zones of nonoptimal activity. Some manufacturers have minimized
these difficulties by enhanced air distribution and collection
systems, including changing the airflow direction from vertical to
horizontal between alternating sets of inflow and exhaust pipes. As
with static pile composting, a stable porous structure is important
in vertical reactors, which usually lack internal mixing. Tall vertical
reactors have been successfully used in the sludge composting
industry where uniform feedstock and porous amendments can
minimize these difficulties in process control but are rarely used for
heterogeneous materials like municipal solid waste.
Horizontal composting reactors avoid the high temperature,
oxygen, and moisture gradients of vertical reactors by maintaining
a short airflow pathway (Figure 3). They come in a wide range of
configurations, including static and agitated, pressure, and/or
vacuuminduced aeration. Agitated systems usually use the turning
process to move material through the system in a continuous
mode, while static systems require a loading and unloading
mechanism. Materials handling equipment may also shred to a
certain degree, exposing new surfaces for decomposition, but
excessive shredding may also reduce porosity. Aeration systems
are usually set in the floor of the reactor and may use temperature
and/or oxygen as control variables. Systems with agitation and bed
depths less than 2 to 3 meters (yards) appear effective in dealing
with the heterogeneity of municipal solid waste.
Horizontal and vertical reactors are commonly referred to as in
vessel systems as differentiated from open systems such as
windrows and static piles. Because of the higher capital and
operation costs associated with these contained systems,
residence time in the reactors is rarely adequate for the production
of mature compost. Instead, invessel composting technologies are
often used to help get the material through the early stages of
composting when odors and process control are most critical, and
the material is then moved into a windrow or static pile system for
the later stages of decomposition and curing.
Rotating drum composting reactors take the tradeoff between
reactor cost and compost residence time to an even further
extreme than the horizontal or vertical invessel systems. These
reactors (sometimes called digesters) retain the material for only a
few hours or days. While the tumbling action can help homogenize
and shred materials, the short residence time usually means the
processing is more physical than biological. While rotating drums
can play an important role in municipal solid waste composting,
they are normally followed by other biological processing, which
may include invessel, static pile, and/or windrow systems.
The main advantages of using invessel systems for the
composting of nongreen municipal solid waste and commercial
waste are:
l Improved process control is achieved, as the systems are
“invessel.” The environmental conditions, such as moisture
content of the mixture, temperature, and fresh air
inflow/outflow, can be controlled and altered to ensure that
the process remains within optimal conditions for
composting.
composting.
l Malodor problems will not cause an environmental risk. Even
if malodor is produced within the invessel unit, it is scrubbed
and treated before it is released into the atmosphere.
Because the conditions are much more controlled, there will
be fewer instances of malodor formation to begin with.
l Small footprints are required to install and operate the in
vessel units, meaning that they can be sited in locations such
as the factory yard to treat commercial waste at the site of
production.
l Controlled environmental conditions and lack of malodor
mean that the units potentially can be sited near residential or
commercial zones reducing transport costs.
The main disadvantages associated with the use of invessel
systems are:
l High capital investment is required for the purchase of the
system.
l The systems require a higher level of maintenance leading to
higher costs than turned aerobic windrows.
l Each unit is limited in its throughput. If the quantity of
incoming feedstock increases, there is little operational
flexibility; more units would need to be purchased. This
makes it difficult for the system to achieve true economies of
scale.
Static Piles
Static piles can be shaped much like windrows or in an elongated
pile or bed. The essential difference is in the name; static piles are
not mechanically agitated. Once constructed by conveyor, loader,
or truck, the piles remain in place until the decomposition slows.
The lack of agitation requires the maintenance of adequate
porosity over an extended period of time. When composting fine
materials like sludge, a coarse stable substrate such as wood
chips is often incorporated in the mix. Inert materials or slowly
degrading cellulosic substrates like cardboard or leaves may help
supply that stable porous structure in municipal solid waste, but this
needs to be considered in the preprocessing system design.
Process control is normally through pressure and/or vacuum
induced aeration, with either temperature or oxygen as the control
variable. Blower piping can be temporary plastic or metal in a bed
of coarse material at the base of the pile, or recessed into the
composting pad under perforated plates. Piles are often covered
with a layer of wood chips or mature compost to insulate the active
compost from ambient temperatures and/or provide some odor
treatment. Both windrows and static piles are often outside and
exposed to weather but can be covered with a roof to minimize the
impacts of weather and provide an opportunity for odor capture
and treatment.
There are two methods of aerated static pile composting with one
being an active aerated pile and the other being a passively
aerated pile. The active aerated method we have already
discussed. The passively aerated system is the exact same
design, with the exception of the air system. The pipe ends are left
open on either side. Air flows into the pipes and through the pile
because of the chimney effect created as hot air rises upward out
of the pile. Advantages of aerated static pile composting include:
l Ability to control oxygen and temperature levels in the pile;
l No mechanical turning required;
l Reduced odors and rodents;
l Can be carried out indoors or outdoors;
l Quicker than windrow method.
Disadvantages to aerated static pile composting include:
l Must screen and then chip coarse material
l No ability to manage moisture level
l Plugged pipes leading to more maintenance and reduced
efficiency
l Higher capital cost than windrow
Mechanical Breakdown
This system operates significantly differently from the turned
windrow and invessel systems already mentioned. It is a newer
approach to process large volumes of nongreen municipal solid
and commercial wastes costeffectively. The system is mechanical
in its operation with no encouragement of the biological element
associated with normal composting. The system uses proven
technology and allows rapid processing of large volumes of
material. There are, however, question marks over the quality of the
final product and its usage.
This type of system works in the following basic way:
l Feedstock materials can be screened at the start to remove
very large and some inorganic fractions of material.
l The feedstock material is passed through a set of either
grinders or hammers to break down its particle size
mechanically.
l The processed materials can be screened again to remove
further inorganic materials such as metals before being
transported for application to land.
This is a new approach for the treatment of nongreen municipal
solid waste and commercial waste within the UK and departs from
other more conventional systems being employed by some
organizations.
The main advantage with this system is that it enables large
volumes of nongreen municipal waste and commercial waste to
be processed rapidly and costeffectively.
The main disadvantages with this system are:
l The process itself does not stabilize or treat other than
mechanically the materials passing through. No temperature
increase is seen to reduce pathogens or viable seeds;
l It does not really meet the legislation as a suitable treatment
method contained in the Landfill Directive or the proposed
Biowaste Directive in the UK.
Composting Advantages
The main advantages of composting include:
l Possible simple, durable, and cheap technology (except
some invessel facilities);
l Approximately 40% to 50% of mass (weight) recovered for
plant growth;
l Maximum recovery of the nutrients required for lowinput
farming systems (i.e., phosphorus, potassium, magnesium,
and micronutrients);
l Production of humic substances, beneficial microorganisms,
and slowrelease nitrogen required for landscape gardening
and horticulture;
l Eliminates weeds and pathogens in the waste material;
l Possible good opportunities of process control (except at
most facilities without forced aeration);
l Can achieve a good working environment (e.g., pressurized
operating cabins with filters).
Disadvantages
Among composting’s drawbacks are to be found:
l Requires source separation of municipal solid waste,
including continuous information to waste generators
l Must develop and maintain market for the compost products
l Periodical emission of odorous compounds, especially when
treating municipal solid waste
l Loss of 20% to 40% of nitrogen as ammonia, loss of 40% to
60% of carbon as carbon dioxide
l Potential vector problems (seagulls, rats, flies) when treating
municipal solid waste
l Skilled staff needed when treating
Some of the common problems encountered in composting
systems include:
l Waste must be separated into degradable and non
degradable. Some wastes are not suitable for composting
because they contain significant quantities of heavy metals,
paper, and plastics.
l Some plants are complex and difficult to maintain. If
mechanized, it involves relatively highcapital investment and
recurring maintenance and operating costs.
l In some cases, the market for compost is inadequate in the
immediate vicinity, thereby increasing transportation cost.
Composting Costs
Composting costs include site acquisition and development,
regulatory compliance, facility operations, and marketing of the
finished product. Additional requirements may include land for
buffers around the compost facility, site preparation, and handling
equipment such as shredders, screens, conveyors, and turners.
Facilities and practice to control odors, leachate, and runoff are a
critical part of any compost operation.
The cost of constructing and operating a windrow composting
facility will vary from one location to another. The operating costs
depend on the volume of material processed. The use of additional
feed materials, such as paper and mixed municipal solid waste,
will require additional capital investment and materials processing
labor.
The capital costs of windrow or aerated piles are lower than in
vessel composting configuration. However, costs increase
markedly when cover is required to control odors. In general, costs
of windrow systems are the lowest compared to the other two
techniques. The invessel system is more costly than other
methods, mainly with respect to capital expenditures. In addition, it
is more mechanized and more equipment maintenance is
necessary; however, it tends to be less laborintensive.
Environmental Impacts
Composting can be used as fertilizer for agricultural soils. This
practice can be extremely important in order to decrease the
amounts of chemical fertilizers used.
Composting practices emit into the atmosphere different gases:
greenhouse gases, volatile organic compounds, and odors. In soils
and water systems the major concerns are due to deposition of
salts and heavy metals.
Air Pollution: The main issues are releases of different greenhouse
gases (volatile organic compounds, carbon dioxide, and methane)
and odors (ammonia, hydrogen sulfide). Volatile organic
compounds increase the level of smog (tropospheric ozone), which
can modify the temperature structure of the atmosphere, leading to
climate changes.
The emissions of volatile organic compounds depend on the
temperature, aeration, and biological activity in the compost. The
greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane trap thermal
energy that comes to the atmosphere, raising the global
temperature of the Earth.
The contribution of greenhouse gases from composting to global
warming is low because this practice is not yet widespread.
Enclosed composting facilities have biofilters that remove odor
emissions.
Soil Pollution: Pollution of soils is mainly due to the addition of
salts, heavy metals, and different organic compounds. They
change the properties of the soil and can be toxic for the
vegetation. Some metals are present in composted soils in higher
concentrations than in agricultural soil (e.g. lead, zinc, and copper),
which can lead to the impairment of crops. If the bioavailability is
high, these compounds can cause contamination in the whole food
chain.
The form in which the metal is found determines the bioavailability.
Some soils are much more susceptible to contamination than
others. The biodegradable waste used for composting must be
free of contamination. If not, the end product will also be
contaminated. The contamination will be passed on to the soil
where the compost is added.
Water Pollution: The main pollutants of the water systems are
caused by washout processes of soils treated with compost.
Therefore, the contamination of water systems includes heavy
metals, different organic compounds (e.g., phenols, PAHs, PCBs,
etc.,) and salts (e.g., nitrate, ammonium, etc.).
Conclusions
Composting is an attractive treatment method:
l It is a simple lowcost technology, although processing
methods can be deployed to encourage the composting
process.
l As a familiar process, it is unlikely to meet significant public
opposition during the planning process.
l Almost onethird of the waste tonnage is lost to carbon
dioxide and water through the composting process.
l The resulting compost material can be put to beneficial use
on land.
A successful municipal solid waste composting plant must be
designed with strict attention to the finished compost; product
specifications will determine requirements for both the incoming
refuse feedstock and the physical and biological processes
employed. Low contaminant levels will be essential if municipal
solid waste composting is to live up to its potential and recycle
organic wastes. MSW
Surendra Kumar, Shashi and Salman Zafar are with the Indian
Institute of Technology, Roorkee, Uttaranchal, India.
MSW May/June 2006
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