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SECTION ONE

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Fruits have been greatly recommended in foods due to their health promoting attributes. They are

very essential in dietary guidance since they contain high levels of minerals particularly

electrolytes, vitamins such as vitamin C, and phytochemicals which act as antioxidants and fibres

(Slavin and Lloyd, 2012). Therefore, the consumption of fresh fruits or their juices is crucial to

healthy living (Bhat et al., 2011). In addition, it is expected that a rich balanced diet should

consist of fruits due to their numerous functions. Some of which include the ability to develop a

blood lipid profile, detoxify the human body, and prevent vitamin deficiencies (Minich and

Bland, 2007; Slavin and Lloyd, 2012). Also, the consumption of sufficient amounts of fruits

lowers blood cholesterol levels, controls blood pressure, reduces the risk of some heart diseases,

and prevents some kinds of cancer (Hung et al., 2004). When fruits are harvested or during post-

harvest processing, they come in contact with water, soil, dust, and handling. Consequentially,

they harbour a lot of microorganisms including pathogens (Ogofure et al., 2017). Also, harvested

fruits are commonly sold as cut or sliced fruits to entice the consumers. These types of fruit are

referred to as vended fruits or ready-to-eat fruits, some of which include watermelons,

pineapples, cucumbers, mangoes, oranges, pawpaws, etc. The consumption of these vended

ready-to-eat fruits has become a global trend. This is due to their accessibility, convenience, and

relatively cheaper prices than the whole fruits (Nwachukwu et al., 2008). Thus, they have

gradually become staples due to the recent modernization industrialization, economic downturn,

materialism, and unavailability of ample time to prepare a proper meal in some homes (Nielsen,

2006). The increase in consumption of vended fruits has been reported to signal a great risk to

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consumer health because it is difficult to ascertain the hygienic processes the fruits are subjected
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to after harvesting, during processing, and before packaging (Nielsen, 2006). In addition,

pathogens could invade the fruits during washing, peeling, dicing, trimming, packaging,

handling, and marketing (Barro et al., 2006). This is aggravated by the fact that the preparation

of vended fruits is done without proper storage conditions, thereby exposing them to heat, flies,

cockroaches, rodents, dust, pathogens, dirt, and other environmental contaminants (Barro et al.,

2006).

1.2 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

To review the effect of microorganisms associated with ready to eat vended fruits

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SECTION TWO

2.1 FRUITS

Fruit refers to the mature ovary of a plant, including its seeds, covering and connected tissue.

This includes both fleshy and dry fruits. Botanically, vegetable is defined as “edible part of a

plant” (IARC, 2003). From nutritional point of view ,fruits and vegetables are low energy-dense

food relatively rich in vitamins, minerals and other bioactive compounds as well as good sources

of fiber (Bukar et al.,2010). Fruit, in botanical terms is freshly or dry ripened ovary of a plant,

which encloses the seed or seeds. The fleshy component, which is normally the portion eaten,

serve to protect and eventually nourish the seed as part of the natural development of the original

plant's progeny (FAO,2001).Fruits, either fresh or processed, form an important part of our daily

diet, and demand is increasing in all over the world. Recent advances in agricultural technology

have contributed significantly to the production of fruits throughout the world. Fruits are very

perishable in nature because they are living beings and carry out transpiration, respiration,

ripening and other biochemical activities which adversely affect the quality. In addition, because

of their high moisture content (in an average 85%) fruits are inherntly liable to deteriorate,

especially under tropical conditions, and finally become unmarketable (Titarmare et al., 2009).

2.1.1 Orange Fruit (Citrus sinensis)

The orange is the fruit of the citrus species Citrus sinesis in the family Rutaceae (USDA, 2011).

It is also called sweet orange, to distinguish it from the related Citrus aurantium, referred to as

bitter orange. The sweet orange reproduces asexually (apomixis through nuclear embryony);

varieties of sweet orange arise through mutations (Xu et al., 2013). The orange is a hybrid

between pomelo (Citrus maxima) and mandarin(Citrus reticulala)(Andreas,2013). The

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chloroplast genome, and therefore the maternal line, is that of pomelon (Velasco, 2014).The
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sweet orange has had its full genome sequenced (Xu et al., 2013). Sweet orange originated in

ancient China and the earliest mention of the sweet orange was in Chinese literature in 314 BC.

As of 1987, orange trees were found to be the most cultivated fruit tree in the world (Morton,

1987). Orange trees are widely grown in tropical and subtropical climates for their sweet fruit.

The fruit of the orange tree can be eaten fresh, or processed for its juice or fragrant peel (USDA.

2017).As of 2012,sweet oranges accounted for approximately 70% of citrus production (Nicolosi

et al.,2000). In 2014, 70.9 million tonnes of oranges were grown worldwide, with Brazil

producing 24% of the world total followed by China and India (FAO,2014). All citrus trees

belong to the single genus Citrus and remain almost entirely inter-fertile. This includes grape

fruits, lemons, limes, oranges, and various other types and hybrids. As the inter-fertility of

oranges and other citrus has produced numerous hybrids and cultivars, and bud mutations have

also been selected, citrus taxonomy is fairly controversial, confusing or inconsistent (Badosa et

al., 2008). The fruit of any citrus tree is considered a hesperidium, a kind of modified berry; it is

covered by a rind originated by a rugged thickening of the ovary wall (Badosa et al., 2008).

Different names have been given to the many varieties of the genus. Orange applies primarily to

the sweet orange -Citrus sinensis (L.)Osbeck. The orange tree is an evergreen, flowering tree,

with an average height of 9 to 10m(30 to 33 ft),although some very old specimens can reach 15

m (49 ft).Its oval leaves, alternately arranged, are 4 to 10 cm (1.6 to 3.9 in) long and have

crenulate margins (Webber, 2004). Sweet oranges grow in a range of different sizes, and shapes

varying from spherical to oblong. Inside and attached to the rind is a porous white tissue, the

white, bitter mesocarp or albedo (pith). The orange contains a number of distinct carpels

(segments) inside, typically about ten, each delimited by a membrane, and containing many

4
juice-filled vesicles and usually a few seeds (pips).When unripe, the fruit is green. The grainy
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irregular rind of the ripe fruit can range from bright orange to yellow-orange, but frequently

retains green patches or,under warm climate conditions, remains entirely green. Like all other

citrus fruits, the sweet orange is non-climacteric. The Citrus sinensis group is subdivided into

four classes with distinct characteristics: common oranges, blood or pigmented oranges, navel

oranges,and acidless oranges

2.1.2 Watermelon Fruit (Citrullus lanatus)

Citrullus lanatus is a plant species in the family Cucurbitaceae, a vine-like (scrambler and

trailer) flowering plant originating in West Africa. It is cultivated for its fruit. The subdivision of

this species into two varieties, watermelons (Citrullus lanatus (Thunb.) var. lanatus) and citron

melons (Citrullus lanatus var. citroides (L.H. Bailey) Mansf.), originated with the erroneous

synonymization of C'itrullus lanatus (Thunb.) Matsum & Nakai and Citrullus vulgaris Schrad

by L.H. Bailey in 1930 (Ameko et al., 2012). Molecular data including sequences from the

original collection of Thunberg and other relevant type material, show that the sweet watermelon

(Citrullus vulgaris Schrad.) and the bitter wooly melon Citrullus lanatus (Thunb.) Matsum &

Nakai are not closely related to each other (Chomicki et al., 2014). Since 1930, thousands of

papers have misapplied the name Citrullus lanatus (Thunb.) Matsum & Nakai for the

watermelon, and a proposal to conserve the name with this meaning was accepted by the relevant

nomenclatural committee and confirmed at the International Botanical Congress in Shenzhen

(Renner et al., 2014). The bitter South African melon first collected by Thunberg has become

naturalized in semiarid regions of several continents, and is designated as a “pest plant” in parts

of Western Australia where they are called pig melon (Parsons et al.,2001).

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The watermelon is an annual that has a prostrate or climbing habit. Stems are up to 3 m long and
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new growth has yellow or brown hairs. Leaves are 60 to 200 mm long and 40 to 150 mm wide.

These usually have three lobes which are themselves lobed or doubly lobed. Plants have both

male and female flowers on 40-mm-long hairy stalks. These are yellow, and greenish on the back

(Maynard and Donald, 2012).

2.1.3 Banana Fruit (Musa spp.)

Banana is an edible fruit - botanically a berry (Armstrong, 2013) produced by several kinds of

large herbaceous flowering plants in the genus Musa. In some countries, bananas used for

cooking may be called “plantains”, distinguishing them from dessert bananas. The fruit is

variable in size, color, and firmness, but is usually elongated and curved, with soft flesh rich in

starch covered with a rind, which may be green, yellow, red, purple, or brown when ripe. The

fruits grow in clusters hanging from the top of the plant. Almost all modern edible seedless

(parthenocarp) bananas come from two wild species-Musa acuminata and Musa balbisiana. The

scientific names of most cultivated bananas are Musa acuminata,Musa balbisiana, and Musa

paradisiacal for the hybrid Musa acuminate M. balbisiana,depending on their genomic

constitution. The old scientific name Musa sapientum is no longer used. Musa species are native

to tropical Indo-malaya and Australia, and are likely to have been first domesticated in Papua

New Guinea (Nelson and Kepler,2006). They are grown in 135 countries (Nelson and Kepler,

2006), primarily for their fruit, and to a lesser extent to make fiber, banana wine, and banana

beer and as ornamental plants. The world's largest producers of bananas in 2017 were India and

Tanzania, which together accounted for 24% of total production (Claudine, 2000).

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Worldwide, there is no sharp distinction between “bananas" and “plantains". Especially in the
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Americas and Europe, “banana” usually refers to soft, sweet, dessert bananas, particularly those

of the Cavendish group, which are the main exports from banana-growing countries. By contrast,

Musa cultivars with firmer, starchier fruit are called “plantains". In other regions, such as

Southeast Asia, many more kinds of banana are grown and eaten, so the binary distinction is not

useful and is not made in local languages. The term “banana” is also used as the common name

for the plants that produce the fruit. This can extend to other members of the genus Musa, such

as the scarlet banana (Musa coccinea), the pink banana (Musa velutina), and the Fe'i bananas. It

can also refer to members of the genus Ensete, such as the snow banana(Ensete glaucum) and the

economically important false banana (Ensele ventricosum). Both genera are in the banana

family, Musaceae.

2.2 MICROORGANISM ASSOCIATED WITH FRUIT

Viruses, bacteria, fungi, and other microorganisms account for trillions of cells in the human

body. Some microorganisms are commensals, others are mutualistic, while some are infectious

agents (D.L. Kirchman, 2018). They all play significant roles in immunity and function in areas

of modulation (M.Brown and S.L.Hazen, 2017) metabolism, and drug interaction in the body

2.2.1 Bacteria

Bacteria are unicellular prokaryotic organisms medically classified based on their shapes

(A.Sefton, 2019)These are spiral/curved bacteria, bacilli/cylindrical/rod-shaped bacteria, and

cocci/spherical bacteria. Concerning the quantity of peptidoglycan in their cell walls, bacteria

can be classified into two essential groups, namely, Gram-positive and Gram-negative

(S.Ingaraham, 2018) While Gram-negative bacteria, such as Escherichia coli O157: H7,

Salmonella spp., and Proteus mirabilis (A.Mazzariol,et al,2017).are generally known to cause

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numerous diseases, Bacillus cereus, Clostridium botulinum, and Clostridium perfringens are
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typical Gram-positive bacteria responsible for causing intoxications in food

(A.K.Bhunia,2018)Numerous other bacteria cause infections and food spoilage; they include

Acinetobacter, Alcaligenes, Aeromonas, Flavobacterium, Arcobacter, Lactococcus,

Pseudomonas, Serratia, Shigella, Listeria, Yersinia, Campylobacter, Citrobacter, Vibrio

Enterobacter, Micrococcus, Enterococcus, Paenibacillus, Corynebacterium, Staphylococcus,

and Weissella (F.JCarr,2017 ).Although some of these bacteria have been shown over time to

cause harm, some bacteria are necessary for our daily lives and help in digestion, decomposition,

and the production of food such as cheese, bread, and yoghurt, such as some strains of

Lactobacillus, Bifidobacterium, Erwinia, and Streptococcus. Lactobacillus bulgaricus is well

known throughout the world for the production of yoghurt (W.Chen, 2019) Some industries also

utilize Streptococcus thermophiles in producing yoghurt.

2.2.2 Fungi

Moulds and Yeast are classified into the kingdom fungi. Moulds are filamentous multicellular

characterized by cottony/fuzzy appearance on the surface of food (V.Sethi, 2017). Moulds

require little moisture and survive in temperatures within 25–30 0C and with low pH levels; they

can grow tremendously on most grains and corns when stored in moist areas. Moulds such as

Camembert and Roquefort are useful in the production of various foods and food products and

the ripening of foods such as cheese. They are also useful in the production of feed and food and

also Serves as a catalyst (enzymes) in the manufacture of bread or citric acid used in soft drinks

(V.Sethi,2017) Botrytis cinerea is employed in the decomposing process of grape for the

production of wine. In the food industry, yeast is normally used to ferment sugars to CO2 and

ethanol. Saccharomyces carlsbergensis which is an industrially grown form of yeast is used in

8
the fermentation of most beers (T.L.Da silva,et al,2017) Yeasts can ferment sugars to ethanol
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and carbon dioxide and hence they are extensively in the food industry. The most commonly

used yeast, the baker’s yeast, is grown industrially. Saccharomyces carlsbergensis is most

commonly used in the fermentation of most beers (V.Gbohaida,et al, 2016). The other yeast

strains of importance are Schizosaccharomyces, Hanseniaspora, Candida, Zygosaccharomyces,

Cryptococcus, Saccharomyces, Brettanomyces, and Debaryomyces.(S.S.Mane,et al,2017) Some

important microbes such as bacteriophage (phages) act as biocontrol to eliminate other harmful

organisms in foods. They are said to be highly specific with regard to the action of antibiotics.

They do not infect humans and other normal flora including the gut flora.They generally helps to

decrease the prevalence of opportunistic infections.

of nonbacterial gastroenteritis (G.E.Greening and J.L.Cannon, 2016) leads to an outbreak of

diseases posing a major health threat to humans and the world at large.

2.3 Epidemiology of Microbial Contamination

The greater concern for human health geared towards the promotion of a healthier lifestyle by

public health promotion movements in both developed and a developing country has triggered a

tremendous increase in the consumption of fresh vegetables and fruits. In some developed

nations, the production of fresh fruits and vegetables has increased tremendously with an

increase in the importation and even with improvements sustaining the eminence of fresh

produce in the USA (R.Wills,et al,2016). Following the consumption trend for fresh fruits and

vegetables, there has been a tremendous increment of about 25% of weight following person

consumption during the years of 1997–1999 compared with that of 1977–1979 [46], and also

between 1999 and 2010, changes in prices and total food expenditure drove most food

purchasing patterns in the United States (A.M.Okrent and A.Kumcu, 2016). Nevertheless, the

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consumption of fresh fruits and vegetables globally has increased tremendously from 2011 Page
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2018. Hence, according to the Centres for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), there has been

an increase in the rate of contamination of fresh fruits and vegetables in recent years.

2.4 MAJOR SOURCES OF CONTAMINATION

Fruits and vegetables may be contaminated at any point in time during the production chain.

Sources of contamination can be grouped into two broader groups, namely, preharvest and

postharvest sources of contamination (49). With regard to preharvest sources of contamination,

studies have shown that the soil in which fruits and vegetables are cultivated may be a source,

and also water used for irrigation, water used to apply insecticides and fungicides, faeces, dust,

improperly composted manure, and finally human interaction with these vegetables at various

points during the production period. Dry season farming and its associated microbial

contamination of fresh fruits and vegetables in poor regions of the world need to be researched

(I.D.Amoah, 2016). The use of irrigation method of farming during the dry season is a major

practice in Africa. However, in Sub-Saharan Africa, many vegetable crops are produced in fresh

forms using the irrigation method. They mostly use dirty water or wastewater in the watering of

the crops (I.D.Amoah, 2016). This gives some of the microbe’s opportunity to contaminate the

plants and subsequently the consumers. Similarly, many farmers use this same water in the

application of fungicides and weedicides which can also result in contamination with coliforms

(I.D.Amoah, 2016). Moreover, the application of poultry manure and other incomplete compost

to the crops can also result in contamination with enteric bacteria in faeces. Research has also

shown that some pathogens including Escherichia coli O157: H7, Listeria monocytogenes, and

Salmonella spp. have been isolated from animal faeces including poultry and cattle

(K.Soderqvist, 2017). It has been confirmed a few years ago that E. coli O157: H7 can be

10
transmitted to lettuce through the soil and irrigation water and can persist throughout the life
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cycle of the plant and can further be transmitted to those who consume the crop

(A.K.Bhunia,2018). Another research has shown that there is an association between

salmonellae, stems, and leaves of tomatoes grown hydroponically in inoculated solutions. (is

situation could be minimized by understanding the sources and managing them properly using

methods like changing conditions, disinfection of contaminated waters before use, etc. not only

during farming but also during processing after harvest, known as postharvest

2.5 Routes and Chain of Contamination

Origins of pathogenic microbes that usually contaminate fresh fruits and vegetables can be traced

to the human pathogens, poultry, and other domestic animals’ microbes including soil microbes

and other activities that create a way for microbial colonization of fresh fruits and vegetable

surfaces

2.6 Threats to Fresh Fruit Consumption

Several pathogenic bacteria species are primarily responsible for the contamination of fruits and

vegetables as having been evidenced by the isolation of these species from various fruits and

vegetables (Table 1), such as Escherichia coli O157: H7, Listeria monocytogenes, Salmonella

spp., and others from Many fruits and vegetables including lettuce, cabbage, and cucumbers

(E.A.Zilelidou,et al,2015). Also, in the year 2011, Germany recorded one of the highest outbreak

of EAEC O104, amounting to over 2220 cases (WHO, 2013). Another incident memorable is the

recent outbreak of Listeria monocytogenes in South Africa (A.M.Smith,et al,2018).

2.7 Food Safety Technologies and Policy

Measures to Manage Microbial Contamination of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables involve tracing the

production chain of fresh fruits and vegetables, and considering the sources of infection, there is

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currently no effective antimicrobial treatment that can be used at any step in the production chain
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(from planting to consumption) that effectively and efficiently remove pathogenic microbes

(J.Buck.et al,2003). This, therefore, means that contamination at any given time during the

production chain can present and probably multiply on the final product that is ready for

consumption. There are several methods employed in controlling or trying to control the

contamination of pathogenic microbes associated with fresh fruits and vegetables. These include

washing and rinsing vegetables under running water which is known to increase the shelf-life of

some fresh fruits and vegetables through decreasing or removing microbes on their surfaces

(WHO,2014). Nevertheless, only a few pathogenic microbes may comply with this method of

treatment while a good number of them will persist. Other treatment methods including

disinfection which can increase the efficiency of removal of microbes for about a hundred times

as much as the previous method of treatment. Also, chemical treatments directed to the entire

and cut fruit or vegetable naturally will not decrease populations of pathogenic microbes by more

than 2 to 3 log10 CFU/g World Health Organization (WHO,2014). Ozone is an effective and

efficient method of pathogenic microbial elimination from fresh vegetables like lettuce

(V.Kumar and S.K. Mritunjay, 2015). It is, however, stated that its effectiveness is dependent on

several factors including the residual ozone in the medium and quantity of ozone used. Other

factors such as humidity, pH, temperature, and additives (surfactants, sugars, etc.), including the

quality of organic matter enclosing the cell in a study, showed that an application of 2 ppm

ozonized water treatment to leaf lettuce for about 2 minutes is found to be effective in ozone

disinfection in the lettuce(V.Kumar and S.K. Mritunjay, 2015). This subsequently helps in

decreasing microbial load and leaving a good sensory quality during cold storage. The method

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was also found to be more effective than chlorine and organic acid methods of treatments Page
in |

maintaining the sensory quality of lettuce during nine-day storage.

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 SECTION THREE Page |

3.1 CONCLUSION

Microbes are associated with every single matter that exists except sterilized bodies or places.

This means that microbes are inevitable life forms on Earth because they are almost everywhere.

Their variation in forms gives them the ability to survive in almost all kinds of environments.

Since they are found in all unsterilized environments, then it is not surprising that they are

found on fresh fruits and vegetables.

3.2 RECOMMENDATIONS

Professionals and other people including farmers and market women involved in the food

production industry ranging from production to the market should be made aware of the potential

risk associated with various practices and possible chances of contamination. (ey should be

educated to gain sufficient knowledge on the source of etiological agents responsible for the

contamination and their resultant diseases.

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