Psychology

Psychological Research Psychologists study a wide range of topics, such as language development in
children and the effects of sensory deprivation on behavior. They use scientifically testable models and
methods to conduct their research.
Describing Research
Scientists use the following terms to describe their research:
Variables: the events, characteristics, behaviors, or conditions that researchers measure and study.
Subject or participant: an individual person or animal a researcher studies.
Sample: a collection of subjects researchers study. Researchers use samples because they cannot study
the entire population.
Population: the collection of people or animals from which researchers draw a sample. Researchers
study the sample and generalize their results to the population.
The Purpose of Research
Psychologists have three main goals when doing research:
To find ways to measure and describe behavior
To understand why, when, and how events occur
To apply this knowledge to solving real-world problems
The Scientific Method Psychologists use the scientific method to conduct their research. The scientific
method is a standardized way of making observations, gathering data, forming theories, testing
predictions, and interpreting results.
Researchers make observations in order to describe and measure behavior. After observing certain
events repeatedly, researchers come up with a theory that explains these observations. A theory is an
explanation that organizes separate pieces of information in a coherent way. Researchers generally
develop a theory only after they have collected a lot of evidence and made sure their research results
can be reproduced by others.
Example: A psychologist observes that some college sophomores date a lot, while others do not. He
observes that some sophomores have blond hair, while others have brown hair. He also observes that in
most sophomore couples at least one person has brown hair. In addition, he notices that most of his
brown-haired friends date regularly, but his blond friends don’t date much at all. He explains these
observations by theorizing that brown-haired sophomores are more likely to date than those who have
blond hair. Based on this theory, he develops a hypothesis that more brown-haired sophomores than
blond sophomores will make dates with people they meet at a party. He then conducts an experiment
to test his hypothesis. In his experiment, he has twenty people go to a party, ten with blond hair and ten
with brown hair. He makes observations and gathers data by watching what happens at the party and
counting how many people of each hair color actually make dates. If, contrary to his hypothesis, the
blond-haired people make more dates, he’ll have to think about why this occurred and revise his theory
and hypothesis. If the data he collects from further experiments still do not support the hypothesis, he’ll
have to reject his theory.
Making Research Scientific
Psychological research, like research in other fields, must meet certain criteria in order to be considered
scientific. Research must be:
Replicable
Falsifiable
Precise
Parsimonious
Research Must Be Replicable
Research is replicable when others can repeat it and get the same results. When psychologists report
what they have found through their research, they also describe in detail how they made their
discoveries. This way, other psychologists can repeat the research to see if they can replicate the
findings.
After psychologists do their research and make sure it’s replicable, they develop a theory and translate
the theory into a precise hypothesis. A hypothesis is a testable prediction of what will happen given a
certain set of conditions. Psychologists test a hypothesis by using a specific research method, such as
naturalistic observation, a case study, a survey, or an experiment. If the test does not confirm the
hypothesis, the psychologist revises or rejects the original theory.
A Good Theory
A good theory must do two things: organize many observations in a logical way and allow researchers to
come up with clear predictions to check the theory.
Research Must Be Falsifiable
A good theory or hypothesis also must be falsifiable, which means that it must be stated in a way that
makes it possible to reject it. In other words, we have to be able to prove a theory or hypothesis wrong.
Theories and hypotheses need to be falsifiable because all researchers can succumb to the confirmation
bias. Researchers who display confirmation bias look for and accept evidence that supports what they
want to believe and ignore or reject evidence that refutes their beliefs.
Example: Some people theorize that the Loch Ness Monster not only exists but has become intelligent
enough to elude detection by hiding in undiscovered, undetectable, underwater caves. This theory is not
falsifiable. Researchers can never find these undiscovered caves or the monster that supposedly hides in
them, and they have no way to prove this theory wrong.
Research Must Be Precise
By stating hypotheses precisely, psychologists ensure that they can replicate their own and others’
research. To make hypotheses more precise, psychologists use operational definitions to define the
variables they study. Operational definitions state exactly how a variable will be measured.
Example: A psychologist conducts an experiment to find out whether toddlers are happier in warm
weather or cool weather. She needs to have an operational definition of happiness so that she can
measure precisely how happy the toddlers are. She might operationally define happiness as “the
number of smiles per hour.”
Research Must Be Parsimonious
The principle of parsimony, also called Occam’s razor, maintains that researchers should apply the
simplest explanation possible to any set of observations. For instance, psychologists try to explain
results by using well-accepted theories instead of elaborate new hypotheses. Parsimony prevents
psychologists from inventing and pursuing outlandish theories.
Parsimony
Parsimonious means “being thrifty or stingy.” A person who values parsimony will apply the thriftiest or
most logically economical explanation for a set of phenomena.
Example: Suppose a student consistently falls asleep in her statistics class. She theorizes that before
each class, her statistics professor secretly sprays her seat with a nerve gas that makes her very drowsy.
If she had applied the principle of parsimony, she would not have come up with this theory. She can
account for her sleepiness with a much simpler and more likely explanation: she finds statistics boring.
Research Methods
Psychologists use many different methods for conducting research. Each method has advantages and
disadvantages that make it suitable for certain situations and unsuitable for others.
Descriptive or Correlational Research Methods
Case studies, surveys, naturalistic observation, and laboratory observation are examples of descriptive
or correlational research methods. Using these methods, researchers can describe different events,
experiences, or behaviors and look for links between them. However, these methods do not enable
researchers to determine causes of behavior.
Remember: correlation is not the same as causation. Two factors may be related without one causing
the other to occur. Often, a third factor explains the correlation.
Example: A psychologist uses the survey method to study the relationship between balding and length of
marriage. He finds that length of marriage correlates with baldness. However, he can’t infer from this
that being bald causes people to stay married longer. Instead, a third factor explains the correlation:
both balding and long marriages are associated with old age.
Measuring Correlation
A correlation coefficient measures the strength of the relationship between two variables. A correlation
coefficient is always a number between –1 and +1. The sign (+ or –) of a correlation coefficient indicates
the nature of the relationship between the variables.
A positive correlation (+) means that as one variable increases, the other does too.
Example: The more years of education a person receives, the higher his or her yearly income is.
A negative correlation (–) means that when one variable increases, the other one decreases.
Example: The more hours a high school student works during the week, the fewer A’s he or she gets in
class.
The higher the correlation coefficient, the stronger the correlation. A +0.9 or a –0.9 indicates a very
strong correlation; a +0.1 or a –0.1 indicates a very weak correlation. A correlation of 0 means that no
relationship exists between two variables.
sparknotes
Research Methods in Psychology
Get this SparkNote to go!
< Previous Section

The Scientific Method
Next Section >

Ethical Considerations
Research Methods
Case studies, surveys, naturalistic observation, and laboratory observation are examples of descriptive
or correlational research methods. Using these methods, researchers can describe different events,
Remember: correlation is not the same as causation. Two factors may be related without one causing
the other to occur. Often, a third factor explains the correlation.
marriage. He finds that length of marriage correlates with baldness. However, he can’t infer from this
that being bald causes people to stay married longer. Instead, a third factor explains the correlation:
both balding and long marriages are associated with old age.
coefficient is always a number between –1 and +1. The sign (+ or –) of a correlation coefficient indicates
the nature of the relationship between the variables.
Example: The more hours a high school student works during the week, the fewer A’s he or she gets in
class.
The higher the correlation coefficient, the stronger the correlation. A +0.9 or a –0.9 indicates a very
strong correlation; a +0.1 or a –0.1 indicates a very weak correlation. A correlation of 0 means that no
relationship exists between two variables.
Common correlational research methods include case studies, surveys, naturalistic observation, and
laboratory observation.
Case Studies
In a case study, a researcher studies a subject in depth. The researcher collects data about the subject
through interviews, direct observation, psychological testing, or examination of documents and records
about the subject.
Surveys
A survey is a way of getting information about a specific type of behavior, experience, or event. When
using this method, researchers give people questionnaires or interview them to obtain information.
When subjects fill out surveys about themselves, the data is called self-report data. Self-report data can
be misleading because subjects may do any of the following:
 Lie intentionally
 Give answers based on wishful thinking rather than the truth
 Fail to understand the questions the survey asks
 Forget parts of the experience they need to describe
 Naturalistic Observation
 When using naturalistic observation, researchers collect information about subjects by observing them
unobtrusively, without interfering with them in any way. Researchers create a record of events and
note relationships among those events. With naturalistic observation, researchers face the challenge
of getting a clear view of events without becoming noticeable to the subjects.
 Laboratory Observation
 As the name implies, researchers perform laboratory observation in a laboratory rather than in a
natural setting. In laboratory observation, researchers can use sophisticated equipment to measure
and record subjects’ behavior. They can use one-way mirrors or hidden recording devices to observe
subjects more freely while remaining hidden themselves. Unlike observation in a natural setting,
laboratory observation offers researchers some degree of control over the environment.
Research Methods in Psychology
Get this SparkNote to go!
< Previous Section

The Scientific Method
Next Section >
Research Methods
Case studies, surveys, naturalistic observation, and laboratory observation are examples of descriptive or
correlational research methods. Using these methods, researchers can describe different events,
Remember: correlation is not the same as causation. Two factors may be related without one causing the
other to occur. Often, a third factor explains the correlation.
marriage. He finds that length of marriage correlates with baldness. However, he can’t infer from this that being
bald causes people to stay married longer. Instead, a third factor explains the correlation: both balding and
long marriages are associated with old age.
coefficient is always a number between –1 and +1. The sign (+ or –) of a correlation coefficient indicates the
nature of the relationship between the variables.
Example: The more hours a high school student works during the week, the fewer A’s he or she gets in class.
The higher the correlation coefficient, the stronger the correlation. A +0.9 or a –0.9 indicates a very strong
correlation; a +0.1 or a –0.1 indicates a very weak correlation. A correlation of 0 means that no relationship
exists between two variables.
Common correlational research methods include case studies, surveys, naturalistic observation, and laboratory
observation.
Case Studies
In a case study, a researcher studies a subject in depth. The researcher collects data about the subject
through interviews, direct observation, psychological testing, or examination of documents and records about
the subject.
Surveys
A survey is a way of getting information about a specific type of behavior, experience, or event. When using
this method, researchers give people questionnaires or interview them to obtain information.
When subjects fill out surveys about themselves, the data is called self-report data. Self-report data can be
misleading because subjects may do any of the following:
 Lie intentionally
 Give answers based on wishful thinking rather than the truth
 Fail to understand the questions the survey asks
 Forget parts of the experience they need to describe
Naturalistic Observation
When using naturalistic observation, researchers collect information about subjects by observing them
unobtrusively, without interfering with them in any way. Researchers create a record of events and note
relationships among those events. With naturalistic observation, researchers face the challenge of getting a
clear view of events without becoming noticeable to the subjects.
Laboratory Observation
As the name implies, researchers perform laboratory observation in a laboratory rather than in a natural
setting. In laboratory observation, researchers can use sophisticated equipment to measure and record
subjects’ behavior. They can use one-way mirrors or hidden recording devices to observe subjects more freely
while remaining hidden themselves. Unlike observation in a natural setting, laboratory observation offers
researchers some degree of control over the environment.
Psychological Tests
Researchers use psychological tests to collect information about personality traits, emotional states,
aptitudes, interests, abilities, values, or behaviors. Researchers usually standardize these tests, which means
they create uniform procedures for giving and scoring them. When scoring a test, researchers often compare
subjects’ scores to norms, which are established standards of performance on a test. A well-constructed
standardized test can evaluate subjects better than self-report data.
Reliability
A test has good reliability if it produces the same result when researchers administer it to the same group of
people at different times. Researchers determine a test’s test-retest reliability by giving the test to a group of
people and then giving the test again to the same group of people at a later time. A reliable test will produce
approximately the same results on both occasions.
Psychologists also use alternate-forms reliability to determine a test’s reliability. They measure alternate-
forms reliability by giving one version of a test to a group of people and then giving another version of the same
test to the same group of people. A reliable test will produce roughly the same results no matter which version
of the test is used.
Validity
A test is valid if it actually measures the quality it claims to measure. There are two types of validity:
 Content validity is a test’s ability to measure all the important aspects of the characteristic
being measured. An intelligence test wouldn’t have good content validity if it measured only
verbal intelligence, since nonverbal intelligence is an important part of overall intelligence.
 Criterion validity is fulfilled when a test not only measures a trait but also predicts another
criterion of that trait. For example, one criterion of scholastic aptitude is academic performance
in college. A scholastic aptitude test would have good criterion validity if it could predict college
grade point averages.

Overview of
Research Methods Advantages Disadvantages
Research method
 Provides information about

behavior that can’t be
 Yields a lot of information
observed directly
 Provides a good way to generate
 Relies on self-report data,
Survey hypotheses
which can be misleading
 Can provide information about many
 Doesn’t allow conclusions
people since it’s cheap and easy to do
about cause-and-effect
relationships
 Sometimes gives
incomplete information
 Sometimes relies only on

 Provides a good way to generate self-report data, which can
hypotheses be misleading
Case study
 Yields data that other methods can’t  Can be subjective and thus
provide may yield biased results

relationships
 Sometimes yields biased

results
 Can be useful for generating hypotheses  May be difficult to do
Naturalistic
 Provides information about behavior in unobtrusively
observation
the natural environment  Doesn’t allow conclusions
relationships
Laboratory  Enables use of sophisticated equipment  Sometimes yields biased

observation for measuring and recording behavior results
 Can be useful for generating hypotheses  Carries the risk that

observed behavior is
different from natural
behavior

relationships
 Requires good reliability

 Gives information about characteristics and validity before it can
such as personality traits, emotional be used
Test
states, aptitudes, interests, abilities,  Doesn’t allow conclusions
values, and behaviors about cause-and-effect
relationships
 Identifies cause-and-effect relationships  Can be artificial, so results

Experiment  Distinguishes between placebo effects may not generalize to real-
and real effects of a treatment or drug world situations
Experiments
Unlike correlational research methods or psychological tests, experiments can provide information
about cause-and-effect relationships between variables. In an experiment, a researcher manipulates or
changes a particular variable under controlled conditions while observing resulting changes in another
variable or variables. The researcher manipulates the independent variable and observes the
dependent variable. The dependent variable may be affected by changes in the independent variable. In
other words, the dependent variable depends (or is thought to depend) on the independent variable.
Experimental and Control Groups
Typically, a researcher conducting an experiment divides subjects into an experimental group and a
control group. The subjects in both groups receive the same treatment, with one important difference:
the researcher manipulates one part of the treatment in the experimental group but does not
manipulate it in the control group. The variable that is manipulated is the independent variable. The
researcher can then compare the experimental group to the control group to find out whether the
manipulation of the independent variable affected the dependent variable.
Often, subjects in the control group receive a placebo drug or treatment, while subjects in the
experimental group receive the real drug or treatment. This helps researchers to figure out what causes
the observed effect: the real drug or treatment, or the subjects’ expectation that they will be affected.
Example: Suppose a researcher wants to study the effect of drug A on subjects’ alertness. He divides 100
subjects into two groups of 50, an experimental group and a control group. He dissolves drug A in saline
solution and injects it into all the subjects in the experimental group. He then gives all the control group
subjects an injection of only saline solution. The independent variable in this case is drug A, which he
administers only to the experimental group. The control group receives a placebo: the injection of saline
solution. The dependent variable is alertness, as measured by performance on a timed test. Any effect on
alertness that appears only in the experimental group is caused by the drug. Any effect on alertness that
appears in both the experimental and control groups could be due to the subjects’ expectations or to
extraneous variables, such as pain from the injection.
Extraneous Variables
Ideally, subjects in the experimental and control groups would be identical in every way except for the
variables being studied. In practice, however, this would be possible only if researchers could clone
people. So researchers try to make groups with subjects that are similar in all respects that could
potentially influence the dependent variable. Variables other than the independent variable that could
affect the dependent variable are called extraneous variables.
One way to control extraneous variables is to use random assignment. When researchers use random
assignment, they create experimental and control groups in a way that gives subjects an equal chance of
being placed in either group. This guarantees the two groups’ similarity.
Disadvantages of Experiments
The main disadvantage of experiments is that they usually don’t fully reflect the real world. In an
experiment, researchers try to control variables in order to show clear causal links. However, to exert
control in this way, researchers must simplify an event or a situation, which often makes the situation
artificial.
Another disadvantage of experiments is that they can’t be used to study everything. Sometimes
researchers can’t control variables enough to use an experiment, or they find that doing an experiment
would be unethical—that is, it would be painful or harmful in some way to the subjects being studied.
Bias in Research
Bias is the distortion of results by a variable. Common types of bias include sampling bias, subject bias,
and experimenter bias.
Sampling Bias
Sampling bias occurs when the sample studied in an experiment does not correctly represent the
population the researcher wants to draw conclusions about.
Example: A psychologist wants to study the eating habits of a population of New Yorkers who have
freckles and are between the ages of eighteen and forty-five. She can’t possibly study all people with
freckles in that age group, so she must study a sample of people with freckles. However, she can
generalize her results to the whole population of people with freckles only if her sample is representative
of the population. If her sample includes only white, dark-haired males who are college juniors, her
results won’t generalize well to the entire population she’s studying. Her sample will reflect sampling
bias.
Subject Bias
Research subjects’ expectations can affect and change the subjects’ behavior, resulting in subject bias.
Such a bias can manifest itself in two ways:
 A placebo effect is the effect on a subject receiving a fake drug or treatment. Placebo effects
occur when subjects believe they are getting a real drug or treatment even though they are not.
A single-blind experiment is an experiment in which the subjects don’t know whether they are
receiving a real or fake drug or treatment. Single-blind experiments help to reduce placebo
effects.
 The social desirability bias is the tendency of some research subjects to describe themselves in
socially approved ways. It can affect self-report data or information people give about
themselves in surveys.
Experimenter Bias
Experimenter bias occurs when researchers’ preferences or expectations influence the outcome of their
research. In these cases, researchers see what they want to see rather than what is actually there.
A method called the double-blind procedure can help experimenters prevent this bias from occurring. In
a double-blind procedure, neither the experimenter nor the subject knows which subjects come from
the experimental group and which come from the control group.
In the past, researchers performed all kinds of questionable experiments in the name of science. For
example, in one famous experiment, psychologist Stanley Milgram led his subjects to believe that they
were giving painful electric shocks to other people. Many people consider this experiment unethical
because it caused the subjects emotional discomfort. Today, researchers must abide by basic ethical
norms when conducting research. Most important, they must consider whether they might harm their
human or animal subjects while doing research.
Ethics
Ethics refers to a system of moral values or the way people distinguish right from wrong. The American
Psychological Association (APA) requires all its members to adhere to its code of ethics, which applies to
the treatment of both humans and animals.
Research with Human Subjects
Researchers must get informed consent from their subjects before beginning research. Informed
consent means that subjects must know enough about the research to decide whether to participate,
and they must agree to participate voluntarily. Furthermore, researchers have an ethical obligation to
prevent physical and mental harm to their subjects. If there is any risk of harm, they must warn subjects
in advance. Researchers also must allow subjects to withdraw from a study at any time if they wish to
stop participating. Finally, researchers have an obligation to protect the anonymity of their subjects.
Some psychological research cannot be done when subjects are fully informed about the purpose of the
research, because people sometimes behave differently when under observation. To study people’s
normal behavior, researchers sometimes have to deceive subjects. Deception is considered ethical only
if:
 The study will give researchers some valuable insight
 It would be impossible to do the study without deception
 Subjects can learn the truth about the study’s purpose and methods afterward
Research with Animal Subjects
Although most psychological research involves human subjects, some psychologists study animal
subjects instead of or in addition to humans. Research with animal subjects has helped psychologists do
the following:
 Learn facts about animal species
 Find ways to solve human problems
 Study issues that can’t be studied using human subjects for practical or ethical reasons
 Refine theories about human behavior
 Improve human welfare
Many people question the ethics of animal research because it can involve procedures such as
deprivation, pain, surgery, and euthanasia. Psychologists have ethical obligations to treat animal
subjects humanely and to do research on animals only when the benefits of the research are clear.
People who are against animal research maintain three arguments:
 Animals should have the same rights as humans.
 Society should enact safeguards to protect the safety and welfare of animals.
 Researchers should not put the well-being of humans above the well-being of animals.
Interpreting Data
After psychologists develop a theory, form a hypothesis, make observations, and collect data, they end up with
a lot of information, usually in the form of numerical data. The term statistics refers to the analysis and
interpretation of this numerical data. Psychologists use statistics to organize, summarize, and interpret the
information they collect.
Descriptive Statistics
To organize and summarize their data, researchers need numbers to describe what happened. These numbers
are called descriptive statistics. Researchers may use histograms or bar graphs to show the way data are
distributed. Presenting data this way makes it easy to compare results, see trends in data, and evaluate results
quickly.
Example: Suppose a researcher wants to find out how many hours students study for three different courses.
Each course has 100 students. The researcher does a survey of ten students in each of the courses. On the
survey, he asks the students to write down the number of hours per week they spend studying for that course.
The data look like this:
Hours of Study per Week Course A Course B Course C

Student Hours per week Student Hours per week Student Hours per week
Joe 9 Hannah 5 Meena 6
Peter 7 Ben 6 Sonia 6
Zoey 8 Iggy 6 Kim 7
Ana 8 Louis 6 Mike 5
Jose 7 Keesha 7 Jamie 6
Lee 9 Lisa 6 Ilana 6
Joshua 8 Mark 5 Lars 5
Ravi 9 Ahmed 5 Nick 20
Kristen 8 Jenny 6 Liz 5
Loren 1 Erin 6 Kevin 6
To get a better sense of what these data mean, the researcher can plot them on a bar graph. Histograms or bar
graphs for the three courses might look like this:
Measuring Central Tendency
Researchers summarize their data by calculating measures of central tendency, such as the mean, the
median, and the mode. The most commonly used measure of central tendency is the mean, which is the
arithmetic average of the scores. The mean is calculated by adding up all the scores and dividing the sum by
the number of scores.
However, the mean is not a good summary method to use when the data include a few extremely high or
extremely low scores. A distribution with a few very high scores is called a positively skewed distribution. A
distribution with a few very low scores is called a negatively skewed distribution. The mean of a positively
skewed distribution will be deceptively high, and the mean of a negatively skewed distribution will be
deceptively low. When working with a skewed distribution, the median is a better measure of central tendency.
The median is the middle score when all the scores are arranged in order from lowest to highest.
Another measure of central tendency is the mode. The mode is the most frequently occurring score in a
distribution.
Statistics
Statistics is a branch of mathematics. Psychologists need a solid foundation in math to describe, analyze, and
summarize the results of their research.
Measuring Variation
Measures of variation tell researchers how much the scores in a distribution differ. Examples of measures of
variation include the range and the standard deviation. The range is the difference between the highest and the
lowest scores in the distribution. Researchers calculate the range by subtracting the lowest score from the
highest score. The standard deviation provides more information about the amount of variation in scores. It
tells a researcher the degree to which scores vary around the mean of the data.
Inferential Statistics
After analyzing statistics, researchers make inferences about how reliable and significant their data are.
Example: The researcher’s survey of the students in three classes showed differences in how long the
students studied for each course. The mean number of hours for students in Course A was about eight hours,
and for students in Courses B and C, the average was about six hours. Does this mean Course A requires the
most hours of study? Were the differences the researcher observed in study time real or just due to chance? In
other words, can he generalize from the samples of students he surveyed to the whole population of students?
He needs to determine the reliability and significance of his statistics.
If researchers want to generalize confidently from a sample, the sample must fulfill two criteria:
 It must be large and varied enough to be representative.

 It must not have much variation in scores.
Researchers can use inferential statistics to figure out the likelihood that an observed difference was just due
to chance. If it’s unlikely that the difference was due to chance, then the observed difference could be
considered statistically significant. Psychologists usually consider a result to be statistically significant if such
a result occurs just by chance 5 or fewer times out of every 100 times a study is done. They call this statistical
significance at the p ≤ .05 level (p less than or equal to point oh-five).
However, statistical significance alone does not make a finding important. Statistical significance simply means
that a result is probably not due to chance.
Principles of Genetics
Behavior genetics is a branch of psychology that examines the genetic base of behavior and personality
differences among people. An understanding of genetics begins with the following basic concepts:
 A vast number of cells make up the human body. Each cell has forty-six chromosomes, which
come in twenty-three pairs. The only exceptions are sex cells.
 Sex cells are sperm in males and eggs in females. Each sex cell has only twenty-three
chromosomes.
 Chromosomes are made up of thin strands of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). Each chromosome
pair contains thousands of genes.
 Genes are segments of DNA that function as hereditary units. Genes are carried on
chromosomes.
 DNA is made up of units called nucleotides. There are only four different nucleotides, labeled A,
C, G, and T. Long strings of nucleotides make up genes.
 Genes get translated into proteins, which carry out various functions in our bodies. For instance,
some proteins serve as the building blocks of cells. Other proteins function as enzymes or
hormones.
Who Shares Genes?
No two people share the exact combination of genes unless they are identical twins. However, all family
members share some genes with one another. The closer the biological relationship between
individuals, the more genes they share. The chart below shows the percentage of genes any person
shares with his or her close relatives:
Percentage of Shared Genes Identical twin 100 percent
Parent 50 percent
Brother or sister 50 percent
Nonidentical twin 50 percent
Grandparent 25 percent
Monogenic and Polygenic Traits
Some characteristics or traits are controlled by a single gene, which means they are monogenic. A single
gene, for example, can be part of what brings about alcoholism or schizophrenia.
Most traits are controlled by the actions of several genes, which means they are polygenic. For example,
a person’s intelligence is linked to the combination of several genes.
The environment also shapes traits, and later in this chapter we will discuss how genes interact with the
environment to produce psychological traits.
Heritability
In a group of people, a particular psychological trait, such as intelligence, usually varies a lot. Differences
in groups may be due to genes or the environment, and researchers use a statistic called heritability to
see which has the largest influence. Heritability is a mathematical estimate that indicates how much of a
trait’s variation can be attributed to genes. There are three important principles of heritability:
 Heritability estimates don’t reveal anything about how much genes influence a person’s traits.
These figures tell us only to what extent trait differences between people can be attributed to
genes.
 Heritability depends on the similarity of the environment for a group of people. In a group of
people who share similar environments, heritability of a particular trait may be high. However,
that same trait may have low heritability in a group of people who operate in different
environments.
 Even if a trait is highly heritable, it can still be influenced by environmental factors.
Example: Imagine that ten people live in identical environments. Somehow, they experienced identical
prenatal environments while in their mothers’ wombs, were raised in identical homes by parents who
were identical in every way, and had all the same childhood and adulthood experiences. Suppose that
these ten people turn out to be different with respect to one trait, such as the rate at which they can
wiggle their ears. Since both genes and environment can influence traits, these differences would have to
be genetic, since they could not be due to differences in environment. In such a case, heritability of the
ear-wiggling trait would be close to 100 percent. Now suppose some of these ten people enter different
ear-wiggle training camps. The camps vary in effectiveness, so the subjects in some camps increase their
ear-wiggling rates, while other subjects remain the same. After the camp training, environment would
account for some of the differences among the ten people in ear-wiggling ability. A smaller proportion of
the differences would be due to genes alone. Therefore, heritability would be lower.
Types of Genetic Studies
Researchers do different kinds of studies to see whether and to what extent a characteristic might be
genetically transmitted.
Family Studies
In family studies, researchers look at similarities among members of a family with respect to a particular
trait. If the trait is genetically inherited, it should be similar in blood relatives. The closer the blood
relationship, the more similar people should be.
Family studies alone don’t reveal whether a trait is genetically inherited. A family shares genes, but they
also share similar environments. When researchers find trait similarity in a family study, their findings
may suggest that the trait is genetically inherited, but the study can’t prove it.
Twin Studies
Compared to family studies, twin studies give researchers more solid evidence about whether a trait is
inherited. In twin studies, researchers compare pairs of identical twins to fraternal, or nonidentical,
twins. When doing these studies, researchers assume that identical twin pairs share the same
environment, just as fraternal twin pairs do. However, identical twins share all of their genes with each
other, while fraternal twins share only half of their genes. When a trait shows more similarity between
identical twins than between fraternal twins, the greater similarity probably comes from shared genes,
not shared environment.
One problem with this type of study is that identical twins may not in fact share an identical
environment while fraternal twins do. People tend to treat identical twins in unusual ways. For example,
people may treat identical twins as if they are similar in every respect, or they might focus intensely on
differences between them.
Studies of Separated Twins
In order to avoid uncertain environmental factors, researchers sometimes study separated twins. Twins
who are separated when they are very young and brought up in different families have different
environmental influences but identical genes. Trait similarities between separated twins result mostly
from genes.
However, separated twin studies can also be problematic. The environments of separated twins may not
actually be that different from each other for the following reasons:
 The twins shared a similar prenatal environment before they were born.
 Adoption agencies may tend to place twins in similar households.
 Since they are similar in appearance and in genetically inherited abilities, the twins may evoke
similar responses from people around them.
As in other types of studies, trait similarities in separated twins may be due to both similar genes and
similar environments.
Experiences and Behavior
Experiences affect behavior partly because environmental stimulation forms and maintains neural
connections. For example, psychological research shows that babies need consistent, loving contact with
a caregiver in order to achieve optimal brain development. Neglected babies, lacking attention and
physical contact, experience unpleasant emotions that are not simply transitory. Their experiences
determine the development of their neural connections. Similarly, soldiers on active combat duty can
suffer mental damage from the continuously stressful environment, even if they never experience
physical injury.
Adoption Studies
In adoption studies, researchers compare adopted children to their biological parents and to their
adoptive parents. Adopted children share more genes with their biological parents. The children’s living
environments, however, more closely resemble the environments of their adoptive parents. When
adoptive children resemble their biological parents more than their adoptive parents with respect to a
certain trait, researchers can hypothesize that the trait has a genetic basis.
Interaction of Genes and Environment
In conducting all these types of studies, researchers have found that while genes influence psychological
traits, they don’t act alone. Highly influential environmental factors also play a major role. These factors
include:
 Prenatal influences
 Child-rearing and other parental influences
 Nutrition
 Experiences throughout life
 Peer influences
 Culture
Cultural Norms
Cultural norms are sets of societal expectations that influence behavior. Norms tell us what kinds of
behavior are appropriate. For example, in the United States, one cultural norm mandates that children
be potty-trained by their third birthday. Parents of children who aren’t potty-trained by that point may
start to feel worry, shame, and social pressure as their child’s third birthday passes.
Genes and environment interact in complex ways. People usually inherit a vulnerability or predisposition
to having a particular psychological trait, and the environment in which those people live shapes the
development of that trait. The opposite is also true: people’s psychological traits influence their
environments. People don’t just live in environments—they also shape their worlds by exerting their
traits.
Example: Suppose there are two nonidentical twins, Ben and Tom. Ben is calm by nature, while Tom has
always been fussy. Mom and Dad will be more taxed by Tom, so they may be less responsive and patient
with him than they are with Ben. Therefore, Tom and Ben experience different parental influences, which
may make Tom less trusting than Ben as they grow up. Genes and environment influence Tom’s
personality, but the interaction between genes and environment also plays a role.
Evolution and Natural Selection
Evolution is a change in the frequency of genes in a population over time. Evolutionary psychologists try
to explain universal behaviors. They study how natural selection has encouraged certain behavior
patterns to develop.
The Theory of Natural Selection
Charles Darwin (1809–1882) was a British naturalist who is best known for his contributions to
evolutionary theory. Although others had noted that species evolved over time, Darwin first put forward
the theory of natural selection to explain the process of evolution.
According to this theory, certain inherited characteristics give an organism a survival or reproductive
advantage. Organisms pass on these characteristics more often than they pass on other inherited traits.
Example: The species of primates called mandrills have evolved to have bright blue rear ends, because
brightly colored rumps help them attract mates and give them a reproductive advantage. Porcupines
evolved to have quills, because quills help them to avoid predators and reproduce. This gives porcupines
a survival advantage.
On the Origin of Species
In 1831, Darwin joined a naval expedition on a ship called the HMS Beagle as the unofficial naturalist
onboard. Darwin collected many specimens during the ship’s five-year expedition around the world.
After returning to England, he began developing his ideas about evolution. In 1859, Darwin published his
great work, On the Origin of Species.
A characteristic that gives a reproductive advantage helps an organism to mate successfully and pass on
its genes to the next generation. A characteristic that gives a survival advantage helps an organism to
live long enough to reproduce and pass on its genes.
Reproduction of the Fittest
People often use the phrase “survival of the fittest” instead of “reproduction of the fittest,” but
according to evolutionary theory, survival alone isn’t enough. Creatures need to survive long enough to
reproduce. Reproductive success is measured by how many offspring a creature produces.
Inclusive Fitness
Another concept related to reproductive success is inclusive fitness, described by W. D. Hamilton in the
1960s. Inclusive fitness is the reproductive fitness of an individual organism plus any effect the organism
has on increasing reproductive fitness in related organisms. Some researchers believe that the concept
of inclusive fitness explains why certain organisms sacrifice themselves to save others in the species.
According to this theory, people might risk their lives to save their children or close relatives, but not to
save distant relatives or unrelated people. Because people share more genes with close relatives, saving
them has more payoff in terms of passing on genes to the next generation.
Adaptations
An adaptation is an inherited characteristic that becomes prevalent in a population because it provides

a survival or reproductive advantage. Because evolution occurs over a long period, an adaptation can
remain in a population even after it has stopped being useful.
Example: Human beings have a genetic preference for fatty foods, which explains why fried chicken,
french fries, and buttery popcorn are so popular. Evolutionary psychologists say that the preference for
fatty foods derives from the days when people hunted and gathered and food was scarce. Eating high-
fat foods was important because fat gave people the calories they needed. In other words, the
preference for fat was adaptive. Today, in wealthy countries with abundant food and sedentary
lifestyles, the preference for fat remains, despite the fact that it no longer has beneficial effects. In fact,
consuming fatty foods can lead to health problems.
Mutations
Evolution relies on mutations, or small changes in genes. Mutations happen because of two events that
can occur during the formation of egg and sperm cells:
 An error during copying of DNA
 Random rearrangement of small pieces of DNA in a chromosome pair
Sometimes, a mutation results in a new trait. If the individual with the mutation reproduces successfully,
the mutation will be passed on. If the new trait proves advantageous, the mutated gene that caused the
trait will increase in the population over a long period and thus propel evolution.
Evolutionary Psychology
Evolutionary psychology uses evolutionary theory to explain similarities in psychological characteristics.

According to evolutionary psychologists, patterns of behavior have evolved through natural selection, in
the same way that physical characteristics have evolved. Because of natural selection, adaptive
behaviors, or behaviors that increase reproductive success, are kept and passed on from one generation
to the next.
Mating Behavior
Because reproductive success is such a hot topic in evolutionary theory, evolutionary psychologists often
choose to study mating behavior. Researchers such as Robert Trivers have proposed that mating
strategies depend on the amount of parental investment made by males and females of a species.
Parental investment refers to all the resources spent to produce and raise offspring. In many species,
males and females don’t make equal parental investments. The sex that invests less competes with
others of its sex to mate with the sex that invests more. The sex that invests more in parenting tends to
discriminate more when selecting a mate.
Sexual Selection
Usually, the female of the species invests more in parenting. Females of many species choose their
mates based on certain characteristics, such as large canine teeth in a male baboon or flashy tail
feathers on a peacock, which in turn means those traits will be passed on to their male offspring.
Biologists call this process sexual selection, which is related to natural selection. Whereas natural
selection results in adaptations that make organisms more likely to survive, sexual selection just makes
them more likely to mate. Sometimes the adaptations that are a result of sexual selection, such as flashy
tail feathers, are not actually much help in terms of survival.
Polygyny
A situation called polygyny arises when a single male mates with many different females. Polygyny
tends to occur in certain animal species, notably those in which females invest more in parenting than
males. In a polygynous mating system, males compete with other males in order to get access to
females. Females tend to pick the winners of such competitions. Picking winners helps to ensure that
their offspring will have good genes.
Example: Mountain gorillas are polygynous. The females and children live in groups defended by a
mature male, with whom they mate. If they choose, however, females may select a stronger, more
desirable mate. In such a case, the hopeful suitor would challenge the dominant male and the females
would choose the winner.
Problems with Evolutionary Explanations
Scientists have used evolutionary theory to explain human behavior patterns, such as a female tendency
toward monogamy and a male tendency toward promiscuity. However, other researchers argue that
such explanations don’t apply well to humans, because the theories stem from stereotypes. Humans
behave in complex and variable ways, and factors such as culture strongly influence this behavior.
Furthermore, it is difficult to tie variation in behavior to variation in reproductive success. Evolutionary
explanations also raise controversy because people can use them to support various social and political
agendas.
Some researchers criticize evolutionary explanations because anyone can work backward from an
observation to develop an evolutionary explanation. These psychologists point out that the fact that a
trait exists does not necessarily mean that trait is adaptive. The trait may have been helpful earlier in our
human history but did not remain adaptive, or the trait could be a side effect of another adaptive trait
The Nervous System
The nervous system is a complex, highly coordinated network of tissues that communicate via electro
chemical signals. It is responsible for receiving and processing information in the body and is divided into
two main branches: the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system.
The Central Nervous System
The central nervous system receives and processes information from the senses. The brain and the
spinal cord make up the central nervous system. Both organs lie in a fluid called the cerebrospinal fluid,
which cushions and nourishes the brain. The blood-brain barrier protects the cerebrospinal fluid by
blocking many drugs and toxins. This barrier is a membrane that lets some substances from the blood
into the brain but keeps out others.
The spinal cord connects the brain to the rest of the body. It runs from the brain down to the small of
the back and is responsible for spinal reflexes, which are automatic behaviors that require no input from
the brain. The spinal cord also sends messages from the brain to the other parts of the body and from
those parts back to the brain.
The brain is the main organ in the nervous system. It integrates information from the senses and
coordinates the body’s activities. It allows people to remember their childhoods, plan the future, create
term papers and works of art, talk to friends, and have bizarre dreams. Different parts of the brain do
different things.
Damage to the Spinal Cord
The spinal cord is what connects the brain and body, and it is protected by the bones in the spinal
column. Injuries to the spinal cord can cause serious problems, such as paralysis. Even relatively minor
damage to the spinal cord can cause loss of feeling in parts of the body, impaired organ function, and
loss of muscular control. Though spinal cord injuries are usually permanent, current research into
regenerated axons and stem cells offers hope that one day these injuries may be treated successfully.
The Peripheral Nervous System
All the parts of the nervous system except the brain and the spinal cord belong to the peripheral
nervous system. The peripheral nervous system has two parts: the somatic nervous system and the
autonomic nervous system.
The Somatic Nervous System
The somatic nervous system consists of nerves that connect the central nervous system to voluntary
skeletal muscles and sense organs. Voluntary skeletal muscles are muscles that help us to move around.
There are two types of nerves in the somatic nervous system:
 Afferent nerves carry information from the muscles and sense organs to the central nervous
system.
 Efferent nerves carry information from the central nervous system to the muscles and sense
organs.
The Autonomic Nervous System
The autonomic nervous system consists of nerves that connect the central nervous system to the heart,
blood vessels, glands, and smooth muscles. Smooth muscles are involuntary muscles that help organs
such as the stomach and bladder carry out their functions. The autonomic nervous system controls all
the automatic functions in the body, including breathing, digestion, sweating, and heartbeat. The
autonomic nervous system is divided into the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems.
 The sympathetic nervous system gets the body ready for emergency action. It is involved in the
fight-or-flight response, which is the sudden reaction to stressful or threatening situations. The
sympathetic nervous system prepares the body to meet a challenge. It slows down digestive
processes, draws blood away from the skin to the skeletal muscles, and activates the release of
hormones so the body can act quickly.
 The parasympathetic nervous system becomes active during states of relaxation. It helps the
body to conserve and store energy. It slows heartbeat, decreases blood pressure, and promotes
the digestive process.
Crisis Mode
The sympathetic nervous system’s activation may manifest as a rapidly thumping heart, sweaty palms,
pale skin, or panting breath—the kinds of things we experience during a crisis. We may experience these
kinds of symptoms during a panic attack, for example.
Neurons: Cells of the Nervous System
There are two kinds of cells in the nervous system: glial cells and neurons. Glial cells, which make up the
support structure of the nervous system, perform four functions:
 Provide structural support to the neurons
 Insulate neurons
 Nourish neurons
 Remove waste products
The other cells, neurons, act as the communicators of the nervous system. Neurons receive information,
integrate it, and pass it along. They communicate with one another, with cells in the sensory organs, and
with muscles and glands.
Each neuron has the same structure:
 Each neuron has a soma, or cell body, which is the central area of the neuron. It contains the
nucleus and other structures common to all cells in the body, such as mitochondria.
 The highly branched fibers that reach out from the neuron are called dendritic trees. Each
branch is called a dendrite. Dendrites receive information from other neurons or from sense
organs.
 The single long fiber that extends from the neuron is called an axon. Axons send information to
other neurons, to muscle cells, or to gland cells. What we call nerves are bundles of axons
coming from many neurons.
 Some of these axons have a coating called the myelin sheath. Glial cells produce myelin, which
is a fatty substance that protects the nerves. When an axon has a myelin sheath, nerve impulses
travel faster down the axon. Nerve transmission can be impaired when myelin sheaths
disintegrate.
 At the end of each axon lie bumps called terminal buttons. Terminal buttons release
neurotransmitters, which are chemicals that can cross over to neighboring neurons and activate
them. The junction between an axon of one neuron and the cell body or dendrite of a
neighboring neuron is called a synapse.
Role of Myelin
People with multiple sclerosis have difficulty with muscle control because the myelin around their axons
has disintegrated. Another disease, poliomyelitis, commonly called “polio,” also damages myelin and can
lead to paralysis.
Communication Between Neurons
In 1952, physiologists Alan Hodgkin and Andrew Huxley made some important discoveries about how
neurons transmit information. They studied giant squid, whose neurons have giant axons. By putting tiny
electrodes inside these axons, Hodgkin and Huxley found that nerve impulses are really electrochemical
reactions.
The Resting Potential
Nerves are specially built to transmit electrochemical signals. Fluids exist both inside and outside
neurons. These fluids contain positively and negatively charged atoms and molecules called ions.
Positively charged sodium and potassium ions and negatively charged chloride ions constantly cross into
and out of neurons, across cell membranes. An inactive neuron is in the resting state. In the resting
state, the inside of a neuron has a slightly higher concentration of negatively charged ions than the
outside does. This situation creates a slight negative charge inside the neuron, which acts as a store of
potential energy called the resting potential. The resting potential of a neuron is about –70 millivolts.
The Action Potential
When something stimulates a neuron, gates, or channels, in the cell membrane open up, letting in
positively charged sodium ions. For a limited time, there are more positively charged ions inside than in
the resting state. This creates an action potential, which is a short-lived change in electric charge inside
the neuron. The action potential zooms quickly down an axon. Channels in the membrane close, and no
more sodium ions can enter. After they open and close, the channels remain closed for a while. During
the period when the channels remain closed, the neuron can’t send impulses. This short period of time
is called the absolute refractory period, and it lasts about 1–2 milliseconds. The absolute refractory
period is the period during which a neuron lies dormant after an action potential has been completed.
The All-or-None Law
Neural impulses conform to the all-or-none law, which means that a neuron either fires and generates
an action potential, or it doesn’t. Neural impulses are always the same strength—weak stimuli don’t
produce weak impulses. If stimulation reaches a certain threshold, or minimum level, the neuron fires
and sends an impulse. If stimulation doesn’t reach that threshold, the neuron simply doesn’t fire.
Stronger stimuli do not send stronger impulses, but they do send impulses at a faster rate.
The Synapse
The gap between two cells at a synapse is called the synaptic cleft. The signal-sending cell is called the
presynaptic neuron, and the signal-receiving cell is called the postsynaptic neuron.
Neurotransmitters are the chemicals that allow neurons to communicate with each other. These
chemicals are kept in synaptic vesicles, which are small sacs inside the terminal buttons. When an action
potential reaches the terminal buttons, which are at the ends of axons, neurotransmitter-filled synaptic
vesicles fuse with the presynaptic cell membrane. As a result, neurotransmitter molecules pour into the
synaptic cleft. When they reach the postsynaptic cell, neurotransmitter molecules attach to matching
receptor sites. Neurotransmitters work in much the same way as keys. They attach only to specific
receptors, just as certain keys fit only certain locks.
When a neurotransmitter molecule links up with a receptor molecule, there’s a voltage change, called a
postsynaptic potential (PSP), at the receptor site. Receptor sites on the postsynaptic cell can be
excitatory or inhibitory:
 The binding of a neurotransmitter to an excitatory receptor site results in a positive change in

voltage, called an excitatory postsynaptic potential or excitatory PSP. This increases the
chances that an action potential will be generated in the postsynaptic cell.
 Conversely, the binding of a neurotransmitter to an inhibitory receptor site results in an

inhibitory PSP, or a negative change in voltage. In this case, it’s less likely that an action
potential will be generated in the postsynaptic cell.
Unlike an action potential, a PSP doesn’t conform to the all-or-none law. At any one time, a single
neuron can receive a huge number of excitatory PSPs and inhibitory PSPs because its dendrites are
influenced by axons from many other neurons. Whether or not an action potential is generated in the
neuron depends on the balance of excitation and inhibition. If, on balance, the voltage changes enough
to reach the threshold level, the neuron will fire.
Neurotransmitter effects at a synapse do not last long. Neurotransmitter molecules soon detach from
receptors and are usually returned to the presynaptic cell for reuse in a process called reuptake.
Neurotransmitters
So far, researchers have discovered about 15–20 different neurotransmitters, and new ones are still
being identified. The nervous system communicates accurately because there are so many
neurotransmitters and because neurotransmitters work only at matching receptor sites. Different
neurotransmitters do different things.
Excess is Deficiency is
Neurotransmitter Major functions
associated with associated with
Acetylcholine Muscle movement, attention, arousal, memory, Alzheimer’s

emotion disease
Dopamine Voluntary movement, learning, memory, emotion Schizophrenia Parkinsonism
Sleep, wakefulness, appetite, mood, aggression,

Serotonin impulsivity, sensory perception, temperature Depression
regulation, pain suppression
Endorphins Pain relief, pleasure
Learning, memory, dreaming, awakening,

Norepinephrine emotion, stress-related increase in heart rate, Depression
stress-related slowing of digestive processes
GABA Main inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain
Glutamate Main excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain Multiple sclerosis
Agonists and Antagonists
Agonists are chemicals that mimic the action of a particular neurotransmitter. They bind to receptors
and generate postsynaptic potentials.
Nicotine and Receptors
Nicotine is an acetylcholine agonist, which means that it mimics acetylcholine closely enough to
compete for acetylcholine receptors. When both nicotine and acetylcholine attach to a receptor site, the
nerve fibers become highly stimulated, producing a feeling of alertness and elation.
Antagonists are chemicals that block the action of a particular neurotransmitter. They bind to receptors
but can’t produce postsynaptic potentials. Because they occupy the receptor site, they prevent
neurotransmitters from acting.
Paralysis and Poison Arrows
Curare is a drug that causes paralysis. As an acetylcholine antagonist, it binds to acetylcholine receptors
at nerve-muscle junctions, preventing communication between nerves and muscles. Doctors sometimes
use curare to immobilize patients during extremely delicate surgery. South American tribes have long
used curare as an arrow poison.
Studying the Brain
To examine the brain’s functions, researchers have to study a working brain, which means they can’t use
cadavers. Invasive studies, in which researchers actually put instruments into the brain, can’t be done in
humans, though they can be done occasionally during medically necessary brain surgery. Researchers
usually use invasive techniques in animal studies. There are two main types of invasive animal studies:
 Lesioning studies: Researchers use an electrode and an electric current to burn a specific, small
area of the brain.
 Electric stimulation of the brain: Researchers activate a particular brain structure by using a
weak electric current sent along an implanted electrode.
Because they cannot use such invasive techniques on humans, researchers study human brains in two
ways:
 They examine people with brain injuries or diseases and see what they can and can’t do.
 They use electroencephalographs (EEGs), which can record the overall electrical activity in the
brain via electrodes placed on the scalp.
Recently, high-tech innovations have made studying human brains easier. Researchers use three types
of imaging equipment to study the brain:
 Computerized tomography (CT): In CT, a number of x-rays are taken of the brain from different
angles. A computer then combines the x-rays to produce a picture of a horizontal slice through
the brain.
 Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI): Both brain structure and function can be visualized through
MRI scans, which are computer-enhanced pictures produced by magnetic fields and radio
waves.
 Positron emission tomography (PET): For PET scans, researchers inject people with a harmless
radioactive chemical, which collects in active brain areas. The researchers then look at the
pattern of radioactivity in the brain, using a scanner and a computer, and figure out which parts
of the brain activate during specific tasks, such as lifting an arm or feeling a particular emotion.
Structure and Functions of the Brain
The brain is divided into three main parts: the hindbrain, the midbrain, and the forebrain.
The Hindbrain
The hindbrain is composed of the medulla, the pons, and the cerebellum. The medulla lies next to the
spinal cord and controls functions outside conscious control, such as breathing and blood flow. In other
words, the medulla controls essential functions. The pons affects activities such as sleeping, waking, and
dreaming. The cerebellum controls balance and coordination of movement. Damage to the cerebellum
impairs fine motor skills, so a person with an injury in this area would have trouble playing the guitar or
typing a term paper.
The Midbrain
The midbrain is the part of the brain that lies between the hindbrain and the forebrain. The midbrain
helps us to locate events in space. It also contains a system of neurons that releases the
neurotransmitter dopamine. The reticular formation runs through the hindbrain and the midbrain and is
involved in sleep and wakefulness, pain perception, breathing, and muscle reflexes.
The Forebrain
The biggest and most complex part of the brain is the forebrain, which includes the thalamus, the
hypothalamus, the limbic system, and the cerebrum.
Thalamus
The thalamus is a sensory way station. All sensory information except smell-related data must go
through the thalamus on the way to the cerebrum.
Hypothalamus
The hypothalamus lies under the thalamus and helps to control the pituitary gland and the autonomic
nervous system. The hypothalamus plays an important role in regulating body temperature and
biological drives such as hunger, thirst, sex, and aggression.
Limbic System
The limbic system includes the hippocampus, the amygdala, and the septum. Parts of the limbic system
also lie in the thalamus and the hypothalamus. The limbic system processes emotional experience. The
amygdala plays a role in aggression and fear, while the hippocampus plays a role in memory.
Cerebrum
The cerebrum, the biggest part of the brain, controls complex processes such as abstract thought and
learning. The wrinkled, highly folded outer layer of the cerebrum is called the cerebral cortex. The
corpus callosum is a band of fibers that runs along the cerebrum from the front of the skull to the back.
It divides the cerebrum into two halves, or hemispheres. Each hemisphere is divided into four lobes or
segments: the occipital lobe, the parietal lobe, the temporal lobe, and the frontal lobe:
 The occipital lobe contains the primary visual cortex, which handles visual information.
 The parietal lobe contains the primary somatosensory cortex, which handles information related
to the sense of touch. The parietal lobe also plays a part in sensing body position and integrating
visual information.
 The temporal lobe contains the primary auditory cortex, which is involved in processing auditory
information. The left temporal lobe also contains Wernicke’s area, a part of the brain involved in
language comprehension.
 The frontal lobe contains the primary motor cortex, which controls muscle movement. The left
frontal lobe contains Broca’s area, which influences speech production. The frontal lobe also
processes memory, planning, goal-setting, creativity, rational decision making, and social
judgment.
Brain Hemispheres
Lateralization refers to the fact that the right and left hemispheres of the brain regulate different
functions. The left hemisphere specializes in verbal processing tasks such as writing, reading, and talking.
The right hemisphere specializes in nonverbal processing tasks such as playing music, drawing, and
recognizing childhood friends.
Roger Sperry, Michael Gazzaniga, and their colleagues conducted some of the early research in
lateralization. They examined people who had gone through split-brain surgery, an operation done to
cut the corpus callosum and separate the two brain hemispheres. Doctors sometimes use split-brain
surgery as a treatment for epileptic seizures.
Control of the Body

Because of the organization of the nervous system, the left hemisphere of the brain controls the
functioning of the right side of the body. Likewise, the right hemisphere controls the functioning of the
left side of the body.
Vision and hearing operate a bit differently. What the left eye and right eye see goes to the entire brain.
However, images in the left visual field stimulate receptors on the right side of each eye, and in-
formation goes from those points to the right hemisphere. Information perceived by the right visual field
ends up in the left hemisphere.
In the case of auditory information, both hemispheres receive input about what each ear hears.
However, information first goes to the opposite hemisphere. If the left ear hears a sound, the right
hemisphere registers the sound first.
The fact that the brain’s hemispheres communicate with opposite sides of the body does not affect
most people’s day-to-day functioning because the two hemispheres constantly share information via the
corpus callosum. However, severing the corpus callosum and separating the hemispheres causes
impaired perception.
Split-Brain Studies
If a researcher presented a picture of a Frisbee to a split-brain patient’s right visual field, information
about the Frisbee would go to his left hemisphere. Because language functions reside in the left
hemisphere, he’d be able to say that he saw a Frisbee and describe it. However, if the researcher
presented the Frisbee to the patient’s left visual field, information about it would go to his right
hemisphere. Because his right hemisphere can’t communicate with his left hemisphere when the corpus
callosum is cut, the patient would not be able to name or describe the Frisbee.
The same phenomenon occurs if the Frisbee is hidden from sight and placed in the patient’s left hand,
which communicates with the right hemisphere. When the Frisbee is in the patient’s left visual field or in
his left hand, the patient may not be able to say what it is, although he would be able to point to a
picture of what he saw. Picture recognition requires no verbal language and is also a visual-spatial task,
which the right hemisphere controls.
The Endocrine System
The endocrine system, made up of hormone-secreting glands, also affects communication inside the
body. Hormones are chemicals that help to regulate bodily functions. The glands produce hormones and
dump them into the bloodstream, through which the hormones travel to various parts of the body.
Hormones act more slowly than neurotransmitters, but their effects tend to be longer lasting.
The pituitary gland, which lies close to the hypothalamus of the brain, is often called the master gland of
the endocrine system. When stimulated by the hypothalamus, the pituitary gland releases various
hormones that control other glands in the body. The chart below summarizes the better known
hormones along with some of their functions.

Hormone Produced by Involved in regulating
Thyroxine Thyroid gland Metabolic rate
Insulin Pancreas Level of blood sugar
Melatonin Pineal gland Biological rhythms, sleep
Cortisol, Norepinephrine, Bodily functions during stressful and

Adrenal glands
Epinephrine, Adrenaline emotional states
Testes (and ovaries and

Male secondary sex characteristics,
Androgens adrenal glands to a lesser
sexual arousal in males and females
extent)
Ovaries (and testes and

Breast development and menarche in
Estrogens adrenal glands to a lesser
females
extent)
Ovaries (and testes and

Preparation of uterus for implantation
Progesterone adrenal glands to a lesser
of fertilized egg
extent)
Theories of Development
Development is the series of age-related changes that happen over the course of a life span. Several
famous psychologists, including Sigmund Freud, Erik Erikson, Jean Piaget, and Lawrence Kohlberg,
describe development as a series of stages. A stage is a period in development in which people exhibit
typical behavior patterns and establish particular capacities. The various stage theories share three
assumptions:
1. People pass through stages in a specific order, with each stage building on capacities developed
in the previous stage.
2. Stages are related to age.
3. Development is discontinuous, with qualitatively different capacities emerging in each stage.
Sigmund Freud’s Theory of Personality
The Austrian psychiatrist Sigmund Freud first described personality development as a series of stages. Of
these stages, Freud believed that early childhood was the most important. He believed that personality
developed by about the age of five.
Freud’s theory of personality development is described in more detail on pages 268-–273 of Chapter 13,
“Personality.”
Erik Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development
Like Freud, Erik Erikson believed in the importance of early childhood. However, Erikson believed that
personality development happens over the entire course of a person’s life. In the early 1960s, Erikson
proposed a theory that describes eight distinct stages of development. According to Erikson, in each
stage people face new challenges, and the stage’s outcome depends on how people handle these
challenges. Erikson named the stages according to these possible outcomes:
Stage 1: Trust vs. Mistrust
In the first year after birth, babies depend completely on adults for basic needs such as food, comfort,
and warmth. If the caretakers meet these needs reliably, the babies become attached and develop a
sense of security. Otherwise, they may develop a mistrustful, insecure attitude.
Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
Between the ages of one and three, toddlers start to gain independence and learn skills such as toilet
training, feeding themselves, and dressing themselves. Depending on how they face these challenges,
toddlers can develop a sense of autonomy or a sense of doubt and shame about themselves.
Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt
Between the ages of three and six, children must learn to control their impulses and act in a socially
responsible way. If they can do this effectively, children become more self- confident. If not, they may
develop a strong sense of guilt.
Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority
Between the ages of six and twelve, children compete with peers in school and prepare to take on adult
roles. They end this stage with either a sense of competence or a sense of inferiority.
Stage 5: Identity vs. Role Confusion
During adolescence, which is the period between puberty and adulthood, children try to determine their
identity and their direction in life. Depending on their success, they either acquire a sense of identity or
remain uncertain about their roles in life.
Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation
In young adulthood, people face the challenge of developing intimate relationships with others. If they
do not succeed, they may become isolated and lonely.
Stage 7: Generativity vs. Self-Absorption
As people reach middle adulthood, they work to become productive members of society, either through
parenting or through their jobs. If they fail, they become overly self-absorbed.
Stage 8: Integrity vs. Despair
In old age, people examine their lives. They may either have a sense of contentment or be disappointed
about their lives and fearful of the future.
Erikson’s theory is useful because it addresses both personality stability and personality change. To
some degree, personality is stable, because childhood experiences influence people even as adults.
However, personality also changes and develops over the life span as people face new challenges. The
problem with Erikson’s theory, as with many stage theories of development, is that he describes only a
typical pattern. The theory doesn’t acknowledge the many differences among individuals.
Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Typical Age

Conflict Faced Major Challenge(s)
Development Stage Range
Having basic needs met,

1 Trust vs. mistrust First year of life
attaching to people
Autonomy vs. shame

2 1–3 years Gaining independence
and doubt
Acting in a socially responsible

3 Initiative vs. guilt 3–6 years
way
Competing with peers,

4 Industry vs. inferiority 6–12 years
preparing for adult roles
Identity vs. role

5 Adolescence Determining one’s identity
confusion
Developing intimate
6 Intimacy vs. isolation Early adulthood
relationships
Generativity vs. self- Middle

7 Being productive
absorption adulthood
8 Integrity vs. despair Old age Evaluating one’s life
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
While conducting intelligence tests on children, Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget began to investigate how
children think. According to Piaget, children’s thought processes change as they mature physically and
interact with the world around them. Piaget believed children develop schema, or mental models, to
represent the world. As children learn, they expand and modify their schema through the processes of
assimilation and accommodation. Assimilation is the broadening of an existing schema to include new
information. Accommodation is the modification of a schema as new information is incorporated.
Example: Suppose a young boy knows his pet parrot is a bird. When he sees a robin outside and calls it a
bird too, he exhibits assimilation, since he broadened his bird schema to include characteristics of both
parrots and robins. His bird schema might be “all things that fly.” Now suppose a bat flaps out at him
one night and he shrieks, “Bird!” If he learns it was a bat that startled him, he’ll have to modify his bird
schema to “things that fly and have feathers.” In modifying his definition, he enacts accommodation.
Piaget proposed that children go through four stages of cognitive development:
Stage 1: Sensorimotor Period
In this stage, which lasts from birth to roughly two years, children learn by using their senses and moving
around. By the end of the sensorimotor period, children become capable of symbolic thought, which
means they can represent objects in terms of mental symbols. More important, children achieve object
permanence in this stage. Object permanence is the ability to recognize that an object can exist even
when it’s no longer perceived or in one’s sight.
Example: If a three-month-old baby sees a ball, she’ll probably be fascinated by it. But if someone hides
the ball, the baby won’t show any interest in looking for it. For a very young child, out of sight is literally
out of mind. When the baby is older and has acquired object permanence, she will start to look for things
that are hidden because she will know that things can exist even when they can’t be seen.
Stage 2: Preoperational Period
This stage lasts from about two to seven years of age. During this stage, children get better at symbolic
thought, but they can’t yet reason. According to Piaget, children aren’t capable of conservation during
this stage. Conservation is the ability to recognize that measurable physical features of objects, such as
length, area, and volume, can be the same even when objects appear different.
Example: Suppose a researcher gives a three-year-old girl two full bottles of juice. The girl will agree that
they both contain the same amount of juice. But if the researcher pours the contents of one bottle into a
short, fat tumbler, the girl will then say that the bottle has more. She doesn’t realize that the same
volume of juice is conserved in the tumbler.
Piaget argued that children are not capable of conservation during the preoperational stage because of
three weaknesses in the way they think. He called these weaknesses centration, irreversibility, and
egocentrism:
 Centration is the tendency to focus on one aspect of a problem and ignore other key aspects. In
the example above, the three-year-old looks only at the higher juice level in the bottle and
ignores the fact that the bottle is narrower than the tumbler. Because of centration, children in
the preoperational stage cannot carry out hierarchical classification, which means they can’t
classify things according to more than one level.
 Irreversibility is the inability to mentally reverse an operation. In the example, the three-year-
old can’t imagine pouring the juice from the tumbler back into the bottle. If she poured the juice
back, she’d understand that the tumbler holds the same amount of liquid as the bottle.
 Egocentrism is the inability to take someone else’s point of view. Animism, or the belief that
even inanimate objects are living, results from egocentrism. Children assume that since they are
alive, all other things must be too.
Talking Tables and Dancing Dishwashers
Animism explains the popularity of children’s movies featuring characters such as talking vegetables or
singing candlesticks. Young children can readily believe that objects around them are alive, which means
they can be entertained by stories involving living objects. Children and adolescents past the age of
seven generally lose interest in heroic toasters and prefer stories about people.
Stage 3: Concrete Operational Period
From the age of seven to about eleven, children become capable of performing mental operations or
working through problems and ideas in their minds. However, they can perform operations only on
tangible objects and real events. Children also achieve conservation, reversibility, and decentration
during this stage:
 Reversibility is the ability to mentally reverse actions.
 Decentration is the ability to focus simultaneously on several aspects of a problem.
Furthermore, children become less egocentric during this stage as they start to consider simultaneously
different ways of looking at a problem.
Stage 4: Formal Operational Period
In this stage, which begins around eleven years of age and continues through adulthood, children
become capable of applying mental operations to abstract concepts. They can imagine and reason about
hypothetical situations. From this point on, people start to think in abstract, systematic, and logical
ways.
Critiques of Piaget’s Theories
Although Piaget made important contributions to the research on cognitive development, his theory has
come under attack for several reasons:
 Recent research has shown that he greatly underestimated children’s capabilities. For example,
researchers have shown that babies achieve object permanence much sooner than Piaget said
they do.
 Children sometimes simultaneously develop skills that are characteristic of more than one stage,
which makes the idea of stages seem less viable.
 Piaget ignored cultural influences. Research has shown that children from different cultures
tend to go through Piaget’s stages in the same order, but the timing and length of stages vary
from culture to culture.
 Some people never develop the capacity for formal reasoning, even as adults.
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive

Stage Age Important Features
Development
First two years

1 Sensorimotor Object permanence, symbolic thought
of life
Centration, irreversibility, egocentrism,

2 Preoperational 2–7 years
and animism
Concrete Reversibility, decentration, decrease in

3 7–11 years
operational egocentrism, conservation
Formal 11 through
4 Abstract thought
operational adulthood
Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development
Lawrence Kohlberg focused on moral reasoning, or why people think the way they do about right and
wrong. Influenced by Piaget, who believed that moral reasoning depends on the level of cognitive
development, Kohlberg proposed that people pass through three levels of moral development. He
divided each level into two stages.
Level 1: The Preconventional Level
At this level, children ascribe great importance to the authority of adults. For children in the first stage of
this level, an action is wrong if it’s punished, whereas in the second stage, an action is right if it’s
rewarded.
Level 2: The Conventional Level
In the next level, children value rules, which they follow in order to get approval from others. In the first
stage of this level, children want the approval only of people who are close to them. In the second stage,
children become more concerned with the rules of the broader society.
Level 3: The Postconventional Level

In the final level, people become more flexible and consider what’s personally important to them. In the
first stage of this level, people still want to follow society’s rules, but they don’t see those rules as
absolute. In the second stage, people figure out right and wrong for themselves, based on abstract
ethical principles. Only a small proportion of people reach this last stage of moral reasoning.
Critiques of Kohlberg’s Theories
Research supports key parts of Kohlberg’s theory. People do tend to progress in order through
Kohlberg’s stages, and cognitive and moral development do affect each other. However, critics of
Kohlberg’s theory have two main concerns:
 People often show the reasoning characteristic of several different levels simultaneously. For
instance, in one situation, a person might reason as if he is at a conventional stage, and in
another situation, he might use reasoning typical of a postconventional stage.
 Kohlberg’s theory of moral development favors cultures that value individualism. In other
cultures, highly moral people may base their reasoning on communal values rather than
abstract ethical principles.
Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral

Level Stage What Determines Right and Wrong
Development
1. Preconventional 1 Punishment by adults
2 Reward by adults
2. Conventional 3 Rules set by close people
4 Rules set by society
Rules set by society, judged by what’s

3. Postconventional 5
personally important
6 Rules based on abstract ethical principles
Prenatal Development
Development happens quickly during the prenatal period, which is the time between conception and
birth. This period is generally divided into three stages: the germinal stage, the embryonic stage, and the
fetal stage.
Stage 1: The Germinal Stage

The two-week period after conception is called the germinal stage. Conception occurs when a sperm cell
combines with an egg cell to form a zygote. About thirty-six hours after conception, the zygote begins to
divide quickly. The resulting ball of cells moves along the mother’s fallopian tube to the uterus.
Around seven days after conception, the ball of cells starts to become embedded in the wall of the
uterus. This process is called implantation and takes about a week to complete. If implantation fails, as
is quite common, the pregnancy terminates. One key feature of the germinal stage is the formation of a
tissue called the placenta. The placenta has two important functions:
 Passing oxygen and nutrients from the mother’s blood into the embryo or fetus
 Removing waste materials from the embryo or fetus
Stage 2: The Embryonic Stage
The embryonic stage lasts from the end of the germinal stage to two months after conception. The
developing ball of cells is now called an embryo. In this stage, all the major organs form, and the embryo
becomes very fragile. The biggest dangers are teratogens, which are agents such as viruses, drugs, or
radiation that can cause deformities in an embryo or fetus. At the end of the embryonic period, the
embryo is only about an inch long.
Stage 3: The Fetal Stage
The last stage of prenatal development is the fetal stage, which lasts from two months after conception
until birth. About one month into this stage, the sex organs of the fetus begin to form. The fetus quickly
grows as bones and muscles form, and it begins to move inside the uterus. Organ systems develop
further and start to function. During the last three months, the brain increases rapidly in size, an
insulating layer of fat forms under the skin, and the respiratory and digestive systems start to work
independently.
Fetal Viability
Around twenty-two to twenty-six weeks after conception, the fetus reaches the age of viability, after
which it has some chance of surviving out-side the womb if it is born prematurely. The chances of a
premature baby’s survival increase significantly with each additional week it remains in the mother’s
uterus.
Adverse Factors Affecting Fetal Development
Although the womb provides protection, the fetus remains indirectly connected to the outside world
through its mother. Several factors that are linked to the mother can harm the fetus:
 Poor nutrition
 Use of alcohol
 Smoking
 Use of certain prescription or over-the-counter drugs
 Use of recreational drugs such as cocaine, sedatives, and narcotics
 X-rays and other kinds of radiation
 Ingested toxins, such as lead
 Illnesses such as AIDS, German measles, syphilis, cholera, smallpox, mumps, or severe flu
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome
Mothers who drink heavily during pregnancy may have babies with fetal alcohol syndrome. Babies with
this syndrome may have problems such as small head size, heart defects, irritability, hyperactivity,
mental retardation, or slowed motor development. Fetal alcohol syndrome is incurable.
Infancy and Childhood
Babies come into the world with many innate abilities, or abilities that are present from birth. At birth,
they possess motor reflexes such as the sucking reflex and the grasping reflex. Newborns can also hear,
smell, touch, taste, and see, and these sensory abilities develop quickly.
Motor Development
Motor development also progresses quickly. Motor development is the increasing coordination of
muscles that makes physical movements possible. Developmental norms tell us the median age at
which babies develop specific behaviors and abilities. Babies often deviate a fair amount from these
norms.
Researchers used to think motor skill development could be explained mostly by maturation, genetically
programmed growth and development. According to this view, babies learn to sit up, pull themselves to
a standing position, and walk at particular ages because they are hard-wired that way. However, recent
research suggests that motor development isn’t just a passive process. Although maturation plays a
large role, babies also actively develop motor skills by moving around and exploring their environments.
Both maturation and experience influence motor development.
It’s Not All Maturation
Maturation plays a much greater role in the development of early motor skills, such as crawling and
walking, than in development of later motor skills, such as juggling or playing basketball. The
development of later motor skills depends on genetic predisposition, exposure to good teachers, and
social factors.
Cultural differences also affect how quickly motor skills develop, although the timing and sequence of
early motor skill development remains similar across all cultures.
Example: In cultures where babies receive early training in sitting up, standing, and walking, they
develop these skills earlier. Conversely, in other cultures, mothers carry babies most of the time, and
babies develop these skills later.
Temperament
Some babies have fussy personalities, while others have chirpy or quiet natures. These differences result
from temperament, the kind of personality features babies are born with. Researchers generally agree
that temperament depends more on biological factors than on environment. In the 1970s, Alexander
Thomas and Stella Chess, two researchers who study temperament, described three basic types of
temperament: easy, slow to warm up, and difficult. In their research, 40 percent of the children were
easy, 15 percent were slow to warm up, and 10 percent were difficult. The remaining 35 percent of the
children displayed a mixture of these temperaments:
 Easy children tend to be happy and adapt easily to change. They have regular sleeping and
eating patterns and don’t upset easily.
 Slow-to-warm-up children tend to be less cheerful and less adaptable than easy children. They
are cautious about new experiences. Their sleeping and eating patterns are less regular than
those of easy children.
 Difficult children tend to be glum and irritable, and they dislike change. Their eating and
sleeping patterns are irregular.
Attachment
Attachment is the close bond between infants and their caregivers. Researchers used to think that
infants attach to people who feed them and keep them warm. However, researchers Margaret and
Harry Harlow showed that attachment could not occur without contact comfort. Contact comfort is
comfort derived from physical closeness with a caregiver.
The Harlows’ Baby Monkeys
The Harlows raised orphaned baby rhesus monkeys and studied their behavior. In place of its real
mother, each baby monkey had two substitute or surrogate mothers. One “mother” had a head
attached to a wire frame, warming lights, and a feeding bottle. The other “mother” had the same
construction except that foam rubber and terry cloth covered its wire frame. The Harlows found that
although both mothers provided milk and warmth, the baby monkeys greatly preferred the cloth
mother. They clung to the cloth mother even between feedings and went to it for comfort when they
felt afraid.
Responsive Mothering
Psychologist Mary Ainsworth and her colleagues found that attachment happens through a complex set
of interactions between mothers and infants. The infants of sensitive, responsive mothers have stronger
attachments than the infants of insensitive mothers or mothers who respond inconsistently to their
infants’ needs. However, an infant’s temperament also plays a role in attachment. Difficult infants who
fuss, refuse to eat, and sleep irregularly tax their mothers, which makes it hard for the mothers to be
properly responsive.
Attachment Styles
Ainsworth devised an experiment called the Strange Situation in order to study attachment behavior.
She asked each mother in the sample to bring her infant to an unfamiliar room that contained various
toys. After the mother and infant had spent some time in the room, a stranger entered the room and
tried to play with the infant. A short while later, the mother left the room, leaving the infant with the
stranger. Then the mother returned to the room, and the stranger left. A little later, the mother left the
room again, briefly leaving the infant alone. Finally, the mother returned to the room.
Based on her observations of infants’ behavior in the Strange Situation, Ainsworth described three types
of attachment patterns:
1. Secure attachment: Most infants in the sample had a secure attachment to their mothers. These
infants expressed unhappiness when their mothers left but still played with the stranger. When
their mothers returned, the infants looked happy. The infants displayed greater attachment to
their mothers than to the stranger.
2. Anxious-ambivalent attachment: Some infants showed a type of insecure attachment called an

anxious-ambivalent attachment. These infants became upset when their mothers left but
resisted contact with their mothers when they returned.
3. Avoidant attachment: Other infants showed a type of insecure attachment called an avoidant
attachment. These infants didn’t seem upset when their mothers left and avoided their mothers
when they returned. Researchers did not see a significant difference in the way these infants
treated their mothers and the stranger.
Culture and Attachment Style
Culture can influence attachment style because different cultures have different child-rearing practices.
Ainsworth’s research in the United States showed that most of her white, middle-class sample of infants
had a secure attachment to their mothers. However, in Germany, where parents encourage
independence from an early age, a much higher proportion of infants display an avoidant attachment,
according to Ainsworth’s classification. In Japan, where infants rarely separate from their mothers, the
avoidant style is nonexistent, although a higher proportion of anxious-ambivalent attachments occurred
than in the United States.
Separation Anxiety
Whether they are securely attached or not, most babies do experience separation anxiety. Separation
anxiety is the emotional distress infants show when they separate from people to whom they are
attached. Separation anxiety typically begins at about six to eight months of age and reaches peak
intensity when an infant is about fourteen to eighteen months old.
Day Care
Controversy surrounds the question of whether or not to place children in day care. Some research has
suggested that babies have a greater chance of developing insecure attachments if a nonparental figure
cares for them for more than twenty hours per week. However, most of the evidence suggests that day
care doesn’t create poor attachment. Studies have even shown that day care can have positive effects
on social development.
Gender Development
Sex isn’t the same as gender. Sex refers to a biological distinction between males and females. An
example of sex difference is the timing of puberty. Because of biological processes, girls’ sexual organs
mature before those of boys. Gender refers to a learned distinction between masculinity and femininity.
An example of gender difference is girls’ and boys’ attitudes toward dolls. Very early on, American
society teaches boys that playing with dolls is considered a girlish thing to do. Gender stereotypes are
societal beliefs about the characteristics of males and females.
Gender Differences
Some gender differences exist, although certainly not as many as stereotypes suggest. For example,
starting in preschool, gender differences arise in play behavior. Boys prefer playing with boys and girls
with girls. Boys prefer to play with boyish toys like trucks and girls with girlish toys like dolls. Different
people give different answers for why this is so:
 Researchers who emphasize biological differences between the sexes say that these preferences
arise from biological factors such as genetics and evolution, prenatal hormones, or brain
structure.
 Researchers who focus on cognitive development believe that these preferences exist because
boys and girls develop different gender schemas or mental models about gender.
 Researchers who study learning think that environment produces these preferences. They point
out that almost from the moment of birth, girls and boys receive different treatment. Gender
preferences, these researchers say, simply reflect what society teaches children about gender.
Adolescence
Adolescence used to be automatically associated with trouble. Recently, however, researchers have
found that adolescence is not always so difficult, even with all the changes that occur during this period.
Physical Changes
Pubescence refers to the two years before puberty. The adolescent growth spurt actually begins during
pubescence, at about age eleven in girls and about age thirteen in boys. At this time, children get taller
and heavier and develop secondary sex characteristics. Secondary sex characteristics are sex-specific
physical characteristics that are not essential for reproduction. Girls develop breasts, widened pelvic
bones, and wider hips. Boys develop facial hair, broader shoulders, and deeper voices.
After pubescence and at the beginning of adolescence, puberty occurs. Puberty is the point at which
sexual organs mature. Sexual organs include the ovaries in girls and the penis and testes in boys.
Menarche, or the first menstrual period, marks the onset of puberty in girls. The average age of
menarche for American girls is about twelve and a half. The beginning of nocturnal emissions, so-called
wet dreams, marks the onset of puberty in boys. American boys typically begin to produce sperm by
fourteen years of age. Girls reach full sexual maturation around age sixteen, and boys reach sexual
maturity at around eighteen.
Earlier Onset of Puberty
Girls and boys in the United States reach puberty earlier now than they did a few generations ago,
possibly because nutrition and medical care have changed over the years. In Western Europe and the
United States, girls have their first menstrual periods at around age twelve or thirteen. In poorer regions
of Africa, which lack proper nutrition and health care, girls may not begin to menstruate until they are
between the ages of fourteen and seventeen.
Varying Maturation Rates
Puberty occurs at different rates for different people. In girls, puberty usually happens between ages ten
and fifteen and in boys between ages eleven and sixteen. Early or late maturation can have the following
consequences:
 Early-maturing girls and late-maturing boys tend to have more psychological and social
problems than their peers.
 In girls, a correlation exists between early maturation and poorer school performance, earlier
sexual activity, more unwanted pregnancies, and a higher likelihood of eating disorders.
 Both boys and girls who mature early use more alcohol and drugs and have more problems with
the law than their peers.
Identity
As Erik Erikson pointed out, the search for identity marks an important step in adolescence. Adolescents
may go through an identity crisis, during which they struggle to understand themselves and decide their
future. The psychologist James Marcia described four identity states, based on where people stand on
the path to identity:
 Identity foreclosure happens when a person prematurely commits to values or roles that others
prescribe.
 Identity moratorium happens when a person delays commitment to an identity. He or she may
experiment with various values and roles.
 Identity diffusion occurs when a person lacks a clear sense of identity but still hasn’t explored
issues related to identity development.
 Identity achievement occurs when a person considers alternative possibilities and commits to a
certain identity and path in life.

Psychology

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Psychology

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Psychological Research Psychologists study a wide range of topics, such as language development in

Scientists use the following terms to describe their research:

Subject or participant: an individual person or animal a researcher studies.

The Purpose of Research

Psychologists have three main goals when doing research:

To find ways to measure and describe behavior

To understand why, when, and how events occur

To apply this knowledge to solving real-world problems

Making Research Scientific

Research Must Be Replicable

Research Must Be Falsifiable

Research Must Be Precise

Research Must Be Parsimonious

Descriptive or Correlational Research Methods

Research Methods in Psychology

Get this SparkNote to go!

< Previous Section

Next Section >

Descriptive or Correlational Research Methods

 Give answers based on wishful thinking rather than the truth

 Fail to understand the questions the survey asks

 Forget parts of the experience they need to describe

Research Methods in Psychology

Get this SparkNote to go!

< Previous Section

Descriptive or Correlational Research Methods

 Provides information about

 Sometimes relies only on

 Doesn’t allow conclusions

 Sometimes yields biased

Laboratory  Enables use of sophisticated equipment  Sometimes yields biased

 Can be useful for generating hypotheses  Carries the risk that

 Doesn’t allow conclusions

 Requires good reliability

 Identifies cause-and-effect relationships  Can be artificial, so results

Research with Human Subjects

 It would be impossible to do the study without deception

Research with Animal Subjects

 Learn facts about animal species

 Find ways to solve human problems

 Refine theories about human behavior

 Improve human welfare

People who are against animal research maintain three arguments:

 Animals should have the same rights as humans.

Hours of Study per Week Course A Course B Course C

 It must be large and varied enough to be representative.

Who Shares Genes?

Percentage of Shared Genes Identical twin 100 percent

Brother or sister 50 percent

Nonidentical twin 50 percent

 Even if a trait is highly heritable, it can still be influenced by environmental factors.

Types of Genetic Studies

Studies of Separated Twins

 Adoption agencies may tend to place twins in similar households.

Interaction of Genes and Environment

 Child-rearing and other parental influences

 Experiences throughout life

Evolution and Natural Selection

The Theory of Natural Selection

On the Origin of Species

Reproduction of the Fittest

An adaptation is an inherited characteristic that becomes prevalent in a population because it provides

 An error during copying of DNA