Type of corn:

Corn, Zea mays, is an annual grass in the family Poaceae and is a staple food crop grown all over the
world. The corn plant possesses a simple stem of nodes and internodes. A pair of large leaves extends
off of each internode and the leaves total 8–21 per plant. The leaves are linear or lanceolate (lance-
like) with an obvious midrib and can grow from 30 to 100 cm (11.8–39.4 in) in length. The male and
female inflorescences (flower bearing region of the plant) are positioned separately on the plant. The
male inflorescence is known as the 'tassel' while the female inflorescence is the 'ear'. The ear of the
corn is a modified spike and there may be 1–3 per plant. The corn grains, or 'kernels', are encased in
husks and total 30–1000 per ear. The kernels can be white, yellow, red, purple or black in color. Corn
is an annual plant, surviving for only one growing season prior to harvest and can reach 2–3 m (7–10
ft) in height. Corn may also be referred to as maize or Indian corn and is believed to originate from
Mexico and Central America.

https://plantvillage.psu.edu/topics/corn-maize/infos
“Corn (Maize).” Cress | Diseases and Pests, Description, Uses, Propagation, PlantVillage , 2017,
plantvillage.psu.edu/topics/corn-maize/infos.

CABI Crop Protection Compendium. (2012). Zea mays

datasheet http://www.cabi.org/cpc/datasheet/57417.

Symptoms of Infestation
Damage to corn caused by the common stalk borer is characterized by wilting and/or dying of the
upper leaves or by ragged irregular holes chewed in the newly unrolled leaves. The characteristic
"dead heart" is caused by the insect boring into the stalk at the soil level and tunneling upward. It may
also climb up the plant and tunnel downward into the whorl, creating the ragged holes. A considerable
amount of "frass", or sawdust-like borer feces, can be seen in the whorl or coming out of the borer's
entry hole in the stalk. Corn plants from 2 to 24 inches tall may be attacked. In conventional corn,
damage is usually confined to weedy border rows along fences, grass waterways and contour strips,
while weedy no-till fields may have damage throughout.
Plants damaged by stalk borers are often stunted and/or misshapen and may die. Infested plants (if
they survive) may or may not produce harvestable ears. If they do, ears are usually smaller than
normal. Those plants that do not produce ears compete with productive plants for water, nutrients and
sunlight.
Pest Identification

Common Stalk Borer Larva

Unrolling the whorl or damaged plants will usually reveal the larva. Small larvae are cream colored
with a dark brown or purple band around the body.
Several dark lengthwise stripes may be present. Full grown larvae may lack the dark stripes and band,
making them harder to identify. Common stalk borer larvae are usually very active when handled.
Biology
The common stalk borer is native to North America and is known to attack 176 different plant
species. An increase in no-till corn acreage has increased common stalk borer incidence and
problems.
Adult moths are grayish brown in color with small white spots along the front edge and along the tips
of the fore wings. The hind wings are a pale gray-brown. Wing span is about one inch. The female
moths lay their eggs in late summer and fall.
Preferred egg-laying sites are on weedy hosts. The stalk borer over winters in the egg stage. Eggs
begin hatching in late April and early May and the tiny borers immediately burrow into grasses or
other weeds. When these grasses die, or the borers become too big, they emerge at night and tunnel
into new hosts, including corn. This movement of borers will also occur if the grasses are cut or killed
by herbicides. Borers will crawl to the first plant that is large enough for them to enter. Common stalk
borers sometime remain in grass stems in no-till fields where the herbicide was not effective.
Common stalk borers will leave the plant and drop to the ground where they dig a cell and pupate.
Sometimes they pupate in corn stalks or other plants with large stems. Pupation occurs beginning in
late July. Adult moths then begin flying early in August, with emergence continuing until October.
Control and Management
Currently, no effective rescue insecticide treatment is available to control stalk borers once they have
entered the plants. In-furrow applications of systemic insecticides at planting have not been effective
in controlling stalk borers. Spraying weeds with a herbicide/insecticide combination has also not been
effective. These last two failures are probably due to the fact that borers emerge from grasses over a
period of several weeks, while insecticides lose their effectiveness the longer they are exposed to the
elements.
Spraying grasses with a "burn down" herbicide (paraquat) and a residual insecticide before planting
forces borers to move quickly over a shorter period of time, exposing them to a higher concentration
of insecticide. This technique might be used in no-till fields that have had a history of common stalk
borer problems.
The degree of common stalk borer infestations in no-till corn is directly linked to the amount of grass
present the year before. Therefore, stalk borer management in no-till corn should begin with good
weed management. In conventional corn, infestations may be alleviated by killing grasses and weeds
along field margins etc., before the adult moths begin their egg laying in the late summer or fall. This
may be done by mowing, burning or using herbicides. However, these practices should not be done
when borers are active (between planting and early July), as this will only cause them to move into
nearby crops. Another word of caution on this tactic is that grasshoppers may be driven into nearby
crops as well. 
Incidence in Kentucky
The common stalk borer has been a sporadic pest of corn in Kentucky. According to IPM scouting
observations the insect was found in less than 5% of the fields that were scouted. The stalk borer has
appeared as early as May 31, but normally it is not observed till mid-June.

https://www.extension.purdue.edu/extmedia/BP/BP-96-12-W.pdf
“Purdue Extension Publication .” D I S E A S E S O F C O R N , 2012, pp. 1–5.

Corn trade is the largest contributor to the United States’ (US) agricultural trade balance, with the US
providing over half of the total supply of corn in the world market (USDA 2014). Field corn accounts
for over 87 million acres of land harvested within the US, contributes about $75 billion to the
economy, and comprises 95.4% of the total US feed grain production (NASS 2013; USDA 2015). In
short, corn is vitally important to the US agricultural and food economies, and ensuring a sustainable
supply of quality corn is critical in the years to come; not only for the United States, but for the global
food supply.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4815912/

Mitchell, N.J., et al. “Potential Economic Losses to the USA Corn Industry from Aflatoxin
Contamination.”Advances in Pediatrics., U.S. National Library of Medicine, Mar. 2016,
www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4815912/.

What is Bt (Bacillus Thuringiensis)?

Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) is a naturally occurring soil bacterium that we use in some of our corn and
cotton seed products to provide protection from damaging insects. While all of our Bt crops continue
to be highly effective tools for farmers, our research team constantly reviews and monitors individual
fields for resistance. We have expanded programs to monitor corn rootworms in the United States
(2011 – Ongoing) and pink bollworms in cotton in India (2009 – Ongoing).

Since the advent of farming, people have searched for ways to save their crops from insect pests. Even
ancient farmers were known to have collected seeds from high-yielding plants in the hope of
producing crops the next year that could withstand insect infestation.
Bt, or Bacillus thuringiensis, is a modern solution to insect control.
Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) is a bacterium that occurs naturally in the soil and produces proteins that
kill certain insects. Through biotechnology, scientists can use these naturally occurring Bt proteins to
develop insect-protected crops that help farmers protect against insect damage and destruction. When
targeted insects eat the plant containing the protein, they ultimately die; but Bt is not harmful to
humans, other mammals, birds, fish, or beneficial insects.

Insect resistance to Bt proteins is natural and expected.

In any insect population, a small number of insects already exist that are tolerant of—or resistant to—
certain Bt proteins. Over time, and especially with particular farming practices, it is possible that too
many insects in a field could develop a tolerance to a Bt protein and cause significant damage or
destruction.

Farmers can help prevent insect resistance through Insect Resistance Management (IRM)
practices.
Farmers who choose to grow a Bt crop must plant a “refuge”—a block or strip of the same crop that
does not contain a Bt trait, or the non-Bt refuge seed can be included in an EPA-approved seed blend
product, which we refer to as “Refuge in the Bag” or RIB. The insects from the refuge are not
exposed to the Bt protein and susceptible insects will survive, potentially mating with resistant insects
from the neighboring field. This practice is known as Insect Resistance Management.

https://monsanto.com/company/media/statements/insect-resistance-bt/
“Insect Resistance To Bt Crops.” Monsanto, Monsanto, 11 Apr. 2017,
monsanto.com/company/media/statements/insect-resistance-bt/.

Problems with insecticides have spurred the search for alternative means of insect control. Not only
do conventional insecticides cause environmental and safety hazards, more than 500 species of pests
have evolved resistance to them. Insecticidal proteins from the common bacterium Bacillus
thuringiensis (Bt) are an environmentally friendly alternative to conventional insecticides.
Bt toxins kill insects by binding to and disrupting midgut membranes. Unlike broad spectrum
insecticides, Bt toxins kill certain pests but cause little or no harm to most nontarget organisms
including wildlife, insect natural enemies, and people. For decades, sprays containing Bt toxins have
been useful in organic and mainstream pest control.
Transgenic crops that produce Bt toxins control some key pests, thus decreasing reliance on
insecticide applications1. Surprisingly, after seven years of large scale planting of Bt crops, pest
resistance to Bt crops in the field has not been documented 2.
Large scale planting of Bt crops began in 1996 and grew quickly to more than 10 million ha per year.
The cumulative area of Bt crops grown globally from 1996 to 2002 exceeded 62 million ha, enough to
cover the states of California and Iowa. More than 99% of this area was planted with either Bt corn or
Bt cotton producing Bt toxins Cry1Ab or Cry1Ac to kill larvae of lepidopteran pests. These Bt crops
expose pests to Bt toxin throughout the growing season.
The widespread and prolonged exposure to Bt toxins represents one of the largest selections for
resistance in insects the world has ever seen. Before Bt crops were grown commercially, many
scientists predicted that pests would evolve resistance quickly. This view was supported by pervasive
resistance to conventional insecticides, lab-selected resistance to Bt toxins in many pests, and field-
evolved resistance to sprays of Bt toxins in diamondback moth (Plutella xylostella)3.
To counter the threat of resistance, the refuge strategy 4 has been adopted widely. Growers provide
refuges of non-transgenic host plants along with Bt crops to enhance survival of susceptible pests.
Ideally, rare resistant adults emerging from Bt crops mate with more abundant susceptible adults from
refuges. Modeling results suggest that resistance can be substantially delayed if the heterozygous
offspring from such matings are killed by the Bt crop. The refuge strategy is based primarily on
theoretical calculations and limited experimental evidence from small-scale experiments with
diamondback moth. No rigorous large scale tests of the refuge strategy have been reported.
Although the refuge strategy works beautifully in theory, some scientists thought that real world
deviations from its assumptions could doom Bt crops to early failure. Contrary to this expectation,
researchers from the University of Arizona, the University of California, and Cornell University
recently reported that field-evolved resistance to Bt crops has not been documented yet 2. This
conclusion is based on a review of published results of resistance monitoring efforts in the U.S. and
China, which account for the vast majority of Bt crops grown worldwide. To enhance understanding
of this surprising outcome, we review below the status of pest resistance to Bt crops, including
responses of resistant strains in laboratory and greenhouse tests, and frequencies of resistance in field
populations targeted by Bt crops.

https://www.cornpest.ca/research/insect-resistance-to-bt-crops-lessons-from-the-first-seven-years/
“Home.” Canadian Corn Pest Coalition, Bruce E. Tabashnik, 2018, www.cornpest.ca/research/insect-
resistance-to-bt-crops-lessons-from-the-first-seven-years/.

How it is made
Bt corn is a type of transgenic crop because it contains a gene that has been artificially into it instead
from the process of pollination. The special gene of interest that was inserted into it is called a
transgene. The gene from Bacillus thuringiensis that produces thecrystal toxin protein has been
inserted into the D.N.A. of the corn and therefore making it poisonous to insects.
There are primarily 5 steps in creating transgenic crops like Bt corn:
Step1: Extracting the desired gene from other organism.
Step 2: cloning the desired gene of interest
Step 3: Designing the gene
Step 4: Transformation process
Step 5: Plant breeding.
 
Click here for an animation of the overview of Genetic Engineering in transgenic crops
Step1: Extracting the desired gene from other organism.
This step is the most limiting step in transgenic process because there is only limited information
known about specific genes required to enhance the characteristics of plants. Most of the research that
is now done is focused on the identification and sequencing of certain genes. Never the less isolation
of a specific gene can be easily explained and understood. First of all the main tools that are involved
in this process are restriction enzyme and D.N.A. ligase(www.user.rcn.com). Restriction enzymes are
enzymes that recognize a specific sequence of nucleotide bases on the D.N.A. and then cleaves it a
specific sequence. Each restriction enzyme is specific to a certain sequence of nucleotide bases
therefore one the sequence is known for the gene then the specific restriction enzyme is used. The
restriction enzymes are like scissors and then D.N.A. ligase is the glue that sticks back the ends of the
nucleotide sequences. Therefore it is used after the restriction enzyme to attach the parts of the D.N.A.
fragments together. The next step is to amplify the amount of D.N.A. that was obtained because a
significant amount is needed to be inserted into the desired organism.
Step 2: Cloning the desired gene of interest
The desired gene that was extracted is now subject to a process called polymerase chain
reaction(PCR), a method that is used to amplify the amount D.N.A. to a workable amount.  Now the
D.N.A. is placed into the plasmid of the bacteria and is replicated to produce more of the D.N.A. At
this point an antibiotic resistant gene is also inserted into the plasmid which allows the carrier cell to
be amplified successfully through the process of transformation. The process of transformation
involves the carrier cells to be placed into two medium; one that has a specific antibiotic mean the
other has no antibiotic.  The bacteria is then subject to the first medium whereby it is growth is
significant and then subjected to the other medium whereby only the bacteria that has the antibiotic
resistant gene can grow. The bacteria that are antibiotic resistant carries the desired D.N.A. in it and
therefore only that specific kind can grow, ensuring that all of the carrier bacteria will have the
desired trait.
 
Step 3: Designing the gene
This process is necessary because the gene has to undergo several modifications for it to be
effectively inserted into a plant. Below is a diagram of what parts must be added to the gene.

 
 
The promoter sequence must be added for the gene to be correctly placed into the D.N.A. of the plant.
The promoter works as an on/off switch that controls when and where in the plan the gene will be
expressed. The most common promoter is the CaMV35s which comes from the cauliflower mosaic
virus and cause the gene to be expressed throughout the life cycle of the plant in most tissues. On the
other hand other promoters are more specific and only respond in the plants during specific internal
and external environment. Sometimes the cloned gene is modified so that the plant enhances
production of the gene in its cells. This enhancement is done in the Bt corn, whereby the plants
nucleotide G-C is replaced with the A-T nucleotide from the Bacillus thuringiensis.
The other two parts that are added onto the gene is the termination sequence and a marker gene. The
termination sequence tells the cellular machinery when the end of the gene sequence has been
reached. The marker genes functions are to aid in identification of plants cells that have the specific
integration of the transgene. This process is necessary because only a small percentage of targeted
tissue will have the transgene. The marker gene usually consists of a protein that encodes for
resistance against herbicides or specific antibiotics.
 
Step 4: Transformation process.
Transformation in this process means the change that will be brought upon a cell through introduction
of a new D.N.A. There are two method how this could be achieved and it is explained below.
·         This first method is the gene gun method where a gun is used to insert the D.N.A. This process
is also known as the micro-projectile bombardment method. This gun made up of a 6” x 7” x 10”
stainless steel chamber that is connected to a 2HP vacuum pump. Then the twitch is flicked on the
gun, helium is released at 1000 psi and disrupts a disk about the size of a nickel. The sock way travels
to another dish that has microscopic tungsten particles 1 micron in diameter which is coated with the
D.N.A. molecules. These particles travel 1300 feet per second and penetrate the cells and release the
D.N.A into the nucleus. It is then incorporated by the chromosomes of the plant and comes present in
the D.N.A. structure of the plant. For an animation of the gene gun click here.
·    
     The other method is with the Agrobacterium bacteria also known as Agrobacterium tumefaciens.
This bacteria is able to infect plant cells with a piece of its D.N.A. which cause tumors. Scientist have
genetically engineered this bacteria so that the gene responsible for tumor is no longer present and is
replaced by the gene that is to be inserted into a plant. This plasmid is activated by the plant when it is
wounded because the plant then releases chemical signals that activates it. When it is activated it
enters the plant through the wound and unfortunately this is not known how the D.N.A. from moves
to the cytoplasm to the nucleus of the plant. This process is beneficial because a large fragment of
D.N.A can be transferred effectively.
Step 5: Plant breeding
After all of the following process has occurred successfully a process known as tissue culture is used
to obtain the whole plant. In this process the plant tissues are grown under controlled environment in a
series of medium that contain specific nutrients and hormones. Also tests are carried out to ensure that
the plants have the desired gene and to see the activity and inheritance of the gene.
 
 
http://whatisbtcorn.pbworks.com/w/page/12449526/Biochemical%20Explaination%20of%20Bt
%20Corn
“Biochemical Explaination of Bt Corn.” What Is Bt Corn? / Economic Impact, Javier Vromero , Dec.
2009, whatisbtcorn.pbworks.com/w/page/12449526/Biochemical%20Explaination%20of%20Bt
%20Corn.

Mycotoxin reduction in Bt corn: potential economic, health, and regulatory impacts.

Genetically modified (GM) Bt corn, through the pest protection that it confers, has lower levels of
mycotoxins: toxic and carcinogenic chemicals produced as secondary metabolites of fungi that
colonize crops. In some cases, the reduction of mycotoxins afforded by Bt corn is significant enough
to have an economic impact, both in terms of domestic markets and international trade. In less
developed countries where certain mycotoxins are significant contaminants of food, Bt corn adoption,
by virtue of its mycotoxin reduction, may even improve human and animal health. This paper
describes an integrated assessment model that analyzes the economic and health impacts of two
mycotoxins in corn: fumonisin and aflatoxin. It was found that excessively strict standards of these
two mycotoxins could result in global trade losses in the hundreds of millions US dollars annually,
with the US, China, and Argentina suffering the greatest losses. The paper then discusses the evidence
for Bt corn's lower levels of contamination of fumonisin and aflatoxin, and estimates economic
impacts in the United States. A total benefit of Bt corn's reduction of fumonisin and aflatoxin in the
US was estimated at 23 million dollars annually. Finally, the paper examines the potential policy
impacts of Bt corn's mycotoxin reduction, on nations that are making a decision on whether to allow
commercialization of this genetically modified crop.

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16779644
Wu, F. “Mycotoxin Reduction in Bt Corn: Potential Economic, Health, and Regulatory Impacts.” Advances in Pediatrics.,
U.S. National Library of Medicine, June 2006, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16779644.