Geopoymer Concrete Review

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j o u r n a l o f t r a f fi c a n d t r a n s p o r t a t i o n e n g i n e e r i n g ( e n g l i s h e d i t i o n ) x x x x ; x x x ( x x x ) : x x x
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1 ScienceDirect 66
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6 journal homepage: www.keaipublishing.com/jtte
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9 Review Article 75
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Advances in geopolymer materials: A 77
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comprehensive review 79
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17 Q4 Peiliang Cong*, Yaqian Cheng 82
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Research Center of Transportation Materials of Ministry of Education, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Chang'an
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University, Xi'an, 710064, China
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23 highlights graphical abstract
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25 Geopolymerization, the material
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26 source, and activators were
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27 summarised. 93
28 The preparation and properties of 94
29 geopolymer materials were ana- 95
30 lysed in detail. 96
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The application of geopolymer
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materials was reviewed.
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Existing restrictions on the devel-
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35 opment of the geopolymer mate-
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36 rials were summarised.
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37 Several methods of developing
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38 geopolymers were proposed.
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article info abstract
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Article history: Geopolymer is a new environment-friendly cementitious material, and the development of
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44 Received 2 September 2020 geopolymer can reduce the carbon dioxide emission caused by the development of cement
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45 Received in revised form industry. Geopolymer materials not only have excellent mechanical properties, but also
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46 18 February 2021 have a series of excellent properties such as fire resistance and corrosion resistance. Most
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47 Accepted 1 March 2021 industrial solid waste and waste incineration bottom ash are piled up at will, which not
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48 Available online xxx only occupies land resources, but also has a bad impact on the environment. Recycling 114
49 them can be used as raw materials for preparing geopolymers. Geopolymer materials can 115
50 Keywords: effectively adsorb heavy metals, dyes, and other radioactive pollution, which is very 116
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Material engineering beneficial to society's future development. However, due to the excellent properties of
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Geopolymer/alkali-activated mate- geopolymer materials, its application goes beyond that. Some useful information about
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rial geopolymer materials was introduced in this paper. The paper included the geo-
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55 Geopolymerization polymerization, the source of raw materials, the types of activators, the preparation
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56 Property methods, and the different application fields of geopolymer materials. The factors affecting
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57 the fresh properties and mechanical properties of geopolymer materials were discussed. In
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60 * Corresponding author. Tel./fax: þ86 29 8233 7349. 126
61 E-mail addresses: [email protected] (P. Cong), [email protected] (Y. Cheng). 127
62 Peer review under responsibility of Periodical Offices of Chang'an University. 128
63 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtte.2021.03.004
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64 2095-7564/© 2021 Periodical Offices of Chang'an University. Publishing services by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of KeAi Communications Co.
Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Please cite this article as: Cong, P., Cheng, Y., Advances in geopolymer materials: A comprehensive review, Journal of Traffic and
Transportation Engineering (English Edition), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtte.2021.03.004
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2 J. Traffic Transp. Eng. (Engl. Ed.) xxxx; xxx (xxx): xxx
1 Application this paper, the shortcomings and application limitations of geopolymer materials were 66
2 Existing restriction summarized, and their progress was summarized to lay a theoretical foundation for the 67
3 long-term development of geopolymer materials. 68
4 © 2021 Periodical Offices of Chang'an University. Publishing services by Elsevier B.V. on 69
5 behalf of KeAi Communications Co. Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC- 70
6 ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
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12 leaching of toxic ingredients into the soil or water poses a 77
13 1. Introduction significant threat to the environment (Dindi et al., 2019). In 78
14 2017, China's cumulative RM emissions exceeded 3.5 million 79
15 Geopolymers, as inorganic polymer materials, are also known tons, while the utilization rate of RM was only 5.24% (Li 80
16 as alkali-activated materials (AAMs). Geopolymers can take et al., 2018). The massive accumulation of RM occupies land 81
17 natural materials and waste products as the primary raw 82
resources, even causes ecological severe environmental
18 materials synthesized by alkali or acid activation reaction. 83
problems such as surface water, groundwater pollution, and
19 Common raw materials and their abbreviations are shown in 84
20 soil alkalization (Yang et al., 2019; Zhao et al., 2020d). By 85
Table 1. Geopolymers have the advantages of fire resistance, 2017, China's urban household garbage collection reached
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chemical corrosion resistance, high mechanical strength, 205.468 million tons, most of which will be disposed of in
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and excellent durability (Aiken et al., 2018; Aliques-Granero
23 landfills and incineration (Zhang et al., 2020d). There is no 88
24 et al., 2019; Lahoti et al., 2019; Liu et al., 2020c; Shill et al., doubt that these wastes will cause soil pollution, water 89
25 2020; Vafaei et al., 2018). Since the early 1980s, geopolymer pollution, and air pollution. The application of geopolymer 90
26 materials have been considered substitutes for Ordinary 91
27 Portland Cement (OPC), mainly because of their low carbon 92
28 dioxide emissions and performance advantages. 93
29 Researchers successfully prepare the geopolymer coating Table 1 e Common materials and their abbreviation. 94
30 with excellent properties such as high strength, artificial 95
Material Abbreviation
31 ageing resistance, high-temperature resistance, and good 96
32 Metakaolin e 97
processing performance, which can be used as coatings for
33 Clay e 98
lightweight polystyrene boards for walls, roofs, and
34 Laterite e 99
35 partitions (Abdel-Ghani et al., 2019; Lyu et al., 2019). Mullite e 100
36 According to the study of Wang et al. (2016), the tektite Diatomite e 101
geopolymer satisfies all performance requirements for lunar Fly ash FA
37 102
Red mud RM
38 building materials: high-temperature and low-temperature 103
Silica fume SF
39 cycling, vacuum stability, almost zero water consumption, 104
Volcanic ash VA
40 excellent mechanical properties. Due to its excellent 105
Steel slag STS
41 properties, geopolymer materials have attracted full 106
Sewage sludge ash SSA
42 attention as a promising material for building restoration Cassava peel ash CPA
107
43 Rice husk ash RHA 108
since its discovery. Geopolymers have been used at the
44 Coal gangue CG 109
commercial airport, and in mainline railway sleepers in
45 Ceramic grog CEG 110
Australia; geopolymers can also be used for degraded
46 Glass powder GP 111
47 concrete repair of rigid pavement in military bases (Shill 112
Glass wool residue GWR
48 et al., 2020). In recent years, geopolymers have been used to Iron ore tailing IOT 113
49 immobilise hazardous metals. Studies have shown that the Kaolin e 114
50 leaching behaviour of several hazardous metals by alkali- Zeolite e 115
51 activated municipal solid waste incineration fly ash Bentonite 116
52 (MSWIFA) was successfully inhibited, and the leaching rate Halloysite e 117
53 was well within the Chinese standard (Liu et al., 2020b). So
Bauxite e 118
54 geopolymers not only turn waste into treasure but are also
High calcium fly ash HCFA 119
55 Ground granulated blast furnace slag GGBS 120
environmentally friendly. Olive biomass fly ash OBFA
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Recently, sustainable development has been advocated all Olive biomass bottom ash OBBA
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58 over the world, which requires us to use natural resources as Drinking water treatment residual DWTR
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little as possible. With the development of modernization, the High-magnesium nickel slag HMNS
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discharge of industrial hazardous solid wastes such as fly ash Electrolytic manganese dioxide residue EMDR
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Palm oil fuel ash POFA
61 (FA), slags, and red mud (RM) and the pollution of heavy 126
Pyroclastic flow deposit PFD
62 metals, dyes, and drugs, have aroused people's concern. The Calcium carbide residue CCR
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63 global annual output of FA is estimated to be between 71 Bauxite ore tailing BOT 128
64 million tons and 1 billion tons. Much FA disposed of in land Municipal solid waste incineration fly ash MSWIFA 129
65 fillers or ash ponds, and entrainment of particles in the air and Red clay brick waste RCBW 130
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J. Traffic Transp. Eng. (Engl. Ed.) xxxx; xxx (xxx): xxx 3
1 materials can effectively solve the above problems. At It shows that activators play a vital role in geo- 66
2 present, there are many researches on mixed-base polymerization in Fig. 1. The concentration of 10 M NaOH led 67
3 geopolymers. On the one hand, all kinds of raw materials to the highest dissolution rate of Si4þ and Al3þ ions in 68
4 complement each other; on the other hand, they can aluminosilicate materials compared with the lower NaOH 69
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effectively reduce the consumption of natural resources. concentration, which led to a higher degree of
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Some applications and properties of geopolymers have geopolymerization (Prasanphan et al., 2019; Zhang et al.,
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been discussed by scholars at home and abroad, but the dis- 2012a, 2013). The curing temperature is of great importance
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9 cussion is not comprehensive enough at present. This paper to the geopolymerization. The dissolution of raw materials is 74
10 aims to review the synthesis and preparation of geopolymer accelerated with the temperature, and the faster occurrence 75
11 materials, the factors affecting the properties of geopolymer of amorphous phase peak in XRD pattern indicates that the 76
12 materials, and the multifunctional applications of geo- higher temperature is favorable for geopolymerization 77
13 polymers. The development status of geopolymer materials is (Zhang et al., 2018a). 78
14 also described. Based on the existing shortcomings and 79
15 application limitations of geopolymers, the progress of the 80
16 solution is summarized to lay a theoretical foundation for the 81
17 3. The material source 82
long-term development of geopolymers.
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19 3.1. Natural materials 84
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21 2. Geopolymerization 3.1.1. Clay and clay minerals 86
22 Clay is a widely distributed natural mineral resource. It is an 87
23 Geopolymers are synthesized by the geopolymerization of aluminosilicate salt with very small particles (<2 mm). It is a 88
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aluminosilicate materials dissolved in the alkali activator so- cohesive and malleable earthy rock. Clay is a kind of layered
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lution at room temperature or high temperature, forming an silicate, the layer of silicon oxygen tetrahedron and alumina
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amorphous phase and three-dimensional silicoaluminate octahedral composition. Because of its composition charac-
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28 network structure (Palomoa et al., 1999; Ren et al., 2017; Silva teristics, it has been used as a precursor for preparing geo- 93
29 et al., 2007). Although researchers have different ideas about polymers, and commonly used clay minerals include kaolin, 94
30 the reaction mechanism that occurs during zeolite, and so on. 95
31 geopolymerization, most hold that the geopolymerization Kaolin, also known as dolomite, is white and fine, soft clay, 96
32 can be divided into three main stages (Duxson et al., 2007; with good plasticity and fire resistance. Metakaolin (MK) is an 97
33 Provis and Deventer, 2007; Prud'homme et al., 2011; Ren anhydrous aluminum silicate formed by dehydration from 98
34 et al., 2017; Silva et al., 2007). kaolin at an appropriate temperature (600 Ce900 C). It shows 99
35 the common MK (Fig. 2 (c) and (g)), and MK has been 100
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(1) The dissolution of aluminosilicate materials in the extensively used in the preparation of geopolymers. The
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concentrated alkali solution forms the free silica and MK-based geopolymers display thermal insulating properties
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39 the alumina tetrahedron unit. (Prud'homme et al., 2011; Sellami et al., 2019), high 104
40 (2) The transfer, solidification/gelation of materials, the compressive strength and bonding strength (Duan et al., 105
41 condensation reaction of alumina and silica hydroxyl to 2016), and so on. Due to the excellent mechanical properties 106
42 form the inorganic geopolymer gel phase. At this stage, of MK-based geopolymers, many researchers have mixed 107
43 water is discharged from the structure due to the hy- other substances to the system to reduce costs and maintain 108
44 drolysis process. excellent performance, while achieving resource reuse (Cai 109
45 (3) As the gel phase hardens, it condenses to form a three- et al., 2020; Huseien et al., 2018; Istuque et al., 2019). And the 110
46 dimensional network of silicoaluminate that forms a study synthesizes kaolinite-based porous geopolymer 111
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geopolymer. materials, which have the dual functions of reducing heat
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Fig. 1 e Schematic representation of the formation of geopolymer materials (Zhang et al., 2018a). (a) Geopolymer precursor.
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(b) Geopolymer backbone.
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1 3.1.2. Laterite soil 66

2 Laterite is a mineral rich in aluminosilicates, iron and 67
3 aluminum. Most of the laterite is reddish-brown and has been 68
4 used for a long time as a traditional brick, road, and building 69
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because of its strong resistance to corrosion. Recently there is
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a new trend in geopolymer production based on lateritic,
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8 which has high mechanical strength (Mathew and Issac, 2020; 73
9 Subaer et al., 2019). Moreover, the chemical composition of 74
10 laterite contains excellent molar oxidation ratio (SiO2/ 75
11 (Al2O3þFe2O3)), which is used as raw material for the 76
12 geopolymer type Na-poly (sialate-siloxo). The molar oxide 77
13 ratio of silica to alumina significantly affects the 78
14 microstructure and mechanical properties of the laterite 79
15 geopolymer (Subaer et al., 2016). In addition, high strength 80
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geopolymers are prepared by mixing laterite with other solid
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wastes. Laterite and mixed laterite-slag geopolymer have
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good application prospects in non-load-bearing building
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20 materials (Lemougna et al., 2017). 85
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22 3.1.3. Others 87
23 Natural minerals are precursors to geopolymers, the most 88
24 common of which are bentonite, mullite, halloysite, diato- 89
25 mite, bauxite, etc. Some of their chemical compositions are 90
26 shown in Table 1, and they are obviously aluminosilicate 91
27 materials. Due to the low amorphous content of some 92
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natural minerals, which leads to insufficient activity, some
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of them need to undergo high-temperature pretreatment
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31 and mechanical activation treatment, etc. In future research, 96
32 geopolymer materials need to be developed in a low energy 97
33 consumption way. 98
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36 3.2. Waste products 101
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38 3.2.1. Fly ash 103
39 Fly ash is an industrial by-product produced by burning coal, 104
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which is generally divided into class F, and class C. The
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burning of bituminous coal produces a common type of fly ash
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43 with a very low CaO content, known as class F fly ash (FFA). 108
Fig. 2 e The common raw materials and their
44 Lignite and sub-bituminous coal are also used as new power 109
micromorphology. (a) FA, raw material. (b) Slag, raw
45 fuels to produce class C fly ash (CFA) with high calcium con- 110
material. (c) MK, raw material. (d) RM, raw material. (e) FA,
46 micromorphology. (f) Slag, micromorphology. (g) MK,
tent (Guo et al., 2017). It shows the common FA in Fig. 2(a) and 111
47 (e). FFA composition is similar to that of natural volcanic ash 112
micromorphology. (h) RM, micromorphology (Cai et al.,
48 (Temuujin et al., 2019). As commonly used raw materials for 113
2020; Liu et al., 2020d; Singh et al., 2020).
49 preparing geopolymers, fly ash is a readily available by- 114
50 product globally, whose microscopic shape is fine spherical 115
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particles (Rashad and Alaa, 2015). The high freeeCaO con-
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transfer and noise (Gao et al., 2020). Recently, some scholars tent limits the application of HCFA in OPC system, and the
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have shown that 95% of natural kaolin is Rietveld, and the application of HCFA in preparing geopolymer has been beyond
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55 geopolymeric prepared by alkali excitation has a imagination (Nuaklong et al., 2018a; Phoo-ngernkham et al., 120
56 compressive strength up to 67 MPa (Pelisser et al., 2021). The 2015; Wongsa et al., 2020). Table 2 contains the chemical 121
57 use of natural kaolin instead of calcined metakaolin reduces composition of different raw materials, and the Si/Al ratios 122
58 both costs and adverse environmental impacts. of FA are FFA and CFA 1.86e3.09 and 1.82e2.52, respectively. 123
59 Zeolite is a kind of aluminosilicate mineral containing al- The use of FA dates back to the early 20th century, and FA is 124
60 kali metal or alkali earth metal, with adsorbability, ion ex- commonly added as a primary component of cement or con- 125
61 change, catalysis, acid resistance and heat resistance, etc. The crete (Scrivener et al., 2018). Replacing cement with FA is good 126
62 geopolymer prepared by alkali excitation of natural zeolite for the environment because it reduces greenhouse gas 127
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possesses the mechanical strength of geopolymer gel and re- emissions, and FA reduces construction costs. FFA has the
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tains the properties of the porous structure of zeolite (Nikolov advantages of a low price, easy availability, good spherical
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et al., 2020; Rozek et al., 2019). structure, rich in high activity aluminate and amorphous
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Table 2 e Chemical composition of different raw materials.
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3 Type Content (%) Reference 68
4 SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 CaO MgO SO3 Na2O K2O 69
5 70
6 Kaolin 46.15 49.91 0.87 0.04 0.37 0.06 0.51 1.59 Yu et al. (2020a) 71
Kaolin 44.17 36.55 1.69 0.81 0.27 1.43 2.13 Sellami et al. (2019)
7 e
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MK 58.39 35.47 2.71 0.01 0.30 1.44 Istuque et al. (2019)
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e e
MK 51.52 44.53 0.48 0.02 0.19 0.29 0.16 Villaquiran-Caicedo (2019)
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e
Laterite 6.54 37.18 32.45 0.17 0.12 e 0.06 0.26 Mathew and Issac (2020)
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Laterite 43.91 27.80 17.21 0.28 0.17 e 0.04 0.03 Mathew and Issac (2020)
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Laterite 64.48 19.01 13.74 0.10 e e e 0.63 Subaer et al. (2019)
12 Zeolite 78.680 11.680 1.120 3.430 1.120 0.017 0.440 3.080 Nikolov et al. (2020)
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13 Diatomite 80.30 6.10 6.79 1.04 0.65 0.12 0.62 0.44 Hassan et al. (2019) 78
14 Halloysite 55.50 29.08 2.55 0.02 0.02 e 0.10 0.10 Bayiha et al. (2019) 79
15 FA 55.38 28.14 3.31 3.45 1.85 0.32 2.30 1.39 Gholampour et al. (2019b) 80
16 FA 56.00 18.10 5.31 7.24 0.93 1.65 1.21 1.36 Guo and Yang (2020) 81
17 FA 65.90 24.00 2.87 1.59 0.42 e 0.49 1.44 Hu et al. (2019) 82
18 FA 47.90 25.70 14.70 4.11 1.36 0.19 0.81 0.67 Khan et al. (2019) 83
19 HCFA 37.30 14.90 16.50 17.10 3.72 2.56 1.74 1.66 Mohammed et al. (2019) 84
20 HCFA 34.00 13.5 5.0 16.5 3.1 2.8 1.5 5.5 De Rossi et al. (2019) 85
21 HCFA 36.20 19.9 11.9 14.2 1.9 3.6 e 2.4 Nuaklong et al. (2019) 86
22 GGBS 35.34 20.69 0.18 31.32 8.11 1.79 1.36 0.29 Yu et al., 2020a, b 87
23 GGBS 18.90 6.43 0.74 66.90 1.41 1.97 e 0.67 Alrefaei et al. (2019) 88
24 GGBS 28.20 9.73 0.98 52.69 2.90 1.46 e 1.22 Bouaissi et al. (2019) 89
25 GGBS 36.50 9.95 0.38 43.38 6.74 e e 0.35 Alonso et al. (2019) 90
26 RM 14.40 22.20 40.20 2.00 0.17 0.28 12.70 0.11 Li et al. (2020) 91
RM 16.51 28.05 30.32 2.22 0.70 8.70 0.26 Yang et al. (2020)
27 e
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RM 27.544 30.591 4.603 25.478 0.818 1.422 Shi et al. (2020a)
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e e
RHA 92.33 0.18 0.17 0.63 0.49 0.07 0.15 Villaquiran-Caicedo (2019)
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e
RHA 93.10 0.30 0.20 1.50 0.60 e 0.06 2.30 Liang et al. (2019)
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OBFA 12.60 2.97 2.30 20.21 4.85 4.00 1.12 26.34 Alonso et al. (2019)
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OBBA 23.61 5.41 6.12 20.61 6.02 0.80 1.29 17.31 Alonso et al. (2019)
32 VA 43.32 14.84 14.19 8.80 7.70 0.01 3.04 1.52 Baenla et al. (2019)
97
33 VA 43.0 15.0 12.0 11.0 6.8 e 4.6 1.7 Lemougna et al. (2020) 98
34 SF 87.60 0.38 0.66 0.57 3.67 e 1.26 2.36 Villaquiran-Caicedo (2019) 99
35 SF 90.0 1.2 2.0 1.0 0.6 0.5 e e Cheah et al. (2019) 100
36 CPA 22.60 19.67 9.67 10.10 2.52 4.68 0.39 14.20 Baenla et al. (2019) 101
37 SSA 38.28 20.72 11.27 5.51 1.91 4.18 0.70 0.73 Istuque et al. (2019) 102
38 STS 21.90 9.78 14.90 37.40 10.30 0.60 0.20 0.29 Guo and Yang (2020) 103
39 STS 11.90 1.23 31.85 45.72 3.16 0.22 0.03 0.03 Chen et al. (2019) 104
40 DWTR 21.246 23.100 42.004 9.358 0.581 1.231 0.279 0.384 Ji and Pei (2020) 105
41 IOT 40.0 8.7 48.9 e e e e e Defaveri et al. (2019) 106
42 GWR 43.7 17.6 12.0 19.7 e 1.3 e e Defaveri et al. (2019) 107
43 HMNS 43.22 4.35 10.34 3.45 26.15 0.28 0.23 0.18 Bouaissi et al. (2019) 108
44 WBA 21.86 7.29 2.56 29.36 2.55 4.76 2.54 3.89 Hassan et al. (2019) 109
45 WBA 0.98 1.51 1.19 44.81 3.81 1.07 1.64 6.89 Hassan et al. (2019) 110
46 CG 59.73 20.16 5.50 1.96 1.01 e 0.23 2.52 Huang et al. (2018) 111
CEG 53.77 42.75 1.25 0.10 0.16 0.60 Kovarik et al. (2017)
47 e e
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POFA 64.20 4.25 3.13 10.20 5.90 0.09 0.10 8.64 Huseien et al. (2016)
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GP 58.37 3.94 11.15 2.85 0.49 8.75 4.66 Cristelo et al. (2019)
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e
MSWIFA 4.17 0.97 1.05 44.40 1.08 6.58 10.00 5.13 Liu et al. (2020b)
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CCR 3.19 1.24 0.24 63.35 0.16 0.64 0.28 0.01 Bilondi et al. (2018)
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RCBW 60.31 15.61 7.72 5.6 3.05 e 0.56 4.48 Mahmoodi et al. (2020)
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silicate, etc. Geopolymers of high strength can be easily substitute for OPC after grinding due to its amorphous
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56 produced in an alkali activator solution (Gupta et al., 2017; nature, high hardness and pozzolanic activity (Jiang et al., 121
57 Schmücker and Mackenzie, 2005). 2020; Silva et al., 2020). In Table 2, GGBS is one of the 122
58 common raw materials for geopolymers, and the Si/Al ratio 123
59 3.2.2. Blast furnace slag of GGBS is 1.71e3.67. GGBS is highly reactive to the synthesis 124
60 Blast furnace slag (BFS) is a by-product of ironmaking, which of geopolymers, and it is possible to obtain a good reaction 125
61 can be obtained at approximately 1500 C (Amran et al., 2020). rate at a temperature as low as 0 C (Lemougna et al., 2020). 126
62 And BFS is also often referred to as slag. It shows the common When slag is used as a cement substitute, less heat is 127
63 slag in Fig. 2(b) and (f). Depending on the cooling conditions, produced during hydration, reducing cracking risk (Salvador 128
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the BFS cooled in water, also known as ground granulated et al., 2019). GGBS can be used to improve the porosity, the
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blast furnace slag (GGBS), is mainly used as a partial long-term strength, resistance to sulfate and alkali silicate
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1 reactivity of concrete, and reduce the water demand, compressive strength is up to 40e85 MPa (Lee and Kang, 66
2 permeability and hydration heat of the concrete (Amran 2016). According to the chemical composition distribution of 67
3 et al., 2020; Li and Yi, 2020). geopolymer precursor in Table 2, it is clear that the raw 68
4 materials for the discovery of geopolymers are rich in silica 69
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3.2.3. Red mud and aluminium, and the content of calcium oxide cannot be
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Red mud is a by-product of the Bayer process used in indus- ignored.
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trial aluminium refining. It shows the common RM in Fig. 2(d) In summary, the raw materials can be a natural mineral of
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9 and (h). Under high temperature and high-pressure the aluminosilicate category, which contains silicon, 74
10 conditions, the Bayer process dissolves the soluble part of aluminium, oxygen, and other potential elements. The proper 75
11 bauxite with sodium hydroxide. Inevitably, a small amount raw materials should have amorphous characteristics and 76
12 of sodium hydroxide used in this process remains in the RM, outstanding ability to easily release aluminium (Sumesh et al., 77
13 resulting in high pH value (Nie et al., 2019). Using RM in the 2017). 78
14 form of mud saves the time or energy required for mud 79
15 drying; it reduces the total amount of alkali activator by 80
16 taking advantage of the high alkalinity of RM, thus further 4. Types of activators 81
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reducing the cost of the geopolymer production (Yang et al.,
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2019). For FA-based geopolymers, the optimal replacement 4.1. Alkali activators
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20 value of RM is different, relative to NaOH concentration and 85
21 curing conditions (Yeddula and Karthiyaini, 2020). And the Numerous data have shown that geopolymer materials are 86
22 study shows that the geopolymer mixed with RM has higher generally activated by alkali activators. Alkaline activators 87
23 strength and durability (Liu et al., 2020d). include both liquid and solid. However, highly corrosive al- 88
24 kalis are rarely used as activators and are gradually replaced 89
25 3.2.4. Biomass ash and waste incineration bottom ash by different solid activators. 90
26 Rice husk ash (RHA) is a by-product of burning rice husks. Na2SiO3 and NaOH have been widely used as activators in 91
27 Agricultural waste rich in silica, such as RHA, is considered a previous studies. Sodium waterglass was used as an activator 92
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clean alternative to improve geopolymers' properties (Tosti to produce MK-based geopolymer, with its compressive
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et al., 2018). The use of RHA in geopolymer concrete can strength up to 63.8 MPa (Tchakoute and Ruscher, 2017). Using
30 95
reduce the consumption of nano-SiO2 and help reduce the solid Na2CO3 and hydrated lime as activators of BFS-SF based
31 96
32 pollution problems caused by the disposal of RHA in geopolymer, the strength of about 50 and 85 MPa was obtained 97
33 landfills, especially in rice-producing countries (Nuaklong in 28 d at curing temperatures of 25 C and 85 C, respectively 98
34 et al., 2020). RHA has been widely used in self-compacting (Kovtun et al., 2015). The use of Na2SiO3$5H2O solid activator, 99
35 geopolymer concrete due to its high reactivity inspired by due to part of the water in the mixing phase with the 100
36 high silicon content and ultra-high specific surface area undissolved particles of sodium metasilicate pentahydrate 101
37 (Raisi et al., 2018). And sugarcane bagasse ash is an chemical combination, reduce the water-binder ratio, mortar 102
38 industrial by-product, which has been used by many compressive strength is significantly better than the 103
39 researchers as a feedstock for volcanic ash materials rich in commonly used liquid activator (Dong et al., 2020; Hadi 104
40 105
alumina and silicates (Yadav et al., 2020). et al., 2019). Na2CO3 and Na2SiO3 are activators, which
41 106
Bottom ash is the main by-product of municipal solid significantly increased the final setting time of the
42 107
43 waste incineration. The bottom ash with a small particle size geopolymers, and compressive strength decreased with 108
44 is high in heavy metals (Maldonado-Alameda et al., 2020). The Na2CO3 content; and the composite activator activated 109
45 bottom ash has recently been increasingly recycled as geopolymer is cleaner than the single Na2SiO3 or Na2CO3 110
46 building binders and concrete (Nagrockiene and Daugela, activated geopolymer (Ma et al., 2019a, b). Sodium sulfate as 111
47 2018; Nuaklong et al., 2020). Besides, the bottom ash from an activator significantly affect the early strength of FA- 112
48 the combustion of municipal sewage sludge is used in based geopolymer, but it has a different impact on FA with 113
49 concrete with a 10%e15% dosage, which can achieve higher high Fe2O3 content (Velandia et al., 2016). 114
50 strength compared with concrete without adding bottom Sodium and potassium-based alkali activators are the most 115
51 116
ash (Rutkowska et al., 2018). commonly used alkali activators. Previous studies have
52 117
shown that the activation efficiency of sodium-based alkali
53 118
3.2.5. Other raw materials activators is higher than that of potassium-based activators
54 119
55 Fly ash, BFS, RM, the materials such as RHA as the primary for FFA (Helmy, 2016). However, Singh et al. (2015) found that 120
56 biomass ash all showed high silica and alumina content, the use of potassium compounds in geopolymer systems 121
57 which are suitable for the supplementary materials as gelling showed higher alkalinity than NaOH. Solid potassium 122
58 materials. Also, the most commonly used materials are steel carbonate is used as an effective solid activator (Askarian 123
59 slag (STS), silica fume (SF), volcanic ash (VA), waste glass (WG), et al., 2018). 124
60 coal gangue (CG), high-magnesium nickel slag (HMNS), etc. Researchers demonstrated the effectiveness of lithium 125
61 Their chemical composition is referred to in Table 2. The hydroxide solution as an alkali initiator, lithium can be coated 126
62 waste catalyst residue discharged from various industrial with geopolymer particles to reduce the dissolution of active 127
63 128
products contains abundant silicon and aluminium silica, and the chance that dissolved active silica will form ASR
64 129
elements and amorphous structure, which can be used to gel (Chen et al., 2012; Taha and Nounu, 2008). In addition, it
65 130
synthetic geopolymers; and the measured value of its has been studied that a variety of activators are mixed to
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1 prepare the FA-slag based geopolymer, such as lithium to handle by avoiding the use of dangerous alkali solutions. 66
2 hydroxide and other activators (such as calcium oxide, Firstly, all dry ingredients, including the precursor material 67
3 sodium aluminate, calcium aluminate and lithium and the solid activator, are dried at a slow speed and mixed 68
4 carbonate), whose strength can reach 38 MPa in 28 d evenly. Then the water is gradually added to the mixture 69
5 70
(Askarian et al., 2019). while stirring at a slow speed (Alrefaei et al., 2019; Dong et al.,
6 71
NaAlO2 is an interesting base source because it also pro- 2020). For two-part geopolymers, the activator is prepared
7 72
vides supplemental active aluminium (Helmboldt et al., 2007). 24 h prior to mixing. Next, the prepared alkali solution is
8 73
9 Therefore, it is particularly important to choose activators mixed with additional water. Then, the liquid components 74
10 according to the characteristics of raw materials. were added to the dry mixture and continued to stir until 75
11 Solid waste and organic incineration ash can be used as uniform (Defaveri et al., 2019; Dong et al., 2020; Hadi et al., 76
12 activators. NeAeS and NeAeSeH gel are mainly formed from 2018; Huseien et al., 2016). Finally, the newly prepared 77
13 alkali-activated low-calcium precursor and waste glass acti- mixture is gradually poured into the mould through 78
14 vator, while CeSeH and CeAeSeH gel are mainly production vibration casting, sealed with polyethene film, and then 79
15 of alkali-activated high-calcium material and waste glass released after 24 h for curing according to actual needs 80
16 activator (Liu et al., 2019). Olive oil biomass ash can be used as (Alrefaei et al., 2019; Han et al., 2018; Kovarik et al., 2017a,b; 81
17 82
an alkali activator in BFS-based geopolymer (Alonso et al., Lemougna et al., 2020; Wongsa et al., 2020; Zhou et al.,
18 83
2019). 2020). However, plastic film is not always required to
19 84
20 prepare geopolymers. Therefore, the need for your own 85
21 4.2. Acidic activators research should be taken into account when deciding 86
22 whether to include plastic mulch in the treatment process. 87
23 Most of the geopolymers are activated by alkali activators, but And Fig. 3 shows the preparation process of two-part 88
24 some are activated by acidic activators. The MK-based geo- geopolymers succinctly. 89
25 polymer was produced by using a phosphoric acid solution as In recent years, more and more researches have been done 90
26 an activator, which has high compressive strength up to on porous geopolymers. Porous geopolymers have the ad- 91
27 93.8 MPa (Shuai et al., 2020; Tchakoute and Ruscher, 2017). vantages of lightweight, fire resistance, absorptivity, and so 92
28 93
Another study also showed that acid-base geopolymers have on. The most common synthetic routes for preparing geo-
29 94
higher temperature resistance (up to 1450 C) and better polymer foams are the incorporation of a foaming agent
30 95
mechanical properties than alkali-base geopolymers (hydrogen peroxide, fine metal powder, etc.) into the geo-
31 96
32 (Celerier et al., 2019). The consolidation study of phosphate polymer paste, or the direct addition of bubbles through the 97
33 base geopolymer samples with different Si/Al and Al/P use of prefabricated foams (e.g., making air prepared by 98
34 shows that the consolidation effects of Al-rich, Si-rich, and diluted surfactants) or foam concentrates; and method of 99
35 P-poor components are better (Celerier et al., 2018). Sellami producing geopolymer foam is the use of sacrificial fillers 100
36 reported that a novel phosphoric acid-base geopolymer with where pores are created through the extraction/removal of 101
37 a conductivity of no more than 107 s cm1 at high the fillers; another recent and less studied approach to the 102
38 temperatures could be used as a good and stable insulator production of porous geopolymers is through additive 103
39 (Sellami et al., 2019). manufacturing. The technique can produce complex struc- 104
40 105
tures with controlled size and pore distribution (Bai and
41 106
Colombo, 2018; Novais et al., 2020). Microwave energy
42 107
43 5. Preparation method of geopolymers proved to be an effective method for synthesizing 108
44 geopolymers due to its rapid and penetrating heating 109
45 According to the previous preparation methods of geo- characteristics, and microwave energy promotes additional 110
46 polymers, most of them are divided into two types. Due to the geopolymerization by evaporating excess free water, 111
47 state of activators, one is the preparation of one-part geo- enabling geopolymers to reach higher strength in a shorter 112
48 polymers, and the other is the preparation of two-part geo- time (Hong and Kim, 2019; Kastiukas et al., 2020; 113
49 polymers. For the one-part geopolymers, activators are easier Samantasinghar and Singh, 2020). 114
50 115
51 116
52 117
53 118
54 119
55 120
56 121
57 122
58 123
59 124
60 125
61 126
62 127
63 128
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Fig. 3 e The preparation of two-part geopolymers.
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1 geopolymers also can be improved by adding a certain 66

2 6. Properties of geopolymer materials amount of superplasticizer; when the concentration of alkali 67
3 activator is high, there is no obvious effect on improving the 68
4 The cement industry pollutes the atmosphere, while geo- freshness and hardening performance of geopolymer mortar 69
5 polymers are favoured by researchers because of their unique 70
(Laskar and Talukdar, 2018).
6 cleanness. The application of geopolymer mortar can be said 71
There are also many studies on the fiber reinforced geo-
7 to be the most studied. And geopolymer concrete is an inno- 72
polymers, and the addition of fiber has affected the work-
8 vative and sustainable development of engineering materials, 73
9 ability of the geopolymers. The flow value of geopolymer 74
comparing with OPC, has many advantages. It is obvious that mortar containing natural fibers and synthetic fibers
10 75
the properties of geopolymers depend on many factors. This
11 compared to control geopolymer mortar, which indicates that 76
12 article will summarize the geopolymer mortar and geo- the use of all fibers significantly reduces the flowability of the 77
13 polymer concrete new mixing performance, hardening per- geopolymers (Gulsan et al., 2019; Wongsa et al., 2020). The 78
14 formance, and microstructure analysis. The factors affecting results showed that the polyester fiber had a greater effect 79
15 the physical and mechanical properties of geopolymers are on the workability of geopolymers than that of high strength 80
16 discussed below. steel fiber (Bhutta et al., 2019). 81
17 82
The type and amount of alkali activators are important pa-
18 83
6.1. The fresh performance and influencing factors of rameters affecting the freshness and hardening of geo-
19 84
20 geopolymer materials polymers. In terms of activators, anhydrous sodium 85
21 metasilicate has better fluidity than other activators (Oderji 86
22 6.1.1. Workability et al., 2019). Different activators have different viscosity, 87
23 This particle shape of raw materials has an essential influence which will affect the viscosity of geopolymers. Moreover, with 88
24 on the workability of geopolymers. The particle size reduction the increase of the viscosity of the activator solution, the 89
25 of FA improves the fineness of FA and the workability of workability of mortar shows the same decreasing trend 90
26 geopolymers (Jamkar et al., 2013; Leong et al., 2016). But slag- (Oliveira et al., 2018). For example, Mehta and Siddique 91
27 based geopolymer materials due to particle shape is reported that Na2SiO3 alone as an alkali activator, without the 92
28 93
irregular, provide the poor machinability. Moreover, the addition of NaOH, the slump of the geopolymer concrete
29 94
reaction products of the FA-based geopolymer are mainly significantly reduced, which may be caused by the high
30 95
NeCeAeSeH gel. In FA-slag based geopolymer, it is rich in viscosity of Na2SiO3 (Mehta and Siddique, 2016). Another
31 96
32 aluminium CeSeH gel. Compared with the FA-based study showed that the slump in geopolymer concrete 97
33 geopolymer, the slag-based geopolymer make the structure increased with the rate of SiO2/Na2O in Na2SiO3 solution 98
34 more compact, less not reaction particles, so the FA-slag (Umniati et al., 2017). Similarly, the results showed that the 99
35 based geopolymer has lower workability (Askarian et al., slump and workability of geopolymer concrete decreased with 100
36 2019). As shown in Fig. 4. Another study mentioned that the molality of sodium hydroxide (Lokuge et al., 2018; Mehta 101
37 because the activator solution reacts with GGBS much faster et al., 2017). However, in other studies, with the increase of 102
38 than FA, the fluidity of geopolymer mortar will be reduced NaOH concentration in the alkali activator solution, the 103
39 workability of geopolymer concrete prepared from different 104
when the percentage of GGBS is relatively high (Gholampour
40 105
et al., 2019a). sources of FA was improved (Pandurangan et al., 2018;
41 106
However, the workability of the geopolymers was improved Saravanan et al., 2019). When NaOH content is less than 10%,
42 107
43 when researchers. replaced GGBS with MK (Huseien et al., with the increase of NaOH content, the formation of SieOeNa 108
44 2018). Besides, some studies have shown that the addition of bond leads to the change of aluminosilicate gel, and the 109
45 silicon powder or calcium carbonate auxiliary materials can elastic properties of fresh geopolymer paste are significantly 110
46 improve the workability of geopolymers (Elchalakani et al., improved; the higher content of NaOH and the better the 111
47 2018; Xie and Fang, 2019). The workability of GGBS-FA based rheological property of geopolymer (Zhang et al., 2018a, 2019). 112
48 113
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Fig. 4 e Results of FA replacement with GGBS. (a) Flow diameter (Oderji et al., 2019); (b) Flow of NS (natural sand), LSS (lead
65 130
smelter slag) and GS (glass sand) (Gholampour et al., 2019a).
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1 The aggregate of the geopolymers has a great impact on its to be set very slowly (Askarian et al., 2019). A solid alkali 66
2 workability. When researchers used construction and demo- source is very suitable for making one-part AAMs; the result 67
3 lition waste (CDW) instead of natural sand, the fluidity of indicated that setting time of AAMs was successfully 68
4 geopolymer mortar in the fresh state was poor compared with extended to at least 5 h by using the solid activator (the 69
5 70
that prepared by natural sand, which may be due to the high honeycomb ceramic absorb water glass) (Liu et al., 2020a).
6 71
water absorption rate of CDW, leading to poor dispersion of However, compared with the geopolymer mortar without
7 72
CDW (De Rossi et al., 2019). The same situation (Gholampour NaOH, the geopolymer mortar activated by the solution
8 73
9 et al., 2019a), as a result of the experiment using natural containing NaOH and Na2SiO3 has a shorter setting time, 74
10 sand particles angle, which is smaller than lead smelter slag and the use of Na2SiO3 solution increases the setting time 75
11 (LSS) and the angle of the glass sand (GS) pellet form, (Huseien et al., 2016). Researchers found that the setting 76
12 containing LSS mortar because of its cellular surface showed time of FA-based geopolymers was effectively extended with 77
13 the highest bibulous rate, followed by the slurry containing the decrease in the molar concentration of NaOH (Antoni 78
14 natural sand and GS. And geopolymer mortar containing et al., 2017; Zailani et al., 2020). This is consistent with Fig. 5, 79
15 natural sand showed the highest liquidity (Yeddula and but increasing the molarity of NaOH will cause the increase 80
16 Karthiyaini, 2020). And the workability of geopolymer of the final setting time of FAS-based and FASS-based 81
17 82
concrete also improved with the FA/sand ratio (Umniati geopolymer mortar (Elyamany et al., 2018).
18 83
et al., 2017).
19 84
20 6.2. Factor affecting the geopolymer properties 85
21 6.1.2. Setting time 86
22 Due to the irregular shape of slag particles, the workability of Tables 3 and 4 show the compressive strength of geopolymers 87
23 slag-based geopolymer is poor, and the high slag content can prepared by some materials. Their strength depends on raw 88
24 accelerate the initial and final setting (Hadi et al., 2019; Jindal, materials, activators, curing conditions, etc. Recently, geo- 89
25 2019; Saha and Rajasekaran, 2017). The use of GGBS and SF can polymers mainly composed of FA, slag, and MK. Due to the 90
26 reduce the setting time of geopolymers, while alternative lack of sodium silicate, some scholars use potassium silicate 91
27 materials also have similar effects such as RHA, HCFA, MK, and potassium hydroxide as activators. High temperature 92
28 93
and RM (Elyamany et al., 2018; Ganeshan and 60 C-100 C curing for a reasonable time, the early strength of
29 94
Venkataraman, 2017). The optimal SF content of the FA-slag the geopolymer materials is relatively high. The strength of
30 95
based geopolymer is 4% of the total binder weight (Cheah geopolymer materials prepared by Na2SiO3 was improved at
31 96
32 et al., 2019). Hence, volcanic ash can also be used to extend room temperature (Alrefaei et al., 2019; Hadi et al., 2019). 97
33 the setting time of slag-based geopolymer to a reasonable According to the data in Tables 3 and 4, Fig. 6 is drawn in 98
34 value (Lemougna et al., 2020). Except as the morphological order to briefly indicate the relationship between the early 99
35 characteristics, the chemical composition of raw materials compressive strength of geopolymers and curing 100
36 also affects the setting time of geopolymers. The increase of temperature. In Fig. 6, Tables 3 and 4, Nap means Na2SiO3 101
37 calcium oxide ratio in the mixture reduces the setting time powder, PS means potassium silicates, PA means phosphoric 102
38 of the geopolymer mortar (Huseien et al., 2016, 2018). acid, CH means calcium hydroxide, LH means lithium 103
39 Different activators generate geopolymers with different 104
hydroxide, PH means potassium hydroxide, SS/SH ratio
40 105
fresh properties. Geopolymer concrete activated by NaOH means ratio of Na2SiO3 to NaOH, L/B means liquid-to-binder
41 106
alone without Na2SiO3 as an alkali activator has a distinct ratio, w/b means water-to-binder ratio, L/S means liquid-to-
42 107
43 effect of delaying setting time (Laskar and Talukdar, 2017). solid ratio, * means geopolymer paste. It shows that 108
44 Similarly, the use of sodium oxide causes the geopolymers different raw materials, activators, or curing temperatures 109
45 110
46 111
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61 126
62 127
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64 129
65 130
Fig. 5 e Setting time of FA-based geopolymers vs. NaOH molarity, adapt from Elyamany et al. (2018) and Zailani et al. (2020).
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Table 3 e Compressive strength of geopolymer under different conditions.
2 67
3 Aluminosilicate precursor Activator L/B ratio Curing time & temperature Compressive strength (MPa) 68
4 7d 28 d 69
5 70

6 *HCFA (Mohammed et al., 2019) NAp 0.25 25 C 50.00 71
*FA þ GGBS (Alrefaei et al., 2019) NAp 0.40 25 C 74.40
7 72
*FA þ GGBS þ HMNS (Bouaissi et al., 2019) SS þ SH 0.50 25 C 76.57
8 73
*FA þ Bauxite (Wang et al., 2020) SS þ SH 0.25 80 C for 12 h 45.54
9 74
*FA þ OPC (Zailani et al., 2020) SS þ SH 0.50 24 C 76.50
10 75
*VA þ GGBS (Lemougna et al., 2020) SS þ SH 0.42 25 C 85.00
11 76
*Clay (Bayiha et al., 2019) SS þ SH 0.78 24 C 47.77
12 *Halloysite (Zhang et al., 2020a) PA 1.30 80 C for 2d 65.0
77
13 FA (Kaur et al., 2018b) SS þ SH 80 C for 1d 40.42 78
14 FA (Hadi et al., 2018) SS þ SH 0.50 25 C 67.0 79
15 FA (Bhutta et al., 2019) SS þ SH 0.50 80 C for 4h 52.75 80
16 HCFA þ FA (Nuaklong et al., 2019) SS þ SH 0.50 60 C for 2d 52.5 81
17 FA þ GGBS (Hadi et al., 2019) NA 0.31 23 C 105.00 82
18 FA þ GGBS þ SF (Elyamany et al., 2018) SS þ SH 0.35 90 C for 2d 47.0 83
19 GGBS þ MK þ RHA (Sharmin et al., 2017) SS þ SH 0.50 65 C for 1d 47.90 84
20 CG þ GGBS (Huang et al., 2018) SS þ SH 0.50 20 C 57.83 85
21 MK þ GGBS (Huseien et al., 2018) SS þ SH 0.65 27 C 47.84 86
22 PFD þ GGBS (Katpady et al., 2020) SS þ SH 0.40 20 C 69.77 87
23 MK þ CEG (Kovarik et al., 2017a,b) PS 0.80 22 C 97.00 88
24 FA þ Nano-MK (Kaur et al., 2018a) SS þ SH 0.30 70 C for 1d 45.0 89
25 MK þ RHA (Liang et al., 2019) SS þ SH 0.70 50 C 56.60 90
26 RM þ FA (Yeddula and Karthiyaini, 2020) SS þ SH 0.45 27 C 32.70 91
CPA þ VA (Baenla et al., 2019) SS þ SH 0.47 25 C 25.00
27 92
BOT þ GGBS (Ye et al., 2017) SH 0.50 20 C 50.00
28 93
IOT (Defaveri et al., 2019) SH 0.27 100 C 112.8
29 94
EMDR (Han et al., 2018) PA 0.80 80 C for 2d 96.3 (2 d)
30 95
31 96
32 97
33 Table 4 e Compressive strength of geopolymer concrete. 98
34 Aluminosilicate Activator L/B ratio Slump Density Curing time & Compressive 99
35 precursor (mm) (kg/m3) temperature strength 100
36 (MPa) (28 d) 101
37 102
GGBS (Zannerni et al., 2020) SH 0.35 2249 25 C 36.0
38 GGBS (Bondar et al., 2018) SS þ SH 0.55 (w/b) 240 2420 23
C 64.4
103
39 FA þ GGBS (Askarian et al., 2019) SS þ CH þ LH 0.45 1680 25
C 38.0 104
40 FA þ GGBS (Hu et al., 2019) SS þ SH 130 2432 75
Cfor 1 d 52.3 105
41 HCFA þ RHA (Nuaklong et al., 2020) SS þ SH 721 25
C 38.1 106
42 GGBS þ RHA (Mehta and Siddique, 2018) SS þ SH 0.55 80
Cfor 1 d 59.7 (3 d) 107
43 FA (Al-Azzawi et al., 2018) SS þ SH 100 70
Cfor 1 d 64.0 (7 d) 108
44 MK þ FA þ SF (Zhang et al., 2020b) PS þ PH 25
C 80.7 109
45 110
46 111
47 112
48 are used, and the geopolymers prepared by mixing FA with 6.2.1. Raw materials 113
49 some slag have generally higher strength than the FA-based As one of the most common raw materials, the particle size of 114
50 geopolymers. The types of activators also significantly affect FA has an avital influence on the geopolymers; the finer the 115
51 the strengthening of the FA and GGBS-based geopolymers. particles, the larger the specific surface area and the higher 116
52 High-temperature curing can accelerate the formation of the reactivity (Al-Mashhadani et al., 2018; Assi et al., 2018; 117
53 strength. However, when potassium silicate and potassium Bohra et al., 2019; Gupta et al., 2017). For FA with low 118
54 119
hydroxide are used as activators, the strength of geopolymer content of amorphous components, it requires a higher SS/
55 120
concrete made at room temperature can reach 80.7 MPa SH ratio and sodium hydroxide dosage to obtain
56 121
Q1 (Zhang et al., 2020b) (see Table 5). geopolymers with the best compressive strength (Hadi et al.,
57 122
58 The following will mainly summarize the different types of 2018). 123
59 different raw materials for the preparation of the performance In most cases, the compressive strength of FA-GGBS based 124
60 of the geopolymer mortar. Through the retrospective analysis geopolymers was significantly higher than that of FA-based 125
61 of the various kinds of adhesive and the microstructure of the geopolymer (Alrefaei et al., 2019; Bouaissi et al., 2019; Huseien 126
62 research, found that different molar concentration of alkali et al., 2018; Oderji et al., 2019). As shown in Fig. 7, the matrix of 127
63 and acid solution, liquid-to-binder, curing temperature and M1 (FA) is very porous and contains many of unreacted FA 128
64 time to the preparation of the geopolymers with different particles; M11 (50% FA and slag) has a dense matrix, and its 129
65 property has been found. 130
compressive strength also increases (Askarian et al., 2019).
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26 91
27 Fig. 6 e Early compressive strength and curing temperature of some geopolymers (Summarized according to Tables 3 and 4). 92
28 93
29 94
30 95
31 Table 5 e Thermal and acoustic properties of partial geopolymer materials. 96
32 Material Characterization Reference 97
33 Geopolymer pastes Energy-efficient (15%) McLellan et al. (2011)
98
34 Geopolymer and phase change materials Energy-efficient (28%e30%) Cao et al. (2019) 99
35 Vegetal geopolymer concrete Energy-efficient (46%e58%) Ahmad et al. (2020) 100
36 Vegetal geopolymer concrete Thermal conductivity (0.114e0.192 W$m1$K1) Ahmad et al. (2020) 101
37 SF-based geopolymer foams Thermal conductivity (0.12e0.33 W$m1$K1) Papa et al. (2016) 102
38 Kaolinite-based porous geopolymer Thermal conductivity (0.040 W$m1$K1) Gao et al. (2020) 103
39 FA-based geopolymeric foams Sound absorption coefficient (0.23 at 500 Hz, 0.25 at 2000 Hz) Luna-Galiano et al. (2018) 104
40 Kaolinite-based porous geopolymer Sound absorption coefficient (0.539 at 5000 Hz, 0.809 at 500 Hz) Gao et al. (2020) 105
41 106
42 107
43 108
44 The binder with up to 50% FA content helps to reduce the to the BFS/OBA (olive stone biomass ash) binary base 109
45 porosity, thus improving the early strength by forming the activation system can significantly improve the strength 110
46 NeAeSeH phase with high SiO2/Al2O3 mole ratio (Huseien (Font et al., 2020). The study of Liu et al. (2020b) showed that 111
47 et al., 2016; Nuaklong et al., 2019). As shown in Fig. 8, the the early and long-term compressive strength of 112
48 high Si/Al ratio and high Ca/Si ratio promoted the early geopolymers increased by nearly 200% when 10% of MK was 113
49 compressive strength of geopolymer at about room added, compared with geopolymers without MK. With the 114
50 temperature. Using 20% GGBS and 10% HMNS instead of FA addition of RHA in the MK system, the 28 d compressive 115
51 to prepare geopolymer concrete, the 28 d compressive strength can up to 56.6 MPa (Liang et al., 2019). The mixture 116
52 117
strength and split tensile strength were improved by 100% of slag as arc slag and GGBS had excellent stability and
53 118
and 58%, respectively; and the combination of these three impact resistance, further enhancing the mechanical
54 119
55 materials forms a ternary gel phase, which compared with properties and microstructure of the geopolymers by 120
56 AeSeH and CeSeH gels, MeSeH, or CeMeSeH gels increasing the compactness and adhesion of the matrix 121
57 extracted from HMNS have higher density and less porosity (Khater, 2019). 122
58 (Bouaissi et al., 2019). 123
59 Low content of activated calcium in gangue leads to the 6.2.2. Activators 124
60 low strength of geopolymers; with the addition of GGBS and Compared with the alkali medium (63.8 MPa), the compressive 125
61 hydrated lime, the strength of geopolymers increases with the strength of phosphate-based geopolymers is higher 126
62 GGBS (no more than 40%) and hydrated lime (no more than (93.8 MPa), according to two X-ray images of geopolymers are 127
63 128
5%) (Bohra et al., 2019; Huang et al., 2018). It was reported that showing typical 18 e40 (2q) broad peak structure, respec-
64 129
the bonding strength of geopolymers decreases obviously tively in amorphous eSieOeSieOeAle and eSieOePeOeSie,
65 130
with the FA content (Pandurangan et al., 2018). Adding RHA besides the presence of this crystalline phase can enhance its
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Fig. 7 e SEM images of geopolymer mixes of FA and FA-slag. (a) M1 (100% FA) and M11 (50% FA and 50% slag) (Askarian et al.,
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64 2019). (b) Geopolymer without slay, and with 10%, 15% and 20% Slag (Oderji et al., 2019). 129
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Fig. 8 e The variation of compressive strength at room temperature, BF (basalt fiber). (a) SiO2/Al2O3. (b) CaO/SiO2
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(Gholampour et al., 2019a; Punurai et al., 2018).
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22 structure and, thus, its compressive strength (Tchakoute and 6.2.3. Curing conditions 87
23 Ruscher, 2017). The high concentration of phosphoric acid is The strength of geopolymers varies with the curing condition 88
24 conducive to the improvement of geopolymer and the and age. Compared with high-temperature curing (42.8 MPa), 89
25 formation of acid-activated geopolymers with excellent geopolymer mortar prepared with Na2SiO3 and NaOH solution 90
26 mechanical properties (Zhang et al., 2020a). and cured at room temperature has high compressive 91
27 The type of alkali activators affects the mechanical prop- strength (56.4 MPa) (Huang et al., 2018). Table 3 also shows that 92
28 erties and microstructure of geopolymers. For different ad- the Na2SiO3 and NaOH activated FA-based geopolymer has a 93
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hesives, the 7 d compressive strength of the geopolymer 7 d compressive strength of 67.0 MPa at room temperature;
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decreases as the ratio of the alkali solution to the binder in- however, after high-temperature curing for 28 d, the
31 96
creases from 0.35 to 0.50 (Elyamany et al., 2018). However, the geopolymer compressive strength is only 52.75 MPa (Bhutta
32 97
33 increase of the molality of NaOH solution also improved the et al., 2019; Hadi et al., 2018). In Fig. 10, when curing 98
34 compressive strength of geopolymers (Liang et al., 2019; temperature is higher, the strength of FA rich samples 99
35 Saha and Rajasekaran, 2017). The adhesion of geopolymer developed well, while the slag rich samples showed 100
36 concrete increased with SiO2/Na2O in Na2SiO3 solution microcracks so that compressive strength tends to develop 101
37 (Umniati et al., 2017). When the molarity of NaOH slowly (Elyamany et al., 2018; Samantasinghar and Singh, 102
38 increased, the strength of slag-based geopolymers with 2020). The reason may be that the increased curing 103
39 different Na2SiO3/NaOH ratios and molarity of NaOH is temperature affects CeSeH gel, which leads to rougher and 104
40 higher than that of FA-based geopolymers; but for RM- more porous geopolymer microstructure and many cracks 105
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based geopolymers, it has a suitable molar concentration of (Huseien et al., 2016).
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NaOH; the strength of MK-based geopolymers increased
43 108
with the Na2SiO3/NaOH ratio (Elyamany et al., 2018; 6.2.4. Aggregate
44 109
45 Koushkbaghi et al., 2019; Oleiwi et al., 2018; Yeddula and The geopolymer mortars prepared by using recycled aggre- 110
46 Karthiyaini, 2020). gate, and the strength of the geopolymers decreased with the 111
47 Compared with Na2SiO3 solution as an activator, FA-based aggregate content (Nuaklong et al., 2019; Wongsa et al., 2018). 112
48 and GGBS-based geopolymers prepared only with NaOH so- Compared with sand, with the CDW as fine aggregate in the 113
49 lution as an activator has higher strength because the ach- environmental conditions of curing geopolymer mortar, the 114
50 ieved geopolymers have a loose structure with sodium silicate mechanical strength and bending strength increased by 78% 115
51 as an activator; but MK-based geopolymer has higher strength and 175%, respectively (De Rossi et al., 2019). The 116
52 using Na2SiO3 solution as an activator; the geopolymers with 117
compressive strength of geopolymer concrete increased
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high compressive strength can be obtained by using Na2SiO3 when the sand and binder ratio increased from 0.25 to 0.5
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and NaOH as activators (Askarian et al., 2019; Oderji et al., (Wazien et al., 2016).
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56 2019; Ravikumar et al., 2010). As shown in Fig. 9, the 121
57 geopolymer mortar produced with sodium silicate has 6.2.5. Additives, nano-materials and fibers 122
58 uneven microstructure and more pores, while the Adding SF into geopolymers can improve mechanical strength, 123
59 geopolymer mortar containing potassium silicate has higher but excessive SF is harmful to geopolymers (Cheah et al., 2019). 124
60 density and lower porosity, so the geopolymer mortar And the compressive strength of geopolymer mortar 125
61 induced by potassium silicate and potassium hydroxide has containing 4% nano-MK was significantly increased at each 126
62 better mechanical properties (Rocha et al., 2018). Due to the age (Kaur et al., 2018a). It was found that the addition of 127
63 different types of alkali solution used, the difference of micro silica powder increased the activity of GGBS, but 128
64 129
transition zone (adhesion between geopolymer matrix and decreased the activity of FA (Dong et al., 2020). OPC can be
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fine aggregate) can be seen in Fig. 9(b). used as an additive or a partial substitute to accelerate the
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52 Fig. 9 e SEM images of geopolymer mortars produced with. (a) Sodium silicate. (b) Potassium silicate. (Rocha et al., 2018). 117
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geopolymerization, which improves the compressive strength mechanical properties of the geopolymer composites
56 121
57 and durability of geopolymers (Jindal, 2019). (Matalkah and Soroushian, 2020). When adding 1% 122
58 The mechanical and structural of geopolymers are closely graphene, the compressive and flexural strength of 123
59 related. The addition of nano-ZnO improves the interaction geopolymers are increased by 144% and 216%, respectively 124
60 between nanoparticles and geopolymers. Adding a small (Ranjbar et al., 2015). Incorporating nano-silica and steel 125
61 amount of nano-ZnO to geopolymer can improve the strength fiber significantly improves the bond strength, and bending 126
62 of geopolymer materials, while the strength of geopolymer performance of self-compacting geopolymer concretes. 127
63 materials decreases with the nano-ZnO content (Nur et al., Nano-silica has a significant influence on the compressive 128
64 2017; Sarkar et al., 2018; Zidi et al., 2020). The research strength of the geopolymers, and steel fiber helps promote 129
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shows that graphene can improve the microstructure and the bending property and bonding strength (Al-Mashhadani
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17 Fig. 10 e Effect of curing temperature on the strength of mixture geopolymers. (a) 1 d (Samantasinghar and Singh, 2020). (b) 82
18 7 d (Elyamany et al., 2018). 83
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22 et al., 2018; Bhutta et al., 2019; Gulsan et al., 2019). And porosity of carbonized and uncarbonized geopolymer 87
23 microfiber reinforcement significantly improved the concrete samples prepared in the laboratory does not 88
24 compressive and bending strength of the geopolymers change significantly (Pasupathy et al., 2018). It is common to 89
25 (Bhutta et al., 2019). With the addition of natural fiber add nano-materials to prepare geopolymers. A study on the 90
26 bundles and fabrics, the compressive, bending, and impact durability of geopolymers shows that the geopolymer gel 91
27 strengths of the geopolymers were up to 369%, 1106%, and matrix is dense, and incorporating nano-TiO2 can effectively 92
28 93
642%, respectively, compared with the unenhanced ones block the nano-pores in the geopolymer matrix, and also
29 94
(Silva et al., 2020). However, the addition of some fibers prevent the interconnection of micropores (Jindal and
30 95
significantly reduced the compressive strength of Sharma, 2020). Therefore, the addition of nano-materials is
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32 geopolymer and increased the bending strength. When very beneficial to the durability development of geopolymers. 97
33 natural fibers (sisal fiber and coconut fiber) were added as 98
34 reinforcing materials, the tensile and bending strength 99
35 properties of geopolymer were significantly improved, 7. Application and development direction of 100
36 similar to those of glass fiber; the addition of bagasse fiber geopolymer materials 101
37 was beneficial to improve the fracture property of the iron- 102
38 rich laterite based geopolymer from brittleness to toughness According to their functions, the applications of geopolymers 103
39 (Nkwaju et al., 2019; Wongsa et al., 2020). can be divided into two categories: those with conventional 104
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physical and mechanical properties, and those with other
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6.3. Durability properties of geopolymer materials physical and chemical properties besides mechanical prop-
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43 erties. Functional applications, such as fire prevention, isola- 108
44 What affects the durability of geopolymers is not only their tion, heat preservation, adsorption of harmful ions, can be 109
45 strength but also their resistance to harsh environments, such used for buildings in special fields, such as fire prevention 110
46 as abrasion performance, porosity, chemical erosion resis- buildings, insulation walls, nuclear power plants. 111
47 tance, dry shrinkage, carbonization resistance, and other pa- 112
48 rameters. Researches have described this in detail that 7.1. General applications of geopolymer materials 113
49 geopolymer concrete generally has better durability than OPC 114
50 concrete in most cases (Zhang et al., 2017a, 2020e). Besides, 7.1.1. Repair materials 115
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the reduction of drying shrinkage is beneficial to improve According to Yodsudjai et al. (2010), the 28 d tensile and bond
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the durability of geopolymers. Mastali et al. (2018) have strength of geopolymer mortar are similar to commercial
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revealed that the Ca/Si molar ratio has the greatest influence concrete patching materials and have the potential to be
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55 on the drying shrinkage rate of AAMs. Compared with self- used as concrete patching materials. Many researches 120
56 compactness mortar, adding recycled glass fiber can studied that added 14 M sodium hydroxide solution, and 10% 121
57 decrease the drying shrinkage rate of FA-slag based calcium carbonate can improve the shear bond and flexural 122
58 geopolymer mortar (Abdollahnejad et al., 2017). The results strength of geopolymer mortars (Phoo-ngernkham et al., 123
59 show that the replacement of FA by basalt fiber can reduce 2015; Wazien et al., 2016). Compared with repair binders, 124
60 the dry shrinkage of the geopolymer paste and become more geopolymer mortars have high enough strength and can be 125
61 uniform and compact with the replacement rate (Punurai used as a substitute product for concrete repair engineering, 126
62 et al., 2018). Pasupathy studied that precast FA-based and it could be used as a new waterproof, hydrophobic, fast- 127
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geopolymer concrete has been exposed to an outdoor curing and high-strength geopolymer repair material (Duan
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atmospheric environment for 8 years; the surface porosity of et al., 2016; Robayo-Salazar et al., 2019). The structure of the
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geopolymer concrete increases with carbonation, while the FA-GGBS based geopolymer is dense. With the L/S increased
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1 from 0.4 to 0.5, the oblique shear strength and splitting tensile geopolymers with higher NaOH content have better dura- 66
2 strength of the repaired materials decreased by 3.1 MPa and bility (Hoy et al., 2016, 2017). Therefore, RAP-FA geopolymer 67
3 0.1 MPa, respectively. Therefore, FA-GGBS based geopolymer has great potential as a sustainable pavement material. It 68
4 is a more effective and stable structural repair material (Kuo was found that CeSeH gel and C-A-S-H gel were generated 69
5 70
et al., 2019). And the compressive strength and bonding from lateritic soil/GBFS mixed geopolymer stabilized by FA
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strength of the FA-based geopolymer paste reached 92.5 MPa (Phummiphan et al., 2018). It shows that it is feasible to
7 72
and 11 MPa, which was enough for OPC overlay concrete form a sustainable pavement base material. Compared with
8 73
9 (Zailani et al., 2020). OPC, alkali activated slag has the same skid resistance as 74
10 OPC, but has higher bending strength and lower equivalent 75
11 7.1.2. Marine constructions carbon dioxide emission (Sun et al., 2018a). It can be used as 76
12 Long-term exposure of reinforced concrete to rainwater, an environment-friendly binder for concrete pavement 77
13 seawater, or saline soil will adversely affect the stability and construction. The geopolymer pervious concrete of MK-slag 78
14 safety of the structure. However, the potential of geopolymer base is prepared, which is not only environmentally 79
15 concrete for chemical resistance, especially sulfate resistance, friendly but also has better mechanical properties and 80
16 makes it more suitable for marine construction. Compared water permeability than cement pervious concrete (Sun 81
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with OPC concrete, geopolymer concrete contains more et al., 2018b).
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amorphous phases, smaller porosity, and more pores in the Recently, some researchers have added geopolymers to
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20 mesopore range, and the dense microstructure of geopolymer asphalt mixtures as admixtures. Compared with the control 85
21 concrete makes seawater difficult to permeate (Bondar et al., sample, the incorporation of 5% geopolymer improved the 86
22 2018; Hassan et al., 2020). The geopolymer concrete beam structural chain mobility and storage stability of geopolymer 87
23 based on low calcium FA in artificial seawater and induced modified asphalt (Rosyidi et al., 2020). 88
24 current; compared with OPC concrete, the geopolymer 89
25 concrete has better resistance to chloride ion erosion and 7.1.4. 3D printing materials 90
26 longer corrosion cracking time, which as the anti-corrosive Due to the outbreak of 2020 COVID-19, a high-tech enterprise 91
27 coating has good application prospects in the marine in Suzhou donated 15 sets of 3D printed isolation rooms to 92
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environment (Reddy et al., 2013; Zhang et al., 2012b). Xianning Central Hospital in Hubei province. 3D printing
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According to the follow-up study by Chindaprasirt and technology has been widely concerned by people. The devel-
30 95
Chalee (2014), the FA-based geopolymer was exposed to the opment of printing materials is particularly important. This
31 96
32 tidal zone of the seawater environment for 3 years after section focuses on the application of geopolymers in 3D 97
33 being air-dried in the laboratory for 28 d, the permeation printing materials. 98
34 and corrosion of chloride ions decreased with the molarity The authors of the study developed geopolymer formula- 99
35 of sodium hydroxide. However, in the salt lake environment tions based on commercially powdered 3D printers. Due to the 100
36 for 6 years, FA-based geopolymer concrete is more easily anisotropy of the printing process, the linear dimensional 101
37 carbonized than OPC concrete and diffusion of chlorides and accuracy and mechanical properties of 3D printed geo- 102
38 sulfates (Pasupathy et al., 2017). polymers mainly depend on the loading direction (Panda et al., 103
39 Alzeebaree et al. (2020) found that both carbon fiber and 2017; Xia et al., 2019a). And bond strength represents the state 104
40 105
basalt fiber reinforced geopolymer fabric can be used as the between adjacent materials, which is mainly affected by the
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modification material to resist chloride ion erosion. development speed of material strength and 3D printing
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43 Moreover, fiber reinforced geopolymer concrete has similar parameters (Panda et al., 2018). The printing time interval 108
44 fracture properties with ordinary concrete to be used as a has a vital effect on the interlayer strength of 3D printed 109
45 structural member instead of ordinary concrete. Adding OPC one-part geopolymers because the entire object was made 110
46 in FA can reduce the permeability of chlorine ion while layer by layer in the geopolymer, sufficient bond strength 111
47 adding MK and nano-SiO2 can improve the permeability of could ensure the stability and reliability of the structure 112
48 chlorine ion (Nuaklong et al., 2018a, b). (Nematollahi et al., 2019). 113
49 When the SiO2/Na2O ratio of alkali activator solution is 114
50 7.1.3. Pavement base materials 3.22, the prepared geopolymer has appropriate workability 115
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There have been some researches on the application of geo- and expansibility, reasonable strength, and high shape
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polymers such as FA and slag to pavement base material, retention ability (Bong et al., 2019). When the ratio of
53 118
especially in Europe. This not only contributes to the sus- activator/binder is 0.35, and the ratio of water/solid is 0.30,
54 119
55 tainable use of these waste by-products, but also can reduce the addition of 0.5% clay (the mass of the total binder) has a 120
56 the use of cement to a certain extent, which is a low-carbon good effect (Panda et al., 2019). The compressive strength of 121
57 approach. 3D printed geopolymer concrete prepared by 50% slag and 122
58 Russia has built a 6-km pilot section of a high grade road 50% FA is 25 MPa, which is good enough for many 123
59 using OPC and alkali activated (GGBS). After 15 years of use, constructions (Xia et al., 2019b). When the filament (12 mm) 124
60 the test sections have shown to be very reliable, while those was deposited, the mechanical strength, toughness and 125
61 built using only OPC concrete have deteriorated significantly post-cracking deformation of geopolymer composites were 126
62 (Provis and Deventer, 2014; Shi and Roy, 2006). significantly improved by introducing 1.2 mm continuous 127
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The study has shown that the 28 d UCS of recycled asphalt microwire rope directly (Ma et al., 2019a, b). The thixotropic
64 129
pavement (RAP)-FA geopolymer is significantly higher than properties of alkali-activated slag were improved by adding
65 130
RAP-FA blends due to geopolymerization, and RAP-FA 0.4% nanoclay to the geopolymer. The addition of 2% of
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1 water magnesite seeds to this hybrid design enhances geopolymer samples were treated at 1000 C for 2 h, still 66
2 hydration and increases the structural accumulation rate showing higher heat resistance and better fire resistance 67
3 required for large-scale 3D printing (Panda et al., 2020). (Thang et al., 2017). The addition of RHA and nano-SiO2 68
4 helped reduce the strength loss of geopolymer concrete in 69
5 70
7.2. Functional applications of geopolymer materials the first 30 min of the fire test (Nuaklong et al., 2020). Basalt
6 71
fiber is helpful to improve the bending performance of
7 72
7.2.1. Fire-resistant and high-temperature materials composite materials after high-temperature exposure and
8 73
9 The damage of the fire to the building cannot be ignored. The has certain fire resistance (Masi et al., 2015). The geopolymer 74
10 Windsor Tate Fire in Shanghai and the 9/11 terrorist attacks coating was converted into a siliceous layer, which prevented 75
11 have caused significant loss of life and human assets. So the the heat and mass transfer, resulting in the decrease of heat 76
12 refractory materials for construction are particularly impor- release rate and fire growth index, and the improvement of 77
13 tant. A major focus in the preparation of fire-resistant and fire performance index (Wang and Zhao, 2019). 78
14 high-temperature materials today is to continue to enhance However, it has been pointed out that the higher the 79
15 its sustainability and ecosystem. Geopolymerization is to strength of the geopolymer, the better the fire resistance. Low- 80
16 strength and low-density geopolymers are not easy to be 81
convert industrial solid waste into chemical durability cement
17 82
binder with excellent thermal stability and non- dehydrated and can better adapt to volume changes in the
18 83
combustibility. temperature range from 100 C to 1000 C; even after heat
19 84
20 Cheng and Chiu (2003) prepared the refractory geopolymer exposure, its intensity increases (Rickard et al., 2015). The 85
21 with GGBS and found that the geopolymerization, fire influence of alkali cation selection on high-temperature 86
22 resistance, and properties were related to the composition of exposure strength and durability of the FA-based 87
23 the reaction products. The phosphoric acid-based geopolymer was studied in Fig. 11. The densification of some 88
24 geopolymer foams (PAGFs) was prepared with MK as raw substrates and the healing of microcracks are beneficial to 89
25 materials and phosphoric acid and hydrogen peroxide as a the increase of strength in different temperature ranges, 90
26 foaming agent; add 2%e3.5% hydrogen peroxide PAGFs after depending on the type of alkali cations used (Lahoti et al., 91
27 2018). These suggest that geopolymers can be customized to 92
2 h fire-resistance test, the reverse-side temperature
28 93
remained at about 220 C, so the PAGFs has great potential achieve stable (and even enhanced) strength under thermal
29 94
for fire prevention (Shuai et al., 2020). In the study of exposure.
30 95
31 Tchakoute et al. (2017), the geopolymer cement prepared 96
32 from waste glass sodium water glass has a strong 7.2.2. Insulation materials 97
33 geopolymer structure, which is a very suitable refractory Thermal insulation is essential when considering building ma- 98
34 material. RM-RHA based geopolymers were prepared by terials, and good thermal insulation can effectively reduce en- 99
35 using water glass solution as an activator. And the ergy consumption and thus contribute to reducing the 100
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Fig. 11 e Formation and healing of micro-cracks in geopolymers on different temperature shown by SEM-BSE micrographs
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65 (solid arrows showing micro-cracks) (Lahoti et al., 2018). 130
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1 greenhouse effect. And acoustic insulation is also particularly remove crystal violet (CV), and the composite film is easy to 66
2 crucial because sound-absorbing materials enhance indoor regenerate and has a long service life (Zhang et al., 2020c). 67
3 acoustic comfort for residents and reduce the health risks asso- The structure of geopolymer can be found from amorphous 68
4 ciated with acoustic pollution exposure. Geopolymer materials to crystalline zeolites, more ordered structures and 69
5 70
can meet these needs. controllable porosity. Zheng et al. (2019) showed that the
6 71
A kind of porous geopolymer made of industrial waste as conversion of the amorphous gel of FA-based geopolymer
7 72
raw material at low temperature has the advantages of low into zeolite could improve its adsorption performance and
8 73
9 thermal conductivity, low water absorption, recyclable and provide a potential application prospect for wastewater 74
10 low cost, which completely meet the requirements of the treatment. The porous geopolymer-based tube membrane is 75
11 housing department for thermal insulation materials (Yang an inexpensive and efficient particulate removal filter, PM 76
12 et al., 2014). Previous studies have shown that geopolymers filtration experiments showed excellent recovery 77
13 can reduce electricity consumption to stabilize indoor performance (Wang et al., 2019). Therefore, porous 78
14 temperatures but combining microencapsulated phase geopolymers may have positive potential applications for air 79
15 change material with geopolymer concrete can significantly pollution. Under the synergies of adsorption and 80
16 improve the thermal performance of the wall and save photocatalysis, the RM-CN (RM/g-C3N4) composite material 81
17 82
energy (Cao et al., 2019; McLellan et al., 2011). The thermal has a significant effect on the removal of organic pollutants
18 83
performance coefficient of vegetal geopolymer concrete (MB & malachite green (MG)) in wastewater, and has a good
19 84
20 increases with the temperature from 20 C to 50 C, which photocatalytic degradation effect on antibiotics and dyes in 85
21 being used as wall insulation material can reduce the energy visible light, and has a good recycling performance (Shi 86
22 consumption (Ahmad et al., 2020). The introduction of Paval et al., 2020a, b). 87
23 (an aluminium industrial waste stream) into the FA-based FA-based geopolymer is regarded as a cheap and effective 88
24 geopolymer produced a porous geopolymer with sound absorbent, can be used to remove the heavy metal ions in the 89
25 absorption properties; SF as pore generation agen, the sound water environment, and had found in the sodium alkali sys- 90
26 absorption coefficient of the geopolymer increased with the tem formed in the geopolymer than in potash in the formation 91
27 open porosity of geopolymer materials increased (Leiva of the geopolymer has a more orderly structure. Structure 92
28 93
et al., 2019; Luna-Galiano et al., 2018). In addition, the study change results in the formation of an open frame structure; it
29 94
showed that 5 wt. % of aluminium scrap and replacing 15% can accommodate more Cu2þ positions more accessible
30 95
of clay brick waste with de-aluminated kaolin could increase (Darmayanti et al., 2019b). The low reactivity of zinc slag can
31 96
32 the porosity of the geopolymer to more than 50% and be overcome by adding FA under environmental conditions. 97
33 produce lightweight bricks with low thermal conductivity And the prepared zinc slag-FA based geopolymer can 98
34 (El-Naggar et al., 2019). stabilize the heavy metals and toxic metals contained in 99
35 The porous geopolymer products have high porosity zinc slag within a safe range, such as Pb, Zn, Cr, Cd, and As. 100
36 (93.80%), low thermal conductivity and high sound absorption And the geopolymer paver blocks prepared by 40 wt.%- 101
37 coefficient and sound insulation index (38.6 dB at 2000 Hz) 80 wt.% zinc slag had reached the standard and specification 102
38 (Gao et al., 2020). It is obvious that the geopolymer materials requirements (Nath, 2020). Recently, a composite base 103
39 have low thermal conductivity and high sound absorption geopolymer was prepared by using CG and BFS for the 104
40 105
coefficient. Therefore, the layered porous geopolymer can solidification of heavy metals in lead-zinc tailings. Leaching
41 106
simultaneously reduce building energy consumption and concentrations are well below standard limits and these
42 107
43 noise pollution. samples may be used for construction applications (Zhao 108
44 et al., 2021). RM significantly improved the ability, rate, and 109
45 7.2.3. Absorbent materials stability of Cd (II) adsorption by heat treatment at 500 C, 110
46 As cleaner production materials, geopolymers are usually which indicated that RM was a more effective adsorbent for 111
47 used as adsorbents to remove metal ions from wastewater. In Cd (II) adsorption (Yang et al., 2020). Heavy metals were 112
48 recent years, geopolymers have increased their application to extracted by the precipitation and adsorption method of 113
49 the immobilization of heavy metal pollution. Using these bulk waste particulate AAMs, and the adsorption method 114
50 massive waste base geopolymer adsorbent replacement had a high lead removal efficiency. The precipitation 115
51 116
powder adsorbent in the wastewater treatment system is a method has a high zinc removal efficiency (Bumanis et al.,
52 117
kind of low cost, more environmentally friendly, safer, and 2019). The self-supported zeolite foam geopolymers (ZFG)
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more convenient. was used as porous solid adsorbents, which removed Pb2þ
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55 Methylene blue (MB) was extracted from synthetic waste- by up to 123.2 mg/g and reached equilibrium only 60 min 120
56 water using FA-based geopolymers. The porous material can (Han et al., 2020). Heavy metal cations (Cd2þ, P2þ 2þ
2 , Zn ) and 121
3 2
57 be used as the basic dye adsorbent in wastewater treatment. anions (AsO4 , Cr2O7 ) were immobilized by geopolymer 122
58 The green geopolymer paste synthesized from industrial and composite using DWTR and GGBS as raw materials (Ji and 123
59 agricultural waste as the adsorbent can effectively remove the Pei, 2020). The CTAB-geopolymer can adsorb anionic, 124
60 basic dye MB from aqueous solution (Maleki et al., 2020). The superior to the traditional geopolymer, and in the binary 125
61 absorption of MB by the geopolymer balls exceeds that of all system of Cu (II) the maximum adsorption theory was 126
62 other powdery geopolymer adsorbents and is one of the 108.2 mg/g and Cr (VI) was 95.3 mg/g (Yu et al., 2020b). The 127
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highest (79.7 mg/g) reported values of geopolymers (Novais formation of the (N, K)-A-S-H gel by alkali-activated MK can
64 129
et al., 2019a). Using a low-cost, environmentally friendly easily adjust the alkali soil cationic Sr2þ and Ca2þ into its
65 130
porous geopolymer (PG) as the carrier, chitosan/PG film can aluminosilicate skeleton structure, which is an ideal
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1 material for the fixation of radioactive waste containing 90Sr is excellent (Minelli et al., 2016). After the modification of a 66
2 (Walkley et al., 2020). Geopolymers are employed for the porous geopolymer, successfully used as a heterogeneous 67
3 immobilization of simulated radioactive elements. Although catalyst for biodiesel processing; under the condition of 68
4 the matrix cannot reduce the radioactive nature of 90Sr and methanol solvent reflux, almost 100% conversion rate was 69
5 137 70
Cs, an immobilization strategy is still an efficient way to achieved within 1 h, with high catalytic activity and multiple
6 71
store radioactive elements and prevent them from leakage. regenerations (Innocentini et al., 2019; Sharma et al., 2015).
7 72
The leaching behavior of Sr2þ and Csþ was accelerated by Geopolymer was synthesized as a sulfur vulcanization
8 73
9 higher temperature and salt solution, and the fixation effect activator epoxidized natural rubber (ENR); compared with 74
10 of salt solution substrate on nuclear waste was more the conventional ZnO, geopolymer activation of ENR has 75
11 significant (He et al., 2020). compound vulcanization rate increased significantly, and 76
12 The quantitative characterization of the adsorption effect has better thermal stability and mechanical properties 77
13 of several geopolymers on heavy metals and dyes was briefly (Yangthong et al., 2020). 78
14 introduced in Table 6. F-FA and nano-ZnO with different dosage were mixed with 79
15 alkali activator to prepare ZnO doped geopolymer paste. The 80
16 7.2.4. pH regulator materials experimental results showed that the degradation of methy- 81
17 82
The porous biomass FA with high pH buffer capacity and alkali lene blue increased with the increase of the amount of nano-
18 83
solubility was prepared with hydrogen peroxide as a foaming ZnO (Zailan et al., 2020). In addition to chemical degradation,
19 84
20 agent; compared with MK, the FA-based geopolymer spheres biodegradation is another concern. In this study, ZnOeSiO2 85
21 showed better pH buffering capacity (Novais et al., 2016, 2017). geopolymer composite was synthesized, and the results 86
22 The content of FA in geopolymer components has a crucial showed that the geopolymer had sustainable and certain 87
23 influence on its pH buffering capacity. The higher content of anti-microbial effects (Sarkar et al., 2018). 88
24 FA, the higher the alkali leaching rate, and the smaller the TiO2 particles mainly act as fillers to densify the binder. 89
25 pH fluctuation with time (Novais et al., 2017, 2018b). Porous The resulting TiO2 metakaolin geopolymer has a high 90
26 AAMs were prepared from industrial waste FA and power compressive strength and total solar reflectance. The addition 91
27 plant bottom ash using water glass solution as a foaming of TiO2 imparts photocatalysis properties into the geopolymer 92
28 93
agent, which can be used as a pH modifier; and the porous activates super-hydrophilicity of the surface and assist in the
29 94
AAMs can also treat acidic waste water (Chindaprasirt and complete decomposition of RhB dye after direct sunlight
30 95
Rattanasak, 2020). The RM-based geopolymer has been exposure (Ambikakumari Sanalkumar and Yang, 2021).
31 96
32 successfully prepared, the RM content has little effect on the Porous ceramic geopolymers were used as a heterogeneous 97
33 leaching rate, and the RM base geopolymer can be used as a catalyst to perform deep oxidative degradation of resistant 98
34 pH buffer material in wastewater treatment and anaerobic antibiotics in wastewater (Kovarik et al., 2017a,b). Graphene 99
35 digestion system (Ascensao et al., 2017; Novais et al., 2018a). and FA as raw materials, load CuO, doping Mn2þ was prepared 100
36 by a new type of geopolymer materials, used in direct sky blue 101
37 7.2.5. Catalysts 5B photocatalytic hydrogen production and light degradation of 102
38 The application of geopolymers as catalysts has attracted dye, the dye degradation rate was 100% (Zhang et al., 2017a, b). 103
39 much attention. The geopolymers as a photocatalyst to absorb RM light catalyst is a new kind of low cost. The improvement of 104
40 105
harmful gases and as the catalyst is helpful to reduce the the performance of the modified RM photocatalytic is mainly
41 106
pollution of the industry. These findings provide a new because of the specific area and the increase of the crystallinity,
42 107
43 method for the synthesis of novel and efficient heterogeneous promoting the adsorption of organic pollutants and accelerate 108
44 catalysts. the production of photoinduced charge (Sun et al., 2020). 109
45 The porous geopolymer prepared with gas silica as the 110
46 foaming agent has the adsorption capacity and selectivity for 7.2.6. Other functional composite materials 111
47 gas CO2, which has the adsorption capacity of about 0.6 mmol/ Functional composites refer to composites that provide 112
48 g; besides, the selectivity of CO2/CH4 (~100) and CO2/N2 (~200) other physical properties in addition to mechanical 113
49 114
50 115
51 116
52 Table 6 e Adsorption effect of several geopolymers on heavy metals and dyes, etc. 117
53 118
Absorbent material Adsorption efficiency Performance Reference
54 119
55 FA-based geopolymer spheres 94.3% MB Recycled for 8 times, keeping 85% Novais et al. (2019a) 120
56 Porous geopolymer composite film 95% CV Easy to regenerate Zhang et al. (2020c) 121
57 Geopolymer porous tube membrane 96.5%e98.7% PM 2.5, Inexpensive and efficient Wang et al. (2019) 122
58 98.0%e99.5% PM 10 123
59 Red mud/g-C3N4 (RM-CN) composite 96.9% MB, 97.15% MG Recycle performance Sun et al. (2020) 124
60 Bulk waste particulate AAMs 99.4% Pb2þ, 100% Zn2þ Sustainable, low-cost, Bumanis et al. (2019) 125
highly effective
61 126
FA-based self-supported ZFG >90% Pb2þ High adsorption efficiency Han et al. (2020)
62 127
Composite geopolymer based on solid wastes 99.96%e100.00% Pb2þ, Stability Ji and Pei (2020)
63 128
2.34%e99.99% Zn2þ
64 129
CaeSieAl slags-based low-alkali AAMs 97.6% Csþ, 99.9% Sr2þ Safe, sustainable Vandevenne et al. (2018)
65 130
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1 properties. In addition to the previous fire resistance, heat 66

2 insulation, adsorption properties, geopolymer materials 8. Existing restrictions and solutions 67
3 have many other excellent applications. However, the 68
4 research on the application of special functional composites 8.1. Shortage of sodium silicate 69
5 70
is far from sufficient, especially the non-structural applica-
6 In the process of literature review, it was found that there 71
tions are still in the initial stage. A few will be roughly listed
7 were different methods for testing the properties of geo- 72
below.
8 polymer materials. Although the raw material components 73
9 Ban et al. (2017) prepared a geopolymer by mixing FA with 74
50 wt.% high-calcium wood ash. Arcanite mineral plays a were different, an objective testing method still needed to be
10 75
summarized, so that each research work could better learn
11 virtual role in the process of activating FA. The geopolymer 76
12 has the best mechanical properties and can complete self- from and improve each other. However, one of the significant 77
13 activation. In addition, Bi et al. (2017) also used carbon factors hindering the development of geopolymers is the 78
14 nanotubes coated with SiO2 layer, and the modified shortage of sodium silicate. The ecological efficiency and 79
15 geopolymer composites showed ultra-high self-inductance. economic benefit of the geopolymer composites depend 80
16 The FA-MK based nano TiO2-geopolymer composite mainly on the amount of alkali activator. But worldwide 81
17 annual production of sodium silicate is less than 10 metric 82
materials were prepared by alkali activation, which have
18 tons (enough to produce only about 40e50 metric tons of 83
potential as functional surface materials and self-cleaning
19 AAMs), and the processes used are very high in energy and 84
20 properties (Syamsidar and Nurfadilla, 2017). 85
The prepared nano-Ag geopolymer composites can resist carbon dioxide emissions (Scrivener et al., 2018).
21 86
the high temperature of 750 C, and the nano-Ag geopolymer However, using RHA as a silicon source to produce indus-
22 87
trial sodium silicate solution may replace quartz sand and
23 composites can effectively inhibit the growth of bacteria 88
24 (Armayani et al., 2017). And MK-nano ZnO based geopolymer sodium carbonate, which produce greenhouse gas in the 89
25 composite was prepared, which can inhibit the growth of production process (Tchakoute et al., 2016a). Sodium silicate 90
26 bacteria (Nur et al., 2017). Microbially induced carbonate from waste glass and RHA is an ideal catalyst for the 91
27 precipitation-induced self-healing can be performed in a preparation of MK based geopolymer (Tchakoute et al., 92
28 2016b). An eco-olivine nano-silica is applied to prepare 93
geopolymer by directly adding bacteria to the geopolymer
29 sustainable silicate-based activators to replace commercial 94
mixture without encapsulation or immobilization (Jadhav
30 sodium silicates, and the use of eco-olivine nano-silica has 95
et al., 2018).
31 further reduced the carbon emissions of the catalyst by 96
32 The thermal pyrolysis of sustainable softwood was used to 97
synthesis geopolymers, which enhanced electromagnetic about 25% (Gao and Yu, 2019). Aini et al. (2018) studied that
33 98
the silica sand has high potency and could be used as raw
34 interference (EMI) shielding properties; meanwhile, the use of 99
35 a foaming agent effectively reduces the density of geo- material to synthesis sodium silicate from the Nyalo River. 100
36 polymers and greatly improves the EMI shielding efficiency The present study facilitates the synthesis of sodium silicate 101
37 (Novais et al., 2019b). The author introduced a kind of FA- effectively by utilizing spent foundry sand, in which the 102
38 based geopolymer based repair (a gel conductive materials) maximum yield 14 of 97.6% was obtained at 225 C for 3 h; 103
39 moisture sensor demonstration, which was reinforced by in turn, minimized the waste disposal (Mohamed Ismail 104
40 et al., 2020). According to previous studies, sodium silicate 105
the moisture in the AAMs in the role of ionic conductivity
41 has been prepared from waste glass, RHA and waste sand. 106
(Biondi et al., 2020).
42 On the one hand, in the future, it is necessary to focus on 107
43 The direct immersion methods will lauryl alcohol embed- 108
ding in partial kaolinite thermal storage geopolymer. The improving the production process of sodium silicate with
44 109
melting temperature of lauryl alcohol in CTAB-geopolymer is low energy consumption and greatly increasing the yield of
45 110
sodium silicate. On the other hand, to reduce the
46 within the human comfort zone, which is a good thermal 111
47 storage material for buildings (Gasca-Tirado et al., 2019). consumption of alkali, the preparation process of 112
48 Studies have shown that graphene can be used as an geopolymers should be improved which can also improve 113
49 electron acceptor to improve the electrical conductivity of the economic and environmental benefits of geopolymer 114
50 geopolymers. When 1% graphite is added to graphite fibers, 115
51 116
the conductivity is 348.8 times higher (Zhang et al., 2018b, c).
52 117
The amount of reduced graphene oxide nanoparticles (rGO
53 118
NPs) affects the appearance and quality of kaolin based
54 119
55 geopolymer composites, and high concentration of rGO NPs 120
56 can form a good bond with geopolymer paste, which is 121
57 helpful to improve the electrochemical performance of the 122
58 composite (Irfanita et al., 2020). 123
59 Geopolymer functional composites are also widely used in 124
60 unstructured applications. Subaer et al. (2020) proposed that 125
61 zeolite-geopolymer membranes should be coated with 126
62 hydrophobic materials to reduce the hydrophilic properties 127
63 128
of geopolymer and hence become more feasible for ethanol Fig. 12 e The efflorescence mechanism of geopolymer
64 129
purification through pervaporation system. (Longhi et al., 2020; Sun et al., 2020; Wang et al., 2020).
65 130
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1 66
2 67
3 68
4 69
5 70
6 71
7 72
8 73
9 74
10 75
11 76
12 77
13 78
14 79
15 80
16 81
17 82
18 83
19 84
20 85
21 86
22 87
23 88
24 89
25 90
26 91
27 92
28 93
29 94
30 95
31 96
32 97
33 98
34 99
35 100
36 101
37 102
38 103
39 104
40 105
41 106
42 107
43 108
44 109
45 110
46 111
47 112
48 113
49 114
50 115
51 116
52 117
53 118
54 119
55 120
56 121
57 122
58 123
59 124
60 125
61 126
62 Fig. 13 e The XRD pattern of the efflorescence minerals from the surface of several geopolymers. (a) MK-based geopolymers 127
63 (Longhi et al., 2020). (b) MK-based geopolymers (Sun et al., 2020). (c) FA-based geopolymers (Xue et al., 2018). 128
64 129
65 130
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1 materials. By controlling the aggregate ash ratio and applying ASR is needed to find out the key factors affecting the 66
2 the presetting pressure, the compressive strength of the occurrence of ASR, so as to avoid improper matching in 67
3 geopolymers can be doubled, and the total alkali activators’ practical application. 68
4 consumption of the geopolymers can be reduced by about As an environment friendly geopolymer material, the 69
5 70
three times (Gokce et al., 2020). compressive strength can evaluate its applicability. Due to the
6 71
difficulty and time-consuming process of experimental
7 72
8.2. Efflorescence research, the soft computing method will be considerable.
8 73
9 Therefore, it is a good method to establish a prediction 74
10 Another factor affecting the development of geopolymers is equation to predict the strength of geopolymers. The study 75
11 efflorescence. Salt formation in surface alkali-activated established a highly fitted strength model, and the average r 76
12 cement has been observed and identified as the efflorescence (2) values (a good correlation exists between measured and 77
13 in many industrial applications and laboratory studies. Fig. 12 predicted values if jr (2)j>0.8) for GEP II model was 0.92 78
14 shows the mechanism of efflorescence. As shown in Fig. 13, (Yeddula and Karthiyaini, 2020). And the neural network- 79
15 based group method of data handling (GMDH-NN) and 80
the main components of efflorescence are Na2CO3, NaHCO3,
16 artificial neural network (ANN) are reliable methods for 81
and various sodium silicate components in unreacted
17 82
sodium silicate. predicting unconfined compressive strength value of
18 83
In silicon-rich systems, high concentrations of alkali acti- geopolymers; the judgment coefficients based on GMDH-NN
19 84
20 vators can lead to significant efflorescence. With the increase and ANN are 0.9677 and 0.9741, respectively (Eidgahee et al., 85
21 of alumina content, the degree of efflorescence decreased 2020). These two methods of predicting unknown data are 86
22 with alkali dosage (Xiao et al., 2020). With the increase of silica relatively good. In the following research, the simulation 87
23 content, and the decrease of silica particle size, the incidence method can also be applied to the prediction of ASR and the 88
24 of the efflorescence of geopolymer decreases (Wang et al., prediction of efflorescence, etc., to achieve twice the result 89
25 2018a, b). A new method for inhibiting the efflorescence of with half the effort. 90
26 91
FA-based geopolymer by silane surface modification was
27 92
explored. The surface of the modified geopolymer changed
28 93
from hydrophilic to hydrophobic, which significantly 9. Conclusions and prospects
29 94
30 inhibited the capillary absorption and diffusion of water and 95
31 reduced the leaching rate of soluble alkali ions. And the Some useful information concerning geopolymer materials 96
32 silane surface treatment did not affect the surface strength has been introduced in this paper. It includes the reaction 97
33 of the FA-based geopolymer (Xue et al., 2018). Nano silica principle, source of raw materials, types of exciter, prepara- 98
34 was used as an additive to modify MK-based geopolymer tion method and basic properties of geopolymer materials and 99
35 mortar. Nano silica weakened efflorescence by consuming 100
functional applications in many fields.
36 too many alkali ions in the pore solution to form an 101
37 amorphous gel phase (Sun et al., 2020). 102
(1) The geopolymerization mainly consists of three steps:
38 103
The effects of efflorescence on the geopolymer materials in the dissolution of precursor, the formation of initial gel
39 104
use and all the factors affecting their formation have not yet and formation of silicate network structure.
40 105
41 been fully understood or reported. Pouhet and Cyr (2016) (2) The material source of geopolymers is rich in active 106
42 pointed out that efflorescence did not cause real durability silicon and aluminium. And the raw materials of geo- 107
43 problems for OPC, but could affect the appearance. However, polymers generally include MK, FA, BFS, RM, biomass 108
44 with the rapid development of geopolymer technology in ash, etc., also, commonly used steel slag, SF, volcanic 109
45 recent years, most people hold that these phenomena may ash, waste glass, coal gangue, diatomite, bauxite, high- 110
46 change the durability of materials. Therefore, it is necessary magnesium nickel slag, etc. 111
47 to focus on this aspect in the following work. To more 112
(3) The common activators of geopolymer materials
48 comprehensively understand the effect of efflorescence in 113
include sodium hydroxide, sodium silicate, sodium
49 114
detail on the properties of the geopolymers, more carbonate, sodium sulfate, calcium carbonate and
50 115
experimental studies are needed to make it widely available lithium hydroxide. Phosphoric acid is also used as an
51 116
in various applications. activator.
52 117
53 (4) There are different preparation methods of geo- 118
54 8.3. Alkali-silica reaction (ASR) polymers. It is necessary to point out that now the vast 119
55 majority of geopolymer materials are the solid material 120
56 The use of high alkali activators may lead to the intensifi- to mix, and then mixed with the liquid mix thoroughly. 121
57 cation of ASR, thus limiting the application of geopolymers. (5) Geopolymers have been used in cementitious materials 122
58 123
According to the authors, ASR expansion was more easily to exhibit excellent mechanical properties. The type,
59 124
induced in high-calcium and mixed systems than in low- particle size and chemical composition of raw materials
60 125
calcium alkali-activated cement systems. Different types all play a vital role. The state of solid and liquid, type
61 126
62 and concentrations of activators can also lead to ASR. The and the content of the activators all affect the strength 127
63 use of some additives may lead to the production of ASR of the geopolymers. The strength of the prepared geo- 128
64 (Wang and Noguchi, 2020). Therefore, further research on polymer is higher when the curing temperature is 60 C- 129
65 130
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1 100 C. The particle morphology and composition of references 66

2 aggregate also influence geopolymers. 67
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Natural Science Basic Research project (2020JM-265). activators. Construction and Building Materials 225, 526e537.
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Engineering, Chang'an University, China. He
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13 539, 23e33.
Natural Science Foundation of China and 42
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the provincial and ministerial level. The 43
15 research scope covers development of road 44
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28 and adsorption properties. Construction and Building 57
Materials 202, 851e860.
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Zhou, B., Wang, L., Ma, G., et al., 2020. Preparation and properties
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J. Traffic Transp. Eng. (Engl. Ed.) xxxx; xxx (xxx): xxx 21

22 J. Traffic Transp. Eng. (Engl. Ed.) xxxx; xxx (xxx): xxx

J. Traffic Transp. Eng. (Engl. Ed.) xxxx; xxx (xxx): xxx 23

1 100 C. The particle morphology and composition of references 66

24 J. Traffic Transp. Eng. (Engl. Ed.) xxxx; xxx (xxx): xxx

J. Traffic Transp. Eng. (Engl. Ed.) xxxx; xxx (xxx): xxx 25

26 J. Traffic Transp. Eng. (Engl. Ed.) xxxx; xxx (xxx): xxx

J. Traffic Transp. Eng. (Engl. Ed.) xxxx; xxx (xxx): xxx 27

28 J. Traffic Transp. Eng. (Engl. Ed.) xxxx; xxx (xxx): xxx

J. Traffic Transp. Eng. (Engl. Ed.) xxxx; xxx (xxx): xxx 29

30 J. Traffic Transp. Eng. (Engl. Ed.) xxxx; xxx (xxx): xxx

J. Traffic Transp. Eng. (Engl. Ed.) xxxx; xxx (xxx): xxx 31

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