St.

Mary’s University

Introduction to Social Anthropology

Summary of each unit from the module

1.1 What is Anthropology?

The term anthropology is a combination of two words derived from Greek language: anthropos
and logos. The term anthropos is equivalent to the word mankind or human being, while logos
mean study or science. So putting the two words together, anthropology is the study or science of
mankind or humanity. The simple definitions of anthropology: it is the study or science of
mankind or humanity.

• Anthropology is a broad scientific discipline dedicated to the comparative study of humans

as a group, from its first appearance on earth to its present stage of development.

In a more specific term, anthropology is science which:1) Investigates the strategies for living
that are learned and shared by people as members of human social groups;2) Examines the
characteristics that human beings share as members of one species (homo sapiens) and the
diverse ways that people live in different environments; and3) Analyzes the products of social
groups: material objects (tools, cloths, houses, etc) and nonmaterial creations (beliefs, values,
practices, institutions, etc).

It should further be stressed that anthropology focuses on (1) the origin of humans, (2) the
evolutionary development of humans, (3) human physical, biochemical and cultural variations,
and (4) the material possessions and cultural heritages of humans.

Anthropology’s ultimate goal is to develop an integrated picture of humankind—a goal that

encompasses an almost infinite number of questions about all aspects of our existence. We ask,
for example, what makes us human? Why do some groups of people tend to be tall and lanky,
while others tend to be short and stocky? Why do some groups of people practice agriculture,
while others hunt for a living? Anthropologists are interested in all things human.

Four misconceptions about anthropology

1. Anthropology is limited to the study of "primitive" societies.

2. Anthropologists only study the rural people and rural areas.

3. Anthropologists are only interested in the study of far away, remote exotic communities living
isolated from the influences of modernization.

4. Anthropology wants to keep and preserve primitive, defunct cultural practices in museums and
anthropologists are advocates of defunct, obsolete culture.

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1.2 Brief Historical Overview of Anthropology

The history of anthropological thought is replete with many and varied ideas, some of which
often were wild extremes resulting from ethnocentric attitudes. Before anthropology attained the
status of scientific discipline curious-minded persons from ancient to medieval times have
speculated a lot about the issues and problems that concern anthropologists today. That is, the
present academic anthropology has its roots in the works and ideas of the great ancient and
Medieval Greek, Roman, and Hebrew philosophers and social thinkers. These people were
interested in the nature, origin and destiny of man, and the morality and ethics of human
relationships.

While the roots of (socio-cultural) anthropology can be generally traced through the history of
western culture as far back as ancient Greek social philosophical thinking, the discipline did not
emerge as distinct field of study until the mid-nineteenth century. Anthropology as an academic
discipline was born during the 19th century.Anthropology as academic discipline was born out of
the intellectual atmosphere of that is called the Enlightenment, which is the eighteenth century
social philosophical movement that emphasized human progress and the poser of reason, and
based on Darwinian Theory of Evolution.

Subject Matter and Scope of Anthropology. The subject matter of anthropology is very vast.
The subject covers all aspects of human ways of life and culture, as humans live in a social group
relationship. Discovering the meaning, nature, origin, and destiny of humanity is one of the key
concerns of anthropology.

Distinguishing Features of Anthropology

1. Itsbroad scope. A good way to emphasize this broad scope is to say that anthropologists are
interested in all human beings, whether living or dead, ''primitive'' or '' civilized'' and that they
are interested in many different aspects of humans, including their skin color, family lives,
marriages, political systems, tools, personality types, and languages.

2. Its Unique Approaches I. Anthropology is Holistic: II. Anthropology is Relativistic: It does

not make value judgment,( i.e., declaring that ‘this belief or practice is good’ or ‘that is bad.) III.
Anthropology is Comparative; i.e.,the present with the past, the modern with the traditional, etc.

3. Emphasis on Insiders' View: Anthropologists focus on how the people themselves understand
about their world, how a particular group of people explains about the world, etc. This is what
anthropologists call emic perspective.

4. The Micro-focus: This is another distinguishing mark of anthropology. Anthropology focuses

on small-scale society or community. The kinds of social groups or communities anthropologists
study, whether they are in traditional or modern world, are usually small scaled in their

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socialorganization, economic and political structure, and tend to be homogenous in their overall
character.

5. Its Method of Research: The hallmarks of anthropology are qualitative research methods
such as extended fieldwork, focus- group discussion, participant observation, in-depth and key
informant interviews.

1.5. Sub-fields of Anthropology

These are: physical anthropology, sociocultural anthropology, linguistic anthropology and

archaeological anthropology. Sometimes, applied anthropology is added as a fifth sub-field. A
brief discussion of the four major sub-fields is as follows.

1 Physical anthropology is the branch of anthropology most closely related to the natural
sciences, particularly biology; that is why it is often called biological anthropology. It studies
the biological dimensions of human beings, including biological evolution, the physical
variations between contemporary populations, and the biology and behavior of non-human
primates. Physical anthropology itself is further divided into three special fields of study:
paleoanthropology, primatology and anthropometry. Paleoanthropology: is the study of
human evolution through analysis of fossil remains.Primatology: The study of the biology and
behavior of primates, that is, the animals that most closely resemble human beings in terms of
physiological and anatomical structure. Anthropometry: The study of human variations within
and among different populations in time and space, human ecology, population genetics, etc
make up the central concerns of this sub-branch of physical anthropology. These physical
differences may be in terms of blood types, skin colors, skull shape, facial shape, hair texture,
and the like.

2. Sociocultural Anthropology ; also often called social anthropology or cultural anthropology.

It is concerned with the social and cultural dimensions of the living peoples and with the
description and analysis of people’s lives and traditions. Socio-cultural anthropology studies the
social, symbolic or nonmaterial and material lives of contemporary and historically recent human
societies, taking the concept of culture central to its goal.

Cultural anthropologists conduct studies of living peoples, most often by visiting and living
among a particular people for an extended period of time, usually a year or longer. Cultural
anthropology is also concerned with making generalizations about, and seeking explanations for,
similarities and differences among the world's people. Thus, two important aspects of
social/cultural anthropology are ethnography and ethnology. The former is more of empirical
study or description of the culture and ways of lives of a particular group of people, while the
latter is more of a theoretical study of the similarities and differences among the human groups
of the world, past or present.

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3. Archaeological Anthropology. it studies the ways of lives of past peoples by excavating and
analyzing the physical remains they left behind. Artifacts are the material remains of human
societies. Archeologists also study Eco facts, the footprints on the ecology by the past societies.
This helps reveal the way human societies interacted with their local ecosystems. Tools,
ornaments, pottery, animal bones, human skeletal material, and evidence of how people lived in
the distant past are collected, and systematically analyzed. Archeological anthropology has three
major goals: 1) classifying and sequencing material culture; 2) reconstructing ancient ways of
life; and 3) explaining and delineating cultural processes.

Some branches of study in archeology include:Prehistoric archeology:investigates human

prehistory; that is the periods of time in a region before the art of writing developed.
Ethnoarcheology: This may be regarded as an aspect of prehistoric archeology. Historical
archaeology: uses the evidence provided by excavated remains to enhance our understanding of
historic peoples; that is, peoples who had writing and about whom written records are available.
Classical archeology: Is an aspect of historic archeology; it deals primarily with the ancient
civilizations and empires of Europe and the Middle East, including Egypt, Greece, Roman and
Persia, Axum, etc.

4. Linguistic Anthropology Linguistics is the scientific study of language. Linguists describe

and analyze the sound patterns, combinations of sounds, meanings and structure of sentence in
human languages. They also attempt to determine how two or more languages are related. It is
defined as “the study of speech and language within the context of anthropology. It is the study
of language as a cultural resource and speaking as a cultural practice.

Contributions of Anthropology

 Anthropology gives us an insight into different ways and modes of life of a given society,
to understand the logic behind and justification for human activities and behavior.
 Anthropology also helps us understand our own ways of lives.
 Anthropology helps us fight against prejudices and discriminations. It helps us fight
against ethnocentrism.
 Anthropology is also used as a tool for development.

In general, anthropology more than any other sciences, can reveal the alternative ways of living
developed by diverse segments of humanity.

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 CHAPTER TWO

HUMAN CULTURE AND TIES THAT CONNECT

Culture is a collective heritage learned by individuals and passed from one generation to another.
The individual receives culture as part of social heritage and in turn, may reshape the culture and
introduce changes which then become part of the heritage of succeeding generations.
Characteristic Features of Culture
1. Culture Is Learned: Culture is not transmitted genetically rather; it is acquired through the
process of learning or interacting with one’s environment. More than any other species human
relies for their survival on behavior patterns that are learned.Human have no instinct.
Enculturation is specifically defined as the process by which an individual learns the rules and
values of one’s culture
2. Culture Is Shared: meaning by at least two people within a society.
3. Culture Is Symbolic: Symbolic thought is unique and crucial to humans and to cultural
learning. A symbol is something verbal or nonverbal, within a particular language or culture that
comes to stand for something else. There need be no obvious, natural, or necessary connection
between the symbol and what it symbolizes.
4. Culture Is All-Encompassing: Culture encompasses all aspects, which affect people in their
everyday lives. Culture comprises countless material and non-material aspects of human lives.
5. Culture Is Integrated: Cultures are not haphazard collections of customs and beliefs.
6. Culture Can Be Adaptive and Maladaptive:People adapt themselves to the environment
using culture. The ability to adapt themselves to practically any ecological condition, unlike
other animals, makes humans unique. Many cultural patterns such as overconsumption and
pollution appear to be maladaptive in the long run.
7. Culture Is Dynamic: Culture is changing constantly as new ideas and new techniques are
added as time passes modifying or changing the old ways. This is the characteristics of culture
that stems from the culture’s cumulative quality.
Two of the most basic aspects of culture are material and nonmaterial culture. These are briefly
explained as follows:
 1. Material culture
Material culture consist of man-made objects such as tools, implements, furniture, automobiles,
buildings, dams, roads, bridges, and in fact, the physical substance which has been changed and
used by man. It is concerned with the external, mechanical and utilitarian objects. It includes
technical and material equipment. It is referred to as civilization.
 2. Non – Material culture
The term ‘culture’ when used in the ordinary sense, means ‘non-material culture’. It is something
internal and intrinsically valuable, reflects the inward nature of man. Non material culture
consists of the words the people use or the language they speak, the beliefs they hold, values and
virtues they cherish, habits they follow, rituals and practices that they do and the ceremonies they

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observe. It also includes our customs and tastes, attitudes and outlook, in brief, our ways of
acting, feeling and thinking. Some of the aspects of nonmaterial culture listed as follows:
 Values:
Values are the standards by which member of a society define what is good or bad, beautiful or
ugly. Every society develops both values and expectations regarding the right way to reflect
them. Values are a central aspect of the nonmaterial culture of a society and are important
because they influence the behavior of the members of a society.
 Beliefs
Beliefs are cultural conventions that concern true or false assumptions, specific descriptions of
the nature of the universe and humanity’s place in it. Values are generalized notions of what is
good and bad; beliefs are more specific and, in form at least, have more content.
 Norms
Norms are shared rules or guidelines that define how people “ought” to behave under certain
circumstances. Norms are generally connected to the values, beliefs, and ideologies of a society.
Norms vary in terms of their importance to a culture, these are: a) Folkway: Norms guiding
ordinary usages and conventions of everyday life are known as folkways. Folkways are norms
that are not strictly enforced, such as not leaving your seat for an elderly people inside a bus/taxi.
They may result in a person getting a bad look. b) Mores: are much stronger norms than are
folkways. Mores are norms that are believed to be essential to core values and we insist on
conformity. A person who steals, rapes, and kills has violated some of society’s most important
mores.

Important terms in social anthropology

 Universality: Universals are cultural traits that span across all cultures.
 Generalities are cultural traits that occur in many societies but not all of them.
 Particularity: Trait of a culture that is not widespread Cultural borrowing – traits once
limited are more
 Ethnocentrism refers to the tendency to see the behaviors, beliefs, values, and norms of
one's own group as the only right way of living and to judge others by those standards.
 Cultural relativism: The concept of cultural relativism states that cultures differ, so that a
cultural trait, act, or idea has no meaning but its meaning only within its cultural setting.
 Culture change can occur as a result of the following Mechanisms:
i. Diffusion: The source of new cultural elements in a society may also be another
society. The process by which cultural elements are borrowed from another
society and incorporated into the culture of the recipient group is called diffusion.
1. Diffusion is direct when two cultures trade with, intermarry among, or wage
war on one another. 2. Diffusion is forced when one culture subjugates another
and imposes its customs on the dominated group. 3. Diffusion is indirect when
items or traits move from group A to group C via group B without any firsthand

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 contact between A and C. In this case, group B might consist of traders or
merchants who take products from a variety of places to new markets.
 Acculturation
Is the exchange of cultural features that results when groups have continuous firsthand contact?
The cultures of either or both groups may be changed by this contact. This usually happens in
situations of trade or colonialism. In situations of continuous contact, cultures have also
exchanged and blended foods, recipes, music, dances, clothing, tools, and technologies.

MARRIAGE:
Almost all known societies recognize marriage. The ritual of marriage marks a change in status
for a man and a woman and the acceptance by society of the new family that is formed.
Marriage is, therefore, a permanent legal union between a man and a woman.
Rules of Marriage
The most common form of prohibition is mating with certain type of kin that are defined by the
society as being inappropriate sexual partners. The prohibitions on mating with certain categories
of relatives known as incest taboos. The most universal form of incest taboo involves mating
between members of the immediate (nuclear) family: mother-sons, father-daughters, and brother-
sisters.
1. Exogamy: This is the rule by which a man is not allowed to marry someone from his own
social group. Marriage binds two extremely distant persons who possess no kin relation among
them.
2. Endogamy: A rule of endogamy requires individuals to marry within their own group and
forbids them to marry outside it.
3. Preferential Cousin Marriage: A common form of preferred marriage is called preferential
cousin marriage and is practiced in one form or another in most of the major regions of the
world.
4. The Levirate and Sororate .Another form of mate selection that tends to limit individual
choice are those that require a person to marry the husband or wide of deceased kin.
The levirate- is the custom whereby a widow is expected to marry the brother (or some close
male relative) of her dead husband. Usually any children fathered by the woman’s new husband
are considered to belong legally to the dead brother rather than to the actual genitor. Such a
custom both serves as a form of social security for the widow and her children and preserved the
rights of her husband’s family to her sexuality and future children.
The sororate, which comes into play when a wife dies, is the practice of a widower’s marrying
the sister (or some close female relative) of his deceased wife. In the event that the deceased
spouse has no sibling, the family of the deceased is under a general obligation to supply some
equivalent relative as a substitute. For example, in a society that practice sororate, a widower
may be given as a substitute wife the daughter of his deceased wife’s brother.
Monogamy: the marriage of one man to one woman at a time.
Polygamy i.e. marriage of a man or woman with two or more mates. Polygamy can be of two
types: a. Polygyny: the marriage of a man to two or more women at a time. b. Polyandry: the
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marriage of a woman to two or more men at a time. Marriage of a man with two or more sisters
at a time is called sororal polygyny. When the co-wives are not sisters, the marriage is termed as
non sororal polygyny.

Economic Consideration of Marriage

1. BridePrice: It is also known as bridewealth, is the compensation given upon marriage by
the family of the groom to the family of the bride.
2. Bride Service: When the groom works for his wife’s family, this is known as bride
service. The groom lives with the bride’s parents and hunts for them.
3. Dowry: A dowry involves a transfer of goods or money in the opposite direction, from
the bride's family to the groom’s family.

Family is the basis of human society. It is the most important primary group in society. The
family, as an institution, is universal. It is the most permanent and most pervasive of all social
institutions. types of family structure- the nuclear family and the extended family.

The Nuclear Family: Consisting of husband and wife and their children, the nuclear family is a
two-generation family formed around the conjugal or marital union. The Extended Family: In
societies based on extended families, blood ties are more important than ties of marriage.
Extended families consist of two or more families that are linked by blood ties.

1)Biological Function: The institution of marriage and family serves biological (sexual and
reproductive) function. 2) Economic Function: Marriage brings economic co-operation between
men and women and ensure survival of individuals in a society. 3) Social Function: Marriage is
based on the desire to perpetuate one’s family line. In marriage one adds, not only a spouse but
most of the spouse’s relatives to one’s own group of kin.4) Educational and Socialization
Function: The burden of socialization (via processes of enculturation and education) of new
born infants fall primarily upon the family.

A kinship system is neither a social group nor does it correspond to organized aggregation of
individuals. It is a structured system of relationships where individuals are bound together by
complex interlocking and ramifying ties. The relationship based on blood ties is called
“consanguineous kinship”, and the relatives of this kind are called ‘consanguineous kin.

Descent refers to the social recognition of the biological relationship that exists between the
individuals. There are three important rules of decent. Patrilineal descent, Matrilineal descent
and cognatic Descent.

Chapter four

What is marginalization?

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Marginalization is defined as a treatment of a person or social group as minor, insignificant or
peripheral. Marginalization involves exclusion of certain groups from social interactions,
marriage relations, sharing food and drinks, and working and living together.

Who are mostly marginalized? There are marginalized social groups in every society and culture.
Women, children, older people, and people with disabilities are among marginalized groups
across the world. Religious, ethnic, and racial minorities are also among social groups
marginalized in different societies and cultures.

Vulnerability refers to the state of being exposed to physical or emotional injuries. Vulnerable
groups are people exposed to possibilities of attack, harms or mistreatment. As a result,
vulnerable persons/groups need special attention, protection and support.

Minority groups: The phrase ‘minority group’ refers to a small group of people within a
community, region, or country. In most cases, minority groups are different from the majority
population in terms of race, religion, ethnicity, and language.

There are different forms of marginalization. In this chapter you are going to learn issues
related to occupational, age and gender-based marginalization. Gender-based marginalization is a
global problem. It involves exclusion of girls and women from a wide range of opportunities and
social services. Gender disparities in education are a good example.

There are occupational marginalized groups in many parts of Ethiopia. The following are
marginalized occupational groups in our country: tanners, potters, weavers and ironsmiths.

These craft-workers have different names in different parts of the country. Craft-workers such as
potters and tanners are considered as impure and excluded from social interactions, ownership of
economic resources (e.g., land), and participation in associations and celebrations.

Dena Freeman and Alula Pankhurst (2001), well-known anthropologists, identified different
forms of marginalization targeting minority occupational groups. Some of them are:

1. Spatial marginalization2. Economic marginalization

3. Social marginalization 4. Cultural marginalization

Manifestations of economic, spatial, social and cultural marginalization are outlined to illustrate
the level of discrimination against craft-workers.

Children are among vulnerable groups exposed to harm because of their age. Both boys and girls
are exposed to some harm and abuse in the hands of older people. However, girls are exposed to
double marginalization and discrimination because of the gender. Child girls are exposed to
various kinds of harm before they reach at the age of maturity. Girls are exposed to HTPs such
as female genital cutting. Minor girls are also exposed to early/child marriage in many parts of
Ethiopia.
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Ageism is a widely observed social problem in the world. Ageism refer to stereotyping,
prejudice, and discrimination against people based on their age. Older women and men enjoyed a
certain level of support and respected in the past. This was true in many cultures of Ethiopia in
the past. Things have been changing in recent times. Older people are facing various problems as
a result of modernization, globalization, and urbanization. Older people are exposed to social
exclusion because of their lower social and economic status.

There are several examples of marginalization and discrimination targeting religious and
ethnic minorities in the world.

Chapter Five

Identity, Ethnicity and Race: Identification and Social Categorization. What is ethnicity?
What is Race?

After the end of the second world war, words like “ethnicity”, “ethnic groups” “ethnic conflict”
and “nationalism” have become quite common terms in the English language, and they keep
cropping up in the press, in TV news, in political programme and in casual conversations. Thirty-
five of the thirty-seven major armed conflicts in the world in 1991 were internal conflicts, and
most of them - from Sri Lanka to Northern Ireland - could plausibly be described as ethnic
conflicts.

The English origin of the term ‘ethnicity’ is connected to the term “ethnic,”–which is much
older and has been in use since the Middle Ages.

The word is derived from the Greek term ‘ethnos’ (which in turn, derived from the Latin word
‘ethnikos’), which literally means “a group of people bound together by the same manners,
customs or other distinctive features”. (In the context of ancient Greek, the term refers to a
collectivity of humans lived and acted together -which is typically translated today as ‘people’ or
‘nation’ (not political unit per say, but group of people with shared communality. Contrary to its
literal meaning however, ancient Greeks were using the term ‘ethnos’ in practice to refer to non-
Hellenic, people who are non-Greek and considered as second-class peoples. Likewise, in early
England, it used to refer to someone who was neither Christian nor Jewish (to refer to heathen or
pagan).

The meaning of ethnicity

Before World War II, while the term “tribe” was the term of choice for “pre-modern” societies
and the term “race” was used to refer modern societies (Jenkins, 2001). Due to the close link
between the term “race” and Nazi ideology, after the end of II WW, the term “ethnic” gradually
replaced “race” within both the North American tradition and the European tradition. Ethnicity is
“vague, elusive and expansive” term.

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None of the founding fathers of anthropology and sociology - with the partial exception of Max
Weber granted ethnicity much attention. Max Weber, in his work entitled “Economy and
Society”, first published in 1922.

According to Weber, an “ethnicgroup” is based on the belief in common descent shared by its
members, extending beyond kinship, political solidarity vis-a-vis other groups, and common
customs, language, religion, values, morality, and etiquette. In other words, ethnic groups are
those human groups that entertain a subjective belief in their common descent because of
similarities or physical type or of customs or both, or because of memories of colonization and
migration. It does not matter whether or not an objective blood relationship exists, but whether it
is believed to exist.The next great contribution to our understanding of ethnicity comes from the
influential works of the Norwegian anthropologist, named Frederik Barth (1969). Barth in an
exceptionally brilliant ‘Introduction’ part of a collection of scholarly work entitled “Ethnic
Groups and Boundaries”(1969),

Barth focused not upon the cultural characteristics of ethnic groups but upon relationships of
cultural differentiation, and specifically upon contact between collectivities thus differentiated,
'us' and 'them' (Eriksen, 2002). Barth's emphasis was not so much upon the substance or content
of ethnicity, what he called the 'cultural stuff', as upon the social processes, which produce and
reproduce - which organize, if you like-boundaries of identification and differentiation between
ethnic collectivities. As illustrated by Barth, it is important to recognize that although ethnic
categories take cultural differences into account.

The cultural contents of ethnic dichotomies would seem analytically to be of two orders: (i) overt
signals or signs - the diacritical features that people look for and exhibit to show identity, often
such features as dress, language, house-form, or general style of life, and (ii) basic value
orientations: the standards of morality and excellence by which performance is judged. Since
belonging to an ethnic category implies being a certain kind of person, having that basic identity,
it also implies a claim to be judged, and to judge oneself, by those standards that are relevant to
that identity. Neither of these kinds of cultural 'contents' follows from a descriptive list of
cultural features or cultural differences; one cannot predict from first principles which features
will be emphasized and made organizationally relevant by the actors.

Before Barth, cultural difference was traditionally explained from the inside out – social groups
possess different cultural characteristics, which make them unique and distinct (common
language, lifestyle, descent, religion, physical markers, history, eating habits, etc.).

He defined and explained ethnicity from the outside in: it is not the ‘possession’ of cultural
characteristics that makes social groups distinct but rather it is the social interaction with other
groups that makes that difference possible, visible and socially meaningful.Barth’s research
established a foundation for understanding ethnicity in universalist rather than in particularist

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terms.In spite of the difference in scholarly views of ethnicity among anthropologists, the 'basic
social anthropological model of ethnicity' can be summarized as follows:

Ethnicity is a matter of cultural differentiation - although, to reiterate the main theme of social
identity (Jenkins 2004), identification always involves a dialectical interplay between similarity
and difference. Ethnicity is centrally a matter of shared meanings - what we conventionally call
'culture' - but is also produced and reproduced during interaction. Ethnicity is no more fixed or
unchanging than the way of life of which it is an aspect, or the situations in which it is produced
and reproduced. Ethnicity, as an identification, is collective and individual, externalized in social
interaction and the categorization of others, and internalized in personal self-identification.

Ethnicity is not a single unified social phenomenon but a congeries, a “family,” of related but
analytically distinct phenomena. The foundations of ethnicity, the “markers” of ethnicity, the
history of ethnicity, the aims and goals of ethnicity—these vary from case to case”.

The concept of ethnic group is the most basic, from which the others are derivative. It refers to
ethnicity as the collective phenomenon. Ethnic identity refers to ethnicity as an individually
experienced phenomenon. Ethnicity itself is an abstract concept, which includes an implicit
reference to both collective and individual aspects of the phenomenon.

According to Weber, an ‘ethnic group’ is based on the belief in common descent shared by its
members, extending beyond kinship, political solidarity vis-a-vis other groups, and common
customs, language, religion, values, morality, and etiquette (Weber, 1978). Anderson (1983), in
his part described ethnic groups as “an imagined community” that possesses a “character and
quality” (Anderson, 1983). Schermerhorn (1996), on the other hand, conceptualize ethnic group
as a unit of population having unique characteristics in relation with others, binding with
common language, myth of origin, and history of ethnic allegiance.

F. Barth (1969), define ethnic groups as a self-defined group based on subjective factors and/or
fundamental cultural values chosen by members from their past history or present existing
conditions in which members are aware of-and-in contact with other ethnic groups.

Ethnicgroup are defined out of group interaction in which members of a group keep their social
solidarity, identified themselves as belonging to specific group based on their subjective
communalities (language, myth of origin, and shared cultural entities) that defined in reference
with others .

By considering the variousdefinitions provided to define ethnicity, as to Hutchinson(1996)

This includes;

1. A common proper name, to identify and express the “essence” of the community;

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2. A myth of common ancestry that includes the idea of common origin in time and place and
that gives an ethnic group a sense of fictive kinship;

3. Shared historical memories, or better, shared memories of a common past or pasts, including
heroes, events, and their commemoration;

4. One or more elements of common culture, which need not be specified but normally, include
religion, customs, and language;

5. A link with a homeland, not necessarily its physical occupation by the ethnic group, only its
symbolic attachment to the ancestral land, as with diaspora peoples; and

6. A sense of solidarity on the part of at least some sections of the ethnic’s population.

Ethnic Identity:-It is an affiliate construct, where an individual is viewed by themselves and by

others as belonging to a particular ethnic or cultural group. An individual can choose to associate
with a group especially if other choices are available (i.e., the person is of mixed ethnic or racial
heritage.Affiliation can be influenced by racial, natal, symbolic, and cultural factors . Racial
factors involve the use of physiognomic and physical characteristics, natal factors refer to
"homeland" (ancestral home) or origins of individuals, their parents and kin, and symbolic
factors include those factors that typify or exemplify an ethnic group (e.g., holidays, foods,
clothing, artifacts, etc.). Symbolic ethnic identity usually implies that individuals choose their
identity; however, to some extent the cultural elements of the ethnic or racial group have a
modest influence on their behavior.

On the individual level, ethnicity is a social-psychological process, which gives an individual a

sense of belonging and identity. It is one of a number of social phenomena, which produce a
sense of identity. Ethnic identity can be defined as a manner in which persons, on account of
their ethnic origin, locate themselves psychologically in relation to one or more social systems,
and in which they perceive others as locating them in relation to those systems. By ethnic origin
is meant either that a person has been socialized in an ethnic group or that his or her ancestors,
real or symbolic, have been members of the group.

We can thus distinguish external and internal aspects of ethnic identity. External aspects refer to
observable behaviour, both cultural and social, such as (1), speaking an ethnic language,
practicing ethnic traditions, and (2)participation in ethnic personal networks, such as family and
friendships, (3) participation in ethnic institutional organizations, such as churches, schools,
enterprises, media (4), participation in ethnic voluntary associations, such as clubs, 'societies,'
youth organizations and (5) participation in functions sponsored by ethnic organizations such as
picnics, concerts, public lectures, rallies, dances.

The internal aspects of ethnic identity refer to images, ideas, attitudes, and feelings. These, of
course, are interconnected with the external behaviour. But, it should not be assumed that,

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empirically, the two types are always dependent upon each other. Rather, they may vary
independently, as for example, a third-generation person may retain a higher degree of internal
than of external aspects. We can distinguish at least three types of internal aspects of identity: (1)
cognitive, (2) moral, and (3) affective.

Race is an elusive concept like ethnicity –used in a variety of contexts and meanings; sometimes
interchangeably with ethnicity, where the relationship between the two concept remain complex.

Racial Classification:- it was common to divide humanity into four main races, which
recognized both on the scientific and folk notions of the concept. In this regard, race was used
both as a system of human classification and social stratification as follows:

a/Europeaeus: White; muscular; hair – long, flowing; eyes blue – Acute, inventive, gentle, and
governed by laws. b/Americanus: Reddish; erect; hair – black, straight, thick; wide nostrils –
Obstinate, merry, free, and regulated by custom. c/Asiaticus: Sallow (yellow); hair black; eyes
dark – Haughty, avaricious, severe, and ruled by opinions.d/Africanus: Black; hair –black,
frizzled; skin silky; nose flat; lips tumid – Crafty, indolent, negligent, and governed by caprice or
the will of their masters. Biologically speaking, there is no such thing as a “pure” race and race
has no scientific validity to be used as means of group identification/categorization.

Theories of Ethnicity

1. Primordialist Approach ----Ethnicity is fixed at birth. Ethnic identification is based on

deep, ‘primordial’ attachments to a group or culture
2. Instrumentalist Approach ---Ethnicity based on people’s “historical” and “symbolic”
memory is something created and used and exploited by leaders and others in the
pragmatic pursuit of their own interests.
3. Constructivist Approach Ethnic identity is not something people “possess” but
something they “construct” in specific social and historical contexts to further their own
interests. It is therefore fluid and subjective.

UNIT SIX

CUSTOMARY AND LOCAL GOVERNANCE SYSTEMS

Indigenous systems of governance have been used to maintain social order across Ethiopian
regions. The role of indigenous governance was indispensable before the advent of the modern
state system. Anthropologists have been studying indigenous systems of governance in Ethiopia
and other parts of Africa. Some of the indigenous systems of governance will be discussed.

The Oromo Gadaa

The Gaada of the Oromo is one of the well-studies indigenous systems of governance. Scholars
studied the Oromo Gaada include Paul Baxter, Eike Haberland and Asmerom Legesse.

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Asmerom, a famous anthropologist, is widely known for his ethnographic studies on the Oromo
political system. He published a lot on the Gaada system, particularly focusing on the Borena
Oromo.The Gadaa system is ‘an age grading institution of the Oromo that has a complex system
of administration, law making and dispute settlement’ (Pankhurst and Getachew 2008, xiv).

The Gadaa is a highly celebrated institution of governance and dispute settlement among the
Oromo people. Gadaa is widely mentioned as an egalitarian (democratic) system of governance.
In the Gadaa system, political power is transferred from one generation set (Luuba) to another
every eight years. Gaada officials such as the Abba Gaada and Abba Seera(father of law) serve
for eight years and leave their position to the new generation of Gadaa officials.The Gaada
system involves a continuous process of law making and revision.

The law making process has rooms for wider participation of the people. Gumi gaayo, a law
making assembly of the Borana Oromo, is a good example. Gumi gaayo is held every eight years
to revising, adapting, making and publicizing the customary law (seera) and custom (aadaa) of
the Oromo.

The Waliso Oromo have a law making assembly known as yaa’ii haraa, an equivalent of gumi
gaayo, held every eight years. The Gaada is an indigenous system of governance, conflict
resolution, and peacemaking. The Jaarsa Biyyaa is the institutions of conflict resolution
(literally: elders of the soil/land) institution.

The Gedeo Baalle:-The Gedeo of southern Ethiopia have an indigenous system of governance
called Baalle. The Baalle and the Gaada system of the Oromo have some similarities. Moreover,
the customary law of the Gedeo is called Seera. The Ya’a, the general assembly, is the highest
body of the Gedeo indigenous system of governance. The Baalle is a complex system which has
three administrative hierarchies: Abba Gada, Roga (traditional leader next the Abba Gada), and
two levels of council of elders known as Hulla Hayyicha and Songo Hayyicha. The Abba Gada
is the leader of the Baalle. The Baalle system has a body of laws called Seera. Conflicts are
resolved by the Songo hayyicha at village level. When disputes are not settled at the village
level, cases can be referred to first to the Hulla Hayyicha and finally to the Abba Gada. In
general, the Gedeo system of governance has the following major institutions: the ya’a (general
assembly), the Seera (customary law), the Abba Gada, and council of elders.

Dere Woga of the Gamo:- The Gamo are among Omotic peoples of southern Ethiopia. Unlike
their neighboring people such as Wolayta and Dawro, the Gamo did not have a centralized
political system. The Gamo people were organized into several local administrations locally
known as deres. According to anthropological findings, there were more than 40 deres across the
Gamo highlands. Each dere had its own ka’o (king) and halaqa (elected leader). The indigenous
system of governance embraces the dere woga (customary law) and the dubusha assemblies. The
highest body of the indigenous governance is the dere dubusha, a general assembly that is

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responsible to make and revise customary laws, resolve major disputes that cannot be solved at
the lower levels.

The dubush as assembly has three hierarchies: 1) the dere dubusha (at the top), 2. sub-dere
dubusha (at the middle), and 3. guta/neighborhood dubusha (at the village level). Minor cases
and disputes are resolved by the dere cima, council of elders. Like the Oromo Gada and the
Gedeo Baalle, the indigenous governance of the Gamo is embedded in the Gamo belief system.
It is believed that telling a lie and hiding the truth are considered as violation of taboo, which
would lead to spiritual pollution and then misfortunes including lack of fertility, illness, and
death of human beings and livestock.

What is conflict and Disputes? Conflicts and disputes exist in every society and community.
Conflicts may arise between individuals, groups and communities within the same ethnic group.
In some cases conflicts may involve groups from different ethnic background. Peoples across
Ethiopian regions have indigenous institutions and mechanisms of conflict resolution and
peacemaking.Study findings reveal variations and similarities among indigenous institutions of
conflict resolution in Ethiopia. Indigenous justice institutions and mechanisms share several
common aspects including the following:

Preference and respect for elders known for their qualities including experience in dispute
resolution; knowledge of customary laws, procedures, norms and values the society; impartiality,
respect for rules and people; the ability of listening and speaking politely; honesty and tolerance.

Indigenous dispute resolution practices focus on restoring social relationships, harmony, and
peaceful coexistence.Indigenous justice systems also have differences in terms of hierarchies,
procedures and level of complexities. For example, In some cultural settings, conflict resolution
mechanisms involve several hierarchies and complicated procedures;customary justice
institutions include three major components. The three components are 1) customary laws, 2)
council of elders, and 3) customary courts or assemblies. Customary law: it refers to a body of
rules, norms, and a set of moral values that serve as a wider framework for human conduct and
social interactions. The Sera of the Sidama, the dere woga of the Gamo, the Seera Addaa of the
Oromo; Gordena Sera of Kestane Gurage are examples of customary laws. In most cases,
customary laws are available orally. Somecustomary laws are published in recent years.

For example, the Sebat Bet Gurage published their customary law named Kitcha: The Gurage
Customary Law in 1998. Similarly, Kistane/Sodo Gurage have a written version of customary
law known as Gordena Shengo.

Council of elders: It is the second important institution of customary justice systems.

The council of elders embraces highly respected and well-experienced community members who
have a detail knowledge of the customary laws. Members of the elder’s council are also known
for their personal qualities such as truthfulness and experience in settling conflicts. Elders often

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serve their communities on voluntary basis without any payment. The number of the elders
varies based on the nature of the case. The institution of council of elders has different names in
various ethnic groups: Yehager Shimagile (Amhara), Jaarsaa Biyyaa (Oromo), Hayyicha
(Gedeo), Guurtii (Somali), Dere Cima (Gamo), Deira Cimma (Wolayita), and Cimuma (Burji).

The customary justice system of the Gamo people of Southern Ethiopia has the following
branches: 1) Dere Woga, customary laws, 2) Dere Cima, council of elders, and 3) Dubusha,
customary courts or assemblies.

Inter-ethnic conflict resolution

Abbo Gereb: It is a dispute resolution institution in Rayya and Wajirat district, Southern
Tigray. Abbo Gereb, literally means the father of the river Gerewo. Abbo Gereb serves to settle
disputes between individuals or groups from highland Tigray and lowland Afar. Conflict
between the two groups often arise because of dispute over grazing land or water resources,
particularly in dry season. When conflict arises between parties from two ethnic groups, notable
elders from Tigray and Afar come together to resolve the dispute and restore peaceful relations.
Most of the elders involved in inter-ethnic conflict resolutions are bilingual: speaking Tigrigna
and Afar. Ethnographic findings also reveal the existence of inter-ethnic conflict resolution
mechanisms when conflicts arise between Afar, Issa, Tigrayans and Argobba. The mechanisms
of inter-ethnic disputes have different names. It is called Xinto among the Afar, Edible among
the Issa, Gereb among the Tigrayans, and Aboroge among the Amhara.

Women’s peacemaking sticks

Sidama women have two instruments of power: the Yakka and the Siqqo. The Yakka is women’s
association or unity group. The Siqqo is a stick that symbolizes peace and women honor. The
Siqqoand the Yakka are closely associated. If a woman is ill-treated by her husband, the Yakka
leader (known as Qaritte) mobilizes the Yakka and leads them to the house of the man. The
husband would not have a choice when he is surrounded by the Yakka holding their Siqqo
shouting and singing. If he is found guilty, the man would be forced to slaughter a sheepand give
part of it to the Yakka. Sidama women also use their Siqqo to make peace between quarrelling
parties. Oromo women also have a peace stick called Sinqee. Sinqee serves the purpose of
protecting women’s rights and making peace. Quarrelling men stop fighting when a woman
stands between them holding her Sinqee.

Don Kachel: Agnuak women peacemaking institution;Don Kachel means ‘let us all live in
peace’. It involves a peace-making movement initiated by Jaye, a group of wise and elderly
Agnuak women. The Jaye start a peace-making movement based on information gathered
through women’s networking. The Jaye gather information about potential conflicts from
different sources, including gossips spread in the community. The Jaye quickly act upon
receiving information about, for example, a heated argument that could lead to conflict and
fighting. The Jaye call the disputing parties for a meeting to settle the dispute. A few neutral

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observers will also be invited to monitor the process of the meeting. After examining the
arguments of the two parties, the Jaye give their verdict.

Women’s institution of reconciliation: Raya-Azebo, Tigray .Elderly and highly respected

women in a village in Raya-Azebo, Tigray established a reconciliation institution called the
Debarte. The Debarte plays an important role in avoiding harms associated with the culture of
revenge. A man may kill another man in a fight. The incident would trigger the feeling of
revenge among male relatives of the murdered man. In such a tense situation, the wife of the
killer requests for the Debarte intervention. The Debarte quickly start their intervention to stop
the act of revenge. The Debarte instruct the murderer’s wife to gathering her female relatives
together.

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