B.A. (Hons.

) English Semester-III

Core Course
Paper-V : American Literature
Study Material : Unit 1-5

SCHOOL OF OPEN LEARNING

UNIVERSITY OF DELHI

Department of English
 Paper-V: American Literature
Study Material: Unit 1-5

Contents
Unit-1 : Tennessee Williams The Glass Menagerie 01

Unit-2 : Toni Morrison Beloved 35

Unit-3 : Poetry 73
Walt Whitman O’ Captain! My Captain
Allen Ginsberg A Supermarket in California
Langston Hughes The Negro Speaks of Rivers
The South
Aunt Sue’s Stories
Joy Harjo Perhaps the World Ends Here
I Give You Back

Unit-4 : Short Stories 133

Edgar Allan Poe The Purloined Letter
William Faulkner Dry September
Flannery O’ Connor Everything that Rises Must Converge
Leslie Marmon Silko The Man to Send Rain Clouds

Unit-5 : Readings 179

Abraham Lincoln Declaration of Independence
Gettysburg Speech
Ralph Waldo Emerson Self Reliance
Martin Luther King Jr. I have a Dream
Frederick Douglass A Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass
Adrienne Rich When We Dead Awaken: Writing as Re-vision

SCHOOL OF OPEN LEARNING

UNIVERSITY OF DELHI
5, Cavalry Lane, Delhi-110007
 Paper-V : American Literature
Unit 1 : Tennessee Williams, The Glass Menagerie

Contents
Part I Netra Mukherjee
Section A
1.1 Introduction
1.2 The Life and Works of Tennessee Williams
1.3 The Glass Menagerie: Historical Context
1.4 Innovations in the theatre of Tennessee Williams
1.5 The Glass Menagerie as Expressionist Theatre
Section B
1.6 Summary and Critical Analysis of the play
Part 2 Ayushi Maheshwari
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Characters
2.3 Themes
2.4 Symbols
2.4 Let’s Sum it up!

Edited by:
Dr. Seema Suri

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 Unit-1

Part 1: The Glass Menagerie: Background, Study Guide

Netra Mukherjee

Section A
1.1 Introduction
Tennessee Williams was one of the major American playwrights of the twentieth century. He
came to the attention of critics and theatre goers with his first Broadway play, The Glass
Menagerie (1945). The Glass Menagerie was Tennessee Williams’s first success, both
commercial and critical, and remains one of the most frequently reviewed of all American
plays. With the staging of his second play, A Streetcar Named Desire (1947) he established
his place as an eminent playwright along with Eugene O’Neill and Arthur Miller. Williams is
famous for his depiction of contemporary society and the complexities of the human
condition in the same. The characters in his plays are trapped in their crises and Williams,
through his dialogues and unique theatrical techniques, brings out the psychological
complexities of these characters. Williams follows the post-World War trend of realistic
theatre. His works are often called expressionistic and his plays are the manuscripts of his
first-hand experiences, and that makes his works unique and remarkable.
Tennessee Williams’ The Glass Menagerie is part of the paper on American Literature.
In this unit you will be introduced to Williams’ theatrical innovations. It also includes a short
summary of the play and some critical observations. In the next unit, the themes and symbols
will be discussed in detail.
Learning Objectives
After reading this part of the study material, the student will;
- understand the historical context of the play;
- become familiar with the theatrical innovations of Tennessee Williams; and
- be able to attempt a critical analysis of the different scenes.
1.2 The life and works of Tennessee Williams
Tennessee Williams, the Pulitzer Prize winning playwright, was born as Thomas Lanier
Williams on 26th March, 1911, in Columbus, Mississippi. He was the second child of his
parents and was raised by his mother as his father worked as a salesman and stayed away
from home. His family moved to St. Louis, urban Missouri and Williams’ carefree life
changed. He became more of an introvert and started writing. His parents’ broken marriage
provided him with a lot of raw material for his writing.
In 1929, he enrolled at the University of Missouri to study journalism but his father
compelled him to leave the course and forced him to join as a salesman in a shoe company.
This transition became one of the main reasons for Williams’ depression and he turned to
writing for solace. After recovering from a nervous breakdown, he came across some poet
friends who were students at Washington University. He joined the University of Iowa and
graduated in 1938. But his demons never left him; “The panics remained with him throughout
his life and sustained his extreme hypochondria. They also motivated the behavior of many of

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his characters, particularly the terrified women he created, such as Laura Wingfield” (Clum).
At the age of 28 he moved to New Orleans and changed his birth name to Tennessee (which
was his father’s birthplace) and completely changed his lifestyle; indulging in the city life
which became the theme of his most famous plays.
In 1940, his play Battle of Angels was staged but it was a flop. But as a hardworking
writer he did not stop there and continued to write small gigs for the screen. In April 1943
Williams landed a six-month contract to be a writer at Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, through
Audrey Wood. His first assignment was ‘Marriage is a Private Affair.’ Tennessee Williams
was mentioned among the five writers in the credits- it can be assumed he offered very little
there. Later in his life he cheerfully mentioned the small amount of work he used to get at
Hollywood. He started working on a script called “The Gentleman Caller,” based on his story
(‘Portrait of a Girl in Glass’) for Hollywood which got rejected. What was supposed to be
bad news proved to be a good one for American theatre as this script was staged later as The
Glass Menagerie.
In 1945, The Glass Menagerie was staged and his journey towards fame started. During
the 1944-1945 theatre season a number and variety of well-known plays opened on
Broadway. They included Paul Osborn's A Bell for Adano, John Van Druten's I Remember
Mama, and Mary Chase’s Harvey, that won the 1944 Pulitzer Prize. Yet the real news at that
time in American theatre was being made in Chicago. On the day after Christmas 1944, after
a predictable number of complications, Tennessee Williams's The Glass Menagerie opened in
Chicago. According to Williams, in his Memoirs, audiences did not at first know what to
make of it because “it was something of an innovation"; but the enthusiasm of Claudia
Cassidy, the critic at the Chicago Tribune, brought them around, and it became a success. It
opened in New York on March 31, 1945, and ran for more than a year. Tennessee Williams
had arrived.
His next work, A Streetcar Named Desire took him to the peak of appreciation. In 1947,
Williams published, in The New York Times (November 30) an essay titled “The Catastrophe
of Success,” which he later used later as the Introduction to The Glass Menagerie (New
Directions, 1949). He says that, after the success of Menagerie, he found himself suddenly
well-off, living in a fashionable hotel, being lionized, and coming to suspect all his old
friends and new acquaintances of falseness: “Security is a kind of death, I think . . . What
good is it?” An eye operation gave him time to hide behind his bandages, to think, and to
come out recognizing the need to struggle to live and work.
His fame doubled, especially because the aforementioned plays were adapted into
movies and thus reached a larger audience. Both his plays talk about his love for his elder
sister Rose, who was always the focus of his life. Rose suffered from mental health issues and
was institutionalized. Throughout his life, Williams supported her with every bit of his
emotions. That love transformed into art in The Glass Menagerie. Some other mentionable
works by Williams are Cat on a Hot Tin Roof (1955) and Sweet Bird of Youth (1959).
As the Williams plays rolled by, it became obvious that the characters are confronting,
not only society, but something in themselves; fear of aging (Alexandra in Sweet Bird of
Youth), of life not lived (in Summer and Smoke), of mortality (both Big Daddy in Cat on a
Hot Tin Roof and Flora Goforth in The Milk Train Doesn’t Stop Here Anymore try to ignore
death, but he dies screaming, and she sees death as a way of accepting life.) Explaining his
inability to define the theme of any of his plays in “Questions Without Answers” (The New

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York Times,1948), he says that the best he can come up with is “I have never been able to say
what was the theme of my play and I don’t think I have ever been conscious of writing with a
theme in mind.”
Williams was openly homo-sexual and had relationships with a number of men over the
years. He had the longest one with Frank Merlo (1922-1963), who died of lung cancer a short
while after they split. After his partner’s death, his dramatic technique changed, which was
not received well by the audience. He started using drugs and alcohol to cope with the loss.
Williams died in a hotel room in 1983.
1.3 The Glass Menagerie: Historical Context
The Glass Menagerie is based on the short story Portrait of a Girl in Glass by Williams. The
play was first staged in 1945 and instantly became famous. It has already been mentioned that
the play is based on memories. The play is based on Williams’ love for his sister Rose and his
angst at being trapped; he is a victim of the social and economic condition of America in the
1930s. Williams introduces The Glass Menagerie through a context of social upheaval- war
in Spain, imminent war in Europe; labor unrest in American cities. Tom's opening narrative,
announcing the “social background of the play” sounds like a manifesto of both aesthetic and
social reform. Yet, the only specific allusions to these events during the rest of the play are
the incidental; headlines about Spain in Tom's newspaper, and Toms contrasting the Europe
of Berchtesgaden, Chamberlain, and Picasso’s Guernica with the St. Louis of the dance halls.
Roger B. Stein sees in the allusions to the Depression and impending war a “note of social
disaster [that] runs throughout the drama, fixing the lives of individuals against the larger
canvas.'” (Stein, 14)
The play was written in the economic deflation known as The Great Depression. Though
it started in 1929 it stayed throughout the 30s. Unemployment was grave and wages were
lowered. Tom is the representative of an economic era where factory workers were trapped in
wretched working conditions, got minimum wages and faced continuous strikes. “The cost of
share prices rose to record highs and encouraged even more people to invest. All of this
action created what is known as an economic bubble” (Great Depression: Business). The last
nail on the coffin was the huge price fall in the stock market, it made the news with the panic
selling of shares on October 29th known as ‘The Black Friday’;
On October 24th, 1929 the market finally turned down and panic selling started.
Over twelve million shares were traded in a single day. Prices kept going down
for over a month, by November the DOW sank from 400 to 125. This mass
migration of shares is what effected the market and is known as a large
contributing factor to the start of the great depression (Watkins, The Great
Depression 41).
The consequence of this economic downfall was that families started losing their jobs.
This economic catastrophe touched each and every part of society. The institutions were
intact physically but there was no scope of work. Factories remained closed with no money to
pay the workers. Desperate people started working for food. Many people were seen on the
street, carrying placards saying they were willing to offer their labour in exchange for food,
in place of money. “People had to survive on stale bread and whatever canned foods that they
had left in their homes” (Social Trends).

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 Many families were ashamed of their financial situation and tried to maintain the façade
by improving the exteriors of their houses (note how Amanda relies on chintz and covers up
broken lamps before Jim’s visit). Socialization among people reduced drastically and club
memberships were cancelled (note that part of the play where Amanda is pushing other
women to renew the subscription of a magazine).
It was mostly men who were the sole providers for their families. The loss of work and
the downfall of the market traumatized them; they lost all hope and a large section of working
men found escape in alcohol. Cases of domestic violence increased. Giving in to their failure
to provide for their families, a lot of men abandoned their homes, never to return. “A survey
in 1939 stated that 1.5 million American women had been abandoned” (20 th Century America
104). Note how Amanda is a representative of the American wives; she has a drunkard
husband and was abandoned by him.
In extreme cases, men committed suicide in shame. The specter of failure continuously
haunted them, the same can be seen in Tom too. With the men succumbing to trauma,
traditional gender roles in America began to change. Women started working. They became
strong and started finding out different ways to bring in pay-checks. “They saved money by
buying day-old bread, relining coats with old blankets, cutting adult clothing down to
children's sizes, and saving anything that might be useful someday, such as string and broken
crockery or could be sold as scrap, such as old rags” (Watkins, The Hungry Years 87).
Amanda too tries to earn some extra money by convincing people to subscribe to a magazine.
She continuously urges Laura to get a job and to improve her typing skills.
The Great Depression also pushed women to get an education in order to find jobs to
support the family. Amanda admits Laura to a business school even though the fee is too high
for her and she breaks down when she comes to know that Laura has left the school, thus
closing the opportunity to education and job altogether. “What are we going to do? What is
going to become of us? What is the future?” (Williams 16). The most long-lasting effect of
the Great Depression was the emotional one. Poverty and societal pressure made both men
and women aggressive. Families started living together as they could not afford to live
separately, thus worsening the situation. Louis Adamic writes, “On the one hand, thousands of
families were broken up, some permanently, some temporarily, or were seriously disorganized.
On the other hand, thousands of families became more closely integrated than they had been
before the Depression” (The Great Depression). This tension that comes from living in cramped
spaces with the whole family, can be felt in the play. Amanda continuously nags Tom; she
doesn’t even realize how eccentric she is. The situation has changed her; the southern belle
has turned into a nagging working-class mother, who is overprotective of her last resort, her
son Tom. At the same time, as families started living together, they became emotionally
closer too. Amanda does not understand Tom at all but her concern for him is not fake. Close
living also led to a lack of privacy, thus hindering the emotional growth of younger people.
The younger generation postponed marriage and their plans to settle down independently, as
their focus remained on making ends meet. During the Great Depression not many people were
looking to find love. Less people were starting a family of their own. Many single couples in their
twenties could not afford to break away from their parents and move out. “Marriage and birth
rates declined, as many couples decided to wait until they could afford marriage and children”
(Urban, 4).
In the play Tom also mentions Hitler, the Spanish Civil War, and Picasso’s Guernica.
The Second World War was brewing when the play was written. Hitler had just secured the
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highest position in Germany and the whole world was topsy-turvy. References to the civil
war and the continuous frustration shown by Tom throughout the play is representative of the
pain of the Americans trapped in a difficult socio-economic era.
1.4 Innovations in the theatre of Tennessee Williams
Williams took up theatrical tools and used them to produce some unique works;
He knew enough about music’s dramatic powers to carefully indicate its use in
many of his scripts, often naming specific tunes or styles, even describing specific
musical attributes, as we shall see in the examination of the original Menagerie
production ... He also knew enough to seek top-notch composers and musicians for
his premieres. (Alfieri, 148)
Tennessee Williams’ Production Notes are historical manuscripts for playwrights and critics.
His Production Notes record his innovations in American theatre. In addition to the term
‘memory play’, he gives instructions for the screen device, music, and lighting in these notes.
He brought flexibility into theatrical convention and techniques. As a screenplay writer, he
was highly influenced by the silver screen. But the continuous rise of cinema was leaving
theatre behind and there was an urgent need for experimentation to revive theatre; not as
cinema on a stage but with innovations of its own;
. . . experimentation is precisely what young playwrights and stage directors like
Williams, Orson Welles, and others were up to in the late 1930s and early 1940s,
bringing the techniques and aesthetics of cinema, as well as those of radio and
newsreels, onto the stage from conception to presentation.
(Alfieri, 144)
In this section we will discuss the techniques Williams introduced into the American theatre.
Many scholars have pointed to the influence of cinema on Williams’s developing art. Edward
Murray suggests that the playwright sought “to escape from a narrow stage realism” through
the use of theatrical techniques inspired by the movies. (Murray, 55) George Brandt says
about Williams; of all America’s eminent playwrights up to the mid-1960s, the one who had
“most effectively learnt the lessons in freedom that the cinema has to teach.” (Alfieri, 4)
The Memory Play
While describing The Glass Menagerie Tennessee Williams called it a ‘memory play.’ The
term ‘memory play’ was first used by Williams. The concept is a complex intertwingling of
time and technique. In this section we will talk about memory as a technique, later in Unit 2
memory as a theme will be discussed elaborately.
A memory play includes a narrator who is also an actor in the play. In this case, Tom is
the narrator and also a character in the play. In his initial monologue he explains the structure
of the play and informs the audience that the play is based on his memories. In the play we
get to know that Tom is an artist; he writes poetry. Here, Tom has written about his memories
and turned them into a play. So, a memory play has a narrator/ character who will share
his/her personal experiences or the story of the play may have some autobiographical aspect.
Williams himself, and many critics as well, have pointed out that The Glass Menagerie is
autobiographical. The play has a character /narrator, whose experiences are based on the
author’s own life. The memory play is similar to the concept of ‘meta-theatre’; where a

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character in the play draws the audience’s attention to the fact that the play is an artistic
creation;
The fact that The Glass Menagerie is a presentation of autobiographical memory
further complicates the dramatic construction through its point of view. While
traditional theatre makes the spectators aware about the difference between
showing and seeing, the desired viewpoint in The Glass Menagerie differs in this
aspect for the viewer has to identify his viewpoint as the seeing eye of Tom, the
narrator. It thus more resembles the cinematic technique of the camera choosing
the viewer’s viewpoint. (Maiti, 4)
Next comes the idea of illusion and truth in the memory play. The play, as an art form,
exaggerates emotions and characteristics to some extent to create an illusion of reality for the
audience. In a memory play, memory is both content and narrative technique. The illusion
shown on the stage is the memory of Tom, the fictional artist, based on Williams, the writer.
So, by introducing the idea of the memory play, Williams also plays with the idea of illusion
and truth.
Last but not the least is the flexibility related to the memory play as a technique. The
playwright can experiment liberally with the time frame, continuously oscillating between
present and past. For example, in the initial scene Tom is delivering his monologue in the
present and the next moment he has entered the past and joined his mother and sister on the
dining table. The author can use minimal settings and use them symbolically; for example,
the fire escape. The structural freedom is just the cherry on the top.
Presented as a memory play, The Glass Menagerie complements the poet’s lifelong
perception of and fascination with illusion and reality and shows William’s notion on
the subjectivity of memory. In the post World War II backdrop of trauma and
disillusionment and equipped with the heritage of Freud’s psychoanalysis theory, the
functioning of the memory became an important theme in theatre as well as in other
arts. American theatre when compared to other art forms was slow to change and hand
in hand with Kingsley Amis, Tennessee Williams embraced the post war genre of
realism and horror. (Maiti, 2)
The Screen Device
Williams made sure to bring out two editions of the play, one is the Actor’s Edition (AE) and
the other, the Reader’s Edition (RE);
Being a “memory play,” The Glass Menagerie can be presented with unusual
freedom from convention . . . Expressionism and all other unconventional
techniques in drama have only one valid aim, and that is a closer approach to
truth . . . These remarks are not meant as a preface only to this particular play.
They have to do with a conception of a new, plastic theatre which must take the
place of the exhausted theatre of realistic conventions if the theatre is to resume
vitality as a part of our culture. (Alfieri,5)
“The Screen Device: There is only one important difference between the original [RE]
and the acting version [AE] of the play,” Williams wrote, “and that is the omission in the
latter of the device that I tentatively included in my original script.”(Williams,8) This “screen
device” involves the projection of “magic-lantern slides bearing images or titles,” not above
or to the side of the set, like supra titles, but directly into the heart of the playing space, “on a
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section of wall between the front-room and dining room areas, which should be
indistinguishable from the rest when not in use.”(ibid) The purpose of this at-the-time-
progressive device was, according to Williams, to point out certain structural elements
without the necessity for excessive illustrative or explanatory dialogue.(ibid) The screen
device is believed to reflect the influence of German theater director Erwin Piscator, into
whose orbit Williams came briefly in 1940, while studying at the New School for Social
Research in New York City. (Alfieri, 5) According to Williams’s biographer Lyle Leverich;
“Although Tom would come to despise Piscator’s methods, he was impressed with the use of
cinematic techniques onstage.”(Alfieri,5) Williams wrote that “an imaginative producer or
director may invent many other uses for this [screen] device” (Lyle, 346).
The AE outlines the concept of Williams’s “new, plastic theatre.” We need to take a look
at the RE to understand how plastic this playwright’s ideas actually were and how they can be
related to the theatrical trends of American theatre at that time. Since the play is filled with
flashbacks and continuously oscillates between past and present, a mood or atmosphere need
to be created. Williams introduced the idea of a screen device here; he used images in the
background, according to the core motif of a particular scene or a dialogue. It works as a
guide for the audience, a particular emotion is kindled or it lets the audience identify with the
larger context of the play. It also works as a transitional tool as it helps the audience
anticipate what is coming next.
In the first scene after Tom’s introduction the legend on screen says “Ou sont les neiges
d’antan” (where are the snows of the yesteryear?). In this scene, the family is sitting on a
dining table with Amanda reminiscing about her past. Thus, the image sets a mood of
romantic melancholy- a nostalgia which pervades throughout the play. The next scene opens
with the image of blue roses. The image foreshadows the end of the scene, where the
character of Jim is introduced through Laura’s memory. The motif of blue roses as the
symbol of a loving memory stays till the end of the scene, continuously projecting Laura as
an introvert lover.
The images are also used to underline a particular trait of a character (mostly to let the
audience focus on how Tom sees them) or a story. For example, when Jim is being
introduced to Amanda, the screen shows the image of a high school hero. Williams uses the
screen device not only to tell the story but to direct the audience how to feel about it.
Music
According to Leverich, “the increasing importance of sound effects and background music in
films was the direct influence upon [Williams’s] integration of music within [Menagerie’s]
action” (38). Apart from the screen device, Williams utilizes music as a thematic device in
his theatre. The repeated use of ‘The Glass Menagerie’ tune makes music an important
component the play. The music becomes a symbol, evoking the memories of the different
characters.
For its original production, Williams recruited master theater composer Paul Bowles to
write an original score that helped turn “a trivial little comedy of domestic tribulation” into
the “legitimate magic” that earned it a Drama Critics’ Circle Award, and established it firmly
among the greatest plays of the postwar period. (Alfieri 6) Williams used music as his
signature style. After the first performance, Bowles’ background score ‘The Glass
Menagerie’ became extremely famous and created a brand. It later became known as the
“Tennessee sound”. Williams first made his mark on American theater during an era that, as I
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have suggested, was reevaluating its uses of dramatic music based upon the influences of
mass media, especially Hollywood cinema. He conceived his dramatic atmospheres both
aurally and visually, and music frequently played an explicit role in the auditory mise-en-
scène of his plays. (Alfieri, 6)
In his “Production Notes,” Williams describes “a single recurring tune,” which he calls
“‘The Glass Menagerie’ . . . used to give emotional emphasis to suitable passages.” He
writes;
This tune is like circus music, not when you are on the grounds or in the
immediate vicinity of the parade, but when you are at some distance and very
likely thinking of something else. It seems under those circumstances to continue
almost interminably and it weaves in and out of your preoccupied consciousness;
then it is the lightest, most delicate music in the world and perhaps the saddest. It
expresses the surface vivacity of life with the underlying strain of immutable and
inexpressible sorrow. When you look at a piece of delicately spun glass you think
of two things: how beautiful it is and how easily it can be broken. Both of these
ideas should be woven into the recurring tune, which dips in and out of the play
as if it were carried on a wind that changes . . . It is primarily Laura’s music and
therefore comes out most clearly when the play focuses upon her and the lovely
fragility of glass which is her image. (Williams, RE, 9)
Lights
The “Production Notes” also explain the use of lighting in the play. As for lighting, Williams
stated that it is “not realistic,” describing a sort of chiaroscuro effect meant to direct the
audience’s focus “sometimes in contradistinction to what is the apparent center,” which “will
also permit a more effective use of the screen [projections]” (Williams, 10). Williams uses
light not only for stage directions but also to emphasize the motif of the scenes. For example,
Williams plays with hope and hopelessness in the same scene, When Jim visits Laura,
Williams’ notes indicate there is a lemony yellow light. The mellow light becomes a symbol
of hope for Laura. The audience, as well as Laura, is given a little hope that she will meet the
love of her life. To push it further, Williams delves deeper into Laura’s character by
comparing her with prismatic refractions. That yellow light is shattered when Jim almost runs
out of the tenement, diminishing hope altogether. The play ends with Laura blowing out the
candle.
These innovations and experiments secured fame for The Glass Menagerie for decades;
creating new trends in American theatre;
Pour hot lights on a play like The Glass Menagerie, remove the music and the
transparencies [scrims] and what you have left is a trivial little comedy of
domestic tribulations . . . But call in Jo Mielziner and Paul Bowles, and invoke
the services of a Laurette Taylor and Eddie Dowling and there before you is a
piece of legitimate magic, elusive, delicate and tenuous, but no more trivial than
a dream that is rooted in the human unconscious. No, I cannot work without the
collaboration of gauzes and blue gelatins and harp-strings. (Parker 47-48)
1.5 The Glass Menagerie as Expressionist Theatre
The Glass Menagerie has often been called an extension of the expressionist theatre. The
Expressionist movement is known for its certain characteristics- the most prominent being the
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stark rejection of Realism to embrace dreamlike states. The narratives are often non- linear
with disconnected structures- imageries and symbolism take the place of naturalism- the
focus is always on abstract ideas and concepts. Artists who practiced Expressionism focused
on the alienation of man as an individual, the isolated selves trapped in the modern life.
Expressionism propagates the idea that the angst within individuals will not be satiated by
modern social constructs. It deals with the internal subjective perception of an individual;
thus, it negates the objective take on reality.
Though America did not directly participate in the First World War, it could not avoid
the effects of it. We have already discussed the economic recession and the Great Depression
which were the consequences of the war. The economic downfall affected the South the most.
The south can be called the American equivalent to the Hyde Park in London. The southern
people did not accept the blow at first, they tried to continue with their superfluous lifestyle
which Williams has used in this play brilliantly. Amanda, the ‘Southern Belle’ is the
representative of this past glory. The financial reality has changed but she plays the role of
the perfect host by covering up the dingy, shabby apartment. She is the victim of the ruined
South but her pride keeps her in a fantastical state. Amanda with her eloquence and artistic
superiority engages the audience in a jocund atmosphere. Against Amanda’s jonquils and
aristocratic coquettish dress, Laura becomes the symbol of the hollow present of the South.
Laura, shies away from her own shadow while people like Jim (North) try to fit in with the
situation and accept reality – thus she becomes the representative of the wobbly reality of the
adamant South.
The drastic change in socio-economic conditions of America in the 1930s did not give a
scope to the common people to bask in the luxury or to escape in the fantasy. The
hopelessness in a trapped existence was the only reality. Here comes the mastery of Williams,
he portrays a subjective perception of reality. Amanda’s flamboyant attitude, Laura’s way too
expensive shyness and Tom’s constant addiction to entertainment are expressionist tools to
portray and criticize the condition of Americans in 1930s.
Instead of the prosaic dialogues of realist drama Williams played with language;
emphasizing the emotions of the characters. He explored the internal aspiration of the
Americans, who continuously chased progress, a fantastical dream that had been sold to
them. Amanda’s continuous struggle to stay in the magic cirque of memory, Laura’s self-
exile and Tom’s literary angst project three characters who dream. Their dreams are being
murdered for a greater good- a bigger dream of a whole nation- the American Dream.
Section B
1.6 Summary and Critical Analysis of the Play
Scene I
The play starts with an elaborate description of the setting. The scene is a memory, so it’s not
realistic. Throughout the play some emotions will be exaggerated and some will be subsumed
as the whole play depicts the memory of Tom. The setting of the play is also poetic and
dreamy; to communicate the essence of memory to the audience.
As the curtain rises, we see a ‘dark, grim’ old Wingfield tenement, the whole play is set
in this apartment. The alleyways surrounding the apartment and a fire escape are also a part
of the setting. Tom Wingfield enters the stage; he is dressed as a merchant sailor and he starts
by addressing the audience. After giving a brief account of the social background of the play,
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he informs the audience that this is a memory play and he is also a character in it. The other
characters are his mother Amanda and his sister Laura. He also mentions his father. Though
he left them long time ago, never to return, he is a character in this play. There is a
photograph of him on the wall.
The blown-up picture of the father is the most prominent image throughout the play.
Though Tom, Amanda, and Laura engage the audience, it is the shadow of the father that
haunts all the three major characters in the play. It cannot be denied that the play takes place
because the father left, he is the reason behind the present state of the characters; the family is
affected psychologically, financially and above all emotionally by his going away. Mr.
Wingfield is described;
“It is the face of a very handsome young man in a doughboy's First World War
cap. He is gallantly smiling, ineluctably smiling, as if to say ‘I will be smiling
forever’.” (William, 1)
The picture on the mantlepiece is a reminder of the happier times. The picture
continuously reminds the audience about the absent father; now present only in their
memories. Tom describes him as a telephone man “who fell in love with long distances”; the
poetic quality of this accusation is striking. Tom feels burdened with the responsibility of the
family. He is forced to take up the role of a provider by his father’s decision to leave them.
So, when he talks about his father, the boy within him comes to the surface; he is angry with
him, at the same time he is nostalgic about him. It is to be noted that Tom aspires to be like
the ever-smiling man in the photo. He, just like his father, will leave his family behind in
order to secure his own freedom, and from the very beginning we know that he has succeeded
in doing so. It is ironical that Tom, who has suffered because of his father’s abandonment,
follows in his footsteps.
Williams characters are alienated but assert their right to have absolute freedom, even in
the most frightful circumstances, at the peak of despair, Williams' protagonist do not lose
their audacity and do not give up; they recognize that it is obligatory for them to struggle and
attain their fundamental right to live with dignity. Tom Wingfield in The Glass Menagerie
asserts his freedom and seeks adventure by abandoning his mother and his crippled sister.
Most critics and writers who have studied Williams' plays, have identified these three;
freedom, challenge and alienation as major characteristics of Williams' characters. These
three characteristics are closely connected to the existential themes. (Vivek p. 34)
The absence of the father has also changed the gender roles in this family. Amanda has
taken over the father’s authoritative role but she has not totally accepted her husband’s
disappearance; she wears his bathrobe and talks about his well-maintained appearance. She is
still caught up in her memories of him. But at the same time his absence has turned her into a
mother bear. She is over protective when it comes to her children. She makes sure that Tom
does not inherit the bad habits of his father.
It is the absence of the father which thematically binds the play together. The action of
the play starts with Amanda and Laura on the dining table. Amanda asks Tom to join them
and then continuously nags him about how to chew his food until he becomes frustrated and
stops enjoying even a bite whatsoever. Amanda shifts her focus to Laura and asks her to
make herself pretty for gentlemen callers. When Laura replies that there will be no caller
visiting her, Amanda travels back to her younger days and starts to iterate how she attended
to seventeen gentlemen callers on a Sunday afternoon, back in the Blue Mountain. They have
12
listened to the same story several times. Amanda asks Laura to go inside and practice her
typing skills and again asks about the gentleman callers.
Analysis
Tom delivers his first monologue not on the stage but in the alley near the fire escape, thus
projecting the time lapse. At the same time from his out of place marine merchant uniform it
is evident that he has escaped the family- the stage. In his monologue he talks about truth and
illusion. According to him, magicians show illusions on stage which the audience accepts as
the truth. But here Tom is going to represent the truth in the guise of an illusion. It is the
illusion that Tennessee Williams has created in the garb of Tom and decided to tell his
autobiographical story in the form a memory play.
The fire escape works as a symbol throughout the play. It is the means of escape for
Tom, who is trapped in the drudgery of his work at a shoe warehouse and responsibilities of
the family. It is also a symbol of the American psyche, trapped in the social and economic
condition of 1930s and wanting to escape from reality.
As Tom announces that it is a memory play, the audience can perceive the time travel
that Tom is going to undertake through the fire escape; the very mechanism that worked as a
mediator between his past and present in the first place.
As the audience is first introduced to Amanda, they can easily deduct her character traits.
She commands her son to join them at the dinner table, almost making him feel guilty. She
continuously nags her son about miniscule things and she is not even aware of it. She is
insecure about losing her son as she has already lost her husband. As she tells the story of the
gentlemen callers of Blue Mountain, it is evident that she is trapped in her reality and tries to
find escape in the memories of her youth. The question arises whether her stories are true or
not- if examined closely one observes that all the gentlemen callers were either rich or
became rich, unlike Amanda’s current position. So, her stories can be a made-up fantasy, an
escape from the wretched reality of the present. But she continuously pushes Laura to attend
to gentlemen callers, which points towards her fixation on fulfilling her own desires through
her daughter. She is worried about Laura’s future, that’s why she asks her to practice her
typewriting skills and to stay fresh for attending gentleman callers.
Questions
(i) How is the audience informed about the context of the play?
(ii) What does the fire escape symbolize in this scene?
(iii) Which elements of a memory play have been used in this scene?
Scene II
As the light brightens, Laura is seen sitting with her glass figurines and enjoying some old
phonograph records. The moment she hears Amanda’s footsteps on the fire escape, she hides
the figurines and pretends to learn the type chart.
As Amanda appears before the audience, it is clear that something has happened to her.
Laura sees her throwing her gloves in a dramatic gesture and asks her nervously what is
wrong. Amanda accuses Laura of being deceptive. Gradually the secret is out before the
audience. Amanda tells Laura that she has paid a visit to the business school on her way to
the D.A.R (Daughters of the American Revolution) meeting to check on Laura’s progress. To
her utter surprise, she comes to know that Laura has quit school. She laments about the

13
wasted tuition fee and Laura’s future. Laura explains how she fell sick on the very first day
and how she realized that she was not cut out for business school. But she did not want to
deceive her mother, so since then she started pretending to go to the business school every
day but visited the zoo, the bird house and glass house that makes tropical flowers instead.
Amanda is extremely disappointed and questions Laura about her future; without any
work or gentlemen callers. She asks Laura if she has ever liked a boy. Laura confesses that
she was infatuated with a boy named Jim from school who used to call her ‘Blue Roses’. She
once had pleurosis and when Jim asked her about it he heard it wrong and the nick name Blue
Roses stuck. Amanda informs Laura that she will be married off soon but Laura tries to say
that she is a cripple and so marriage is not a possibility. Amanda does not pay any attention to
that and says what Laura needs is some charm.
Analysis
In the first part of this scene Laura is seen lost in her own world- a personal world of escape-
a world of glass figurines and old records.
Amanda’s dramatic stance after the revelation of Laura’s deception is surprising; she is
shocked, not because of the deception but at the wasted money and Laura’s uncertain future.
She does not want Laura to turn out like her; left alone and forced to live a pitiable life. Now
that she is certain that her daughter is not cut out for work, she focuses on finding a husband
to look after her.
Amanda asks about the boy that Laura liked and the audience learns about Jim for the
first time. Laura was infatuated with this boy in high school and she shows her mother
pictures of Jim in an endearing fashion. It is evident that she liked this man. She is lost in her
memory, the tone when she talks about the girl Jim used to date in high school is not only
disheartening but also shows the pain that Laura has always felt, being different from other
girls because of her disability. When her mother talks about marriage, she calls herself
crippled. Amanda wants Laura to cover her disability with charm; she asks Laura to cultivate
some charm, which seems impossible, given Laura’s innocent disposition.
Questions
(i) Which secret has been revealed in this scene?
(ii) How are the dramatic gestures and language used to create suspense in this scene?
(iii) Which new character is introduced in this scene?

Scene III
Tom explains to the audience how Amanda stays determined once she sets her mind on
something. Now that Amanda knows that Laura has quit the business school, she is obsessed
with attending to some gentleman caller and marrying Laura off. Tom knows that she will
make it happen. The impending decision of marriage hangs like a shadow on the Wingfield
house.
While talking about Amanda’s determination he mentions how Amanda has started a
telephone campaign to get more subscribers for a woman’s magazine. Amanda is calling
someone over the phone. With a business-like attitude, she tries to convince some woman to
subscribe to the magazine. Tom is writing something he does not want to reveal to his
mother. Amanda prances in and he stops writing. Amanda starts arguing about a D.H.
Lawrence book which she found in the house and returned to the library instantly. Amanda
14
does not want such books at her house. Tom reminds her it is he who pays the rent. During
their heated discussion Amanda accuses him of doing something shady as it is impossible for
a man to go to the movies every single night. She also shows her concern about Tom’s lack
of rest as he stays up late. Tom is infuriated at the sudden attack and continuous nagging. He
starts telling Amanda some fancy story about how he goes to the opium den at night and so
on, and ends up calling her an “ugly …babbling…witch”. He tries to storm out with his coat
in his hand and accidentally breaks some of the glass figurines of Laura.
Analysis
Unlike her children, Amanda possesses the quality of determination. Once she sets her mind
on something she does not quit until it’s done. Her telephone campaign is an illustration of
this determination. In this scene Tom is writing something, assumably creative but Amanda
disturbs him. This leads to a brawl between the son and the mother. Tom is trapped in a harsh
reality, where he has lost not only his peace of mind but also his privacy. Amanda informs
him that she has returned a book of D.H. Lawrence as she does not approve of even bringing
such books in her house- this shows how impossible it is for Amanda to understand Tom and
what he wants in his life.
Amanda successfully nags Tom to the brink of his patience and the audience now knows
that Tom is tired of the warehouse work. His marine merchant uniform in the beginning now
makes sense- he is not only trapped in the responsibilities of his family but also in his work;
he does not enjoy it and uses movies as an escape. Amanda with her obvious controlling
attitude, wants to monitor his whereabouts; she does not want him to stay out late at night.
Though she means well for her son, she lacks understanding. She pushes him too much. Tom
breaks a glass figurine and the whole family is warned about the reality and fragility of their
situation.
Laura speaks nothing; throughout their argument the focus is on her expressions. Her
face shows continuous guilt as she thinks that the tension between her mother and her brother
is mostly because of her. She believes that, being a cripple, she is a burden on them, thus
causing unhappiness to both Amanda and Tom. As the glass figurine breaks, Laura is
shattered and the focus shifts to her. Tom lovingly consoles Laura; throwing new light on
Tom as a brother.
Questions:
(i) Which character traits can you observe in Amanda’s phone call?
(ii) What are Tom and Amanda fighting about?
(iii) Which major symbol has been used in this scene?
Scene IV
The scene starts with Tom returning from the movies late at night and finding out that Laura
is awake. Laura wonders if the movies go on till that late. Tom starts to talk about the movie
he saw that night. He also saw a stage show where a magician nails himself in a coffin and
then frees himself. This trick impressed Tom the most.
The scene fades out. Amanda’s voice is heard calling Tom to “Rise and Shine”. Laura
requests Tom to apologize to Amanda for the argument. Amanda sends Laura to the store to
buy some butter. While leaving, Laura trips on the fire escape, Tom and Amanda run to help
her. After an uncomfortable silence, Tom reluctantly apologizes to his mother. She
15
immediately starts to nag him about his breakfast and continues to say that Laura feels sorry
for Tom’s unhappiness. She asks him why he goes to the movies every day. Tom explains
how men, by instinct want adventure and he tries to findt some at the movies, as his work at
the warehouse is boring.
Amanda now starts talking about Laura. She tells him that she has found Tom’s letter to
the Merchant Marine and she knows that Tom is going to leave them behind just like his
father. But she wants to make sure that Laura is taken care of, before he leaves. She knows
really well that old songs and the glass figurines cannot be the ultimate future for Laura.
Amanda requests Tom to try and find a nice young man in the warehouse and invite him to
their house in order to introduce him to Laura. Tom promises to do so and Amanda
immediately restarts her campaign for the subscribers.
Analysis
In this scene Tom is seen coming back from the movies and Laura, like a caring mother,
shows her concern. When Tom explains the magician’s trick, the similarity to his situation is
striking. The dull apartment, lack of privacy and pressure of his responsibilities have made
his life like a coffin; he wonders whether he can ever get out of it. The act of getting out of
this coffin-like existence will be nothing less than a resurrection for him. He wants to rise
from the ashes and live a completely new life. Laura works as a mediator and a buffer zone
between Amanda and Tom. She convinces Tom to apologize to Amanda. Amanda cleverly
sends Laura to buy some butter as she wants to talk to Tom about Laura’s future. Laura trips
on the fire escape. This shows her fear of the outer world. For Tom, the fire escape is an
escape from reality to the free outer world but to Laura it is an escape from the dreadful outer
world into her secure world of the glass menageries. As Tom apologizes to Amanda, she
keeps her stance intact and says that it is her concern for her children has turned her into a
witch. But the reality is that she is way too concerned about them- she is over- protective,
nagging and controlling to such an extent that she is almost annoying. As she starts nagging
Tom again, we come to know that Tom is an adventurer. He wants to live according to his
instincts, he has a poetic outlook on life; he wants romance, adventure and love in his life. He
does not want to live trapped in the harsh reality of warehouse work. Amanda knows these
attributes too well. She has seen the hunger for this way of life in her husband and thus
dreads Tom will abandon them, just like he did. But she is realistic enough to understand that
she cannot stop him from leaving and that’s why she reveals that she knows about his plan to
join the Marine Merchant. She is pragmatic and so, wants to make sure that Tom takes care
of his sister’s future before leaving them.
Questions
(i) How is the fire escape used as a symbol in this scene?
(ii) What new characteristics of Amanda are evident in this scene?
(iii) What do you learn about Tom’s philosophy in life?
Scene V
The scene starts with Amanda telling Tom to comb his hair and she is immediately reminded
of her husband. She admired how he always kept his appearance well maintained. She
continues to scold her son; she complaining how much he smokes and how much money he
could have saved if he did not do so.

16
 Tom turns to the audience and starts to talk about the Paradise Dance Hall in the alley
and its past glory. He informs Amanda that a friend from the warehouse will visit them the
next day. Amanda is not happy as it would be very difficult to spruce up the house at short
notice but Tom warns her not to make too much of a fuss about his friend. She asks Tom if
O’Connor drinks or not because, according to her, it is better to remain an old maid than to
marry a drunkard. She also makes sure to find out how much money he earns. Though eighty-
five dollars are just enough to run a family, she is relieved that he goes to night school in
order to improve himself.
Tom warns Amanda that his friend does not know about Laura and he feels that it will be
difficult for Laura to open up before a stranger as she is different from other girls, and his
mother should not to expect much from her. Amanda forbids Tom from calling Laura a
cripple. But what Tom tries to say tis hat Laura is different from the others because she lives
in her own world of glass figurines and old records. He leaves for the movies. Amanda calls
Laura and asks her to look at the moon and wish for a better future.
Analysis
Tom informs Amanda about the gentleman caller and initially she is uncomfortable because
there is too little time to dress up their humble apartment. But she instantly starts shooting
questions. Though Tom asks her to not fuss over the guest, Amanda takes the leap and
assumes, from the first sentence itself, that Laura will get married to this gentleman. She asks
practical questions, like his drinking habit and his earnings. Both these questions arise from
Amanda’s experience of being married to a drunkard and she does not want the same future
for her daughter. Her over-enthusiasm shows how desperate she is to marry Laura off. She
does not want to acknowledge Laura’s own will. Tom reminds Amanda that Laura is a
cripple but she avoids the topic. But Tom wants to make her understand- how Laura is
different from others, how she lives in her own world of glass figurines and phonograph
records. He does not show any emotion but it is evident that he loves his sister; he is well
aware of her innocence and he wants to save her from Amanda’s fixation on charm and
coquettish behaviour. But Amanda wants to fulfil her desires through her daughter and as the
play progresses her fixation becomes stronger, only to get shattered in the last scene.
Here it is mentioned that Jim is taking radio engineering classes. Williams includes many
references to emerging technologies in the play but as far as the Wingfield family is
concerned, they fail to embrace its potential. The play is punctuated with references to an
array of the everyday products of twentieth-century technology; expanding the play’s
significance beyond the personal, even as it illuminates the narrow lives of its protagonists.
(Reynolds,1991, p-2) Amanda is not interested in the whys of technology or the wonder of
science, it is the mysterious nature of it that awes her; “Isn't electricity a mysterious thing?
Wasn't it Benjamin Franklin who tied a key to a kite? We live in such a mysterious universe,
don't we? Some people say that science clears up all the mysteries for us. In my opinion it
only creates more!” (Williams, pp. 84-85).
It is not the women alone who are unable to understand technology; Tom is equally
unaware of its functioning. That’s why Amanda asks Jim to check the fuse. Williams situates
Jim as a foil to the whole Wingfield family, when it comes to technology. Technology is
clearly identified as the specific agent for change, that Williams alludes to time and again in
the play; the strongest force that will redirect society in the twentieth century. While only one
character, the “realist” Jim O'Connor, sees the future of America as tied to progress in

17
technology, the play consistently reiterates the failure of technology to achieve social or
individual values or, for that matter, even to function at a practical level. Lights go out, the
telephone is hung up; cinema and phonograph serve merely as escapes, for men whose lives
are governed by impersonal commercial enterprises embodied in warehouses, and for women
who are expected to live by serving business through mechanical clerical work, or by
marrying successful radio engineers. (Reynolds, p. 3)
Questions
(i) What questions does Amanda ask Tom once she finds out that a gentleman caller is
coming?
(ii) Describe Tom as a brother, in this scene?
(iii) What social context do you find in this scene?
Scene VI
The scene starts with Tom introducing Jim to the audience through his monologue. He says
that Jim used to be very popular at the high school. He was a hero back then. He was an
excellent basket ball player but with time he has lost his speed and secured a job at the
warehouse, just like Tom. In the warehouse Tom is on friendly terms only with Jim. Tom
knows that he is also valuable to Jim because he reminds Jim of his past glory as a high
school hero. He adds that Jim knew about Tom’s love of writing and used to call him
Shakespeare. He also knows that Laura admires Jim’s voice but he is not sure if Jim
remembers Laura or if he knows that Laura is Tom’s sister. Amanda and Laura prepare for
the gentleman caller. Amanda continuously pushes Laura to look pretty. She even uses some
powder puffs to enlarge her breasts. Amanda dresses herself in a ridiculous fashion, with a
gaudy frock and some accessories used for her past engagements with gentlemen callers.
During their conversation Laura finds out that it is Jim who is coming for dinner and
immediately wants to be excused from joining them. She informs her mother that she cannot
come in front of the gentleman and obviously cannot open the door. As this will destroy her
plan, Amanda chooses not to pay any attention to it and retires to the kitchen. As the doorbell
rings, she pushes Laura to open the door, after many mistrials, Laura manages to let Tom and
Jim in and goes back to her room.
Tom and Jim start talking about work upon which Jim warns Tom that he will lose his
job soon. Tom tells Jim about joining the Union of Merchant Seamen and how he has paid
the first subscription with the money Amanda gave him for the electricity bill. Amanda
baffles Jim with the stories of her past and gentlemen callers. When Tom checks and informs
that supper has been served, Amanda insists that she is not going to eat without Laura. Laura
comes to the table and trips. Seeing that she is sick, Amanda asks Tom to help her lie on the
living room sofa while the others have their evening meal
Analysis
In his monologue Tom introduces Jim to the audience. From his description it is evident that
Jim is a foil to Tom. Unlike Tom, Jim is satisfied with his work at the warehouse. He takes
night classes to improve his prospects- thus a family man with future financial plans. Amanda
pushes Laura too much and she becomes more anxious because of her mother. The padded
breasts show how Amanda wants to sexualize her daughter in front of a total stranger. It is
clear that Laura does not even want to attend a gentleman caller, it is Amanda who wants to.
Amanda wears a ridiculous dress and carries some summer flowers; which she wore the day
18
she met her husband. She wants to return to her youthful days, maybe to mend her mistakes.
She also feels trapped in her present situation and this is the only escape that she has got.
When Laura comes to know that Jim is the gentleman caller, she becomes flustered. She
does not want to confront the present reality; she wants to keep her memories intact. She feels
sick and she does not want to be present at dinner; her illness is psychosomatic. Amanda pays
no attention to Laura’s turbulent state and pressurizes her. She can not miss this chance to
marry her off. She forces her to open the door. It should be noted how Laura instantly flees to
the phonograph record after opening the door. She seeks refuge in her collection of records
and glass figurines as the stranger from the dreadful outer world has come here to disturb her
memories. Her crippled self is too scared to face this reality. Amanda bursts into conversation
and overwhelms Jim; her behavior shows how desperate she is to get back her past glory. It is
only after seeing that Laura cannot even walk on her own that Amanda is convinced that she
is actually sick.
In this scene, we get to know for the first time that Tom has taken a decisive step to get
away from his reality. He has decided to give the money for the electricity bill to the Marine
Merchant.
Questions
(i) Compare Jim and Tom in this scene?
(ii) Comment on Amanda’s flirtatious outfit and behaviour.
(iii) Why is Laura so afraid of meeting Jim?
Scene VII
In the initial part of the final scene Laura is lying on the sofa, while the others are having
their meal. As they are about to finish, the lights go out. Amanda suspects that Tom has not
paid the electricity bill and asks Jim to check the fuse. As a punishment for his
irresponsibility, Amanda asks Tom to wash the dishes after dinner while Jim can keep Laura
company. She advises Jim to take some wine with him for Laura which will strengthen her.
Laura becomes nervous as she sees Jim approaching her. Jim is comfortable and sits on
the floor. He offers her a gum and asks her why she is so shy and calls her “old fashioned”.
Laura asks if he still sings. After her question, he remembers that he knows Laura from high
school. They were in the same singing class. She mentions how she was always late for the
singing class and her braces clumped in front of everyone. Jim says that she is too self-
conscious, he remembers nothing of the sort.
Laura tells Jim how she wanted him to sign the high school yearbook but could not
gather any courage to do so as he was extremely popular at the time and always surrounded
by girls. He signs the book now. Laura asks him about his high school girlfriend but Jim
assures her that it was just a rumor. He asks her what she has done after high school, she talks
about the business school and her glass figurines. But Jim interrupts her and goes on talking
about her inferiority complex. When he is done talking, Laura shows him her glass
menagerie. Jim is afraid that he will break the figurines if he touches them. Laura shows him
the unicorn figurine which she has kept for the last thirteen years. He asks if the unicorn feels
different among other animals and Laura confirms that it gets along with them.
Some music drifts to the apartment from the neighborhood, and Jim asks Laura to dance
with him. Laura declines but Jim insists and they start dancing. During the moves Jim breaks
the horn of the unicorn and Laura says that it is now like the other horses. Jim tells Laura how
19
different she is from others, like “blue roses” and she should be kissed. He kisses her and
instantly backs off. He informs Laura that he is engaged to be married and he should not have
done so. Laura is taken aback and presents him with the broken unicorn as a souvenir.
At this point, Amanda enters the stage with lemonade. After her coquettish chatter, Jim
casually informs Amanda that he is engaged to be married and cannot stay any longer as he
has to pick up his fiancé from the bus station, and leaves. Amanda is shocked to find out this
truth.
Amanda bursts out at Tom for inviting an engaged gentleman to meet his sister. Tom is
equally surprised to hear this news but cannot convince Amanda of his innocence. Amanda
complains that Tom does not care about his mother, who has been abandoned by his father or
his crippled sister, unmarried and without a job. Though Tom cannot convince them, he ends
the play saying he would always care about his sister, no matter what.
Analysis
In this scene Amanda plays the perfect hostess. She is clever enough to send Tom aside and
give Jim and Laura a chance to know each other. She asks Jim to take some wine with him to
loosen Laura up. Amanda knows her tricks too well.
As Jim goes to Laura, for the first time we see Laura as an individual with wholesome
expression and a unique charm. She is shy at first but gradually becomes comfortable. She
knows how to converse deeply. She asks Jim if he sings or not, thus intelligently placing
herself back in his memory. Jim behaves like her savior; one who will help her recognize her
potential. But Jim also recognizes her as a rare, unique woman.
Laura’s infatuation with Jim compels her to show him her glass menagerie. She shows
him the unicorn. Jim complains that it is different from other animals but to Laura it is an
emblem of her own identity- it is different from others but it gets along with the others. As
Jim breaks the horn of the unicorn during the dance, it turns into a normal horse. The broken
unicorn is the symbol of Laura’s shattered hopes. Jim has come into her world and broken
her. Her beautiful memories of her unrequited love for Jim, the high school hero, are tainted
by the news of Jim’s engagement to Betty, after he has kissed her during the dance. When she
gives the broken unicorn to Jim as a token, it is the broken memory that she is handing over.
After this, she emerges a woman; she is not that innocent crippled girl anymore.
As Amanda comes to know about the engagement she is brought back to reality, her
disposition changes and her charm vanishes. The façade remains the same but the inner
nagging, broken soul comes to the fore. She reacts like she has been betrayed and blames
Tom for everything. The play ends showing Tom’s emotion towards his sister. His love for
his sister will remain same no matter what.
Questions
(i) How does Laura change when alone with Jim?
(ii) Is Amanda an escapist? Why?
(iii) Write a short note on Jim O’Connor.
Glossary
Berchtesgaden: a German town in the Bavarian Alps.
blancmange: a type of dessert, generally made with milk and cornstarch

20
Celotex: a board made of fibres with rough texture, generally used for ceilings or paneling.
Chamberlain's umbrella: Neville Chamberlain’s umbrella was a hugely used
object/commodity during 1938. It became a political symbol to remember the ideology and
the tactics of Chamberlain who brought relief to the world by delivering a ‘gentleman’s
peace’ with Hitler in 1938.
chintz: multi-colored fabric generally used as curtain.
Daumier: 19th century French printmaker whose works project contemporary French social
and political evidences.
El Diablo: Spanish, for the Devil.
Franco Triumphs: General Francis Franco. War hero of Spanish Civil War (1936).
Garbo: Greta Garbo, a popular Swedish American actress
Garfinkel's Delicatessen: a bakery.
‘Gone with the Wind’: a novel (1936) by Margaret Mitchell, later adapted into a movie (1939)
Guernica: Picasso’s anti-war painting
kitchenette: small cooking area with basic appliances
mastication: mechanical action of chewing food into smaller pieces
Merchant Marine: The United States Civilian Mariners, founded in 1939
Midas: a Greek mythological character. Kind Midas has the magical power of turning things
into gold by touching them.
pleurosis: a disease, inflammation of pleura.
poetic license: an artist’s freedom to change norms, words, distort facts according to his
convenience.
portiers: a curtain placed over an entrance instead of a door.
Spartan: a Greek race with extraordinary physical built and warfare skill.
Turk: an inhabitant of Turkey
jonquil: a fragrant yellow summer flowers found in south Europe
Victrola: record player
Dizzy Dean: a famous American baseball player
baritone: a western classical singing male voice whose reach is between bass and tenor
operetta: light opera
Works Cited
Alfieri, Gabe C.“Trivial Little Comedy” to “Legitimate Magic”: Music and the Making of
The Glass Menagerie, American Music , Vol. 35, No. 2, American Music Onstage (Summer
2017), University of Illinois Press pp.143-171
Brian Parker, “The Composition of The Glass Menagerie: An Argument for Complexity,” in
Bloom, Bloom’s Modern Critical Interpretations, 47–48.

21
Edward Murray, The Cinematic Imagination: Writers and the Motion Pictures (New York:
Frederick Ungar Publishing Company, 1972), 55.
Clum, John M. “Williams, Tennessee.” American National Biography (). 21 Apr. 2007.
http://0-www.anb.org.lrc.cod.edu/articles/16/16-01784.html?a=1&n=Tennessee%20Wil- lia
ms&ia= at&ib=-bib&d=10&ss=0&q=1
Lyle Leverich, Tom: The Unknown Tennessee Williams (New York: Crown Publishers,
Inc., 1995), 346.
Leverich, Tom, 554. Williams, “Author’s Production Notes,” in The Glass Menagerie (RE),
7.
“Great Depression: Business in the 1930s.” Discovering U.S. History. Online Edition. Gale,
2003.
Discovering Collection. Thomson Gale. 25 March 2007
http://0galenet.galegroup.com.lrc.cod.edu:80/servlet/DC
“Great Depression, 1929-1939.” Discovering World History. Online Edition. Gale, 2003.
Discovering Collection. Thomson Gale. 25 March 2007
Maruejouls-Koch Sophie (2012) Absorbing Images: Tennessee Williams’s “Plastic Theatre”
and European Painting.The Tennessee Williams Annual Review 13, 12-31.
McElvaine, Robert S. The Great Depression, America 1929-1941. New York: Three Rivers
Press,1993.
“Social Trends in the 1930s: Overview.” Discovering U.S. History. Online Edition. Gale,
2003.
Discovering Collection. Thomson Gale. 25 March 2007 <http://0-
galenet.galegroup.com.lrc.cod.edu:80/servlet/DC>
Watkins, T.H. The Great Depression: America in the 1930’s. New York: Blackside Inc.,
1993.
Watkins, T.H. The Hungry Years: A Narrative History of the Great Depression in America.
New York: Henry Holt and Co., 1999.
Robert B. Stein, “Catastrophe without Violence,” Tennessee Williams' The Glass
Menagerie, ed. Harold Bloom (New York, 1988), p. 14.
Reynolds, James. “The Failure of Technology in The Glass Menagerie” ,Modern Drama,
Volume 34, Number 4, Winter 1991, University of Toronto Press pp. 522-527
Vivek S. Escapism existentialism and frustration in the select works of Arun Joshi and
Tennessee Williams http://hdl.handle.net/10603/250284

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 Part 2: Characters and Themes in The Glass Menagerie
Ayushi Maheshwari

2.1 Introduction
You must have understood, after reading Tennessee Williams’s The Glass Menagerie, that it
is a memory play that tells the story of the Wingfield family. In Unit 1, we discussed the
concept of the memory play, summarized the events of the play, and analyzed the underlying
meaning behind them. We also got a glimpse into the times, that is, the America of the 1930s
when this play was written. In this unit, we will focus on the analysis of the characters in the
play, and study the themes and symbols present in the play. At the end of this unit are some
questions that you can check your progress with.
Objectives
In this unit, you will learn about;
- the psychological and social makeup of the characters, and how their motives, behaviors,
and personalities are influenced by their social, political, and economic conditions;
- significant themes that run through the course of the play like the power of memory, the
gap between reality and expectations, our need for escapism, illusion, and the difficulty of
accepting the present and the inability to see things as they are;
- how social roles and norms of gender dictate the happiness and fate of various characters;
and
- how events from the author’s own life contributed to the shaping of this play, making it
the most autobiographical work of Tennessee Williams’s life.
2.2 Characters
In this section, we will study the characters in the play. Character analysis is an integral part
of studying a play, or any work of fiction. Characters drive the action of the play and
scrutinizing characters’ intentions, beliefs, personalities, and actions give us a better
understanding of the story. It also advances our understanding of different aspects of the
human psyche and helps us relate to and empathize with the characters. When we witness a
character’s actions being driven by a certain emotion he or she feels, it expands our
understanding of why we do, what we do and adds to the depth of our experience of being
human.
Tom Wingfield
He is the narrator as well as a character in the play. As the narrator, he addresses the audience
and the events of the play are a recollection of his memories of the time he lived with his
sister and mother in St Louis. Tom is the breadwinner of the family, and he supports his
mother and sister by working at a shoe factory. He is a self-anointed poet, who dreams of
escaping from the drudgery of life in a factory to a life that is filled with adventure, thrill, and
new experiences. Tom is suffocated by the mundaneness of his job at the factory and indulges
in escapism by going to the movies every night. This can be seen as an attempt to find, in
cinema, the adventure that he misses in real life. He finds no support or solace at home either,
where he feels bothered by his mother’s constant attempts to dictate to him how he should
live his life.
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 As a son, Tom is stuck in a toxic relationship with his mother, where he feels dominated.
As a brother, he loves his sister but seems too busy in his need to escape from his domestic
and work life, to be able to help her. As a man, he comes across as a sensitive individual.
Tom’s struggle seems like everyman’s struggle in the modern world: he is stuck in a job that
he hates, that gives him no mental or creative stimulation. His artistic abilities and creative
potential are not realized in his workplace. He is unable to switch jobs because the economy
is bad and unable to quit because he has to feed himself and his family. He feels conflicted
because he is torn between his duty as a son, to provide for the family, and his desire as an
individual for freedom and adventure.
In Tom’s character, we see the dilemma of a man who wants to leave for a better and
perhaps happier future for himself but is held back by love and attachment to those he loves
and cares for. Tom wants to leave; he even goes on to say that he is just like his father and
has no qualms about leaving but is hesitant to leave his sister behind.
In the play, to soothe his burning desire for freedom, he finds temporary escape in
movies, drinking, and smoking on the fire escape. In the end, he does leave his family behind
and joins the merchant marines and has his fill of travel and adventure, but is unable to find
happiness and peace of mind, for he is bogged down with regret and guilt for leaving his
sister behind. Tom’s character and his plight at the end of the play, make us wonder about
some important questions: Should we choose our own happiness over that of others? Can
leaving behind our loved ones, in search of our ambitions and dreams make us happy? Are
regret and guilt inevitable emotions that we as humans are bound to feel no matter what
choices we make?
Amanda Wingfield
She is the matriarch of the house. She is a single mother who had to raise both her children
alone, after being abandoned by her husband 16 years ago. Williams modeled Amanda on the
stereotype of his signature character- the Southern Belle. The Southern Belle was
characterized as a young woman belonging to the upper socioeconomic class, of the
plantation owning South American families in the 1930s. These women were fashionable,
well mannered, and were expected to find wealthy husbands and settle down as part of
respectable society by being good, jolly wives. To understand more of Amanda’s character
and why she thinks and behaves the way she does, one will have to read more about the
history of slavery in South America in the 1930s.
The play shows her downfall from wealth to poverty after her marriage to Mr. Wingfield.
As a beautiful and wealthy young woman, she was the subject of the attention of many
gentlemen callers and enjoyed a comfortable youth, filled with flowers, dancing, and
laughter. She fell in love and got married to Mr Wingfield but fate took an unfortunate turn
when she was abandoned by her husband. As a young mother, she had to fend for herself and
the children. In the play, her personality is extroverted and theatrical, which is in contrast to
her children who are introverted and subdued. She is a doting mother who makes sacrifices
for a better future for her children and wishes them happiness. In scene 5, we hear her say;
“I’ll tell you what I wished for on the moon. Success and happiness for my
precious children! I wish for that whenever there’s a moon, and when there isn’t
a moon, I wish for it, too.”

24
 She takes up subscription sales to earn some money so that she can improve Laura’s
marriage prospects. She encourages her daughter to get a business education so that she can
support herself financially. She dissuades Laura from perceiving her limp as a disability and
let it become a limiting belief.
However, Amanda’s mothering cannot be seen without its flaws. Even though she tells
her children to engage with reality and “rise and shine’, her own inability to accept her
present reality and circumstances give her a hypocritical shade. She often exaggerates the
glory of her youth and repetitively talks about her unmarried days. She lives in her own
version of a romanticized past. She shows single-minded strength in wanting a better future
for her children but she is unable to see beyond marriage as a good future for Laura after she
drops out of her business class. Her desire for Laura to become financially independent and
for Tom to progress in his career at the shoe factory may be tinged with selfishness, as she is
economically dependent on her children. In her quest to encourage her children, she ends up
becoming an extremely critical and nagging parent, going to the extent of controlling every
move of theirs, like telling Tom how he should eat his food; “Honey, don't push with your
fingers. If you have to push with something, the thing to push with is a crust of bread. And
chew - chew!”
She tries to control Tom and direct his behavior because she fears that he might turn out
to be exactly like his father. She wants to do the right thing for her children but instead, ends
up projecting conventional notions of gender roles on them, which she thinks are right for
them. She tells Laura to be more feminine, not accepting her for the person she is. She
expects Tom to provide for the family as the man of the house, against his wishes. This
attitude overwhelms her children and pushes them away from her. While Laura busies herself
with her collection of glass animals to ignore her nagging mother, Tom expresses his
frustration in little acts of rebellion like drinking, lying, storming off to the movies or the fire
escape to smoke, and ultimately leaving, in a final act of abandonment.
Being abandoned by her husband, and then being disregarded by her children makes
Amanda a tragic figure and the audience feels sorry for her. Her girlish and inflated attempts
to appear younger and charm Jim also make her a comic figure in the eyes of the audience
and we can’t help but feel embarrassed and amused. In the end, she comes across as a
tragicomic figure, whose fate is partially her own fault.
Laura Wingfield
Laura is the elder of the two Wingfield siblings. She walks with a limp and wears a leg brace
after being crippled by pleurosis, as a child, which earns her the nickname ‘Blue Roses’ from
Jim. In the play, her character is shy and sensitive. She seems to be fragile, both mentally and
emotionally, as well as physically.
Although she may look weak and delicate on the surface, she is probably the strongest
character in the play. Laura’s character teaches us the importance of self-acceptance, to be at
peace with oneself. She embraces both her limp and shyness; qualities that make her odd,
with natural self-acceptance. She accepts who she is and the way she is, without feeling the
need to be someone else; unlike her mother, who pretends to be different from what she
really is. She is compassionate and empathetic; having the ability to understand and accept
others without judgment. She understands Tom’s frustrations and the need to leave. Even
though her mother gets her enrolled in a business course against her wishes and pushes her to
appear and behave differently to fetch good marriage proposals, Laura exudes only
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compassion and tolerance for her mother. She acts as a peacemaker between her mother and
brother in moments of conflict. Even though she seems passive and socially anxious, she
proves that she has a will of her own through little acts of rebellion, like dropping out of
typing classes and walking around the city. The ways of society overwhelm her, so she takes
refuge in her collection of glass animals.
The only time we see her behave differently is when she is talking to Jim. She appears to
be bolder after Jim validates her for being unique and pretty, and encourages her to believe
more in herself. Laura’s transformation in Jim’s presence makes an important point, that
sometimes we need other people to believe in us so that we can begin to believe in
ourselves. However, her experience with Jim changes her in other ways. When she comes to
know about Jim’s engagement, she realizes that a person’s behaviour is not always a clear
indicator of their intentions. She moves from being naïve and innocent about the ways of the
world to being more pragmatic. That shift from innocence is symbolized by the breaking of
the unicorn’s horn.
Jim O’ Connor
He is Tom’s colleague at the shoe factory, and Laura’s first gentleman caller and first high
school crush. Jim’s character stands in contrast to Tom and Laura. He excelled at everything
in high school and was popular for his achievements. Even though he works at the same place
as Tom, at almost the same position, he does not let the mediocrity of his job drive him
towards the need to escape from reality. He is ambitious and believes in self-improvement.
He works at his job by the day, and studies radio engineering and public speaking at night
school to improve his social and economic status. Jim’s character in the play represents the
ordinary and normal. He is enthusiastic, friendly, and engages well with reality and society.
He is an optimist. He is the only person in the play, who vocally expresses his observation of
Laura’s purity and uniqueness and makes her believe that being different from others can be a
thing to pride oneself on. His arrival spurs the climax of the play. Soon after Jim’s visit, Tom
leaves, plunging his family in darkness, both literally and metaphorically. He flirts with and
kisses Laura, despite knowing that he is engaged, leaving the audience feeling confused about
his intentions.
Mr. Wingfield
Mr. Wingfield is introduced by Tom as “the fifth character” in the play. He was a telephone
salesman who “fell in love with long-distance” and abandoned his family. He is absent
throughout the play, except for his larger than life picture on the mantelpiece in the Wingfield
living room. His is a symbol of regret and his absence looms large, always reminding the
family of the life they never had because of his abandonment. Surprisingly, even though
everyone in the family has been affected by his desertion, no one speaks of him accusingly or
with bitterness. Amanda recalls his courtship of her with fondness, constantly reminding her
children of the charm of their father’s youth. Even though his father’s act of abandonment has
affected Tom deeply, he seems in part, to idolize him and even follow in his footsteps. He
says, ‘‘I am like my father. The bastard son of a bastard father!”
2.3 Themes
This section is dedicated to studying some of the themes in the play. Themes are important
for understanding any piece of literature. A theme is a central idea in a story. Without a
theme, a story is just a sequence of events with characters. But a theme provides meaning,

26
flow and context to a story. Moreover, themes in a story are based on the author’s observation
of a truth or fundamental fact about human nature, or the times in which that literature is
written. Studying themes helps us get a better understanding of the times and life of the
author and the truths about human nature. Some of the themes in The Glass Menagerie are
mentioned in detail below.
Memory
The use, nature, and function of memory is a dominant theme in The Glass Menagerie. As
discussed in Unit 1, The Glass Menagerie is a memory play. Let’s look at some different
ways in which memory has been used by the author in the play.
Memory as an emotional lens: The audience gets to know about the characters and their
lives through Tom’s memories. Since the memory of a person or an event changes with time
and is often influenced by emotions we, as an audience, can raise questions on how accurate
Tom’s portrayal of Laura’s fragility is. In other words, what we see on stage is Tom’s version
of Laura. Memory then, is different from fact. Our memories are subject to time, our
emotions and our perception of past events. As Tom says in his opening monologue in Scene
1;
“The scene is memory and is therefore nonrealistic. Memory takes a lot of poetic
license. It omits some details; others are exaggerated, according to the emotional
value of the articles it touches, for memory is seated predominantly in the heart.
The interior is therefore rather dim and poetic.”
Memory as a means of escape and unhappiness: Memory becomes a hindrance to the
characters’ happiness and robs them of their ability to live in the present. Amanda is plagued
by the memories of her near-perfect youth which serve as nothing but a reminder of the stark
difference between her past and present circumstances. Tom is embittered by the memory of
his father’s abandonment and after he leaves, his own. Even when he is finally where he
always wanted to be, he is unable to be happy because he is haunted by memories of the past
and the guilt they bring.
Memory as nostalgia: The play and its ending are a comment on the inevitable presence
of nostalgia and the power of memory in our lives. We not only remember things but also
carry the baggage of emotions that memories bring with them. At the end of scene seven,
Tom says;
“I pass the lighted window of a shop where perfume is sold. The window is filled
with pieces of colored glass, tiny transparent bottles in delicate colors, like bits of
a shattered rainbow. Then all at once my sister touches my shoulder. I turn
around and look into her eyes. Oh, Laura, Laura, I tried to leave you behind me,
but I am more faithful than I intended to be!”
It is clear in these lines that even though Tom has left Laura behind, he is haunted by her
memories and feels guilty about it.
Memory is used as a powerful tool to escape from the present because the past is safe
and familiar, the future is not. We might not have control over past events as past cannot be
changed, but we do have some degree of control over our memories of the past. We cannot
change the past, but we can, in most cases change the way we feel about it.

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Familial duty vs individual aspiration
We as human beings, who live in society and with our families, carry multiple identities
within us. Some of our identities are given to us by the virtue of the families we are born in.
We are sons and daughters, brothers and sisters, husbands, and wives. But at the same time
we are individuals defined by not just our families, but our likes and dislikes, dreams and
aspirations, desires, which in turn give us an individual identity. It is when these identities
clash and we are compelled to choose one over the other, that we feel confused and
conflicted. Even when we are able to choose what we want to be, there is a possibility that we
might feel regretful about our choices. This conflict is what we see in Tom’s character.
Tom dreams of becoming a merchant sailor and travels in search of adventure. He is
stuck with a mundane job, that he only does to pay the bills. But he is a man stuck between
his individual dreams and his family’s expectations from him. His mother wants him to be the
ideal son and brother, to stay and provide for the family. He feels suffocated and wants to
leave but his mother sensing that, just like his father, he will eventually leave, bargains with
him to at least stay and get his sister married to a suitable man. He leaves in order to fulfill
his individual dreams and aspirations but is plagued by regret and guilt for leaving his sister
behind. Telling the audience, the story of his abandonment is the only way he can move past
this guilt and regret.
Escapism
As humans, we build coping mechanisms to deal with the harsh realities of life. Life can
often be unfair and we figure out ways to deal with this unfairness, throughout our adult lives.
When we want to run away from reality, we resort to escapism in many ways. We either lose
ourselves in the good old days of the past or the anxieties and daydreams of the future. Some
take refuge in entertainment, some get paralyzed by negative emotions and inaction, and
spend their days simply doing nothing. The desire to escape reality is omnipresent in human
nature and we get an insight into it through the characters of the play.
Amanda finds her escape from reality in talking and thinking about the days of glory in
her past. She clings to her long-gone youth, which makes her a figure of ridicule and
embarrassment in the eyes of her children. She dresses in her old dress that she wore as a
young woman for Jim’s visit and engages him in girlish banter. Amanda is unable to accept
that she is no longer the Southern belle of her youth, surrounded by wealth and suitors who
fawn over her. Her reality is that she lives in a cramped, dingy apartment, in a dysfunctional
relationship with her children, and is financially dependent on her son. She finds it difficult to
come to terms with her situation
To avoid dealing with reality, Laura clings to her father’s music and a few souvenirs
from high school, which remind her of Jim. She tries to avoid the arguments revolving
around her future, marriage, and appearance with her mother by turning up the volume of the
music to drown Amanda’s voice. To escape the world of work and business, she walks
around the city, taking walks in the park and visiting the zoo. But her most prominent escape
from reality lies in her collection of glass figurines. She can control the glass pieces by
polishing and arranging them the way she wants, unlike the events in her life. Even though
Laura does not live in denial of her reality: her disability and her thin marriage prospects, she
does not confront the economic reality that after Tom leaves, she might be forced to go out
into the world of hustle and work, which so overwhelms her, in order to make ends meet for
herself and her mother. To evade that, she takes refuge in the glass figures. Similarly, Tom
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struggles to come to terms with the reality of the times, that demand a more pragmatic
approach to balance one’s economic needs and individual desire for freedom.
Tom resorts to escaping reality in physical ways. He escapes the boredom of his job at
the shoe factory by looking for adventure in movies and drinking. He finds windows of
escape for his creative sensibilities by sneaking off at the warehouse and scribbling poetry on
the lids of shoeboxes. He escapes the controlling presence of his mother by going to the fire
exit and smoking. At last, his final act of escape is to leave.
Although the characters spend a large part of their lives escaping their reality and each
other, the ending of the play seems to suggest the impossibility of true escape. We may be
able to escape from the physical places that confine us but we cannot escape our own
emotions and memories, just like Tom. In the end, Tom’s fate is a comment on the
complexity of human emotions: The inability to be happy and content even if we get what we
want is a failing of human nature.
The unique vs the ordinary
In the play, we see a juxtaposition of the unique and the ordinary by comparing the characters
of Jim and Laura. Laura’s character represents the unique, pure, and innocent; which is also
symbolized by the unicorn in her glass menagerie and the nickname given to her by Jim,
‘blue roses’. The unicorn and blue roses both symbolize rarity as they do not exist in the real
world. They suggest otherworldliness. On the other hand, Jim represents the ordinary, outer
world. Jim flirts with her and she learns later that he is engaged. Her contact with Jim
exposes her to the ways of the world. She realizes that people don’t always mean what they
say. Contact with Jim reduces some of her purity and uniqueness, symbolized by the broken
unicorn.
Laura’s and Jim’s characters illustrate how the world treats and perceives both the
ordinary and the unique. While everyone admires uniqueness, it is ordinariness that survives
better. Jim was unique in his achievements in high school, now the harsh economic
conditions have reduced him to a factory worker. Through his character, the author is telling
us that we all are unique as children and in order to survive, in the process of learning the
ways of the world, we lose our uniqueness and become ordinary. In our attempts to fit better
in the world, we sometimes end up trading off the personality traits that make us unique.
Gender Roles
As a society, we struggle to break gender stereotypes even today, all over the world. The idea
that society should decide what is appropriate for men and women, based on their gender
continues to be the root cause of suffering and social evils. The norms of gender were even
more stringent in the America of the 1930s than they are now, almost a century later.
In the play, we see the fates and struggles of the characters being shaped by the necessity
of subscribing to their gender roles. From the beginning of the play till the end, Amanda’s
quest is to find a suitable husband for Laura, she must get married because she is a girl and
Tom must hold a job, earn and provide for his mother and sister because he is a man.
Although we do see Amanda trying to break away from her conditioning regarding gender
roles. Amanda wants Laura to do a typing course and become a secretary, to become
financially independent before marriage. Amanda also tries to earn some money by selling
subscriptions. By the 1930s, women had begun to join the workforce, out of necessity.
However, we also see Amanda clinging to her traditional constructs of masculinity and
29
femineity. She tells Laura; “Girls that aren’t cut out for business careers usually wind up
married to some nice man.” (Scene 3) She forces Laura to look ‘fresh and pretty’ for her
gentlemen callers and her understanding of a relationship between a man and woman is
extremely orthodox;
LAURA: You make it seem like we were setting a trap.
AMANDA: All pretty girls are a trap, a pretty trap, and men expect them to be.
(Scene 6)
Her belief in the traditional notions of femineity along with her belief that women should
be financially independent place her at the cusp of modernity. Her efforts to earn money and
make her daughter independent, yet remaining dependent on her son, highlights the difficulty
of breaking away from gender roles completely.
Abandonment
The act of leaving behind or abandoning one’s family is a prominent theme in the play. The
play deals with the aftermath and impact of such an act on those who are left behind. Mr.
Wingfield’s going away leaves the family broken. It renders the children without a father
figure, the mother burdened with the responsibility of raising her two children, and the
burden of providing for the family on Tom. The abandonment also deteriorates the economic
situation of the family; pushing them into poverty, and struggling to make ends meet.
Mr. Wingfield’s abandonment affects Amanda the most, who is left a single parent after
her husband leaves. Through Amanda’s character, we see the challenges of being a single
parent. In her attempts to love her children and shape them into perfect individuals, she nags
and criticizes them, unfortunately pushing them away from her. The abandonment affects
Tom too, although his reaction to it is confusing. He feels bitter about it, yet intends to do
exactly what his father did. In the end, Tom’s act of leaving can be seen as the author’s
comment on the parent-child relationship. We, as children, subconsciously emulate our
parents. Tom had a negative role model in his father and giving up on the family when his
duties clash with his aspirations is the only plan he has. The family never really heals from
Mr. Wingfield’s departure even after 16 years.
Autobiographical Elements
A lot of writers find inspiration for their writing in their own life experiences and the people
close to them. Similarly, The Glass Menagerie contains a lot of autobiographical elements
from Tennessee William’s life. Just like the Wingfield siblings, Williams also grew up in St
Louis and the characters in the play are thought to have been modeled on his sister, mother,
and himself.
Williams is speculated to have based the character of Laura on his sister, Rose. Rose
attended Sodan High, the same school that Laura attends in The Glass Menagerie. Rose
struggled with mental health issues, possibly schizophrenia, all her life. Although Laura does
not struggle with her mental health in the same way, but just like Rose, she also struggles
with the isolation that comes with being different from the world. Laura’s fragility, purity,
and uniqueness seem to be William’s tribute to the memory of his sister Rose.
The characters of Mrs. Wingfield and Mr. Wingfield are also similar to Williams’s own
mother and father. Williams’s father was a traveling salesman and was often away from his
family for long periods of time. Though he never went as far as leaving the family, he often

30
complained about being tied down by familial duties. In his absence, the responsibility of
raising Williams and his sister fell on his mother who raised them on strictly Southern values,
much like Amanda does in The Glass Menagerie.
Tom’s character also has a lot of similarities to Williams’s. They both share the same
first name because Williams’s given name was Thomas. Like Tom, Williams also worked at
a shoe factory to provide for his family before he acquired fame as a writer. Tom’s thirst for
travel and adventure is also inspired by Williams, who spent his late twenties and thirties
traveling.
Illusion
Illusion is another important theme of The Glass Menagerie. This theme is also reflected in
the title of the play. The characters make up worlds of their own, which like Laura’s glass
animals are not real. They keep themselves in an illusion made of past memories and dreams,
which, like the collection of glass animals is too fragile to last and can be broken once reality
intrudes.
2.4 Symbols
In this section, we will look at a few symbols in the play. When meaning is attached to an
object, action, or thing, and it represents an idea of the author’s, it becomes a symbol.
Symbols help writers add meaning, depth, and complexity to their writing and convey their
ideas to the audience in an indirect, yet subtle manner. Let us look at some of the symbols in
The Glass Menagerie.
The Glass Menagerie
A glass menagerie is a collection of glass animals. In the play, it represents and symbolizes
different facets of Laura’s personality. The qualities of purity and fragility of glass represent
her inner nature. Just like her glass animals, Laura is transparent, she is what she appears to
be; she does not pretend, hide or hold any malice or grudges against anyone. Glass shines and
refracts a multitude of beautiful colors when light shines on it. Similarly, we see Laura in a
different color when she is happy and validated in Jim’s company. We see how unique she is,
even with all her flaws, when we see her with the right perspective. Both the glass menagerie
and Laura represent something that must be protected, something that is too delicate to hold
on its own, in a harsh world.
The Unicorn
The unicorn is a mythical animal that does not exist in the real world. The unicorn represents
Laura, her peculiarity, and rarity. Like the unicorn, Laura is different from other girls, she is
one of a kind. However, the unicorn is accidentally broken when she dances with Jim in the
last scene. The broken horn of the unicorn represents the sliver of innocence that is taken
from Laura in her exchange with Jim. It symbolizes how Laura cannot move towards
normalcy and learn to survive in the world outside, without losing a part of her that makes her
unique.
The Fire Escape
The fire escape represents Tom’s temporary escape from the frustrations of his work and
domestic life. It also gives us an insight into the spatial confinement of a woman within the
four walls of the house as opposed to a man. While it is easy for Tom to storm out of the
house onto the fire escape to avoid talking to his mother; Laura slips on the stairs of the fire
31
escape when she tries to stop Tom. Her slipping symbolizes her inability to leave her mother
and her family, unlike Tom. Tom's ability to distance himself and to protect himself from the
debilitating atmosphere of the apartment makes him different from Laura. Laura does not
have this refuge; she is unable to detach herself completely from the situation and she is
destroyed by it.
2.5 Let’s sum it up!
In this unit, the characters, some themes and symbols have been discussed. In the Character
section, we did an in-depth analysis of the characters in the play and came to know how
studying the motives, intentions, actions, and emotions of fictional characters help us
understand different aspects of human experience. In the Themes section, we looked at
different themes that run throughout the play. We looked at the different functions and roles
that human memory plays in our lives. We learned to empathize with the plight of a young
man caught between his duty towards his family and his desires as an individual. We
recognized the need for escapism as a coping mechanism in the face of harsh realities and the
difficulty in accepting reality. We learned what makes the unique different from the ordinary
and how, in a world where survival of the fittest is the norm, it becomes difficult to protect
and preserve one's own uniqueness. We looked at how norms of gender dictate our lives and
give birth to problematic social systems like patriarchy, which in turn restrict our happiness
and freedom.
Our study of the theme of abandonment gives us an insight into how it causes
dysfunction in a family and affects all those who are a part of it. Comparing the events and
characters of the play to elements from the author’s life informs us about how authors draw
inspiration for their writing from their own experiences and how trauma or pain can translate
into an act of creation. The Symbols section provided insight into how adding meaning to
objects can empower the author to speak to his audience without words. By now, our study of
both Unit 1 and Unit 2 has enabled us to reach a comprehensive understanding of Tennessee
Williams’s The Glass Menagerie. In the subsequent sections, attempt to answer some
questions to check your understanding of the play so far. In the Notes section, we will look at
the meaning of certain terms and words to improve our vocabulary.
Questions
1. The Glass Menagerie is the most autobiographical of Tennessee Williams’s work as a
playwright.
2. Discuss the significance of the title The Glass Menagerie.
3. Tennessee Williams was the first playwright to coin the term ‘memory play’. Describe in
your own words, your understanding of The Glass Menagerie as a memory play.
4. Escapism and illusion is a dominant theme in The Glass Menagerie. In what ways do the
characters in the play escape from their reality?
5. What is the significance and symbolism behind the fire escape in The Glass Menagerie?
6. Describe in your own words, the role played by gender in The Glass Menagerie. Do you
think gender roles were different in the 1930s than they are today?
7. The Wingfield family is deeply affected by abandonment, first Mr. Wingfield’s, then
Tom’s. Do you agree with Tom’s decision of leaving his family behind?

32
8. Tom and Jim belong to the same social and economic backgrounds yet make very
different life choices. Compare and contrast the characters of Jim and Tom with close
reference to the play.
9. Discuss the symbols in the play that represent different things about Laura.
10. I’ll tell you what I wished for on the moon. Success and happiness for my precious
children! I wish for that whenever there’s a moon, and when there isn’t a moon, I wish
for it, too. Discuss Mrs. Wingfield’s character as a mother in the play.
Glossary

menagerie: a collection of wild animals kept in captivity for exhibition.

Southern Belle: Derived from the French word ‘belle’, meaning beautiful. The term refers to
a young woman belonging to the upper socio-economic class of South America
gentleman caller: A male visitor, visiting to express his desire to win the woman’s love. It
was a socially recognized practice for men to visit the house of the woman they liked, to
either win her love or ask for her hand in marriage.
The Great Depression: The Great Depression was a period of economic crisis or depression
that began in the 1930s in America and spread worldwide. During this period, the global
economy declined, personal incomes dropped, and production suffered; causing mass
unemployment.
unicorn: A mythical horse-like animal with a horn on his head. These are imaginary creatures
that do not exist in the real world.
fire escape: A staircase used for escaping from a building on fire.

33
34
Paper V : American Literature
Unit 2 : Toni Morrison, Beloved

Contents
Part A Payal Walia
1.1 Toni Morrison: A Brief Biography
1.2 Historical Background to the Novel
1.3 Introduction: Dedication, Epigraph
1.4 Plot Overview
2.1 Beloved, Part I: Study Guide
Part B Iram Fatima
2.2 Beloved, Part II: Study Guide
2.3 Beloved, Part III: Study Guide
3.1 Themes
3.2 Symbols
3.3 Characters

Edited by:
Dr. Seema Suri

35
36
 PREFACE
If you Google ‘Whipped Peter,’ the disturbing image of a Black slave appears, sitting with
his back to the camera, deep scars crisscrossing his back; the image somewhat resembling a
tree. The photograph, widely circulated at the time, is of Peter Gordon, a slave who ran away
from a Louisana plantation and reached a Union camp in 1763, after an arduous journey,
undertaken barefoot. His photograph was published in Harper’s Weekly in July 1863, the
most widely read magazine during the Civil War. Abolitionists distributed his picture all over
America as visual evidence of the brutality inflicted on slaves. In Toni Morrison’s Beloved,
its central character Sethe is a former slave and, like Gordon, escapes a Kentucky plantation
to reach Cincinnati. Her back is scarred from a beating she got from her cruel slave master;
the scars resemble a tree in appearance. This is just one example of how history permeates
the novel; it is replete with references to an important chapter in American history, the Civil
War. Fought over four years (1861-1865), between a deeply polarized nation, it resulted in
innumerable casualties, changing the course of the nation’s history. President Abraham
Lincoln’s Emancipation Proclamation, announced on 1 January, 1863 set nearly 3.5 million
enslaved people “forever free.”
The sights Paul D sees, wandering around the Southern states; the dead bodies of
Confederate soldiers; the ruins of structures damaged in the most terrible war on American
soil; Sethe’s escape from Sweet Home in Kentucky; Sixo’s killing; schoolteacher bringing
the sheriff to catch her; and the haunting race memories of Beloved are grim reminders of the
institution of slavery. The Underground Railroad and the Ku Klux Klan are also integral to
the landscape of the novel. In addition to these, there are subtle reminders of discrimination
and deep-rooted racial prejudice. Baby Suggs delivering shoes to white people at the back
door, a piggy bank in the shape of a Black servant in the Bodwins’ house, Mrs Garner’s smile
when Sethe says she wants to get married; all these are indications that even the best-meaning
people harbour racial prejudice. It is impossible to appreciate the power of Beloved without
this historical context. In the opening line of her Nobel Prize acceptance speech, Toni
Morrison said, “Fiction has never been entertainment for me . . .” The novel is as much
political statement as a work of fiction. Morrison’s novel is a tribute to the suffering inflicted
on innocent victims of slavery; infants snatched from mothers, young girls kept in captivity
for sexual exploitation, babies killed to save them from enslavement, and countless others
who perished on the slave ships. Even after gaining freedom, the emotional and spiritual
stigma of slavery tortures their psyche.
Here, I would like to draw your attention to certain terms to be used with caution while
writing about the novel. In the novel, many characters disparagingly refer to themselves as
“niggers.” In moments of dejection Baby Suggs calls herself a nigger, as does Paul D. The
slave owners almost always refer to their slaves as niggers. For the purpose of historical
accuracy, the word nigger is used throughout the novel. The word nigger is a derivative of
the Latin word for black, niger. In the South it was used in the derogatory sense in the

37
eighteenth century; many abolitionists insisted that a more acceptable alternative would be
‘colored’ or ‘negro’ as a marker of racial identity. Remember, nigger is a racial slur,
considered insulting, and should not be used either in writing or conversation. Even in
dictionaries, it is described as offensive.
After the civil rights movement in the US, in the 1960s and 1970s, African-American or
black was used to refer to the racial group; the former term encapsulated pride in their
African heritage. However, slaveholder labels like nigger and black have been phased out
now. Now the word ‘black’ is not considered appropriate, as it would be a description of
colour, again politically incorrect. In this Study Material, you will notice that while
describing people of African descent, the ‘b’ in Black is capitalized. Read this quote from
The Washington Post (July 29, 2020), announcing their style change to identify America’s
largest racial community;
Beginning immediately, The Washington Post will uppercase the B in Black to
identify the many groups that make up the African diaspora in America and
elsewhere . . . The use of Black is a recognition and acknowledgement not only
of the cultural bonds and historical experiences shared by people of African
heritage, but also the shared struggles of enslaved people, families who
immigrated generations ago and more recent immigrants from Africa, the
Caribbean and other corners of the world.
Using politically correct language is the first and most important step towards eradicating
racial prejudice. Toni Morrison, during her lifetime, was a vocal critic of racism and never
shied away from conversations about it. Expressing her distrust of the criminal justice system
to treat Blacks equal to whites; in an interview to Radio 4, BBC, in 2015, she said; “I want to
see a cop shoot a white unarmed teenager in the back. And I want to see a white man
convicted for raping a black woman. Then when you ask me, ‘Is it over?’ I will say yes.”

Dr Seema Suri
Associate Professor
Department of English
School of Open Learning

38
 Unit-2

Toni Morrison, Beloved

Payal Walia

PART A
1.1 Toni Morrison: A Brief Biography
Toni Morrison, is one of America’s greatest novelists, who immortalized the lives of Black
African people brought to America as slaves. She was an editor and an academic; authored
eleven novels, some non-fiction books, and many children’s books. Her first novel was The
Bluest Eye written in 1977, about an adolescent black girl during time of the Great
Depression, who believes she is ugly because of her dark skin, leading to tragic
consequences. Some of her other acclaimed novels are Sula (1973), Song of Solomon (1977),
Tar Baby (1981), Beloved (1987), and A Mercy (2008). Her last novel was God Help the
Child, written in 2015, in which she discusses child abuse and its implications.
Toni Morrison was the pen name of Chloe Anthony Wofford, born on February 18, 1931
in Lorain, Ohio, US. She was the second child of George Wofford, a welder by profession
and Ramah Willis Wofford, a domestic worker. From childhood, she was an avid reader and
her parents encouraged her to read. Her favourites were Jane Austen and Leo Tolstoy.
Morrison completed her graduation in English in 1953 from Howard University and her
master’s degree in American Literature from Cornell University, New York in 1955. Her
thesis was on the works of Virginia Woolf and William Faulkner. Toni taught at Texas
Southern University for two years (1955-57). After that, she returned to teach at Howard
University; where she met Harold Morrison, an architect by profession, whom she married in
1958. In 1964, she joined a textbook publishing house as an editor, and worked there for
eighteen months. By the end of that time, she had divorced her husband and moved to New
York City with her two sons. There she joined Random House as an editor, becoming their
first Black female editor of fiction. Morrison worked with Random House from 1965-1983;
interacting with many well-known authors like Gayl Jones and Angela Davis. During that
time, she joined a group of writers and poets who met regularly and discussed their work. To
participate in those discussions, she prepared a short story, which she further expanded into a
novel, The Bluest Eye (1977). This was the beginning of her literary career. In the same year,
Toni Morrison became the Robert F. Goheen Professor in the Council of Humanities at
Princeton University. This was another achievement as she was the first African-American
woman writer to hold a named chair at an Ivy League University.
For her novel Beloved, she won the Pulitzer Prize for Literature in 1988. In 1993,
Morrison won the Nobel Prize for her contribution to literature, the first African-American

39
woman to receive this honour. In 2012, she was endowed with the Presidential Medal of
Freedom presented by President Barack Obama. In 2016, she was also awarded the PEN/Saul
Bellow Award for achievement in American Fiction. Morrison died on August 5, 2019 at
Montefiore Medical Centre in New York. She was 88.
Toni Morrison is unparalleled in her depiction of the Black experience, seen through the
lens of history. She explores issues of race and gender in her books. The novels attest the
redemptive power of community and the role played by women in keeping tradition alive.
Populated almost entirely by Black people, most of her fiction has non-linear plots and delves
into the deepest recesses of the human spirit.
1.2 Historical Background of Beloved
Toni Morrison’s Beloved was published in 1987. This novel is based on a true story, which
Morrison read as a newspaper clipping, while reviewing material for The Black Book; a
collection of photographs, illustrations, essays, and other documents, showcasing the lives of
slaves in the US and edited by Morrison herself. That clipping was the story of a young
African American mother named Margaret Garner. In 1856, she escaped from slavery in
Kentucky and ran to Ohio, a free state, by crossing the Ohio River. When she was recaptured
by her master, she killed her infant daughter to save her from the clutches of slavery. She was
arrested for this brutal act and the headline in an American newspaper at the time read; “A
Visit to the Slave Mother who Killed Her Child.” This incident acted as a catalyst for
activists who were fighting against the Fugitive Slave law passed in 1850. This law allowed
slave owners to capture those slaves who had run away to the free states and take them back
to their plantations in the slave states.
Beloved is set during the years preceding, during, and after the American Civil War,
fought between 1861 and 1865. After the American Revolution (1775-1783), independent
states in the US gradually outlawed import of slaves and in 1808, Congress passed a federal
law, abolishing international slave trade. But not all states in the US favoured this ban.
Domestic slave trade still flourished within the country and in 1860, there were around 4
million slaves in the country. Some states like Kentucky, Virginia, Georgia, South Carolina,
Delaware, and Tennessee were in favour of slave trade, as their agrarian economy depended
on slave labour. To avoid confrontation, as a compromise between the Northern and Southern
states, The Fugitive Slave Act, also known as the Compromise of 1850, was passed by the
Union. This Act allowed the slave holders in the Southern states to capture slaves who ran
away to the free states.
Between 1830-60, the movement to abolish slavery had gained momentum. The
westward expansion in the US had led to the debate over the new states’ right to continue this
practice. In 1860, Abraham Lincoln won the election and his openly anti-slavery Republican
party wanted to completely abolish slavery, when eleven states broke away from the Union to
form the Confederate States of America. The US was split into two parts; the Northern free
states that wanted to abolish slavery completely and the Southern states which supported the
slave trade as they needed cheap labour for their indigo, tobacco, and cotton plantations. The

40
economy of the Northern states was more modernized, with industrial output many times that
of the North. This economic disparity was one of the factors that contributed to animosity
between the North and South.
The Civil War was the culmination of decades of growing friction over slavery. The
Confederates were fighting to establish an independent country, based on Southern
institutions like slavery. The four-year war led to immense loss of life and property,
especially in the South. The Emancipation Proclamation of 1863, that declared enslaved
people in Confederate occupied areas free, was a wartime measure but The Thirteenth
Amendment to the American Constitution, passed by Congress on 31 January 1865, granted
citizenship rights to free slaves. The Confederates surrendered on April 9, 1865, and on 14
April, John Wilkes Booth, an actor and a Confederate sympathizer, assassinated President
Lincoln.
The Civil War ended with the defeat of the Confederate forces in 1865. However, the
fight against racial discrimination and exploitation did not end. It was a long uphill struggle.
The civil rights movement in the 1950s and 1960s was another landmark in the struggle for
Black rights and against institutionalized discrimination.
More than a hundred and fifty years later, the legacy of slavery is something the US is
still dealing with. On 25 May 2020, George Floyd, an African-American, was arrested by the
police in Minneapolis, for allegedly using a fake bill in a store. He died as a result of police
brutality; bystanders filmed and shared the video on social media. It was not the first time this
had happened, but the first time it was caught on camera, triggering outrage across the
country. Demonstrations, marches, and violent protests spread to more than a hundred cities
in the US, and many other cities all over the world to express solidarity with Floyd; exposing
the fault lines in American society. Racism is an uncomfortable reality that the US and many
other nations are still struggling with.
Learning Objectives
After going through this study material, the student will be;
- familiar with the historical background to the novel;
- able to place the novel in the larger context of the legacy of slavery in the US;
- able to write about the major themes and characters in Beloved; and
- appreciate Toni Morrison’s narrative style.
1.3 Introduction
Beloved is set between 1855-1874 and revolves around a runaway slave Sethe, who when
hunted down by her master, kills her infant daughter to save her from slavery. She is haunted
by the ghost of her dead unnamed child for 18 years. The story is narrated through many
flashbacks and interior monologues, moving back and forth in time. The novel dispenses with
the unity of time; sometimes moving along in the present, and suddenly stepping into the
past.

41
 Toni Morrison dedicated her novel Beloved to;
Sixty Million
and more
Sixty million refers to the approximate number of African slaves who died during the
heinous slave trade and ‘and more’ refers to countless others, like those who perished on the
slave ships, whose deaths are not documented. Historians and scholars have questioned the
accuracy of this figure. One must remember that, even if it’s an exaggeration, it is a tribute to
all those who lost their lives during two hundred years of slavery.
For the epigraph to the novel, Morrison uses a passage from the Bible (Romans 9:25).
The quote is from the apostle Paul’s letter to the Romans, telling them that God’s love is for
all; both Gentiles and Jews. Morrison seems to suggest, by implication, that even the Blacks
are God’s children, worthy of his love;
I will call them my people,
Which were not my people;
And her beloved,
Which was not beloved.
(Romans 9: 25)
The source of the novel’s title is clear. Sethe’s daughter is killed by her but that doesn’t mean
she is not loved by her mother. It’s a poignant tribute to a mother’s love.
1.4 Plot Overview
Sethe, a former slave, has been living at 124 Bluestone Road, in Cincinnati with her eighteen-
year-old daughter, Denver since 1855, when she fled from a Kentucky plantation to Ohio, a
free state at the tme. From the beginning, it is clear that something ghostly is happening
around the house. Sethe’s two sons, Howard and Buglar, have run away from home, scared of
the ghost. Sethe’s mother-in-law, Baby Suggs, died many years earlier, shortly after the two
brothers left. Sethe works a cook at a restaurant near the town and earns her living. It is 1873,
the year of the Emancipation Proclamation.
One day Paul D, a former slave who worked with Sethe at the Kentucky plantation, lands
up at her house. Meeting after eighteen years, both of them share their past memories. She
was sold to the Garners, kind owners of Sweet Home, when she was thirteen years old. There
are other slaves living there – Sixo, Paul D, Paul A, Paul F, and Halle. Sethe chooses Halle to
marry as she is touched by Halle’s love for his mother, Baby Suggs. He buys his mother’s
freedom by working on weekends for five years. Halle and Sethe have four children; two
sons and two daughters. The name of the elder daughter is never revealed.
When Mr Garner dies, Mrs Garner asks her brother-in-law to help her run the farm. He is
known as schoolteacher among the Black slaves on the farm. He is very brutal and inhuman.
Due to his brutality, the slaves plan to run away to the free states. Sethe and Halle also make
up their mind to escape. After months of planning, she waits for Halle to take her to the

42
meeting point but he doesn’t turn up. She sends her three children with a caravan of Negros
crossing the Ohio River, to Cincinnati, where they will be safe with Baby Suggs, her mother
in-law. Sethe, who is pregnant with her fourth child, stays back to wait for Halle. She doesn’t
know that Paul D and Sixo were caught, and Sixo has been killed. Schoolteacher catches
Sethe and her attempt to escape infuriates him. The schoolteacher’s nephews hold Sethe
down and take milk from her body, meant for her infant daughter. Unknown to Sethe, Halle
was hiding in the loft and saw schoolteacher’s nephews treat Sethe like a cow, milking her
breasts. Sethe complains to Mrs Garner about this violent act. When schoolteacher comes to
know this, he has her whipped on her back, leaving a scar shaped like a tree. After this, Sethe
runs away from Sweet Home. On the way, she falls down and delivers her child with the help
of a white girl named Amy Denver, who is an indentured servant running away to Boston.
Sethe names her newly born daughter Denver. An old black man, Stamp Paid, comes to her
help and ferries her and the new born baby across the river; where Ella takes over, helping
Sethe reach Baby Suggs’ house safely. Baby Suggs takes care of her and she spends the next
twenty-eight days, happily, with her four children.
Schoolteacher hunts down Sethe and her children and comes to 124 to take them back to
Sweet Home. Sethe runs to the woodshed behind the house with her children and tries to kill
them but has killed only her elder daughter, when she is stopped by Stamp Paid, who
happened to be there. Realizing that Sethe has lost her mental balance and won’t be much use
in the farm, schoolteacher goes away. Sethe and her infant daughter, Denver are sent to jail
and later she is released in a few months due to the Bodwins’ efforts. After that Sethe
arranges, somehow, for the dead baby’s headstone to be carved with the words ‘Beloved.’
Sethe comes back to 124 to live with her family. Baby Suggs goes into a depression and stops
preaching. The whole Black community avoids Sethe’s family and they are forced to live in
isolation.
Paul D tells Sethe that he was sold off to Brandywine, another slave owner. Fed up with
the torture, Paul D tried to kill him and was sent to jail in Georgia. But luckily, due to a
rainstorm, he and the other black prisoners managed to escape. After wandering around for
eighteen years, he has landed up at Sethe’s house. Paul D starts living with Sethe at 124.
Denver does not like sharing her mother’s love with Paul D. One day when Sethe, Paul D,
and Denver are returning from a carnival, they see a strange young woman outside their
house. She calls herself Beloved. Thinking that she is a runaway slave and needs shelter,
Sethe allows her to stay in her house although Paul D cautions her. There are clear hints that
Beloved is Sethe’s daughter, come back from the dead.
Paul D tells Sethe that Halle did not abandon her, as she always thought; he went insane.
Paul D last saw him sitting by a churn, with butter slathered all over his face. At that time
Paul D was forced to wear an iron bit in his mouth and couldn’t talk to Halle. Sethe is
convinced that Halle must be dead as no man could survive, broken like he was.
Beloved’s behaviour is strange; she clamours for Sethe’s attention, like a baby. Many
unusual things start to happen. She talks as if she knows about Sethe’s past. Paul D starts
43
feeling very uncomfortable in sharing a bed with Sethe. He tries to sleep in other rooms in the
house but is not able to find solace. Finally, he shifts to the woodshed. On the other hand,
Denver finds a companion in Beloved.
One night, when Paul D is sleeping in the woodshed, Beloved persuades him to have sex
with her. This goes on for some time and Paul D wants to confess everything to Sethe. But he
is unable to do that; rather he shares his desire to extend his family with her. Paul D comes to
know about Sethe’s infanticide through Stamp Paid. Paul D confronts Sethe and accuses her
of behaving like an animal. He leaves 124. In the absence of Paul D, Sethe and Beloved come
closer to each other. Assured that Beloved is her daughter, come back from the dead, Sethe
fulfils all her demands and tries to make her understand why she killed her. Beloved controls
Sethe’s life in her own way. Sethe leaves her job and there is no food left. Seeing all this
Denver, for the first time, leaves 124 to seek help from Lady Jones, her former teacher to
save her mother. She also gets a job at the Bodwins’ home. The community of Black women
come together to help Sethe exorcise the ghost of Beloved. They all come to Sethe’s house
and at the same time Mr Bodwin also comes there to collect Denver. Sethe attacks Mr
Bodwin with an ice pick, mistakenly thinking he is schoolteacher who has come once again
to take Sethe and her daughter to the plantation. But Sethe is stopped by Ella and Denver.
Beloved disappears.
Paul D finally returns to Sethe who is still mourning over Beloved’s disappearance and
has confined herself to Baby Suggs’ bed. Paul D makes her realise that there is a life ahead of
her and assures her, “me and you, we got more yesterdays than anybody. We need some kind
of tomorrow.” Paul D holds her hand and comforts her, “You are your best thing, Sethe. You
are.”
2. 1 Study Guide: Part I
Beloved has three parts. Each part is divided into unnumbered chapters. For the ease of the
students, we have numbered these. Part I has 18 chapters, Part II has 7 chapters, and Part III,
the shortest part, has only 3 chapters. Morrison designed her novel, in keeping with its theme.
The narrative is not linear, moving around its terrible human tragedy. The narrative style
changes with each section.
Part 1
Summary: Chapter 1
The novel is about a former slave, Sethe who lives in 124, Bluestone Road, in Cincinnati,
Ohio. She lives there with her daughter, Denver. The house is haunted by the ghost of her
dead infant daughter. At the very outset we are told that the house is “palsied by the baby’s
fury at having its throat cut.” Sethe’s two sons, Howard and Buglar, ran away the moment the
‘troublesome ghost’ got personal. Baby Suggs, Sethe’s mother-in-law, went into a depression
and died.
Sethe does not want to remember her dreadful past but one particular incident troubles
her. She remembers how she agreed to have sex with a mason for ten minutes, as she didn’t
have money to pay him to engrave the seven letters, “Beloved” on her baby’s headstone. She
44
remembers how Baby Suggs told her that she had eight children, and all of them except Halle
were taken away from her. Sethe was lucky that she had four children; one is living with her,
one is dead, and the two boys chased off by the dead one. The memory of her two sons is
fading with time. The terrible memories of Sweet Home, the plantation farm where Sethe
worked as a slave, come back to her.
Suddenly, Paul D, who also worked with Sethe in Sweet Home, comes to her house after
eighteen years. She invites him into her house. Paul D enquires about Baby Suggs and comes
to know that she is dead. Paul D and Sethe share a painful past. At Sweet Home farm, there
were six slaves, five men - Paul D, Paul F, Paul A, Halle Suggs, and Sixo; and one woman,
Sethe. Sethe remembers her husband, Halle who left her in 1855 when she was pregnant.
Then she had loaded her three children in a caravan of Negros which safely left them at Baby
Suggs’ home in Cincinnati. Sweet Home was owned by Garner, a kind slave owner. When he
died, Mrs Garner became ill and she sold that farm to her brother-in-law to pay off the debts.
He was popularly known as schoolteacher and was cruel.
Paul D feels the presence of a ghost as soon as he enters the house, in the pool of red
light. Sethe explains that it is her dead baby ghost. However, she doesn’t tell him how the
baby died. Sethe tells Paul D that only she and Denver live here and she works as a cook at a
restaurant in the town. Paul D remembers the time Sethe first came to Sweet Home. She was
only thirteen years old and all the five men looked at her with lusty eyes. They waited
patiently for her to choose one of them as her husband. Sethe took one year to choose Halle
as her husband. The reason was that he bought his mother Baby Suggs’ freedom with the
money earned by working as a slave every Sunday for five years.
Denver comes down and Sethe introduces Paul D to her. Denver says that since her
grandmother’s death twelve years ago nobody has visited their house. Seeing her mother give
Paul D too much attention, Denver feels jealous. At dinner, she cries that she cannot live in
this haunted house. Paul D suggests they should move into another house but Sethe is
adamant that she will never run from anything again. Angrily, Denver goes into the keeping
room.
Sethe starts crying and Paul D sees the scars shaped like a tree on her back. He enquires
about it from Sethe. She tells him that she got whipped by schoolteacher because she
complained to Mrs Garner that schoolteacher and his boys took milk from her breasts. She
also says that the white girl who helped Sethe deliver Denver told Sethe that the scars on her
back looked like a chokecherry tree. Paul D comes near her and pulls down her top to see the
scars and kisses every branch and leaf on it. Suddenly he realizes that the house has begun to
shake. Sethe manages to get back into her dress. Paul D shouts and throws a table around to
chase the ghost away and finally it is gone. Then Sethe and Paul D go upstairs and leave
Denver alone to have her dinner.
Critical Analysis: Chapter 1
The beginning of the novel “124 was spiteful.”, hints at a malicious presence in the house,
where Sethe lives with her daughter. The missing number 3 signifies the missing third child

45
of Sethe. There is something ghostly that is harassing Sethe and Denver. The outrageous
behaviour of the ghost is described; “turned over slop jars, smacks on the behind, and gusts of
sour air.” At one time she slams the family dog, Here Boy against the wall and physically
assaults him. The frightened dog runs away. The baby ghost also behaves aggressively when
Sethe comes close to Paul D.
The burden of brutality Sethe bore as a slave is so heavy on her heart and mind that it
haunts her in the form of ‘ghost baby’, as she is called in the novel. It has made the lives of
her other three children miserable. The two boys have fled from the house by the time they
are thirteen years old and Denver’s life is getting affected in many ways. She is lonely, has
nobody to talk to, and cannot live in that house. The black community has boycotted Sethe
and her family after the murder of the girl.
Summary: Chapter 2-3
Sethe leads Paul D upstairs to one of the two rooms where both have sex but it gets over
quickly. Paul D has waited for this moment for twenty-five years. Both feel guilty and cannot
talk to each other. As Sethe is lying on her back, Paul D sees the wrought-iron tree on her
back; reminding him of his special tree at Sweet Home which he called Brother. Under this
tree, he spent good times with Halle and the others; and often with Sixo; another slave in
Sweet Home, who walked thirty-miles to see a woman.
We learn that Baby Suggs had eight children from six husbands. She lost all her children,
except Halle, whom she was able to keep for twenty years. On the other hand, Sethe is lucky
as she was married for six years and all her children are from one husband. Sethe and Paul D
recall the time when Halle and Sethe got married. Sethe informed Mrs Garner that she and
Halle wanted to get married. She wanted some ceremony or celebration for her marriage but
Mrs Garner smiles at her naivete. So Sethe stitched a wedding dress for herself and Halle and
Sethe spent their private time in the cornfield. All the other men at Sweet Home enjoyed the
night by having a corn party.
Denver has a solitary place in the woods behind 124. Five boxwood bushes planted in a
ring towards each other form a circle, almost like a room. Denver used this place as a
playroom in her childhood, and then as a refuge from her brothers’ fright and now a place
where she can escape her loneliness. Once, returning from her secret place, Denver saw her
mother kneeling in prayer and a ghostly white dress next to her, with its sleeves around her
mother’s waist. Seeing the ghost’s friendly gesture, Denver is convinced that it has some
‘plans’ for them.
Sethe ran away from Sweet Home while she was pregnant; with her swollen legs. She
got help from a white girl, Amy Denver, who was going to Boston to buy velvet. Sethe could
not walk so she crawled like a snake; she was also very hungry. The girl asked Sethe her
name and she gave her a fake name “Lu”. Amy cushioned a place with leaves, for Sethe to
put her swollen feet, and she massaged her feet. Then Sethe tells Denver about schoolteacher
who always brought his two sons or nephews with him. They liked the ink made by Sethe.
Both boys always questioned the slaves at Sweet Home and noted down their answers as if
46
they were writing a book on them. But Sethe never tells Denver the whole truth; leaving out
the painful part.
Meanwhile, Paul D is mending the furniture that he broke while fighting with the ghost.
He is also singing the songs that he had learnt in Georgia, that remind him of his dreadful
past. There he was tied with chains and his body did walk, eat, sleep, and sing but his heart
was all closed up. Now by spending time with Sethe, his heart is gradually opening up. Sethe
also tells Paul D that schoolteacher found her and put her into jail with Denver. She leaves
out the part about killing her daughter.
Critical Analysis: Chapter 2-3
With no freedom to interact with other people outside the plantation, the young slaves all lust
after Sethe when she comes there. Not only are their movements restricted, their natural
sexual urges force them to have unnatural sex with animals. Slavery represses natural human
urges. Sethe remembers Halle’s love for her which was not like “a man’s laying claim.” Their
marriage didn’t have a legal status and due to their work at the farm, Halle does not get time
to spend with Sethe.
Being frustrated by loneliness, Denver finds salvation in her “emerald closet” which is
surrounded by trees. Sethe does not talk much about her past but Denver likes to hear the
stories from her mother, especially the story of her birth. Here, the image of an ‘antelope’ has
been used for the baby in Sethe’s womb. The struggle of baby Denver in her mother’s womb
for survival runs parallel with the struggle of Sethe.
House 124 is barren. The walls are slate-coloured, the floor is earth brown, and the
curtains are white. There are no dark and bright colours visible, except two orange squares in
a patchwork quilt in the house. The orange squares were added when Baby Suggs wanted to
see colour around her. As for Sethe herself, she lost all awareness of colour after she saw her
daughter’s pink headstone. Since then she has been “as colour conscious as a hen.”
Summary: Chapter 4-6
On the third day, Denver asks Paul D how long he is going to stay, which hurts him very
much. Sethe gets angry with Denver and asks her to stop asking such questions. Sethe feels
sorry for her behavior. But she will not hear any criticism of her daughter. Paul D says that it
is not good for a slave to love anything so dearly. He tells Sethe that he has come there not to
force her to make choices in relationships, but to make space for himself, along with Denver.
Paul D assures her of a happy future ahead with him. Paul D takes the two women to a
carnival organized for Black people on Thursday. Other people in the community nod and
smile at her. Denver is reluctant to join Paul D but she enjoys herself.
We are told that a fully dressed woman walks out of the water and rests under a mulberry
tree for a day. The strangest part is nobody saw where she came from. The next morning, she
sits down on the stump near the steps of 124. When Sethe, Paul D and Denver return from the
carnival they notice a girl sitting on the stump outside their house. Suddenly, Sethe feels an

47
uncontrollable urge to urinate, which reminds her of her water breaking in the boat when
Denver was born. Meanwhile, Denver and Paul D take the girl inside the house. When asked
by Paul D, she says her name is Beloved and falls asleep. This name touches Sethe, as it is
etched on her daughter’s headstone. They help Beloved to the keeping room where she rests
on Baby Suggs’ bed.
Beloved sleeps for four days, getting up only to have water. Denver takes care of
Beloved. After recovering a little, Beloved has still not told them about herself. Everyone
thinks that the fever has caused her to lose her memory. But Paul D notices something
strange about Beloved. She acts sick, sounds sick but does not look sick at all; with good skin
and bright eyes. She cannot walk properly but he and Denver see her picking up the rocker
with one hand.
Day by day Beloved gets attached to Sethe. She is always eager to spend time with
Sethe. Once Beloved asks Sethe about her diamond earrings; Sethe tells Beloved that those
crystal earrings were a wedding gift from Mrs Garner. Then she recalls how she made her
wedding dress by stitching together stolen pieces of fabric. Denver enquires about those
earrings as she has never seen them. Sethe answers that they are gone.
Beloved asks Sethe about her mother. Sethe answers that she saw her but a few times out
in the fields. Sethe says that her mother had been hanged but she does not know why. She
only remembered a one-armed lady named ‘Nan’ who took care of her after her mother died.
Nan and her mother had been together on the ship that brought them to America. Her mother
was repeatedly raped by the crew members and she threw all the children born by those white
men into the water. She only kept Sethe because her father was Black and she loved him.
Critical Analysis: Chapter 4-6
Noticing Sethe’s love for Denver, Paul D remarks that it’s dangerous for a “used-to-be-slave
woman” to love so much. At the same time, Paul D reassures Sethe of comfort and security.
The hope for a happy future soon gets disrupted by the mysterious entry of Beloved, who
reminds Sethe of her dead daughter. Beloved’s emergence from the water, Sethe’s
incontinence, Beloved’s name turning out to be the same as the name engraved on her dead
child’s tombstone, her smooth skin like a baby, her continuously sleeping like a small baby
for four days; these are the signs that suggest that Beloved is be an embodiment of Sethe’s
dead child.
Paul D is reminded of countless young women like Beloved that he has seen; dazed and
lost, roaming around, looking for lost family members, unaware that the Civil War has ended.
He finds her new shoes and hat suspicious but remains silent. There is an ominous reference
to the Ku Klux Klan, roaming the countryside, like a dragon “thirsty for black blood.”
Here Boy has also disappeared. It seems that, like all animals, it has sensed the ill-fated
entry of Beloved. Paul D also senses some unusual things about Beloved, who shows an
infantile attachment to Sethe. Denver is thrilled to have the company of another young
woman, covering up for her so that she continues to stay at 124.
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Summary: Chapter 7-8
Beloved has been living with them for five weeks and they do not know much except her
name. Many things about Beloved bother Paul D and he decides to find out where she has
come from, Beloved chokes on a raisin and vomits. Denver cleans the mess and invites
Beloved to sleep in her room so that they can talk. Paul D also notices that Beloved ‘shining’
but cannot determine whom she is shining for.
Sethe rebukes Paul D for being very hard on Beloved and then Halle’s name comes up in
their conversation. Paul D reveals that Halle did not abandon Sethe, as she has always
believed. They had been planning to run away from Sweet Home for months but Halle never
showed up to take her to the corn fields, where all the slaves had decided to meet. Paul D
gives his version of events; leaving the reader to reconstruct the exact sequence of events.
Their attempt to escape was aborted and Sethe, who has sent her children ahead of her, is
picked up by schoolteacher. Halle was hiding behind the loft and saw what schoolteacher and
his nephews did to her. That incident broke him completely and he became insane. The last
time Paul D saw Halle, he was sitting by the churn and had butter all over his face. Paul D
could not speak to him as he had an iron bit in his mouth, like an animal.
Paul D tells Sethe that it was not the iron bit that made him crazy but a rooster named
“Mister” who was moving freely in front of him; better than the black Sweet Home men; one
crazy, one sold, one missing, one burnt, and Paul having a bit in his mouth. The brutality of
schoolteacher has changed Paul D so much that he has learnt to suppress his emotions.
Denver asks Beloved how she got her name. Beloved replies that ‘in the dark.’ Denver
excitedly asks what it was like, whether she had seen anybody, and how she got there.
Beloved says that it was a dark place and lots of people were there, some dead. She waited
and got on the bridge. Then Denver asks why she came back and Beloved smiles and answers
that she has come there to see Sethe’s face.
Denver requests Beloved not to tell anything about herself to Sethe. Beloved gets
aggressive and tells Denver not to tell her what to do. Beloved changes the topic and asks
Denver to tell her the story of her birth. Denver tells Beloved how Amy, a white girl helped
her mother, how she massaged her swollen feet, rubbed her back. The two women spent the
whole night in a lean-to shelter where Amy took care of her and took her down to the Ohio
river. Next morning, they saw a boat with one oar and lots of holes. As soon as Sethe got into
the boat, her water bag burst. Amy helped Sethe deliver the baby safely inside the boat itself.
She wrapped the baby in her skirt and tied it to Sethe’s chest. Then Amy said good bye to her
and requested her to tell her baby that she brought her into the world. Sethe fell into a deep
sleep and waited to cross the river Ohio to reach her home.
Critical Analysis: Chapter 7-8
Sethe is devastated when she learns that Halle, her husband saw all that was done to her by
schoolteacher and his boys. Sethe is convinced that Halle must be dead by now, as no man
could survive such a mental breakdown. Paul D does not want to share more of his terrifying
49
memories as he has locked them “in that tobacco tin buried in his chest.” This is a recurring
image in the novel, drawing our attention to Paul’s emotional suppression.
Beloved’s description of the place where she has come from is unclear. Beloved says the
place was dark and hot, surrounded by water, and heaps of people were there; some were
dead and they did not have any names. The place symbolizes the ‘Middle Passage’, the
forced voyage of enslaved Africans, through the Atlantic Ocean. Africans were kidnapped,
traded, transported in ships, and sold to Americans. In those ships, conditions were inhuman.
Beloved says that “She belongs here,” establishing the connection between dead baby
and herself. Denver has heard the story of her birth so many times that now it is embedded in
her memory. Amy Denver, herself an indentured servant, stays back to help Sethe deliver the
baby and massages her feet. In addition to Black slaves, many poor Europeans worked as
servants on the plantations. The young girl is running away to Boston to buy “carmine”
coloured velvet; symbolizing the quest for joy and beauty.
Summary: Chapter 9
Sethe is disturbed by Paul D’s revelation about Halle and she misses Baby Suggs’ presence.
So, she takes Denver and Beloved with her to the Clearing, to pay tribute to Halle. The
Clearing was where Baby Suggs used to preach to Black people; a redeemer and saviour
figure. Sethe remembers the day she came to 124 with a new born baby tied to her chest,
wrapped in Amy’s underwear. After Amy went away, Sethe walked along the riverside and
met an old black man and two boys. They were fishing in the river. The old man, Stamp Paid
asked one of the boys to take off his jacket and wrapped the baby in that jacket. He ferried
her across the river and after some hours, a young woman named Ella, who was an organizer
with the Underground Railroad, came to help Sethe reach Baby Suggs.
When Sethe reached 124, Bluestone Road with a small baby, Baby Suggs cleaned
Sethe’s wounds and bathed her. She did not allow Sethe to see her other children as taking
care of Sethe was the first priority. Baby Suggs noticed something knotted up in Sethe’s
petticoat. Sethe told her that they were earrings presented to her as a wedding gift. Then
Sethe jingled those earrings for the pleasure of her elder daughter. Those twenty-eight days
were a blessing for her; living a life free of slavery.
Sitting on Baby Suggs’ preaching rock in the Clearing, Sethe feels invisible fingers
massaging her neck. But gradually, those fingers start to strangle her. Denver and Beloved
are shocked to see that and come to Sethe to help her and the fingers stop. Beloved kisses the
bruises that Sethe has got on her neck. But Sethe pushes Beloved away by saying “You are
too old for that” and Sethe feels that Beloved’s breath is exactly like new milk. Sethe is sure
that it wasn’t Baby Suggs who tried to choke her. Next day, Beloved sees Sethe and Paul D
together and this agitates her. She runs into the woods and Denver follows and asks if she
choked Sethe. Beloved adamantly refuses and runs to the other side of the woods.
Denver has never been to the other side of the woods. This reminds her about the day
when she was seven-years-old, went to another house and peeped into Lady Jones’s house
50
where she was teaching some Black children. Lady Jones called her inside and also started
teaching her, along with the others. Denver had been going to school for a year, when her
classmate, Nelson Lord asked her if it was true that her mother had killed her sister. She
stopped going to school and turned deaf. She recovered her hearing two years later, when she
heard the crawling of ghost baby in their house; this was the first time the ghost baby
appeared in 124.
Critical Analysis: Chapter 9
Before Paul D’s revelation, Sethe had been hoping that Halle would return. Feeling in need of
solace, she goes to the Clearing; a place where Baby Suggs provided healing and comfort to
her people, teaching them self-love. But something happened twenty-eight days after Sethe
arrived in 124. Sethe was sent to jail and the Black community abandoned them, keeping a
distance from the house and the family.
Sethe feels comforted in the Clearing, massaged by invisible fingers; but suddenly those
same fingers try to strangle her. She remembers Baby Suggs touch, so she is sure it couldn’t
be her. Denver’s isolation is reflected in the fact that she has never been outside 124 or the
field behind it. She never went to school as the children of slaves did not have the right to get
an education. The loss of her hearing for two years is a metaphor for her refusal to
acknowledge the terrible truth about her mother.
Summary: Chapter 10-11
Paul D recalls how he was sent to jail for trying to kill Brandywine; the man schoolteacher
sold him to. He was with forty-six other Black prisoners in Georgia. At night, they all slept in
wooden boxes, five feet deep, five feet wide and fitted into the earth. During the day, they
were taken out to work, chained together. White jailors were brutal with those prisoners.
Once it rained heavily for many days; giving Paul D and his companions a chance to
escape. They fled together as they were tied to a single chain. They run and run till they find
a camp of Cherokee, people of an indigenous tribe, who cut their chains with their axes. After
being released, Paul D goes North, under the guidance of the Cherokee. They advise him to
follow the tree flowers and he reaches Delaware. There he lived with a weaver woman for
eighteen months.
Beloved forces Paul D to move out of the house. It starts when Paul D, involuntarily,
falls asleep on the rocking chair. It goes on that way. After that, Paul D moves to Baby
Suggs’ room and sleeps on her bed and again he does not understand why. He believes that
he is having ‘house-fits.’ After some days, he moves to the storeroom and eventually, to the
cold house. Paul D has been forced out of 124.
One night, Beloved comes to the cold house to seduce Paul D and he succumbs. She asks
him to touch her on the inside part and call out her name. As he touches her, he repeatedly
says the words ‘Red heart,’ sometimes soft and sometimes so loud that it wakes Denver.

51
Critical Analysis: Chapter 10-11
The escape of Paul D and the other prisoners shows how a solidarity with their community
saves the Black slaves. Many other incidents highlight the importance of community; Amy
helps Sethe deliver Denver, the Cherokee help Paul D, Ella and Stamp Paid help Sethe reach
124, and Baby Suggs’ house is a sanctuary for runaway slaves. Sethe allows Beloved to live
in her house, convinced that the young girl is running away from torture and needs shelter.
Denver also seems happier in her company.
Beloved comes between Paul D and Sethe. She seems to have supernormal powers,
forcing Paul D to move out of Sethe’s bed and shift to the cold house behind the house.
Beloved seduces Paul D and forces him to sleep with her. It is clear that Beloved wants to
drive a wedge between Sethe and Paul D.
Summary: Chapter 12-14
Sethe occasionally asks Beloved about her mother but Beloved only remembers a woman,
from whom she was snatched away, the bridge where she was standing, and one white man.
She cannot recall from where she got the new dress and shoes. Sethe is convinced that
Beloved was locked up by some white men and sexually exploited.
Denver doesn’t tell Sethe about the cold house as she’s afraid that Beloved may leave
her. One day, Beloved and Denver go into the cold house to get cider. But as they enter the
cold house, Beloved seems to vanish. Denver starts crying as she is sure that Beloved has left
her. Suddenly, Beloved appears in front of her and she smiles. Denver pleads with her to
never leave her. Beloved smiles and says, “This is the place I am.”
Paul D decides to tell Sethe everything that’s been happening between him and Beloved
for the last three weeks. He meets Sethe, when she is returning from work. But he cannot
bring himself to say what he had planned to, and says something else; “I want you pregnant,
Sethe. Would you do that for me?” Sethe laughs and asks him “Don’t you think that I’m too
old to start all over again?” They both go back home, holding hands. Beloved feels resentful
on seeing them together. Sethe announces that Paul D will sleep upstairs now, in her room.
When Sethe and Paul D go upstairs, Beloved asks Denver to make Paul D go away from
there. Denver replies that Sethe might be angry with her if Paul D leaves. Then one of
Beloved’s teeth falls out and she wonders if, like the tooth, all her body parts would drop one
day. Beloved starts to cry and Denver takes her in her arms.
Critical Analysis: Chapter 12-14
The brutality of slave owners like schoolteacher has a lasting impact on the physical,
emotional, and psychological well-being of the slaves. Schoolteacher would comment that
slaves are less than animals, and Beloved’s control over Paul D makes him tend to agree with
schoolteacher’s views. Paul D does not want to lose Sethe so he decides to start a family with
her; “suddenly it was a solution: a way to hold on to her, document his manhood and break
out of the girl’s spell – all in one.” But Sethe does not agree, thinking that, “Unless carefree,
mother love was a killer.”

52
 Denver knows all that is happening between Paul D and Beloved but she does not tell
Sethe. She is afraid of losing Beloved, whom she is getting very attached to. She is sure that
Beloved is the “true to life presence” of the ghost baby. In the cold room, Beloved points out
chinks of light to Denver. The setting is also significant; it is here that Sethe killed her infant
daughter. The chinks of light on the roof resemble the inside of a ship’s hold, dark and with
only little light visible. Slaves were transported to America in the holds of ships, in sub-
human conditions; many perishing on the way.
Summary: Chapter 15-16
Twenty days after Sethe returns to 124 with her new-born baby, Stamp Paid goes there with
two full buckets of blackberries. Baby Suggs organizes a feast for ninety Black people, to
celebrate the arrival of Denver. But they feel jealous and angry. They think an ex-slave has
no right to be always at the centre of attention; preaching, helping fugitives. They resent the
fact Baby Suggs did not have to run away, her son bought her freedom, and on top of that her
owner personally brought her to Cincinnati; where the Bodwins, who were very generous
people and hated slavery, gave Baby Suggs a two-floor house to live in. Bodwin gave her
some work, in return for rent.
Soon after the feast, four horsemen come to Bluestone Road; schoolteacher, his nephew,
one slave catcher, and the sheriff, to recapture Sethe and her children. On seeing them, Sethe
must have run to the shed with her four children. When the men open the door to the shed,
they see her holding her dead her infant daughter, whom she has killed with a handsaw and is
about to throw Denver against the wall when Stamp Paid, who happened to be there, catches
her. Sethe has only managed to wound Buglar and Howard, her sons. After watching that, the
sheriff suggests that schoolteacher and the other two should go back as it is no use taking
Sethe back. Schoolteacher and his boys realize that mishandling and overbeating make the
slaves crazy. The sheriff orders a wagon to take Sethe to the town.
Meanwhile Baby Suggs comes and takes the boys inside the house. She takes Denver
from Stamp Paid and gives her to Sethe to feed her. Sethe starts nursing the baby by putting
her bloody nipple into her mouth. That infuriates Baby Suggs and she shouts at Sethe and
fights with her to take the baby back. Meanwhile the sheriff comes with a wagon and takes
Sethe and Denver to prison.
Critical Analysis: Chapter 15-16
The account of Baby Suggs’ past; how she got the house after sixty years of working as a
slave and built a life for herself in Cincinnati; preaching and healing, brings the horror of
Sethe’s deed into sharp relief. Baby Suggs celebrates the arrival of Sethe and her
grandchildren by organizing a feast for the Black community, but they feel jealous of Baby
Suggs. Baby Suggs senses bad luck coming to 124; “she smelled another thing. Dark and
coming.” For the first time in the novel, there is a description of the events on that terrible
day. Till now, there has been no direct account.
The Fugitive Slave Act of 1850, allowed slave owners to recapture those slaves who fled
to the free states. Kentucky was a slave state and Ohio a free state. This explains the arrival of
53
the four horsemen that ends the happy and peaceful life of 124. These horsemen are the evil
that Baby Suggs senses. Not a single community member informs Sethe about the horsemen.
Seeing them, Sethe tries to kill her children but is able to kill only one. After murdering her
child, she doesn’t show any remorse for her act. Seeing Sethe with her dead child,
schoolteacher thinks that his nephew went too far in mistreating her. He had compared slaves
to horses and dogs; telling him not to beat them beyond a point.
Summary: Chapter 17-18
Paul D and Stamp Paid work at the slaughterhouse where pigs are killed, cut, and skinned to
export to Northerners. Stamp Paid shows Paul D an old newspaper clipping about Sethe’s
killing of her baby. Paul D, sees the picture of Sethe and, not being able to read, argues that
the picture is not hers. Stamp Paid narrates the whole incident to Paul D and reads out the
words slowly from the newspaper article. Paul D insists that it could not be Sethe.
Paul D goes to 124 with the newspaper clipping and shows it to Sethe. She tries to
explain to him, as he is the only person, she wants to explain anything to. She could not let
herself or any of her children go back to Sweet Home. When she saw the schoolteacher and
his boys approaching Bluestone Road, she could only think, “No. No. Nono. Nonono.” She
took all her children outside that house where they could be safe. Killing her children with a
handsaw was the only way to protect her children from slavery. Paul D replies, “Your love is
too thick.” Paul D criticizes Sethe for her idea of safety for her children; she does not know
where her two sons have gone, one daughter is dead and another cannot leave the house. He
tells her what she did was wrong; “You got two feet, Sethe, not four.” Paul D leaves 124,
telling Sethe to put his meal aside because he might be a little late. Sethe knows that he will
never come back.
Critical Analysis: 17-18
Stamp Paid’s decision to tell Paul D about Sethe’s past is surprising. He is the same man who
has devoted his life to help runaway slaves and helped Sethe cross the Ohio river. He
compares Sethe to a hawk who, after seeing the schoolteacher and his boys, “flew, snatching
up her children like a hawk on the wing; how her face beaked, how her hands worked like
claws . . .” Paul D does not believe the news about Sethe published in the newspaper.
Paul D asks Sethe about her act of killing her baby. She explains to him because she
feels obliged to him; he is the only one who gives her hope for the future. She answers that
she did it to save her children; “They ain’t at Sweet Home. Schoolteacher ain’t got them.”
She can only talk about how her children were not hers to love in Kentucky. But Paul D does
not understand it and tells her that she loves too much. Sethe believes that love can never be
halfway. He thinks this act of Sethe’s is the dehumanizing act of an animal. Paul D is unable
to accept this side of Sethe’s love and leaves 124.

54
 Toni Morrison, Beloved
Iram Fatima

PART B
2.2 Study Guide: Part II
Summary: Chapter 19
Stamp Paid has been feeling guilty since he got to know that Paul D left 124, on the day he
showed him the newspaper clipping. He realizes that, maybe, Sethe’s “self-sufficiency” irked
him and he was also influenced by the feelings of the entire community towards her. He feels
a sense of obligation towards Baby Suggs and feels duty bound to check on her family.
Stamp Paid recalls how, let down by her community, Baby Suggs gave up preaching. He
had urged her to return to the Clearing, not understanding that she was tired. All she wanted
to do was to lie down and think of colour. The last time Stamp met her, Baby Suggs was
delivering some shoes to a white household, at the back door. He told her not to lose her faith
as it would be like conceding defeat to white people. But she replies that all she can see is “a
nigger woman hauling shoes.” Now, years later, he can understand her spiritual fatigue. The
red ribbon he has found in the river, with the hair and scalp still attached to it, has tired him
out too.
Sethe takes the girls ice-skating, trying to show them that she is unaffected by Paul D's
departure. One night, Sethe hears Beloved humming a song that was composed by Sethe for
her own children. Sethe finally understands who Beloved is; overjoyed by the miraculous
return of her daughter.
When Stamp Paid goes to 124, he hears loud voices; the only word he can discern is
“mine.” He tries to go in but holds back. Although he has heard frightening voices at 124, he
wants to make sure that everything is fine over there. He goes again and knocks on the door.
When no one answers his call, Stamp tries to look for Denver and Sethe through the window
but sees the back of a girl he doesn’t recognize. He goes to meet Ella, to find out if she knows
anything about the new girl. From her, Stamp learns that Paul D is now living in the
basement of a church.
Sethe’s inner voice addresses Beloved. She is hopeful that her baby will understand her
actions. Life at Sweet Home was becoming unbearable. When Halle didn’t show up, Sethe
sent her little children ahead of herself; staying behind to wait for her husband. Sethe talks
about the time she spent in jail, where Baby Suggs would bring her food and news of her
boys. She tells Beloved about the white jailor who took her diamond earrings, telling her it
was in case she tried to harm herself with them. She was allowed to attend her daughter’s
burial, and the coloured ladies of Delaware signed a petition for her release. She was released
after three months. In her mind, she goes over the difficult journey she undertook to reach her
55
daughter; “You remember that, don't you; that I did? That when I got here, I had milk enough
for all?”
Chapter 19: Analysis
In this chapter, Stamp Paid’s feelings of guilt are mixed with Sethe’s memories of
schoolteacher and Sweet Home. Schoolteacher treats his slaves like animals. Sixo is the only
one who is openly defiant. He eats corn from the fields, refusing to admit that he was stealing
it.
Stamp Paid feels that Black people work extremely hard because they wish to dissociate
themselves from white people’s image of them as a savage, animalistic species. Stamp Paid
thinks that the harder they work to demonstrate their humanity, the more bitter and angry they
become. He recalls Baby Suggs who, in his opinion, lost her faith towards her last days. He
didn’t understand that she was tired.
The narrative style begins to change; becoming more personal. Sethe addresses Beloved
directly in her interior monologue. She tells herself that she does not need to explain anything
to Beloved, because Beloved already understands. She shares memories of her days at Sweet
Home; caring for her three little children, worrying about them.
Stamp Paid understands that the voices he hears from inside 124 are “the mumbling of
the black and angry dead”; sounds of the collective suffering of the slaves. Morrison makes it
clear that, escaping from slavery does not imply freedom from its burden. Sometimes they get
tired of fighting, as in the case of Baby Suggs.
Summary: Chapter 20
This chapter, and the next three as well, use the stream of stream of consciousness technique:
following the thoughts and feelings of the characters. Sethe remembers the devotion with
which she looked after Mrs. Garner when she was unwell, like a daughter. She remembers
how she cried when Sethe told her how she had been milked like a cow. She wonders if Mrs
Garner is alive now. Her memories of schoolteacher’s nephews milking her breasts are
interspersed with those of her own traumatic childhood. Her mother couldn’t care for her and
a wetnurse, Nan fed her; but there was never enough milk for her. Her mother had a
permanent smile on her face, made from constantly having a bit in her mouth. Sethe lives
with the tortuous uncertainty of not knowing why her mother was hanged.
“Beloved, she my daughter. She mine.” Sethe knows Beloved is her own daughter, who
has come back to her, like a good daughter should. She decides to show the colours and
smells of the world to Beloved; the rich purple of carrots and yellow flowers. Sethe criticizes
Paul D because he distracted her; otherwise she would’ve recognized her daughter the
moment Beloved asked about the diamond earrings. The same earrings she played with as a
baby. She would also have noticed the marks of her fingernails on Beloved’s forehead; made
when she held her head up, before using the handsaw on her neck.

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 For the first time, Sethe confesses that when she ran to the shed with her children, she
wanted to kill them all and then herself; “My plan was to take us all to the other side where
my own ma’am is.” Fortunately, she was stopped after killing Beloved. Sethe also tells
Beloved that she wanted to end her life when her daughter was laid to rest, but she could not
do so because of the three surviving children.
Analysis: Chapter 20
Sethe’s stream-of-consciousness collects memories of her own mother, Nan, and Mrs Garner;
the last two are mother figures. Doubly tormented by memories of her mother’s sufferings
and of the daughter she killed with her own hands.
Now that Beloved has come back to her, Sethe wants to look at things around her and
introduce her daughter to the beauty of the world. In this chapter, Sethe shares with Beloved,
thoughts that she has never shared with anyone before. She did explain her fears to Paul D
when he confronted her about killing her daughter. But here, for the first time she talks about
her original plan; to kill all her children first and then herself. Sethe mentions her fears about
her daughters being sexually assaulted by white men or burnt alive somewhere. There is an
emotional urgency to her thoughts.
Summary: Chapter 21
This chapter follows Denver's stream-of-consciousness; “Beloved is my sister.” Denver feels
that it is her duty and responsibility to protect Beloved, in case Sethe tries to kill her again.
She recalls a recurring nightmare that she had when she was a girl; where Sethe decapitated
her every night and carried her head downstairs. Denver has always waited for her father to
come back. She considers her father an ideal man, an “angel.” She loved listening to her
grandmother, Baby Suggs talk about Halle.
Denver remembers the assurance given by Baby Suggs that the baby ghost is “greedy for
love” and it would never harm her as she had drunk its blood, along with her mother’s milk.
When Sethe’s sons run away, everyone thinks that it’s because they’re frightened of the
ghost. However, Denver’s thoughts go back to the time her brothers expressed fear that their
mother could kill them; saying she had something in her that made it alright to kill her own.
Chapter 21: Analysis
Sethe braiding the hair on Denver's decapitated head in her nightmare, shows Denver’s
subconscious fear of Sethe. As in the previous chapter, a lot of new things come to the fore.
Denver’s revelation of the talks she had with her brothers make us realize that, more than the
baby ghost, it was Sethe who scared them away. Denver shared her fears about the baby
ghost with her grandmother, who assures her that it is just hungry for love. She longs for her
father Halle’s presence and is resentful of Paul D.
Summary: Chapter 22
This is the most complicated and difficult of the four chapters using the stream of
consciousness. “I am Beloved and she is mine.” There is an abrupt change in the narrative
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style; sentences are short, disjointed. As Beloved says, it is difficult to describe pictures. She
remembers the face of her mother and claims that she is not disconnected from her. She does
not want to lose Sethe. There are images of clouds and water in this chapter. Sometimes, she
has been standing in the rain and sometimes, she curls up like a foetus. Time and again,
there’s a recurring reference to “a hot thing”; may refer to the hold of a ship. It is her
cherished desire to join her face with Sethe’s face. By the end of this chapter, Beloved has
been restored to life, emerging from the water and sitting outside Sethe’s house. She
recognizes her; “Sethe’s is the face that left me.”
Analysis: Chapter 22
Morrison conveys the impression of a child speaking. Beloved is lying in a ship’s hold but it
can be difficult to comprehend why Beloved is in a ship, among dead bodies. This chapter is
an example of race memory or genetic memory; Beloved’s memories are embedded with the
pain of countless Black slaves before her, who lost their lives during the voyage from Africa
to America; memories that she has inherited. Beloved did not die in the water but if Beloved
is seen as a representative of her race; her suffering makes sense. Schoolteacher and the slave
traders are referred to as “men with no skin” and “white men.” There are strong suggestions
of sexual abuse on the ship. Beloved craves to be born again so that she can go back to Sethe,
who is the unnamed “she.” She comes back to Sethe from the dead.
Summary: Chapter 23
Beloved reiterates her need to join Sethe. Sethe withdraws her face. Beloved is not willing to
lose that face again. The disembodied voices speak to each other. These voices are the voices
of Sethe, Beloved, and Denver. Sethe asks Beloved to forgive her, but Beloved is not willing
to. In haunting poetic prose, Morrison weaves the thoughts of mother and daughters together.
Short sentences are packed with intimacy; mother and daughter are one; they are “like laugh
and laughter.” Beloved has come back from “the other side” to feel Sethe’s love; “You are
mine. You are mine. You are mine.”
Analysis: Chapter 23
Beloved fails to distinguish between herself and her mother. Denver warns her sister not to
love their mother too much. Sethe is overjoyed at her daughter’s return. Toni Morrison’s
prose does away with formal structures and is pure expression of emotion. Beloved’s
unfulfilled longing, ‘coming from the other side’ is moving.
Summary: Chapter 24
The chapter begins with Paul D’s thoughts. He has never met his father and he cannot recall
much about his mother; Paul A and Paul F were his half-brothers. Paul D remembers when
one of his brothers was sold off. At Sweet Home, he had Halle, Baby Suggs and his brothers,
so he had a family of sorts.
Paul D’s thoughts go back to how they had planned to make an escape on the
Underground Railroad after schoolteacher took over the farm. They planned months in
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advance but everything went wrong on that night. They had all planned to meet in the corn
fields and move ahead from there. But only Paul D, Sixo, and The Thirty Mile Woman
showed up. Someone saw Paul A going ahead but nobody knows what happened afterwards.
Halle went to give a message to Sethe, who was looking after Mrs Garner but he never got to
her. Sethe waited for him and sent all her three children to Cincinnati when Halle didn’t turn
up. Nobody knows exactly what happened. Maybe schoolteacher got suspicious and Halle hid
in the barn.
Schoolteacher reaches there with other white men and arrests Sixo and Paul D. The
Thirty Mile Woman manages to run away and Sixo starts to sing; schoolteacher thinks he has
gone mad. They tried to burn Sixo alive but the flames are weak. Sixo is still singing and
laughing when he is shot dead. The white men and schoolteacher discuss the problems they
face with “niggers.” Paul D comes to know his price for the first time, that is, 900 dollars.
Chapter 24: Analysis
Paul D feels that he should have died along with Sixo. Sitting on the steps of the church he
thinks how he never really had a family of his own, except the slaves he worked with at
Sweet Home. He always envied Black people who had numerous family members to call
their own.
Again, the events of that night are recounted but with details never added before. The
mystery of Halle not turning up to collect Sethe can only be speculated about. Most probably,
Paul A has been killed; Sixo is shot; his pregnant lady love manages to escape; and Halle
goes mad after witnessing the bestiality unleashed on Sethe. Sethe is sexually assaulted and
whipped on her back, leaving deep scars. Schoolteacher and the other white men talk as if
they are discussing breeding animals and how it is profitable to have a female slave; as she
will produce more slaves for free. When Paul D is captured, he hears schoolteacher fixing a
price for him. He doubts his masculinity and is unsure of his own worth as a human being.
Summary: Chapter 25
Stamp Paid tries to convince Paul D to think again about his decision to leave Sethe. He
narrates the story behind his name to Paul D. His name used to be Joshua. His wife had been
taken away from him by their master’s son at a young age. Stamp had not touched his own
wife for a year. When his wife came back, he became very angry. He felt like breaking her
neck. Instead, he changed his name to tackle his anger. He defends Sethe; saying that she did
what she did out of love; she wanted to “out-hurt the hurter.” Paul D discloses to Stamp that
he fears Sethe and Beloved. Stamp is anxious to know about the whereabouts of Beloved. He
tells Paul D that a few months ago, a white man was killed by the Black girl, whom he had
kept forcefully in his house since she was a child.
Chapter 25: Analysis
Like Baby Suggs, who took the name used by her husband, Stamp Paid has rejected the name
on his bill of sale. His name is a badge of what he has gone through and survived in his life.

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He attempts to atone for his misdeed by telling Paul D not to commit the mistake he did by
leaving his wife, Vashti. The poor girl was sexually exploited by her owner’s son; yet Stamp
Paid left her when she came back to him. It is clear that now, years later, he regrets his action.
He doesn’t want Paul D to leave Sethe; urging him to be more understanding about her
motives. Paul D seems to be at the end of his tether; “How much is a nigger supposed to
take?” Like Baby Suggs in her last days, he uses this racial slur to refer to himself.
2.3 Study Guide: Part III
Summary: Chapter 26
Sethe and Beloved spend their time playing games. Sethe uses up all her savings to make
colourful dresses for the trio, making them look like “carnival women.” She gets late for
work every day and, as a result, loses her job. She becomes obsessed with pleasing Beloved.
One day she notices a small scar on Beloved’s neck, the scar left by the handsaw, and the
intensity of her love increases. In the beginning, Denver is concerned for Beloved, but with
the passage of time she becomes more concerned for her mother. Beloved has been growing
fat and expanding whereas Sethe is wasting away. Sethe tries to redeem herself in her
daughter’s eyes and Beloved complains about her abandonment. Denver understands that,
“Sethe was trying to make up for the handsaw: Beloved was making her pay for it.”
Eventually Denver decides to ask someone for help. Beloved is ruining her mother; they
are all “locked in a love that wore everybody out,” and Denver is afraid for her mother's life.
She gathers the strength to go out of 124 and goes to Lady Jones, her former teacher. Without
mentioning or describing the ghost, Denver informs Lady Jones that Sethe has been ill for a
long time. She asks Lady Jones for some food, which she gets but refuses her offer of help
from the church.
A couple of days later, Denver begins to find baskets of food, left outside 124. The
baskets have pieces of paper on which the names of the senders are written. Denver
personally goes to return the baskets and say thanks; getting acquainted with the Black
community of Cincinnati.
The house has begun to resemble a lunatic asylum. Denver decides to get a job as she
cannot depend on her neighbours to feed her forever and she goes to the Bodwins for help.
The Bodwins, unlike other whites, have been very kind and generous to the Black
community. Janey, the servant at the Bodwins’ place still works for them but Denver is
employed to work the night shift, taking care of Ms Bodwin.
When Denver is leaving their house, she notices a piggy bank in the form of a Black boy
with exaggerated features. She sees the words “At Yo' Service” written on the base. Janey
quickly spreads an altogether different tale; that the dead baby of Sethe has come back to
punish her. The rumour grows and spreads all over the community. Ella hears that Sethe is
being whipped by the ghost. She doesn’t believe in “past errors taking possession of the
present.” She is instrumental in mobilizing the women to come forward and help her free 124
of the evil presence. Ella too has suffered in her own way; she recalls how she was shared by
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a white man and his son years ago. She gave birth to a baby and neglected it until it died, a
few days later.
Edward Bodwin comes to 124 to collect Denver for her first day of work. He sees a
group of Black women standing in a group outside the house and Denver sitting on the steps.
They are praying and singing. Hearing the noise, Sethe and Beloved come out of the house,
holding hands. Seeing Mr. Bodwin coming up the road, Sethe mistakes him for schoolteacher
and attacks him with an ice pick.
Chapter 26: Analysis
This chapter charts the metamorphosis of Denver. She has spent her young life without her
father’s protection or her brothers’ company. Her concern for her mother forces her to seek
assistance. She begins to feel responsible for her mother. Denver knows that Beloved has
come back to demand her mother’s love but is not willing to forgive her.
The Bodwins are friends and well-wishers of the Black community. They give Baby
Suggs a house and work; and help Sethe get out of jail and find a job. However, there is an
object in their home, a piggy bank in the shape of a caricatured and servile Black boy, that
indicates that even the most well meaning of white people are unaware of deep-rooted racial
prejudices.
After Sethe came back from jail, the Black community shunned her family. Sethe was
considered too proud and she, in turn, isolated herself. But they respond to Ella’s plea to rid
the house of its evil presence and come forward to drive the ghost of Beloved away. They
come, bringing their “Christian faith” with them. On their knees, they begin to pray.
Enveloped in their sound, Sethe is “baptized,” feeling that the sacred Clearing has come to
her. Beloved vanishes after this. It is the first step that re-establishes the family’s link with
their community.
Summary: Chapter 27
Stamp Paid informs Paul D that 124 is quiet now. Mr. Bodwin wants to sell 124, but it may
take some time because it is difficult to find a buyer. He is not going to press any charges
against Sethe for the attempted murder, because he was engrossed in looking at Beloved and
did not even realize that Sethe was rushing at him with an ice pick. Before Sethe could reach
him, the women, including Denver and Ella, pushed her to the ground. Beloved disappears
and is nowhere to be seen. There are rumours that a little boy saw her running through the
woods, fish in her hair.
Paul D runs into Denver, who discloses that she knew that Beloved was the ghost of her
dead sister, maybe “more.” She tells Paul D that her mother is not well. Walking to 124, Paul
D thinks about how he has been unsuccessfully trying to run away most of his life; first from
Sweet Home, then prison in Georgia. Over the years he has worked for the Northpoint Bank
and Railway, then joined a coloured regiment and picked up dead bodies for the
Confederates. At the end of the Civil War, he was in Alabama, from where a Union boat took

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him to West Virginia. Trudging to Trenton, he earned his first coin and bought some turnips;
observing the confusion around him. Black people roaming around, unaware that the war had
ended. Wandering around for seven years after the war ended, he comes to 124. Roaming
around the country, he feels “astonished by the beauty of this land that was not his.”
He reaches 124 and comes to know from the presence of Here Boy, Sethe’s dog, that
Beloved has gone. Sethe seems to have lost her mind; lying in bed, having lost all desire to
live or work anymore. Sethe recalls all the people whom she loved and lost; Howard and
Buglar, Baby Suggs, her mother, and Beloved. She cries, telling Paul D that Beloved was her
“best thing.” Looking at Sethe, he remembers Sixo’s description of the Thirty Mile Woman;
“She is a friend of my mind. She gather me, man.” He is at peace with himself now.
Analysis: Chapter 27
In this chapter there’s a long description of Paul D’s experiences over the years, after he
escaped from Sweet Home. The historic events of the period are touched upon; the terrible
human tragedy of the Civil War, the dead piling up on both sides, the joy of earning his first
coin as a free man. Paul D comes back to 124. Though Beloved has gone, Sethe doesn’t seem
to have healed. She lies depressed on Baby Suggs bed; remembering all those she loved and
lost. Paul D assures her that he will care for her.
Summary: Chapter 28
In the first paragraph, the narrator talks of “a loneliness that roams”, unlike the loneliness
within that can be rocked away. This is an oblique reference to the ghost of Beloved, looking
for her mother’s love. In the second paragraph, she is the one who “erupts into separate
parts,” making it easier for people to forget her. The ones who saw her on the porch were the
first to forget her, like a bad dream.
Those closest to her forget her words and know that remembering is “unwise.” They
forget whose face she was looking for and the “smile under her chin”; a reference to the scar
on her neck. Gradually, the memories are locked in the mind. Occasionally, there are gentle
indications of her presence; as in a soft touch, a rustle of a skirt or footprints at the back of
124. But it goes away. There is a refrain after each paragraph; “It was not a story to be passed
on.” It could be a cautioning to the reader, that this is not a story, indicating that it’s not a
piece of fiction but the painful history of a race.
Analysis: Chapter 28
Forgetting about Beloved is the first step towards healing. With the passage of time, Sethe,
Paul D, and Denver realize that they cannot remember or repeat a single thing that she said.
In fact, they are unsure that whether she was ever really there.
Interpretations of the sentence; “It was not a story to be passed on” vary among critics.
Morrison ends the novel with a gentle reminder that this is not a tale to be forgotten; it is a
painful account of suffering.

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3.1 Themes in Beloved
Slavery
There is no doubt that slavery is the main theme of the novel. Both in the dedication and
epigraph to the novel, Morrison draws our attention to her theme. The institution of slavery
impacts the physical and emotional well-being of slaves. Traded like commodities, it is
impossible for them to sustain their familial bonds. Living with the constant fear of being
separated from their children, they train themselves not to get attached to them, as Baby
Suggs does. Almost all the women in the novel have been subjected to sexual abuse of some
kind: Sethe, her mother, her wet nurse Nan, and Ella. Schoolteacher makes his slaves the
subject of study, noting down their physical characteristics and comparing it to those of
animals. More than the physical scars on her back, Sethe is disturbed by her memories of
being measured and schoolteachers’ nephews noting details in notebooks.
Sethe’s infanticide, more than anything else, illustrates the extent to which slavery can
hinder a person’s sense of judgement. Driven to desperation, terrorized by schoolteacher’s
appearance at her doorstep, she decides to kill all her children but is stopped by Stamp Paid;
but not before she kills her nine-month old infant daughter. She escapes the death penalty but
lives with ghost of her baby daughter, stoically putting up with the mental agony. Her
innermost thoughts, directed at Beloved, form the emotional core of the novel. Her unfulfilled
longings as a mother affect her mental health.
However, there are former slaves like Stamp Paid and Baby Suggs, who have not let
their personal pain kill them from the inside. Baby Suggs becomes a beacon of hope for her
community; preaching self-love in the Clearing. It is only after Sethe kills her daughter that
she gives up the struggle; unable to either condemn or support Sethe’s act. Finally, she is
devastated when her grandsons, Howard and Buglar, run away from 124. Her last advice to
her family is that “there’s no bad luck like white people.” Stamp Paid does all he can to help
the runaway slaves; selflessly ferrying them across the Ohio river. Yet, a small red ribbon
with the scalp of a child attached to it demoralizes him.
The Past: its Memory and Burden
The past and its memory form an important component of Beloved. Each character carries the
burden of past suffering. The novel begins in the year 1873, but the plot covers the period
from 1855 to 1873, through flashbacks. There are many historical events that form the
background to the painful and traumatic memories of many characters of the novel.
Baby Suggs has spent sixty years of her life as a slave; not even trying to memorize the
faces of her new born babies because she knew they would be taken from her. She lost seven
of her children; who were either snatched away and sold off or ran away. Her only remaining
son Halle buys her freedom, and she finds redemption by preaching love to her people.
Denver’s childhood memories are of an absent father; brothers frightened of a spirit in
the house, and a mother who has been in jail for killing her sister. Denver learns to live with

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the ghost of her dead sister, retreating to her green room in the woods when lonely. Although
she doesn’t say anything to her mother directly, she lives with the knowledge of her sister’s
murder. In a reversal of roles, Denver becomes a caregiver for her mother. She emerges a
stronger person, instrumental in helping seethe drive Beloved’s spirit away. Like Baby
Suggs, Sethe too has lost her husband and children. She is tormented by her ultimate act of
love that ended in infanticide. Beloved was only nine months old when Sethe killed her with
a handsaw. Sethe puts up with the consequences of her tragic act for eighteen years,
drowning in a self-destructive love for her daughter, till she is saved by her community.
Each character in Beloved carries the cross of pain. Paul D never had a family and
hungers for one. Most of his life he has been running away from bondage and has learnt to
lock up his feelings in his chest. Ella was sexually exploited by a white man and his son for a
year. Stamp Paid left his wife because he couldn’t bear to have her back after his owner’s son
slept with her. Both these characters turn their grief into positivity, helping slaves running
away from cruel masters. They ferry them across the Ohio river and help them reach their
destinations.
Not all memories in the novel are painful. The story of Denver’s birth, narrated a number
of times in the novel, is a story of triumph over adversity. Denver’s birth is a miracle. Like an
angel, Amy Denver comes to help Sethe when she is almost dead, after she has been whipped
by schoolteacher’s nephew. Sethe feels the healing touch on her feet.
Motherhood
In many ways, Beloved is a story about motherhood and how slavery crushed the natural
instincts of women. Mothers could not nurture their children properly and lived with the fear
of having their children taken away from them to be sold off. The common wisdom was that
a slave shouldn’t form a strong attachment to her children. As Paul D. points out to Sethe, her
love is “too thick.”
Almost all the women in the novel suffer through separation. Baby Suggs had eight
children and except for Halle, all of them were taken away. She barely remembers them.
Sethe’s own mother was too exhausted from working in the plantation to feed her daughter
and a wet nurse would do that. On the ship that brought her to America, she was repeatedly
raped by the white crew and threw the children, born out of the forced unions, into the sea.
Sethe and her mother could never develop a bond and nurture their relationship. Like Sethe,
her mother has committed infanticide out of desperation. Ella is raped by a white father and
son and gives birth to a white child who she refuses to care for, leading to the baby’s death.
Sethe doesn’t want to see her children become slaves, hence she tries to kill them.
Everyone feels that Sethe has committed a sin. However, Sethe’s act has to be viewed in the
broader context of her desperate decision to kill all her children and then herself.
Unfortunately, she is stopped by the time she kills her infant daughter. Sethe is able to escape
punishment because of the Bodwins’ efforts. After a few months in jail, she comes to live
with her mother-in-law, Baby Suggs. For the next eighteen years, a spirit haunts their house;

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referred to as baby ghost. It takes a human shape with the appearance of Beloved. Sethe’s
regret and guilt for having failed her children turns into an obsessive love for her daughter. It
sends her to the edge of madness.
Sethe’s pain and her living with that pain forms the emotional core of the novel. The
interior monologues in Part III of the novel are pure expression of her unfulfilled love. The
terrible human tragedy of slavery, the emotional trauma is an important theme in the novel.
The Importance of Family and Community
Slaves were considered private property and hence slave owners broke up families by buying
or selling individual family members. Baby Suggs children, Paul D’s brother, Paul D himself;
are sold off at will. Though slavery makes it almost impossible, the Black slaves have very
strong bonds with family and community. Sethe hardly remembers her mother and she
doesn’t want this to happen to her children. Hence, she has a very strong attachment and
connection with her children. Baby Suggs welcomes Sethe to her home, embracing her
daughter in-law and her four grandchildren. She nurses Sethe who lands up at her house and
even organizes a feast for the community to celebrate Denver’s arrival. Her son Halle
sacrifices his only holiday, Sunday, for five years to buy his mother’s freedom. At Sweet
Home the slaves look out for each other.
The familial bonds that are strengthened by slavery are sometimes dangerous too, as
shown by the severity of Sethe’s motherly instincts. Sethe attempts to protect her children by
trying to kill them. Paul D tells Sethe, her motherly love is “too thick.” But Sethe contradicts
him: “Love is or it ain’t. Thin love ain’t no love at all.”
Individuals need the support of their community in order to survive. After reaching
Cincinnati with her baby, Sethe experiences what it is to be a part of a larger community,
with people coming up to talk to her and ask her things. But her joy is short-lived. After she
returns from jail the interactions end. Paul D and forty-six prisoners manage to escape from
prison in Georgia by stepping in tandem with each other. It is the community that saves Sethe
from mistakenly killing Mr. Bodwin and committing another sin. Cincinnati’s Black
community plays a major role in helping Sethe exorcise her demons. At the end of the novel,
the women try to make up for their wilful indifference by gathering at 124 to collectively
pray for Sethe.
3.2 Symbols
Symbols are basically objects, figures, characters or colours that represent certain abstract
ideas or concepts; visible signs of invisible things.
Colour
Colour makes its appearance at crucial points in the novel; giving the narrative an additional
dimension. The carmine coloured velvet that Amy Denver is going to buy from Boston,
symbolizes her quest for a hopeful and bright future, whereas the “red heart” of Paul D
signifies feelings and emotions. The colour red symbolizes both life and death. For instance,
the red roses lining the path to the carnival, denote the beginning of a new life for Sethe,
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Denver and Paul D. But the colour red has strong associations with death; Beloved’s blood,
mixed with Sethe’s milk that Denver drinks. The red rooster roaming free while Paul D. is
chained, makes him go insane. It is a reminder of the freedom that is denied to him. When
Paul D enters 124 for the first time, he sees a red pool of light, the baby ghost. Stamp Paid
cannot wipe out the memory of a red ribbon he found floating in the Ohio river, with the hair
and scalp attached to it; a disturbing image of young lives lost in a bid to escape slavery.
Sethe’s memory is filled with the red colour of her daughter’s blood and the pink mineral
of her gravestone. After burying her daughter, she stops noticing colours around her. When
Baby Suggs is confined to bed, she complains of the lack of colour around her. Sethe puts
two orange patches on her patchwork quilt. When Beloved first comes to 124, she wants
those two orange patches in her sight, when she is recovering in bed. Colour could symbolize
joy in life. These former slaves have had little of it. When Sethe leaves her job, she stitches
colourful dresses for her daughters, to express her love. She wants to show the beautiful
colours of nature; in vegetables, in flowers, to Beloved.
Trees
Trees are a traditional source of healing, shade, comfort and life. Denver’s “emerald closet”
of boxwood bushes is a place of solitude and peace. Paul D had his own tree at Sweet Home;
he called it Brother, almost like a family member. Paul D is able to walk to his freedom by
following the flowering trees to the North. Amy Denver think the scars and marks on Sethe’s
back look like a “chokecherry tree.” Marks of trauma and brutality take on a beautiful form, it
is almost as if the tree grows.
The Tin Tobacco Box
Paul D’s heart is a “tin tobacco box.” He locks and puts his feelings and memories in the
symbolic box that has rusted completely by now because of his traumatizing experiences at
Sweet Home and especially at the prison camp in Alfred, Georgia. He has been repressing his
memories to feel protected and secured. But his sexual encounter with Beloved leads the box
to burst and his heart glows red once again.
Milk
Mother’s milk symbolizes life and love. Sethe herself was deprived of her mother’s milk, as
she was always working in the plantation fields, and was fed by a wet nurse. Sethe worries
about giving enough milk to her children Sadly, her breast milk gets “stolen” by the
schoolteacher's nephews. This incident haunts and terrorizes Sethe, firstly because she has
been sexually assaulted and secondly because she feels she has failed as a mother. Mother’s
milk occupies a very significant role in Sethe’s life. It is both a symbol of defilement, as well
as her love for her children. When Halle witnesses the brutality unleashed on Sethe, he goes
insane, rubbing butter all over his face. Butter is also a form of milk.
The Supernatural
“124 was spiteful. Full of a baby’s venom.” The novel starts with this line. The beginning of
the novel shows Sethe's house, where she lives with her daughter Denver. Along with them

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lives baby ghost, as they call her. Morrison uses conventional tropes to establish that the
house is haunted; mournful noises, frightened animals, objects falling off tables, and floors
shaking. The other two parts of Beloved begin with references to the haunted house; “124 was
loud.” (Part Two) and “124 was quiet.” (Part Three) The ghost of the dead child continues to
trouble the house until the ending of Part Two, when the members of the community come
forward to help Sethe come out of its clutches.
When Paul D first comes to 124, he drives away the baby ghost. But it reappears a few
days later. The supernatural spirit returns in the form of Beloved. Her appearance at 124 is
surrounded by mystery; it is as if she has come back from the dead, walking out fully clothed
in a new dress and shoes. She seems to possess extraordinary powers; making Paul D follow
her will. Beloved’s disappearance is as mystifying as her coming. The group of women who
see her naked and pregnant outside 124, and are singing to rid the house of the evil presence,
see her vanish magically. The whole novel is based on the premise that it is the dead infant
daughter who has come back to demand her share of Sethe’s love and extract revenge. The
community accepts this story, reflecting their belief in the existence of the supernatural.
3.3 Characters
Sethe
Sethe, is the main protagonist of Beloved. She was born on a distant plantation that she hardly
remembers, though she has faint memories of her own mother. When she was in her early
teens, she was brought to Sweet Home, where she takes Halle Suggs as her husband. She has
four children, and when she is pregnant with the fourth child, she runs away all alone. Sethe
carries physical marks of the brutality inflicted on her; she has a mass of scars on her back
that resemble a tree. Schoolteacher, who is the brutal master at Sweet Home, tracks her down.
But Sethe decides to kill her children instead of surrendering.
Sethe is haunted by her daughter’s ghost, first as the spectre, baby ghost, then as
Beloved. Her relationship with Beloved is a working out of her guilt at killing her child, of
not getting the chance to nurture her and love her. Sethe’s character is Toni Morrison’s
powerful imagining of a tortured soul.
Denver
Denver is Sethe's youngest daughter, born during Sethe's flight to the North. She is eighteen
years old and has had a very lonely existence; she has never ventured out of 124 by herself.
She is bright and intelligent but can go to school only for a year. She stops going when a
classmate questions her about Sethe’s murder. Denver and Sethe have a close bond, as they
only have each other. Sethe has isolated herself and the neighbours avoid them after Baby
Suggs’ death.
Denver is jealous of Paul D when he starts living at 124; not only jealous of the fact that
Paul D shares a past with Sethe but also because he seems to have formed a romantic
relationship with Sethe. This causes Denver to act rudely. When Beloved comes to 124, she
forms a special bond with her; caring for her when she is recuperating and listening to her
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secrets. They are like real sisters. Even before Sethe realizes that Beloved is her daughter,
Denver knows who she is. In the final chapters of the novel Denver fights, not only for her
independence but also for her mother's wellbeing, breaking the cycle of suffering and
isolation at 124.
Beloved
Beloved’s identity is never left in doubt, although it begins as a mystery. She asks Sethe
about the diamond earrings she would play with as a baby, and sings the same song that
nobody but Sethe and her children know. The scar on her neck, made by the handsaw, and the
marks of Sethe’s fingernails on her forehead leave no doubt in Sethe’s mind that she has
come back to her from the “other side.” She develops an infantile attachment to Sethe. On an
emblematic and metaphorical level, Beloved also represents the legacy of slavery which
comes back to haunt and torment the present. She evokes strong emotions in Paul D and
Denver as well, changing the dynamics of their relationships.
Beloved is supernatural and represents the spirit of multiple people. Her memories of her
past force the reader to wonder if she is really Sethe’s dead infant daughter come back.
Beloved represents not only Sethe's unnamed child but also the unnamed Black people,
innocent victims of slavery, who died and were forgotten.
Paul D
Paul D was one of the slaves of the Sweet Home farm. His life is a long chronicle of
suffering. After the aborted attempt to escape from Sweet Home he was sold off to another
slave master, tried to kill him, spent time in jail, escaped from there along with other
prisoners, and wandered around the country. The physical and emotional torture suffered by
Paul D is hidden and buried in the “rusted tobacco tin” of his heart. He represses his painful
and traumatic memories and experiences. He feels that the key to life and survival is not
becoming too attached to anything. At the same time, he is quite good at making others,
especially women, confide in him.
Paul D reaches 124 and Sethe welcomes him. He is not aware of what has happened to
Sethe in all these years. He becomes her lover and stays on, promising Sethe to take care of
Denver as well. After Beloved’s arrival, he becomes the object of Beloved’s jealousy. He is
powerless against Beloved, who seduces him in an effort to come between him and Sethe.
His relationship with Sethe provides him with stability but Stamp Paid’s revelation makes
him react without empathy and he leaves Sethe, saying “You got two feet, Sethe, not four”,
implying that she behaved like an animal. Ironically, it is Stamp Paid who convinces him to
return to Sethe; asking him not to commit the same mistake he did.
Baby Suggs
Baby Suggs is Halle Suggs’ mother and Sethe's mother-in-law. Baby Suggs travels to
Cincinnati after her son bought freedom for her. Freedom transformed Baby Suggs; giving
her a new understanding of what it meant to be alive. She evolves into a kind of holy woman

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for Cincinnati’s Black community; a source of emotional and spiritual inspiration for the
former slaves in the city. After Sethe kills her baby, she is so shocked and disheartened that
she withdraws and takes herself to a sickbed to die, remaining there for eight years. Tired of
fighting she finally gives up; devoting her last days to the contemplation of colour.
Baby Suggs continues to be a source of inspiration even after her death. When Sethe
feels broken after learning from Paul D that Halle went insane, it is to the Clearing that she
goes to seek solace. In Part Three of the novel, the memory of Baby Suggs motivates Denver
to go out and look for help. It is because of respect for Baby Suggs that the community
responds to Denver’s requests for support.
Halle Suggs
Halle Suggs is Sethe's husband and the father of her children. On the day they planned to
escape Sweet Home, he doesn’t turn up as decided beforehand. Halle was nowhere to be seen
when he was supposed to be with Sethe. It is during the latter part of the novel, that we get to
know that Halle was hiding in the loft of the barn, where Sethe was violated and saw
everything. Halle had gone insane when Paul D saw him for the last time; sitting next to a
butter churn, smearing butter all over his face. Though absent from the novel, he comes
across as a loving and considerate son; sacrificing a lot for his mother. Denver has never met
her father but thinks he’s an angel.
Stamp Paid
Like Baby Suggs, Stamp Paid is a saviour. He is welcomed by every person and in every
house of the town. He was an agent of the Underground Railroad, a secret route of hidden
paths and houses that fugitive slaves could follow; he is an “agent, fisherman, boatman,
tracker, saviour, spy” for runaway slaves. He helps Sethe, soon after she gives birth to
Denver. He saves Denver’s life, by catching her just before Sethe is about to hit her head
against the wall in the wooden shed. His wife was sexually exploited by his master’s son and
when she came back, he felt like killing her but abandoned her instead. Feeling that he has
fallen low, he renames himself ‘Stamp Paid’ and decides to pay off his moral debts for the
rest of his life by helping people.
Schoolteacher
Schoolteacher is Mr. Garner's brother-in-law. After Mr. Garner’s death, schoolteacher takes
charge of Sweet Home. He finds pleasure inflicting pain upon others; finding several ways to
break the will of his slaves. His habits are extremely simple and frugal. He eats little, sleeps
less, and works hard.
His arrival at Sweet Home is the trigger that forces the slaves to plan their escape but he
aborts their attempts. He is cold and calculating; when he sees Sixo singing, he is convinced a
mad slave is of no use and orders him to be killed. When he comes to capture Sethe and her
children and Sethe kills her infant daughter, he goes away empty handed because Sethe is
dangerous and unhinged, hence of no use to him.

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Lady Jones
Lady Jones is a light-skinned Black woman who hates her own blond hair. She is of the view
that everyone hates her for being a woman of mixed race. To assert her identity, she marries a
Black man but suffers from feeling of alienation. She teaches the underprivileged children of
Cincinnati at her home.
Ella
Ella is a Black woman who was locked up and sexually abused by a white father and son. She
was a co-worker of Stamp Paid on the Underground Railroad. Like Stamp Paid, she plays an
active role in helping fugitive slaves from the South reach their homes. She helped Sethe and
her new-born baby reach 124, but kept a distance from her after she committed infanticide. It
is Ella who convinces the women that they should help Sethe. At the end of novel, she
organizes the group of women who come to rescue Sethe from Beloved.
Mr. and Mrs. Garner: the kind-hearted owners of Sweet Home.
Paul A and Paul F: Paul D’s brothers, also slaves at Sweet Home.
Sixo: another fellow slave. He’s different from the other slaves, in his open defiance of his
new owner, schoolteacher. He refuses to speak in his language or apologize for taking corn
from the fields. Sixo will walk thirty miles to see his lady love. When the three, Paul D, Sixo
and Thirty Mile Woman are caught, trying to escape, the woman manages to run away. She is
pregnant and Sixo is delighted and starts laughing. He is assured that his seed will live on,
long after schoolteacher kills him. He dies laughing and singing, the most defiant of the
slaves. His captors try to burn him alive and finally shoot him.
Amy Denver: Amy Denver is a compassionate girl who works as an indentured servant. She
helps Sethe deliver Denver. Amy says that the scars of Sethe resemble a tree. The kind girl
runs away in a quest to buy red velvet.
Mr. and Miss Bodwin: The siblings Mr. and Miss Bodwin are white abolitionists who have
played a major role in saving Sethe from the gallows. They had also helped Baby Suggs by
giving her 124 to live in when she came to Cincinnati from Sweet Home and helping her earn
a living. They are members of a group of abolitionists known as the Society. It is at their
home that Denver gets a job as a night maid for Ms. Bodwin. It is on the day that Mr Bodwin
comes to collect Denver for her first day at work that Sethe mistakes him for schoolteacher
and attacks him with an ice-pick. However, Mr Bodwin is kind enough not to press charges
and saves her from punishment by law.
Questions
1) Sethe is, no doubt, the central character of Beloved. Write, in detail, about her life
after she comes to live at 124, Bluestone Road.
2) Who is Beloved? Why has she come to Sethe’s house?
3) How has slavery impacted Paul D.? Discuss in detail.
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4) Write a note on any one, with special focus on their role in the Black community:
– Baby Suggs
– Stamp Paid
– The Bodwin siblings
– Ella
5) Describe how Denver transforms from a lonely, insecure young girl into a
responsible woman.
6) Write a note on the supernatural element in Beloved.

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72
 Paper-V : American Literature
Unit 3 : Poetry

Contents
a. Walt Whitman, O’ Captain! My Captain Reema Devi
b. Allen Ginsberg, ‘A Supermarket in California’ Shreya Seth
c. Langston Hughes
i) The Negro Speaks of Rivers Dikshya Samantarai
ii) The South Dikshya Samantarai
iii) Aunt Sue’s Stories Tina Borah
d. Joy Harjo
i) Perhaps the World Ends Here Shriya Pandey
ii) I Give You Back Shriya Pandey

Edited by:
Nalini Prabhakar

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74
 Unit-3a

O Captain! My Captain!
Walt Whitman (1819-1892)
Reema Devi

1.1 Introduction
In American history, the period from the 1830s to the end of the Civil War is considered as a
period of tremendous literary activity. Writers like Ralph Waldo Emerson, Henry David
Thoreau, Walt Whitman, Nathaniel Hawthorne, and Herman Melville produced vast and
distinct American literature with many new voices and expressions.
In this chapter, you will study about one of the most dominant poets of the period- Walt
Whitman and his poem O Captain! My Captain!.
1.1.1 About the Poet
Walt Whitman was born in West Hills, Long Island, New York, on May 31, 1819. His father
Walter Whitman was an English labourer, carpenter and house builder. His mother Louisa, a
Dutch Quaker, was an intensely religious person. In 1823, his family shifted to Brooklyn
where he attended a public school from 1825 to 1830. He held various jobs such as that of an
office boy (1830-31), a printer (1835-36), a school teacher (1836-41) as well as a contributor
and editor to various periodicals and magazines.
In 1855, at the age of thirty-six, Whitman published the first edition of his
masterpiece, Leaves of Grass which attracted much criticism from people. Most people were
not ready to accept the book because of Whitman’s frankness in celebration of the human
body. Also, it was not written in the conventional metric form but rather in his newly adopted
free verse style. He did not follow any traditional rhyme and metre. This peculiar style earned
him the status of “father of free verse”. However, Whitman remained confident with his own
style of writing and continued to add to it and bring out new editions throughout his life.
During the Civil War (1861-65), his brother was seriously wounded, and this prompted
him to serve the soldiers. He went to Washington in order to unofficially serve the wounded
soldiers in the army hospital. After the end of Civil War, he was grief stricken by Abraham
Lincoln’s assassination. He wrote two elegies to honour Lincoln – When Lilacs Last
in the Dooryard Bloom’d and ‘O Captain! My Captain!’.
In 1873, after suffering from a paralyzing stroke, he moved from Washington D.C. to
Camden, New Jersey where his brother George lived. His poem Prayer for
Columbus appeared in 1874, followed by the prose work Memoranda during the War in
1875. He suffered from Pneumonia in December 1891 and died on March 26, 1892.

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1.2 Learning Objective
After reading this poem, you will be able to:
 Understand the significance of figurative language in poetry
 Appreciate the literary devices used in the poem
 Learn about the basics of the American Civil War and its impact
 Critically analyze the crucial issues in the then American society
 Write a short biographical sketch of Abraham Lincoln

1.3 Historical Context

O Captain! My Captain! was written in the immediate aftermath of the American Civil War
(1861-1865), the four-year conflict between the Northern and the Southern states. At this
point, you need to learn about the causes of conflicts which paved the way for one of the
most violent and divisive conflicts, the Civil War, in the American history.
In general, there were two primary schools of thought who had their own interpretations
for the causes of conflicts, the factors responsible for the Civil War- the economic
interpretation and the issue of slavery. Some historians emphasized on the first interpretation,
stating that economic factors were responsible for this long-standing struggle. They believed
that the foundation of the Republic had developed divergent economic interests which
resulted in political conflicts between the South and the North. The Southern States were
almost agrarian and were against the Federal spending on the banking system, other internal
improvements and towards the growth of big industries and corporations. On the other hand,
Northeast flourished and became a financial hub and capital. Its businessmen were interested
in Federal aid in the development of transportation, a protective tariff, and also wanted
control over big industries and corporations. The South favoured tariff for revenue and had
dominance over the Federal government. As a result of lack of Federal support, business
growth curtailed. Meanwhile, the issue of slavery occupied a central position in the political
dimension and Northeastern businessmen and Western farmers came together against the
South. In the subsequent years, slaves were freed, and the planters’ aristocracy came to an
end. The system of wage labour was also introduced according to the new forces, against the
existing South system of slave labour. This shift of power from the hands of Southern
planters to Northeastern bankers and industrialists brought about sectional conflicts. Some
historians, especially Charles A Beard, has even spoken of the Civil War as the “Second
American Revolution.” Nearly a decade before the Civil War, slavery was the central subject
for discussion. People had different opinions about slavery. While a majority of Southerners
believed that slavery was a positive good and wanted full protection of the Federal
government, the Northerners considered it an evil and a national disgrace.
The second interpretation of the abolition of slavery is equally significant in causing
conflicts between the two state groups. With the rise of the abolitionist movement, divergent
attitudes towards slavery became intense. After the year 1815, the number of societies in

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favour of the abolition of slavery began increasing. They began by advocating gradual
emancipation, anticipating that slave-owners would themselves get motivated and free the
slaves. By the 1830s, it was noticed that planters were not willing or agreeing to voluntary
abolition. This instigated individuals in different parts of the North. They began attacking
militarily, considering the practice of slavery to be against Christianity. They also related it
against the American ideal. They wanted it to be abolished immediately.
New England, especially Boston, was a centre of abolitionist activity. In 1831, William
Lloyd Garrison began publishing his weekly abolitionist newspaper, The Liberator in Boston.
The movement then sought active support from influential people like Wendell Phillips, the
Unitarian minister, Theodore Parker, and many writers. Subsequently, the abolitionist group
began increasing in number. By 1840, there were about 2000 abolitionist societies, and nearly
200,000 memberships were claimed. Initially, even in North, the abolitionists were
considered to be dangerous radicals and troublemakers who were trying to disturb law and
order, and interfere with business. But after a few years, their stance began to be clear to the
people and their propaganda began to have some effect.
Southerners opined that abolitionist movement was an unnecessary interference with the
South’s peculiar institutes. This tension had been simmering between the two groups for
years. In later years, the tension had taken the shape of causes and conflicts, eventually
becoming political.
After 1848, the main question in front of the Southerners and Northerners was: should
slavery be allowed to expand to new territories? Most of the Northerners considered it to be
an evil institution and wanted to prevent its expansion. The Southerners, on the other hand,
were antagonistic to any proposal implying that slavery was either not a positive good or that
the Federal government had any power at all to interfere with it. They argued that they were
entitled to keep the slaves just as much as the Northerners were entitled to keep their cattle
and horses. They also claimed that since the territories were the common property of all the
people of the United States, they should be opened to the Southerners on the same term as to
the Northerners.
After decades of tensions over the issues of slavery and states’ rights, eleven Southern
states declared independence from the Union in the early 1860s. Abraham Lincoln played a
key role in the Civil War. He worked for the abolition of slavery; and on 22 September 1862
he passed the Emancipation Proclamation which freed all slaves in the United States from the
first January of the following year. The Civil War resulted in such a high death toll that it has
now become one of the bloodiest moments in American history, in terms of cost to American
lives. In 1865, at the end of this long and gruesome war, the Union emerged victoriously
under Lincoln's leadership. But on April 14, 1865, John Wilkes Booth, a Confederate
sympathizer, assassinated President Lincoln, who was attending a performance at Ford’s
Theatre in Washington. The poem O Captain! My Captain! offers an extended metaphor for
the political scenario in 1865, where the “captain” is President Abraham Lincoln, the “ship”
is the United States and the “port” is the Union’s victory in the Civil War.
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1.4 Introduction to the poem
The poem O Captain! My Captain! was composed in 1865 shortly after the assassination of
the sixteenth President of the United States of America - Abraham Lincoln. It is classified as
an elegy as it mourns the demise of the President. It was first published in the
pamphlet Sequel to Drum-Taps in 1865 alongside When Lilacs Last in the Dooryard
Bloom’d which is also an elegy and a tribute to Lincoln along with sixteen other poems that
revolved around the Civil War. It was added to Whitman’s poetry collection Leaves of
Grass in 1867. Here, it is essential that you have a brief introduction to Leaves of Grass. It
was first published in 1855 and was written in unconventional metric forms. It consisted of
twelve poems. It was a landmark in the evolution of American culture; however, its impact
was felt little until the twentieth century. Throughout his life, Whitman kept on revising and
expanding it.
You will read in the following sections that the poem celebrates the end of the American
Civil War alongside the mourning of the demise of Abraham Lincoln. It deals with victory
and loss simultaneously. You have learnt in ‘About the Poet’ section that Whitman is known
as the “Father of Free Verse”. However, the poem under consideration has a rhyme scheme
which is different from Whitman’s usual style. It has twenty-four lines with division of three
stanzas. The rhyme scheme of each stanza is aabbcded.
The poem is an extended metaphor. You will learn about the literary device as the
chapter progresses. The poem is set at a port, where people have gathered in a celebratory
mood, to welcome the victorious ship. They are excited, energetic and enthusiastic at its
sight. The people have great respect for the Captain who has managed to steer the ship
through odd circumstances and is eventually bringing it to land, safe and sound. Here you
should keep in mind that the “ship” represents the United States of America, its “voyage” is
the four-year battle in the form of Civil War, and the “Captain” who is the central figure of
the poem is the American President Abraham Lincoln.
Walt Whitman has used literary devices in abundance to justify poetic expression. The
poem highlights the speaker’s expressions in the form of an amalgam of emotions of pain,
loss and triumph over the unprecedented commotion in the country.
1.1.2 Stanza 1
O Captain! my Captain! our fearful trip is done,
The ship has weather’d every rack, the prize we sought is won,
The port is near, the bells I hear, the people all exulting,
While follow eyes the steady keel, the vessel grim and daring;
But O heart! heart! heart!
O the bleeding drops of red,
Where on the deck my Captain lies,
Fallen cold and dead.

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Summary
This stanza depicts the celebratory mood of the speaker or the sailor as the ship has
completed its tedious and long journey. It has braved the storms at sea, sailed through harsh
and difficult circumstances and is now successfully approaching the port. The scene is
exuberant and full of joy. It is a victorious moment for all and the people at the harbour are
joyous and cheerful. They are in festive spirits, which can be figured out by their loud cries of
glee and zeal. The speaker in the poem is in an ecstatic state of mind; he calls out to the
Captain of the ship to inform him that they are reaching their destination. He addresses him
as “O Captain! My Captain” and shouts that their dreadful and audacious journey has finally
come to an end. The ship has crossed every barrier and hurdle, that came in her way, with
great vigour and fervour. He acclaims that despite their atrocious and dreadful voyage, they
have achieved their reward. The speaker recalls past frightful experiences of their struggle,
which have now come to an end, turning into a prize they had been longing for. He informs
the Captain that as they are approaching the port, he can hear the tolls of the bell, indicating
their triumph at sea. He can hear the merriment of the people who have gathered at the port to
welcome them. Their eyes follow the steady vessel as they rejoice and celebrate the
exhausting journey of the ship.
But all of a sudden, the speaker experiences a colossal loss when he sees the Captain
lying dead on the deck and describes him as “cold and dead”. The Captain, the leader of the
ship, is inanimate. The blood on the deck indicates an inauspicious happening.
Critical Analysis
Here, in the opening stanza, the speaker is a citizen of the United States of America and an
admirer of President Abraham Lincoln, who has witnessed the American Civil War. The
Captain, addressed in the poem, is Abraham Lincoln, the hero of the war. He is being
compared to the Captain of the ship, and the ship is the United States herself. The long
journey which has been the central idea of the poem is one of the most horrible wars - Civil
War (1861-65), in the history of America. These three metaphors have been used throughout
the poem. Thus, the poet has devised extended metaphor in the poem to justify its spirit. The
war had changed the history of the country; it had disfigured the contour of the country. The
people had seen devastating and terrible deaths in the struggle between the Northern and
Southern states. You have already learnt in the overview of the Civil War about the causes of
the War. Here, the port symbolically represents the destination of the ship. What do you think
could be the destination of the metaphorical ship? Yes, it is peace, harmony and equality
among people. As you have already learnt, slavery was one of the leading causes of the war.
Lincoln proclaimed the Emancipation of the slaves in 1862, and a number of slaves were
freed. In 1865, the Confederates surrendered to the Union and with this Lincoln’s dream to
unite the nation was accomplished. He was re-elected as the President in 1865 but was shortly
assassinated. The unexpected assasination of President Lincoln had shaken Whitman. He was
in pain and shock.

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 The speaker in the poem was in shock when he found the Captain dead on the deck. Here
you would notice the change in the mood and tone of the speaker. The sudden loss has
brought grief and misery to the speaker, his heart shrieks in pain.
In the opening line, the speaker addresses the Captain as ‘O Captain! My Captain!’
which shows his intimate relation with the Captain. He uses the word ‘My’ which itself
stands for the possessiveness, closeness and attachment of the speaker to the Captain. Here,
you will observe the sentiments of the poet through the phrase ‘O heart! heart! heart!’ for the
Captain. Whitman has created visual imagery through the words ‘O the bleeding drops of
red’ - the reader can visualize the death scene on the deck, with the Captain’s dead body
smeared in blood. The speaker is in the same state of mind as someone who is bereaved and
experiences a sudden loss of a close relative or someone dear to him. Whitman has portrayed
Lincoln as a national hero whose death has brought great loss to the nation. His personal
sentiments have been attached to the poem. The reader sways away in the grief of the brutal
and horrible killing of the President.
Whitman has chosen the words in a manner which create a scene of sudden befallen
misfortune amid the festive mood. The shadow of death dominates the celebratory and
victorious moments and turns it into wailing.
Check Your Progress 1
a. What do you understand by 'extended metaphor'? Identify any two from the given
stanza.
b. What does the speaker mean by the ‘the prize we sought is won.’?
c. Who is the 'Captain' in the poem that the poet refers to? Why is he addressed as ‘My
Captain!’ by the poet?
1.1.3 Stanza 2
O Captain! my Captain! rise up and hear the bells;
Rise up—for you the flag is flung—for you the bugle trills,
For you bouquets and ribbon’d wreaths—for you the shores a-crowding,
For you they call, the swaying mass, their eager faces turning;
Here Captain! dear father!
This arm beneath your head!
It is some dream that on the deck,
You’ve fallen cold and dead.
Summary
The speaker is grief-stricken as he sees the Captain lying cold and dead on the deck. His
senses do not allow him to believe and accept the awful situation. He emphatically tells the
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Captain, although dead, to get up and hear the bells. He says that the bugle is being blown to
honour his tiresome journey. He also tells him that the people are hurling flags as a sign of
victory and have gathered at the port with bouquets and wreaths only and only for him. Not
only this, but he also tries to remind the Captain of his importance among the crowd, that is
eagerly waiting at the shore. They are swaying and cheering enthusiastically, oblivious to the
misery that has fallen upon them.
The speaker addresses the inert and lifeless Captain as ‘father’. He tries to raise the
Captain’s head by putting his arm beneath it, in an attempt to show the enthusiastic crowd on
the port that their Captain is no more. He is in denial and refuses to accept the Captain’s
death. He assumes that he is in a dream and is imagining the Captain fallen cold and dead.
Critical Analysis
In this stanza, the speaker displays his inability to accept the death of the Captain. Whitman
considers Lincoln as a father figure, and his death is an irreparable loss for the country.
Through the stanza under observation, you learn that the enthusiastic crowd is present at the
port to pay respect to their brave leader. The metaphorical ship, the United States of America,
has sailed through the trials and tribulations throughout the journey of the War. The Civil
War ended in 1865 in favour of the Union, which ultimately preserved the integrity of the
nation. After seeing the Captain in a horrific situation, the speaker tries to wake him up to
make him realize his importance to the country. The crowd here represents the sentiments of
the citizens of America. He also tells the Captain that the arrangements done by the people
are dedicated only to him. The tolls of bells, the sound of the bugle, the wreaths and the flags
are all for him. He is the celebrity of the moment whose arrival is eagerly awaited by the
crowd. Here, in the phrase ‘Here Captain! Dear father!’, you can observe how the speaker
pleads to the Captain, like a child or a son, to get up and see the ceremonial moment. He even
puts his arm beneath his head to raise it. The phrase ‘dear father’ metaphorically indicates
Lincoln’s status as a symbolic father of the nation. When he realizes that the Captain is dead,
he imagines himself to be in a dream, because he is so sorrowful that his mind refuses to
accept the death of the Captain.
You can also observe how Whitman has again created visual imagery through his
selection of words to make the reader picture the scene of an unexpected death of a father
amid ceremonial enthusiasm. This is well-portrayed by the words “it is some dream that on
the deck”, which shows how the speaker has lost touch with reality.
Check Your Progress 2
a. Explain the phrase ‘dear father!’.
b. The speaker has repeated the word ‘for you’ in the stanza. Elaborate.
c. Find the images from the stanza which show the festive and welcoming mood of the
people on the shore.

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1.1.4 Stanza 3
My Captain does not answer, his lips are pale and still,
My father does not feel my arm, he has no pulse nor will,
The ship is anchor’d safe and sound, its voyage closed and done,
From fearful trip the victor ship comes in with object won;
Exult O shores, and ring O bells!
But I with mournful tread,
Walk the deck my Captain lies,
Fallen cold and dead.
Summary
The speaker in this stanza realizes that the Captain is not responding to his pleas to get up and
see the jubilant people waiting for them at the shore. His attempts to wake the Captain up are
now futile. He declares that the Captain’s lips are pale and motionless, and he is now
inanimate since he cannot feel the speaker’s arm beneath his head. He also declares that his
pulse has stopped pulsating. The Captain is not alive.
After stating that the Captain is dead, the speaker now observes and declares that the ship
has been anchored safely and smoothly. She has concluded her long voyage. The dreadful
expedition is over, and the ship has reached the destination and completed her course of
horrible trip. However, the Captain is dead, and the speaker is heart-broken. Still, with a
heavy heart, he sees the scene of the excited crowd, ringing the bells. He mourns his
Captain’s death and feels lonely. It dawns on him that as the people are celebrating the
triumphant victory of the ship, he would have to walk mournfully to the port from the deck,
where his Captain’s body lies motionless, cold and dead.
Critical Analysis
In the last stanza, you will observe that the speaker has accepted the reality that the Captain
(Lincoln) is dead. To confirm one last time, the admirer (the speaker) tries to feel the
Captain’s pulse and declares that it’s silent and no more pulsating. He also notices the
corpse’s lips that have now turned pale in cold blood. Ultimately, he declares that the Captain
has no conscious. Here, Whitman writes about the scene of Lincoln’s death- one that has
caused him great misery and pain. He has intertwined the emotional complexity of the
speaker at personal level with the rejoicing people at the port.
Now, you can easily understand the speaker’s declaration in the poem through the line
‘The ship is anchored safe and sound’. The poet, Whitman, metaphorically states the end of
the Civil War in 1865. The Union of America has achieved the purpose of the struggle. The
long-standing decade old disputes have come to an end. Peace, harmony and integrity of the
nation have been restored. People of all race and creed will now gain equality and justice. All

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that Abraham Lincoln, the guiding figure during the war, had set out to accomplish, he has
fulfilled. The four years of the war have no doubt, been destructive and horrible in the history
of America, but whatever Lincoln had endeared to gain, he had achieved. The speaker in the
poem declares that the prize or the reward of all these struggles in the form of preservation of
harmony has been realized. The ‘ship’ or you can say, the country has sought its reward at the
cost of losing a father figure of the nation.
The tone of the poem suddenly takes turn when the speaker states his mourning while the
outer world is celebrating. He is in agony, and his tormented soul expresses his grief with the
phrase ‘Exult O shores, ring O bells!’ The reader empathizes with the psychological
condition of the speaker, who is dealing with such a huge loss.
Check Your Progress 3
a. In the phrase ‘My Captain does not answer’ what message does the poet want to
convey? Justify your answer by identifying the words from the stanza depicting the
scenic situation.
b. ‘Whitman has created a contrasting mood on the shore to the mood on the ship’. As a
reader, what how do you perceive the psychological condition of the speaker?
c. What significance does the phrase ‘fallen cold and dead’ have in the poem?
1.5 Literary Devices in the Poem
You are familiar with the term ‘literary devices’ and its uses in a piece of writing whether it’s
prose or poetry. They serve as a tool to find and analyze the literary meaning of a text.
1. Apostrophe: A literary device which refers a call by an individual to someone who is
dead or not present there or an inanimate object.
In the first stanza, you would have observed the phrase ‘O Captain! My Captain!’ is a call
by the speaker to the Captain of the ship who is on the deck, probably out of sight of the
speaker or far away from him. In the second stanza the situation has changed and the
Captain is now ‘unconscious’.
Further, in the phrase ‘Exult O shores’, ‘ring O bells!’ the speaker addresses inanimate
things/objects.
2. Extended Metaphor: It refers to a metaphor which has been used by the author in a
series of sentences of a prose or lines in the poems. The author takes a single metaphor
and applies it at length using different images, ideas, thoughts and subjects. Here the
poem under investigation reflects the following extended metaphors – The ‘Ship’ is
United States, the ‘Captain’ is Abraham Lincoln, the President of United States. The
‘fearful trip’ refers to the Civil war fought between the Northern and the Southern States
of America from 1861 to 1865. Similarly, the ‘prize’ is the preservation of the Union.
3. Alliteration: repetition of consonant sounds /f/ in the phrase ‘flag is flung’ and /s/ in the
phrase ‘safe and sound’.
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 a. Consonance: You will also observe the repetition of /g/ sound in the above-
mentioned phrase. Such kind of repetition of consonant sounds is called Consonance.
b. Assonance: You would also observe the repetition of vowel sound in the /i/ in the
words ‘trip’ and ‘ship’ in the first and second line.
4. Imagery: Images like ‘the bleeding drops of red’, ‘lips are pale and still’, ‘fallen cold
and dead’ are some of examples of Whitman creating visual imagery which directly
strikes to the reader’s mind.
5. Juxtaposition: The literary device to create a sharp contrast between two things side by
side for the reader to compare. Here in the poem, Whitman has made a stark contrast
between the cheerfulness and mourning in the last stanza when the speaker says ‘exult O
shores’ ‘but I with mournful tread’.

1.6 Let us sum up

In this chapter, you have learnt about one of Walt Whitman’s most famous poem, an elegy O
Captain! My Captain!. The background of the poem is set in the American Civil War (1861-
65), the four-year struggle between two groups- the Northern and the Southern States. One
critical incident that the poem revolves around is the assassination of the then American
President Abraham Lincoln on April 14, 1865. The war is considered as some of the
bloodiest days in American history.
The poem was published in 1865 after the assassination of President Lincoln by John
Wilkes Booth. The speaker in the poem is devastated with his death and highlights the
victorious journey past torturous and atrocious circumstances. At a moment when the entire
nation has united, and peace is restored, the speaker mourns the loss of a father figure of the
United States.
The use of figurative language throughout the poem expresses Whitman’s respect for the
President. The expressions of grief, mourning and lamentation mark the central idea of the
poem.
1.7 Key to Exercises
Key to Check Your Progress 1
a. The term ‘extended metaphor’ refers to a comparison between two dissimilar or unlike
things that continues throughout a series of sentences in a piece of writing, whether it is
a poem or prose. The author or poet uses the literary device to visualize an idea more
straightforwardly and clearly to the reader. In the poem, Whitman has used ‘ship’ as an
extended metaphor which refers to the United States of America. The second is the
‘Captain’ who steers the ship and plays the role of a leader. Here, the sixteenth US
President, Abraham Lincoln, is the ‘Captain’ in the poem.
b. The speaker in the poem is an admirer of Abraham Lincoln, the President of America in
1865. It was his second term as the President. The Civil War, which was fought
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 between the Northern and Southern states for four years, was now over. The decade-old
conflicts finally came to an end. The Southerners or the Confederates accepted their
defeat and surrendered. In this way, the Country’s integrity was preserved. The union of
the country (the metaphorical prize), which the poet talks about, has been sought.
c. The Captain in the poem is the United States of America’s sixteenth president,
Abraham Lincoln. He has been called ‘My Captain!’ in the poem because of his
leadership and guiding role in the American Civil War, which existed from 1861 to
1865. Just as a captain steers a ship, ensuring a safe and sound journey of the ones on
board, Lincoln ensured the preservation, integrity and peace of the nation. ‘My’ word
emphasizes the poet’s close affinity with Lincoln as an admirer.
Key to Check Your Progress 2
a. The phrase ‘dear father!’ indicates Abraham Lincoln’s stature as the metaphorical
paternal (father) figure of the nation. Here, the Captain’s immovable body makes the
speaker restless. He tries to wake him up and makes him see the ceremonious welcome
at the shore waiting for him and only him. The speaker senses that something wrong has
happened with him (Captain). The feeling of loss accentuates his grief as a consequence
of which his emotions take charge of him. He feels as if he has lost his father, who is a
hero to him.
b. The phrase ‘for you’ emphasizes that all the celebrations are for the Captain or
President Abraham Lincoln. The repetition of the words laid stress on how significant is
the personality of the President. The ribboned wreath, bouquet, flags are all to honour
him. However, the unfortunate thing is that the prominent figure of the event could not
live long to see the entire thing.
c. The speaker has used rich imagery to describe the celebration of the nation to honour
the Captain or President Abraham Lincoln. ‘Hear the bells’, ‘flag is flung’, ‘the bugle
trills’, ‘bouquets and ribboned wreaths’, ‘swaying mass’, and ‘their eager faces’ are the
imageries indicating the festive and jovial mood of the crowd.
Key to Check Your Progress 3
a. Here the poet means he has strived hard to wake the Captain up, whose body is lying
on the deck motionless, ‘cold and dead’. He does not believe his Captain’s death. But,
later upon close investigation, he brings himself to face reality. He observes ‘his lips are
pale and still’ which clearly indicate the lifeless existence of the Captain. Further, he
declares ‘my father does not feel my arm’ and ‘he has no pulse nor will’. All these point
towards an unfortunate situation that the speaker faces.
b. Whitman has exhibited a subtle selection of words in the depiction of the mood at two
different places. The crowd at the shore is in a celebratory mood. It is energetic and
enthusiastic at the sight of the ship. The ‘ship’ has emerged victorious and is
triumphantly moving towards the harbour. The gathering is eagerly and impatiently

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 waiting to welcome the Captain. The bells are ringing, bouquets and ribboned wreaths
are brought, even the flags are being hurled to pay tribute to the nation’s hero- one who
is a Father Figure for the nation. The speaker seems to be deeply attached to him. His
words ‘my captain’ ‘dear father’ stand in testimony of his feelings towards his Captain.
He believes that they have a father-son relation. But the sudden loss of his Captain has
shaken him. The Captain’s death has impacted him profoundly. He mourns at his
Captain’s unexpected death while the people at the shore are rejoicing. He values it as a
huge loss for the United States. The contradicting celebrations of victory and
lamentations of death heightens his grief to zenith.
c. The phrase ‘fallen cold and dead’ is a constant reminder of Abraham Lincoln’s
assassination shortly after the end of the Civil War in 1865. The phrase also highlights
the speaker’s sentiments and his strong emotional bonding with the Captain throughout
the metaphoric voyage of the Civil War.
Bibliography
Barton, William E. Abraham Lincoln and Walt Whitman. Kennikat Press, 1965.
Erkkila, Betsy. Whitman: the Political Poet. Oxford University Press, 1989.
Klammer, Martin. Whitman, Slavery and The Emergence of Leaves of Grass, Pennsylvania
State University Press, 1995.
Parkes, Henry Bamford. The Unites States of America: a history. Alfred A. Knopf, 1953.
Online resources
https://www.history.com/topics/american-civil-war/american-civil-war-history
https://www.pdfdrive.com/walt-whitman-blooms-classic-critical-views-e157077061.html
Poem (p. 391) taken from:
https://edisciplinas.usp.br/pluginfile.php/3985648/mod_resource/content/1/LEAVES%20OF
%20GRASS.pdf

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 Unit-3b

A Supermarket in California
Allen Ginsberg
Shreya Seth

1. Learning Objectives
After going through this lesson you will be able to:
 Understand the political inclinations of Allen Ginsberg and use that understanding for
better comprehension of the themes of the poem.
 Understand the poem as a critique of Capitalism and consumerism.
 Understand the fear and sense of exclusion felt by those whose sexuality is non-
normative.
 Identify and describe some of the literary devices used in the poem.
 Identify the main themes of the poem and critically engage with them.
2. About the Poet- Allen Ginsberg
Life history of the author/poet often gives the readers interesting insights into the nature of
work, choice of themes and treatment of the subject by the author. These become essential for
a better understanding of the text at hand. Keeping that in mind here we will look at some of
the important events in Allen Ginsberg’s journey as an individual and as an artist that become
central to his artwork.
Ginsberg was born in June 3, 1926 in Newark, New Jersey. He met his most important
creative collaborators in 1943, while studying at Columbia University; William S Burroughs
and Jack Kerouac, and the three formed the centre of the Beat Generation. The beat
generation of poets spoke actively against the conventional ideas of American life and
culture. The term beat, is a name that evokes the idea of a sound after periods of lulling down
and certain weariness that has occurred. They wrote in unrestricted, unbounded styles that
represented their true emotions instead of being burdened by structure of life and of poetry.
Allen Ginsberg described this method of creation, spontaneous writing. Beat poets attempted
to create art without being perturbed by the voice of the dominant. “First thought, best
thought”, was their principle and they attempted to avoid filters on their writing.
The beat generation writers have strong dissenting voice and some of their themes
included, criticism of capitalism, sexual liberation, eastern philosophy and religion,
experiments with hallucinogenic drugs and natural principles of mankind. They were inspired
from various artists and art forms like jazz musicians, metaphysical group of poets,
surrealists, poets like as William Blake that focused on Eastern philosophy, and Zen poetry.

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 Beat writers were extremely disillusioned with everything that followed the Second
World War. It was a time of unimaginable destruction and despair; the atrocities of the
holocaust and the use of nuclear weapons against Japan were some of the reasons of their
resentment with the powerful. The beginning of the cold war between the United States of
America and the Soviet Union immediately after the Second World War divided the world
into two political wings and created an air of political superiority of capitalism in America, it
was also ensured to silence all voices of dissent.
Personally too, he actively wrote against commercialism, materialism, lack of sexual
autonomy, arms race, military expansion, and such other problematic political issues. His
views almost initiated a counterculture that was followed by a lot of people who had similar
sentiments on governmental atrocities. Ginsberg’s magnum opus is the poem Howl in which
he openly expressed his disagreements with the capitalistic and consumerist force and also
criticized America for following this model of progress that was only concerned with minting
money. Howl was not accepted by the government authorities and it was seized in 1956 by
the police, it also later in 1957 became the subject of an obscenity trial because of its vivid
descriptions of homosexual love since this was at a time when homosexuality was a crime by
law. The poem also points out to Ginsberg's own sexual preferences and his relationships
with a number of men, including Peter Orlovsky who was his long time partner. Judge
Clayton W. Horn made the decision that Howl was not obscene and stated: “Would there be
any freedom of press or speech if one must reduce his vocabulary to vapid innocuous
euphemisms?”
Ginsberg actively participated in many a political protests and upheavals over years of
being active, including the Vietnam War, the Capitalistic Rush, Arms Race, the Imperial
Politics and the War on Drugs. The poem September on Jessore Road had an important
political theme as it called attention to the plight of Bengali refugees caused by 1971
Genocide. Ginsberg in his active political and artistic career gave the readers many a gem that
are remembered even today for their strong voice and for highlighting the capacity of a single
voice in bringing about a change against the powerful.
3. About the poem- A Supermarket in California
A Supermarket in California was first published in 1956 in Howl and Other Poems. The
poem begins with the invocation of the image of the poet Walt Whitman and later also of the
Spanish poet Garcia Lorca. Whitman guides Ginsberg inside the Supermarket which is such
an interesting contrast since Ginsberg belongs to this age and time but the directions for
moving forward in this age of Capitalism are provided to him by a man from the past.
Ginsberg prefers those guidelines than to the ones that he hears from his contemporaries as
those are natural values about humanistic aspect of individuality.
Whitman, as a character and through his philosophies is discussed quite often in
Ginsberg’s poetry, the most important of which is the Howl, but Whitman also appears in
several of his other poems. Whitman is Ginsberg’s artistic role model and he is often seen

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looking up to him for inspiration. This poem in particular was written as a mark of respect to
Whitman in the centennial year of the first edition of Leaves of Grass.
A Supermarket in California was written by Allen Ginsberg while he was living in
Berkeley, California in 1955. He wrote another one of his famous poems called A Strange
New Cottage in Berkeley on the same day as that of writing A Supermarket in California. In
both the poems he tried using the long line form, inspired by his poetic mentor, Walt
Whitman. He later used this extensively in his magnum opus, Howl. A Supermarket in
California is often called an ode to Ginsberg’s artistic hero and one of the most important
influences in his life, Walt Whitman.
This poem can be read - 1. as a critique of consumerist and capitalistic way of life, 2. as a
critique of the state and society’s refusal to accept sexual orientations other than the
heterosexual norm. All major metaphors of the poem work at both these levels of meaning,
and became major themes in his future works.
3.1 Title of the Poem
The poem takes place primarily in and outside of a supermarket in California. As a poem that
critiques capitalism it could not be better placed. A food supermarket is an indication of the
fact that capitalism is spreading at an enormous rate and commercialization has seeped into
the basic levels of our existence, even the food that we eat is served on a consumerist platter.
The supermarket is full of choices and yet it is difficult for the narrator to know what he
wants, the choices do not make life easy, they make it far more difficult. This is important
since choice is otherwise portrayed as one of the greatest assets of capitalism.
The placement of the supermarket in California is also very interesting and certainly
intentional. California is the center of commercial farming especially of avocados and
tomatoes. It is also the primary location of Hollywood, and ideal for projection of the idea of
the American dream. The rich and the famous have designated money as a source of
happiness and that is why the supermarkets of California are always brimming with the rich
families even at odd hours.
3.2 Form of the Poem and Figures of Speech
A Supermarket in California: Much like its themes the structure of the poem does not follow
traditional form of poetic construction. It does not have a fixed rhyme scheme or stanza
length.
The use of long lines in the poem is perhaps taken from Whitman’s own writing style
who is invoked in the very first line of the poem. Too much transpires within the passage of a
single line, also indicative of the uncontrollable rate of growth of capitalistic adventures.
There is also an excessive use of exclamation marks in the poem, especially in the first
stanza, this is done to indicate a sense of horror that Ginsberg feels looking at new America
and to also add almost a magic realist quality to the descriptions. The poem then can be said
to be a prose poem, which is essentially a poem written in prose form and not in the verse

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form while preserving its emotional excess and use of imagery. Allen Ginsberg can be said to
have written this poem in Vers libre that rejects the conventional norms of poetry writing like
fixed meter, rhythm, pattern etc. and is a poetic form that allows flexibility. Ginsberg begins
the poem with apostrophe and uses it frequently throughout the course of the poem.
Apostrophe is a figure of speech where a reference is made to a person who is either dead, or
not present.
‘What thoughts I have of you tonight, Walt Whitman’
‘I saw you, Walt Whitman’
‘Where are we going, Walt Whitman?’
‘and you, Garcia Lorca, what were you doing down by the watermelons?’
The largest metaphorical symbol and idea of the poem is the supermarket itself, which
becomes an indicator of the new America Ginsberg belongs to. The placement of figures of
the past here, using apostrophe adds a thematic contrast between the new and the old. The
poem ends on two mythical allusions, of Charon and that of River Lethe.
“Charon quit poling his ferry and you got out on a smoking bank and stood watching the
boat disappear on the black waters of Lethe?”
Charon is the Greek and Roman mythical figure who is the rider of the ferry which
travels across the river Styx to carry the recently deceased from the living to the world of the
dead, moving into Hades, the underworld. The Lethe is one of the five rivers of the
underworld, the people who drank the water from this river experienced complete
forgetfulness. The myth symbolizes the forgetting of the dream of the old America, and ends
on a note of pessimism.
3.3 Detailed summary and analysis of ‘A Supermarket in California’
What thoughts I have of you tonight, Walt Whitman, for I walked down the side streets under
the trees with a headache self-conscious looking at the full moon.
In my hungry fatigue, and shopping for images, I went into the neon fruit supermarket,
dreaming of your enumerations!
What peaches and what penumbras! Whole families shopping at night! Aisles full of
husbands! Wives in the avocados, babies in the tomatoes!—and you, Garcia Lorca, what
were you doing down by the watermelons?
I saw you, Walt Whitman, childless, lonely old grubber, poking among the meats in the
refrigerator and eyeing the grocery boys.
I heard you asking questions of each: Who killed the pork chops? What price bananas?
Are you my Angel?
I wandered in and out of the brilliant stacks of cans following you, and followed in my
imagination by the store detective.

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 We strode down the open corridors together in our solitary fancy tasting artichokes,
possessing every frozen delicacy, and never passing the cashier.
Where are we going, Walt Whitman? The doors close in an hour. Which way does your
beard point tonight?
(I touch your book and dream of our odyssey in the supermarket and feel absurd.)
Will we walk all night through solitary streets? The trees add shade to shade, lights out in
the houses, we'll both be lonely.
Will we stroll dreaming of the lost America of love past blue automobiles in driveways,
home to our silent cottage?
Ah, dear father, graybeard, lonely old courage-teacher, what America did you have when
Charon quit poling his ferry and you got out on a smoking bank and stood watching the boat
disappear on the black waters of Lethe?
3.4 Summary of the poem
Ginsberg begins the poem with apostrophe and uses it frequently in the rest of the poem too.
This figure of speech is when a reference is made by the poet to a person who is either dead,
or not present. The narrator, his head muddled with thoughts on Whitman decides to walk
into a neon-coloured supermarket.
‘What thoughts I have of you tonight, Walt Whitman’
The narrator, who in the poem is Ginsberg himself, has a headache, is hungry and is
hoping to buy some food from this Supermarket, he comes across too many options, more
than what he needed or wanted. He gets nothing that he seeks, things that Whitman was a
reminder of. ‘with a headache self-conscious’
‘In my hungry fatigue’
He sees entire families in the supermarket shopping gaily at not so appropriate hours
without realizing the implications of such consumerist behaviour.
‘Whole families shopping at night!’
The narrator here uses another apostrophe and refers to the Spanish poet Garcia Lorca,
who he imagines to be standing by the watermelons and questions his presence there.
In the second stanza Whitman and the narrator are walking into the supermarket.
Whitman acts like a guide and the narrator is only following his movement. Whitman asks a
lot of questions from the staff present there some of which does not make sense in the set-up
of an impersonal commercial supermarket. Everything is available in abundance but what is
not available is the human touch. The entire affair is totally mechanical, wherein you abandon
your individual identity and become one among the many consumers. One no longer has the
right to know about the food that goes on their plate.
‘Who killed the pork chops? What price bananas? Are you my Angel?’
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 They are bewildered by the options available but they continue moving about in the store
and
Whitman and the narrator pick up fancy eatables from the array of delicacies available
before them, taste them while in the market and leave the market without paying for those.
The last stanza is the final culmination of Ginsberg’s journey with Whitman, he feels
almost silly because of his illusions and yet he does not want it to end. He also contemplates
as to how long this journey can continue, since the America that they are currently in is not
the America of their dreams, and the nostalgia of the past is giving way to capitalist
advancements. He fears that very soon, even the memory of old America would be extremely
hard to come by. In this new country there is no vacant space for them to wander freely. The
poem ends with a mythical image also a reminder of the time gone by. He asks what was the
country like before “Charon quit poling his ferry and you got out on a smoking bank and
stood watching the boat disappear on the black waters of Lethe?”
Ginsberg uses two myths in these lines. Charon, is the Greek and Roman mythical figure
who is the rider of the ferry which travels across the river Styx to carry the recently deceased
from the living to the world of the dead, moving into Hades, the underworld.
The Lethe is one of the five rivers of the underworld, the people who drank the water
from this river experienced complete forgetfulness.
The myth symbolizes the forgetting of the dream of the old America, that was free from
the clutches of capitalism, where individual hopes were considered important enough to be
allowed to be pursued, unlike the mechanical existence of the present. The poem ends on a
pessimistic, hopeless tone without anything to look to in the future.
3.5 Analysis of the Poem
Whitman died in 1892 and the poem A Supermarket in California was published in 1956, the
economic and political scenario changed quite a bit in this period of about sixty years
especially because of the two great wars in between. Commercialization and consumerism
was on its peak when Ginsberg wrote his poem. Whitman in the poem acts as an idyllic
figure, and becomes a reminder of the times gone by in America where people were still
human and hadn’t been lured into becoming commodities themselves.
As the narrator walks down the streets of consumerist California he experiences a self
conscious heaviness that makes him woefully aware of the problems of the country and his
own problems with the realization that he does not belong here. The heaviness lingers
because he cannot do much to bring about change in this society as commercialization was
deeply entrenched in America.
This ‘headache self conscious’ is also because of his homosexual identity and the fact
that he cannot openly proclaim his sexual preferences. There is awareness, fear and fatigue
knowing that he would have to face the society’s ridicule, and would also be prosecuted as a
criminal under the law of the land. The ‘hunger’ is perhaps not so much for food, but for a
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sexual partner. He enters the supermarket looking for a male partner but is overwhelmed and
suffocated by happy heterosexual families of ‘Aisles full of husbands! Wives in the avocados,
babies in the tomatoes!’. He conjures up the image of the dead Whitman who was also a
homosexual, to be his companion: ‘with a headache self-conscious’/‘In my hungry fatigue,
and shopping for images’. The narrator however enters the supermarket ‘dreaming’ of
Whitman’s ‘enumerations’, faintly hoping to have a glimpse of all the values that Whitman
stood by but sadly all that he sees is only aisles and aisles of loaded commodities.
‘I went into the neon fruit supermarket, dreaming of your enumerations!’
Still in his disillusionment, disappointment and exhaustion the narrator is attempting to
find some food but the neon signed markets of California no longer have necessities,
everything here has become a commodity. There is a not so tangible but very important
difference between products of necessity and a commodity. Marx explores this idea in great
detail in the first chapter of his magnum opus Das Kapital (Capital. Critique of Political
Economy :1867) where he says that the relation between a commodity and human beings is
that of ownership and money becomes the quantifying symbol of this negotiation. The
number of commodities that can be owned are directly proportional to the money an
individual has and that becomes a matter of pride in this society.
In a set up like this one where people are equated with the number, range and price of
commodity they own, human beings end up becoming commodities themselves. Not human,
not flesh and blood but just a number. As the narrator decides to enter into the market space
he’s met with a sense of artificiality, because of the lighting, the neon-ness of the
supermarket makes it unnatural. Shopping for food is a day time activity, preferably in
natural light to gauge the freshness of food that is going to go on one’s plate. The night time
shopping for food under non-natural neon lights makes it a commercial and artificial activity,
the freshness of fruits and vegetables are understood by a label of expiry. The neon lights also
create the supermarket almost like a hallucination zone with partial light; not too much, not
too little. The presence of artificial lights can be seen as an indication of suppression of
reality, the reality people are blinded towards. A false consciousness that takes over people:
‘the neon fruit supermarket,’
Shopping at the supermarket is no longer an individual exercise of procuring necessary
commodities, but is a shared experience for entire families falling in the trap of
commercialization. Shopping is presented here almost as a fetish, all members of the family
are shopping at odd hours and the exercise of procuring food has become a commodity
acquisition. This here is a society preoccupied with the acquisition and procurement of
consumer goods. American Consumerism does not even spare the young kids; they too are
around the super market at night hours deciding on the commodity they want to own.
The choice of fruit used here by Ginsberg is very interesting, the fruits mentioned,
tomatoes and avocados are both non-native to the States, and were brought over from
different countries with a commercial point of view. Avocados came to United States in the

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19th century and have been cultivated as a successful cash crop since. Presently about 95% of
all Avocados production in United Sates is carried out in California. California, therefore has
clearly been a centre of commodification of food through commercial farming, where crops
aren’t used to sustain oneself or one’s immediate community but to earn profit. There is
another important aspect of commercial farming; the farming is capital intensive and totally
mechanized. From the planting to the harvesting there is hardly any human intervention.
Food in a system like this becomes a commodity immersed in the aspects of the market, the
buying and the selling. People as a result are not aware of the history of food that goes on
their plates and remain disconnected with such an important component of life. This is in
direct contrast to Whitman’s probing set of questions about his food
‘Who killed the pork chops?’
‘What price bananas?’
‘Are you my Angel?’
All the questions indicate his confusion in the new set up that he is placed into; he does not
understand the reason for such an overwhelming variety of choices and gets lost in attempt to
find the products that he needs and understands. He asks about the butcher to know as to
where his meat comes from, re-asks price of a commodity when supermarkets have clearly
marked labels of the price and even adds an personal touch while talking to the sales person
(my angel), all enquiries that have no requirement and rationality in this new world. This is
no longer the time where people could know where their food came from and how was it
priced. In capitalist America food was also commercial and so were the negotiations with it.
The people now run after food that is ‘fancy’ and sought after. This can also be later observed
in a sarcastic reference in Stanza II, where Ginsberg and Whitman are picking up ‘fancy
tasting artichokes, possessing every frozen delicacy’, food that they don’t understand but still
want to taste as almost like a revenge against this increasing, untamed consumerism
To contrast with the image of the happy family another reference is made to a litterateur here,
Garcia Lorca
‘and you, Garcia Lorca, what were you doing down by the watermelons?’
The poet seems to question Lorca’s presence in this supermarket that is a symbolic of
heterosexual way of life and creates no space for people like him. Lorca was a Spanish poet
and playwright, who apart from being a poet was also a political activist and was killed at the
start of the Spanish civil war by right wing nationalists primarily for being a homosexual.
Presence of Lorca in conformist space highlights this dichotomy that exists in the poet’s mind
between having the right to choose his sexual orientation and also trying to conform to the
ways of the society. It also indicates the lurking danger the stands behind Ginsberg because
of his non conformist sexual orientation.
Ginsberg’s other political affiliations were also similar to Lorca’s and he too supported
the left cause and the political movement in other countries including Spain that he had

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written about in a couple of his poems from the same volume. Apart from the political
inspiration, Ginsberg also admired Lorca for his writing, in terms of his choice of subjects,
unabashed sense of making political statements and the non conformity to the rigid structural
order of poetry writing.
Whitman becomes narrator’s guide in this visit to the supermarket. Whitman’s poetry
represents a romantic fervor where individual ideas and aspirations were acknowledged and
not denied and reprimanded as non-conformist. This acknowledgement of the humanistic
aspect of each individual became synonymous with the image of America in his times.
Whitman is a figure of nostalgia reminding the narrator of everything that is lost and perhaps
can never be restored.
Whitman is referred to as childless, since he didn’t fit in the idealized propagandist
image of the American family fulfilling the American dream. Whitman was homosexual, so
was Garcia Lorca who was invoked in the first stanza which was also became the reason of
Lorca’s assassination. The narrator who seems to echo all personal sentiments of Ginsberg
himself is a homosexual man too. For these men and many others like them there is no space
of existence in America because the grander narrative refuses them a space and only allows
heteronormative sexual relations. Their existence is in the ‘penumbras’, “what peaches ,what
penumbras”, it is only in the shadows that they can be their true self and it is only the
shadows that knows about their real existence. The society tells them that theirs is an act of
shame, the darkness of the shadow is to keep it away from public eye.

Check your progress

1. What are the images used in the first stanza of the poem to highlight consumerism in
America?
2. What thoughts does the narrator have of Walt Whitman? What values of America is
Walt Whitman a reminder of in the poem?
3. What inferences can be drawn from the reference made to Garcia Lorca in the poem?
‘Walt Whitman, childless, lonely old grubber’
The connection then between these three poets is not just literary and they are also be
connected by the idea of being outcast in the very same country they were born into. He
would get ‘old’, ‘lonely’ and ‘childless’ just like Whitman.
The reference to homosexuality are also inferred through the sexual innuendoes in the
poem, Whitman is said to “pok[e] among the meats in the refrigerator”, an informal slang for
sexual interactions between men and is said to be eying the grocery boys to specify his
homosexual attraction towards men. The subsequent mention of meat could be to refer to a
bodily carnal desire.
‘Are you my Angel?’

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 The question that Whitman asks could also be seen as a homosexual advance that he’s
trying to win over the other homosexual’s attention and love.
This question, Are you my Angel? Might also be possibly alluding to The Angel of
History by Walter Benjamin who predicted the end of individuality with the progression of
the modern era, he called it the end of civilization since human would stop existing only
prototypes would remain.
The presence of Whitman in this commercialized, consumerist set up serves a great
contrast between the two Americas, the one of the past where individuality had a space and
this one of the present where the ideas about humanism find no space. The placing of
Whitman is also interesting because he does not seem to adjust here because he does not
belong to these times, he existed in the past but the narrator even though is very much a part
of his times does not embody the spirit of the times at all.
The narrator imagines following Whitman and strolling from one aisle to another,
procuring the ‘fancy tasting artichokes’ and ‘possessing every frozen delicacy’ without going
to the cashier to pay for those. This act of not paying is a small act of rebellion, making a
statement about neither being trapped in the commercialization of self, nor paying heed to the
growing role of money in this society.
While the non- paying seems a small lighthearted act, there is still the lurking fear of
being caught by the “store detective” that the narrator imagines has been following him. This
fear could also be a larger fear of being persecuted for not fitting in the idea of capitalist
America, both into its values about commercialization and also in terms of their sexuality.
This thought could be a reassertion of the fear first visible in the reference of Garcia Lorca in
the previous stanza.
Check your progress
1. What is the relevance of the questions that are posed by Whitman? How does it
highlight the difference between the America of the past and the present?
2. Why do Whitman and narrator decide to leave the supermarket without paying? What
does it indicate?
3. Why is Whitman called ‘lonely’ twice in the stanza? How does that relate to a personal
fear that Ginsberg himself has?
The idea of getting late comes in the first line of the third stanza, ‘The doors close in an
hour...’, but it is not just the Supermarkets that will close down but it is also that the
possibility of recovering back old America that would close. The progress towards capitalism
is at such an enormous pace that hope of change seems very bleak. All people with very few
exceptions like himself are entering into the capitalist mindset, very few remember the
America of the past, the America that Whitman belonged to, that did not have ‘blue
automobiles in the driveways’.

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 The sense of urgency and the uncertainty of the future is Ginsberg’s extremely real
predicament, when people move even further in the process of Commercialization, would
they even remember the America of the past that lives and thrives in him?
He also realizes the absurdity and the futility of his vision, it can never become a reality,
and it is only an illusion. And the Whitman figure accompanying him will also have to leave;
when that happens the only connection that Ginsberg has with the old America will also end.
He realizes that as time moves forward in the capitalist fervor the conjuring of the nostalgic
dream would start becoming impossible and he does not want his journey with Whitman to
end.
Ginsberg understands that there is absolutely no place for him and Whitman to wander
around and discuss the vision of their American, there is no solitary space left where
humanistic aspect of individuality can be allowed to flourish, where people weren’t so
obsessed with possessions.
‘Will we walk all night through solitary streets?’
Is this hope for lost America pointless then, Ginsberg wonders and starts to think that he
would die a lonely man, just like Whitman. Here, there are subtle elements of homosexuality
that can be observed because being lonely is also indicative of not having a family, the ideal
family painted by the American capitalist manifesto, all members trying to fulfill the
American dream, together and separately.
‘we'll both be lonely’
‘lonely old courage-teacher’
Whitman was a hero that attempted to transform, tried to change the redundant ideology
of people and focused their attention to individual aspirations instead of collective
homogenized and stifling capitalist growth. But America has forgotten its past, and Whitman
remains stranded forever besides the river of forgetfulness, he is a forgotten hero. And with
him all his teachings are also lost from memory. The intrinsic value of people and things
without the question of the market value is lost, it is no a longer part of this world order. A
capitalist society presents a hegemonic set of choices, and any alternate point of view is out
casted and even stigmatized. Everything that doesn’t follow order has to be forgotten or the
status quo kills the voice and gets rid of it completely, standing besides the river of
forgetfulness are also these alternative voices, echoes and sounds.
The poem that begins with a sign of hope as Ginsberg starts dreaming of Whitman
leading him, is lost in utter despair in the final imagery of the poem. Being led towards
underground, standing besides the river of forgetfulness are all signifiers of America. The
country in its rush to expand and achieve more political and economic growth would forget
its noble heroes like Whitman, lose all its natural values and proceed towards a doom that
will have no light at the end of the tunnel.

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Check your progress
1. Why there isn’t space for Ginsberg and Whitman to roam freely and quietly on the
streets of America anymore?
2. Why did Whitman die lonely, is that a foreboding on Ginsberg’s own future?
3. What are the myths used in the final stanza of the poem, how is that a comment on
changing state of America?
3.6 Conclusion: This poem was originally written as a tribute to Whitman for the
centennial year of Leaves of Grass’s first edition, today however it is remembered for much
more than that. It is remembered and referred for its unique style of writing called a prose
poem, for it is one of the most prominent critiques of consumerist culture and for it being a
text that points to America all that is wrong in its capitalist journey; all these inspired in
lesser or greater degrees by Whitman himself.
Whitman in his poetry dealt with the problems associated with exponential growth of
industrialization and the impact it has on the individuality of human beings. He saw this
progress towards gaining more and more wealth as detrimental to growth of humans with
personal and unique aspirations, only machines could come out of such growth model.
Ginsberg took these ideas forward in his works, becoming a prominent figure of criticism of
the Capitalist model of economic functioning. Ginsberg also acknowledged his homosexual
orientation openly and also found personal solace in Whitman’s story of struggle with his
own sexuality.
The poem thus can be considered an ode to Walt Whitman whose art and philosophy was
Ginsberg’s guiding light.

Bibliography
https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poems/47660/a-supermarket-in-california
https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poets/allen-ginsberg
https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poets/allen-ginsberg
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Supermarket_in_California
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allen_Ginsberg
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howl
https://www.sfgate.com/homeandgarden/article/California-tomato-capital-of-the-nation-
3199159.php?utm_campaign=CMS%20Sharing%20Tools%20
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avocado#Production
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tomato
The Essential Ginsberg (Penguin Modern Classics)
Allen Ginsberg (Penguin Modern Classics)

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 Unit-3c

Langston Hughes
Section-1
Tina Borah

1. Learning Objectives
After going through this lesson, you should be able to:
 Describe in brief the life of the poet and the things that he was involved in during his
creative years.
 Understand the concerns of the Afro-American community during the Harlem
Renaissance and the connection between the poems, Harlem Renaissance, and oral
tradition.
 Identify and describe the main themes of the poems
 Critically engage with the poems and discuss Hughes as a poet of the masses.
2. Introduction
2.1 Biography
James Langston Hughes was born in Joplin, Missouri on February 1st, 1902 to James
Nathaniel Hughes and Carrie Langston Hughes. A strong liking for literature ran through his
maternal family and it is perhaps from here that James Langston Hughes picked up on it and
inherited this liking. His mother wrote poems and used to deliver monologues in costumes at
a lot of events. His maternal grandfather Charles Howard Langston and his brother were men
of words and influenced James from an early age.
The poet’s father James Hughes was a law student and finished his education in the
distance mode much like you all. He even wanted to sit for the Oklahoma Territory bar
examination but was denied permission to do so by an all-white member examination board.
Denied proper employment in Oklahoma, James moved with his wife to Joplin in the hopes
of finding some employment. Life was not easy on the Hughes family. They had to deal with
the loss of losing their first child in 1900 and Langston Hughes was born two years later. The
financial burden was like a tight noose around the Hughes family and poverty was looming
large. To be able to provide for his family and support an 18-month-old baby Langston,
James Hughes left the United States of America and moved to Mexico in the hopes of finding
better employment. Langston and his mother stayed back in the States and received money
from their father from Mexico. Carrie Hughes, Langston’s mother too worked in many
irregular jobs, moving from one city to another in the hopes of finding any employment she
could lay her hands on. Young Langston usually did not accompany his mother and was left
with his maternal grandmother Mary Leary Langston. From the age of nine, he started living

99
together with her in Lawrence, while his mother and father were away for work. He did
occasionally meet his mother at Topeka or Colorado and even accompanied her to Mexico to
visit his father in 1908.
Langston in his younger years lived a hard life with his grandmother, who unlike most
women in Lawrence did not do domestic service to sustain them. Instead she used to rent out
her rooms to the students at Kansas University. Langston developed his love for books from a
noticeably young age. Indeed, it was in 1907 when he went to meet his mother in Topeka, he
got the chance to visit a library. He took an instant liking to it because he could borrow books
from there without having to pay for them. After his grandmother died in 1915, he lived with
his mother Carrie briefly, before moving in with his mother’s friend, Auntie Reed, and her
husband. By this time, his mother had married a man called Homer Clark. But he had to
move seeking job opportunities hence he never lived with them for an extended period.
Hughes secured his first job as a lobby and toilet cleaner in an old hostel near his school,
when he was in the seventh grade. His experience during this job helped him in writing the
poem ‘Brass Spittoons’, later in his life. Hughes moved to Mexico in the summer of 1919 to
live with his father but did not like his materialistic outlook which made Hughes depressed
and even suicidal. From then on in 1921 he joined Columbia University, despite his father’s
wishes for him to join a European university. He did not like the educational environment in
the University and started missing most of his classes to attend Broadway shows and even
picked up many odd jobs to sustain himself. It is here that he first got drawn towards the
African American literary and cultural revival movement which would later be called the
Harlem Renaissance.
This is also the time when Hughes started publishing major literary pieces in popular and
noteworthy literary magazines. The Brownie’s Book carried two of his poems in 1923, he
wrote a one act play for The Gold Piece in July of the same year. He wrote ‘The Weary
Blues’ in 1923 which was later developed into an anthology of poems with the same title.
This was also the year when Hughes took a trip by sea to Africa. He worked on the ship that
he was travelling on, to pay for the travel and upon first setting eyes on the continent, he felt
a deep sense of connection to it and called it ‘My Africa, Motherland of the Negro’. He later
visited Paris and Italy in the same year.
The years 1924 and 1925 were professionally very productive for Hughes as he was
published in quite a few magazines and articles were written about him in newspapers in a
favourable light. He also won a poetry prize in 1925 which eventually led to Carl Van
Vechten getting few of his poems published in the form of an anthology named The Weary
Blues from Alfred A. Knopp in 1926. The anthology was well received amongst the critics
and had mixed responses. Alain Locke, one of Hughes critics who reviewed the anthology
called him ‘the spokesperson for the black masses.’ Hughes joined Lincoln University in
Pennsylvania in the spring of 1926 and he wrote one of his finest poems, ‘Mullato’ while
being a student at this University. The poem appeared in the Saturday Review of Literature. It
dealt with a very real subject of ‘White fathers and Negro mothers in the South’, which
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Hughes had very closely observed as someone who had lived in the American South. He
finally graduated from Lincoln University in 1929 and an earlier meeting with a patron called
Charlotte Mason proved to be beneficial for him in publishing his works; like his first novel
Not without Laughter. It was published in 1930, which was unfortunately also the year when
Hughes and Mason’s professionally relationship became strained because of their difference
in viewpoints about matters related to politics and race.
It was from here on, at the age of 30 that Hughes finally decided to earn his livelihood as
a full-time professional writer. This decision would not have come at a better time for him as
in 1931 he received a thousand-dollar grant from the Rosenwald Fund. He used the fund to
travel to many Afro-American colleges in Southern America, which in turn deepened his
commitment towards racial justice and the literary expression of the same.
The period of 1932 to ’34 was very productive for Hughes and he earned a lot, thanks to
his substantial literary output. When the Spanish War broke out in 1937 Hughes started
working with a daily named the Baltimore Afro-American as a correspondent and it is during
this stint that he met many American writers like Hemingway and critics like Malcolm
Cowley along with novelist Andre Malraux and poet Pablo Neruda, who were also visiting
Spain around the time.
Hughes was actively working in the sphere of socio-politics and literature right until his
death in 1967. He founded the New Negro Theatre in 1939, Los Angeles and was able to
publish a part of his autobiography titled The Big Sea in 1940. In 1951 he published his book-
length poem Montage of a Dream Deferred which is also sometimes referred to as Harlem.
The poem has a very jazzy poetic form to it and focusses on his experiences in Harlem and
the Afro-American community residing there, the Harlem Renaissance and the subsequent
result of the movement. The second part of his autobiography titled I Wonder as I Wonder
was published in 1956. Following that he wrote Ask Your Mama in the year 1961 which was
a satirical take on the inequalities prevailing in the American society. Hughes was also a
highly active participant of the Black Arts Movement and the Civil Rights Movement of the
1960s. Hughes had a long and eventful career which finally came to an end in 1967 but his
legacy and his believes lived on. Even at the very end of his life, he registered at the
Polyclinic Hospital in New York with the name James Hughes to ensure that he did not
receive any special treatment because of his literary status. He finally passed away on May
22, 1961 in the same hospital after admitting himself on the 6th of May.
2.2 The Harlem Renaissance
Harlem Renaissance much like the name suggests, was in a way a rebirth movement which
aimed at providing a space for Black voices to articulate themselves. While the movement
does not have a clear cut starting and ending date, it can be considered active from 1919 to
that of mid 1930s. One of the major events that sparked its beginning was the publication of
the magazine named, Opportunity: A Journal of Negro Life. It started to die down after the
stock market crash of 1929. The movement initially was known as the New Negro

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Movement. It was later renamed the Harlem Renaissance because Harlem, an Afro-American
neighbourhood in the New York City was the epicentre of the movement.
Harlem, the place had majority Afro-American people who settled down in the place
after having migrated from the American South. This was a safe haven for many in the
community who had run away from the horrors of slavery in the Southern states. The ones
who had little education could get jobs here without racial discrimination and the educated
class made Harlem the centre of Afro-American culture and literature. The major
contributing factors behind the Harlem Renaissance were the Great Migration of Afro-
Americans from the South to the Northern states, the gathering of ambitious young Black
minds in a place which felt safe, gave them a base to grow and share their ideas without fear
and the industrial revolution, which brought in work opportunities for a large number of
people. The reason why this movement died down was because of the Great Depression
which rocked the American economy to its core.
Langston Hughes was one the leading thinkers and writers associated with the Harlem
Renaissance. This was also because he had lived in Harlem first-hand and was writing about
these experiences in his works which in turn influenced the African American community at
large. He had a strong sense of racial pride and was instrumental in shaping the political and
literary basis of the movement through his contributions. He argued for racial pride and
artistic independence in the Manifesto-essay, named ‘The Negro Artist and the Racial
Mountain’, published in the journal Nation. He also underlined the need for equality and
condemned racial discrimination along with writing for the celebration of Afro-American
culture, heritage, music, humour, and spirituality. Many of his poems espoused the same
sentiments. Indeed, the first two volumes of his poetry, The Weary Blues and Fine Clothes to
the Jew, very skilfully used the rhythm associated with jazz and blues music which came out
from black music.
2.3 African Folk Music and Langston Hughes
His love for music was almost a natural phenomenon as an African American poet. He was
interested in African folk music too. Blues and Jazz rhythms were constantly used by him in
his poetry. The Blues was a type of music which has its origin in Africa and in the 20 th
century America. The blues are simple and elemental. They capture the deep depths of
feeling of the African American race which had historically faced the horrifying reality of
slavery, along with capturing the deep sense of anguish at discriminatory practices that the
community is subjected to. It mainly developed as work songs amongst slaves who worked in
plantation sites or labourers who had an Afro-American descent. So, the genre has been
predominantly associated with people of the African American community.
Langston Hughes was one of the poets who captures the mood in the blues and jazz
rhythms within his poetic expression. Indeed, when one reads his poems out loud, it almost
sounds like blues song being sang. He used the genre of music in his poetry from the very
onset of his literary career. One of his first poems published in 1923 was named The Weary

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Blues. The poem is infused with the African American ethos and has a piano player talking to
his piano about his sorrows and pain. The speaker is alone, but he has a conversation with the
piano. This talking and playing the song on his piano helps him deal with his anger that he
keeps bottled up against his white oppressors. This is also the way he attains peace of mind.
The theme of releasing pent-up emotions by the Afro-American community and the
importance of it comes up again in another poem ‘In a Troubled Key.’ Herein, a lover
expresses his hurt and pain at being ditched and ill-treated by his lady love. Blues music
hence was a recurring motif and form that Hughes used in his poetry. In the collection named
Shakespeare in Harlem published in the year 1942, Hughes included a set of poems called
‘Blues for Men’.
2.4 Hughes association with the Black Arts Movement
Started by the African American writer Amriri Baraka, better known as LeRoi Jones, The
Black Arts Movement or the Black Aesthetics movement was a powerful aesthetic side of the
Black Power movement. It started in the sixties and was also based out of Harlem with Jones
establishing the Black Arts Repertory Theatre/ School (BARTS). The movement made
important contributions to both African American literature and the American literature as a
whole. It was thanks to this movement that African American individuals started to establish
their own publishing houses, magazines, journals, and art institutions. Indeed, after this
movement was launched, African American studies began to be taught in universities across
the United States. Apart from Langston Hughes, the prominent figures that were associated
with the movement include Nikki Giovanni, Sonia Sanchez, Maya Angelou, Hoyt W. Fuller,
and Rosa Guy.
The movement achieved an important goal in revolutionizing the American literary
canon by including within it the voices of the oppressed. Before this the voices of the ethnic
and racial minorities were not given a place in the mainstream literary discussions. But after
the movement, the American literary canon became more diversified. Genres like theatre,
poetry, dance, and music from the racial and ethnic minorities received greater attention,
thanks to the movement.
Hughes played an especially important role of the catalyst to this movement during the
1950s and 1960s. He was at the forefront of promoting the movement through his dramas,
essays, and short fiction. Apart from this he also actively worked towards promoting the
careers of young militant Black artists by helping them out emotionally, practically, morally,
and financially. He also made sure that he talks about the movement and the work associated
with it. He wrote as a constructive critic and discussed both about the new black writings and
the responses of some of the artists, activists, and intellectuals of his generation towards the
works of the new writers. His writings reminded the young artists and writers of the
movement of the long history of radicalism in black arts and culture and while at the same
time criticised the older writers for being too critical against the new Back radicalism and
forgetting the radicalism of their times and their own radical youth.

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2.5 The poetic theory of Langston Hughes
All poets are influenced to one level or another by their predecessors. The same is true for
Langston Hughes. Walt Whitman, Mark Twain, Harriet Beecher Stowe and WEB Du Bois
were few of the writers who had influenced Hughes writings. Hughes connected with the fact
that these writers talked about humanity and a sense of freedom and justice. Hence, Hughes
strived to incorporate these very ideals in his own works too.
As a poet who lived through the High Modernist period of literature, his poetry however
was refreshingly simplistic and musical. Unlike many Modernist poets like T.S Eliot, Hughes
poems were very easy to understand but had strong messages of social and racial equality in
it. So, despite writing in the 1920s and 30s, his poems and works were simplistic and were
comprehensible to the general masses. This plain and direct style of writing was a
characteristic feature of American Literature since a long time and this no doubt influenced
Hughes to write his own works too following a similar pattern. For instance, he was
impressed by Whitman’s direct and democratic writing style and Mark Twain’s presentation
of the African American experience in the Adventures of the Huckleberry Finn. He liked the
fact that some of the older American writers presented the dialects used by lower classes and
the African American populace in their works. He felt the same about Harriet Stowe’s Uncle
Tom’s Cabin which was published in 1852 for its representation of the slavery and bondage
system in America and how it affected the lives of African American people. He appreciated
the moral implications that the novel presented. Hughes appreciated Stowe for being a writer
who dared to place human morality at the centre of her art and tried to use literature for
serving the broader interests of humanity. Similarly, Hughes was drawn to Du Bois because
of his intellect, education, integrity, and commitment to a cause.
When one looks at the huge canon of work produced by Hughes, including his poems, it
is clear to notice that these writers, their plain style, and contemporary themes influenced
Hughes to a large extent. But even more than that, he drew from his first-hand experience of
being an Afro-American living amongst prejudice and discrimination. This and his leaning
towards leftist ideology helped in shaping his creative outlook. Also, his use of Afro-
American folk music and culture together with his understanding of the importance of giving
a voice to a group of people who have been silenced historically, is what makes his literary
aesthetic stand out. While his poetry advocates for a more equal society, it never once speaks
in favour of hate or violence against the white population. His works explores the African
American component of the human experience. It is because this deep exploration of the
human experience coupled with his way of dealing with the colonial experience is what
makes him a prolific writer.
3. Analysis of Poems
3.1 AUNT SUE’S STORIES
This poem ‘Aunt Sue’s Stories was first released in a collection of poems under the titled The
Weary Blues in 1926. The poem introduced a unique poetic device which grounded his status
as one of the major contributors to the canon of American literature. In the poem he
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experimented with the common folk idiom which used the spoken word and was accessible
and easily graspable by the common people. He set a precedent for using blues and jazz
music and rhythm in poems written for the masses and speaking about their problems and
issues. Along with developing and employing the technique of poetry through musical
rhythms, the poem is even more interesting because it deals with folklore of the Black
society. The poem is a recitation in the oral tradition of the struggles of the black community
in America. It is about remembering through each passing generation and passing down those
memories using folklore. Herein, both the performer and the storyteller is Aunt Sue, who is
upholding the tradition of American oral folklore.
Stanza 1
Aunt Sue has a head full of stories.
Aunt Sue has a whole heart full of stories.
Summer nights on the front porch
Aunt Sue cuddles a brown-faced child to her bosom

And tells him stories.

Aunt Sue is the storyteller in this poem. She is an older relative and is telling a young child
the stories that fill her head and heart. Stories which are not fairy tales or imaginary myths,
but actual stories which she experienced in her lifetime. Hughes paints a very believable
picture of the scene and infuses it with a picaresque quality of a Southern summer evening.
He also draws in from his own experiences of living with his grandmother and his aunt, who
might have told him similar stories when he was a young boy. Much like Hughes, the child
was never enslaved and were born free, but they learn about this traumatic past through the
retelling of the stories from the elder lady of the community. Aunt Sue’s stories are narrated
with an intermingling of the head and the heart. These are facts of live that she experienced,
hence she remembers them in her head but they also mean a lot to her emotionally and by that
extension to the others in the community who have gone through slavery and hence her
‘heart’ too is full of these stories. The readers are immediately drawn into the poem and they
become emotionally invested, much like the child who is listening to the stories. By reading
the poem, the readers become complicit in the act of listening to her stories.
1. Why are stories important that are being told by Aunt Sue
2. What does the phrases ‘head full of stories’ and ‘heart full of stories’ indicate?

Stanza 2
Black slaves
Working in the hot sun,
And black slaves
Walking in the dewy night,

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She recalls the days of slavery wherein the slaves were made to work, day and night for the
benefit of their white masters. There is tension visible in the lines which comes from the
sadness of remembering a traumatic past with that of passing down an important facet of their
history to the younger generation. The ‘work’ here points towards the physical labour that
was put in by the African American community in building the nation of the United States of
America. It also symbolises the hard ‘work’ of the child’s predecessors which made it
possible for him to be born as a free person in the States.
Check your progress
1. What does the work symbolise here?
2. Why is it important for the child to hear what the ‘black slaves’ did?
Stanza 3
And black slaves
Singing sorrow songs on the banks of a mighty river
Mingle themselves softly
In the flow of old Aunt Sue's voice,
Mingle themselves softly
In the dark shadows that cross and recross
Aunt Sue's stories.

The songs of sorrow are kept alive through the stories of Aunt Sue. The songs of the
ancestors ‘mingle’ with Aunt’s Sue’s stories. They both belong to the same oral tradition
through which generations remember and recite their histories by the means of songs and
stories. The genre of blues is a part of this oral tradition. The songs of sorrow and happiness
from the slaves of the past became music which captured and expressed their emotion. This is
how the blues which literally meant ‘sadness’ came to be recognised as a genre of music and
storytelling of the Black community. Hughes is attempting to place his poem within that
same oral tradition. The symbol of the ‘mighty river’ is also very important in recalling the
ancestral past of the Black community which had deep connection with mighty rivers like the
Nile, the Congo, the Niger and even the Mississippi, at whose banks they were sold as slaves.
You will read more about this is the poem ‘The Negro Speaks of Rivers’. The stanza also
throws light upon how trauma of slavery and the fear of oppression passes down from
intergenerationally. The shadow of discrimination continues to haunt the next generation. By
sharing the stories of the past Aunt Sue makes sure that the next generation remembers. By
listening to these stories, the younger generation ‘cross and recross’ paths with their ancestors
and learns to remember the history of enslavement but also to look forward and work towards
a new future grounded in equality.

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Check your progress
1. Why is the mingling of the ancestral songs and Aunt Sue’s stories important?
2. What does the symbol of the ‘mighty river’ symbolise?
3. Why is the ‘cross and recross’ important?
Stanza 4/5
And the dark-faced child, listening,
Knows that Aunt Sue's stories are real stories.
He knows that Aunt Sue never got her stories

Out of any book at all,

But that they came
Right out of her own life.

The dark-faced child is quiet

Of a summer night
Listening to Aunt Sue's stories.

The child realises that these are not stories from books but are in fact the histories of his
previous generations. His Aunt has gone through this reality of slavery. Also, while the
storyteller is the Aunt, the protagonist is definitely ‘the dark-faced child’. He is the one who
listens to the stories, connects with his ancestors and their history, and finally preserves the
memory of their past. This way the hardships that they faced are given a meaning and he is
the new torchbearer of the hope that was being carried forward by his ancestors. The fight for
equality is not over yet, and he will have to look back at past experiences to take this fight
forward for a better future.
Check your progress
1. Why are the stories not from book?
2. Why is it important for the ‘dark-faced’ child to listen to the stories?

3.1.1 Critical reception

The critic Glenn Jordan in the article titled ‘Remembering the African-American Past’ talks
about the importance of the concept of ‘collective memory’ in understanding the literature
and works produced during the Black Arts movement in the 1920s, also known as the Harlem
Renaissance. This poem is a great example of the use of ‘collective memory’ for passing
down knowledge through generations. In analysing the poem ‘Aunt Sue’s Stories’ Jordan
points out the use of a speaker who is an elder of the community and a woman. This serves
the purpose of narrating the experience of slavery from the point of view of a doubly
subordinated group within that of the Black community. The women along with facing the
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violence of slavery also faced a worse fate than that of the men in terms of violence against
them in the form of rape and abuse. Hughes’ use of the voice of an elder and a woman to
share this ‘collective memory’ with the next generation in such a way is his way of
underlining the importance of preserving the community’s history while at the same time
radiating away from the feelings of angst or anger towards the White community in the
present. What he focussed on instead of hating a particular community was the need to fight
against systemic discrimination, together as a society.
Critic Saddik Mohamed Gohar in his article ‘Subverting the History of Slavery and
Colonization in the Poetry of M. Al Fayturi and Langston Hughes’ talks about the use of an
elder figure of the community too. Her stories perceived by the listeners and by that extension
the readers of the poem with a great deal of respect because she ’never got her stories out of
no book at all’ but instead gets them from the experiences that she had first hand, unlike a
white person who might have written about them by reading and observing them from a
removed vantage point. Gohar is hence of the view that Hughes’ poetry was an attempt to
revive and rewrite the history of the Black community and their experiences with slavery
from the first-person viewpoint of the oppressed. Hence, most critics who have analysed
Hughes poetry have also recognised the theme of a recurring collective memory of the slave
past in the poetry of Langston Hughes. After all Hughes was writing for a demographic of
young African American audience who had no first-hand experience of the trauma of slavery.
He wanted them to learn the ideals of the past generation. A generation which lived through
the reality of slavery for almost three decades and fought for their equal rights. By learning
about their history and the past ideals, the new generation could find strength to fight for a
more equal society for everyone. In doing so, this new generation of activists and Black
youth can forge a renewed ‘American identity’ where everyone had an equal stature.

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 Section-2
Dikshya Samantarai

3.2 THE NEGRO SPEAKS OF RIVERS

I’ve known rivers:
I’ve known rivers ancient as the world and older than the flow of human blood in human
veins.

My soul has grown deep like the rivers.

I bathed in the Euphrates when dawns were young.

I built my hut near the Congo and it lulled me to sleep.
I looked upon the Nile and raised the pyramids above it.
I heard the singing of the Mississippi when Abe Lincoln went down to New Orleans, and I’ve
seen its muddy bosom turn all golden in the sunset.

I’ve known rivers:

Ancient, dusky rivers.

My soul has grown deep like the rivers.

3.2.1 Introduction
This poem was written in 1920 by Langston Hughes when he was merely 19 years old. This
is his first published poem. Hughes wrote this keeping in mind the erasure and
marginalisation of black people from world history. Through this poem he places his
community in historical spheres hitherto unacknowledged by major white historians. White
Americans often viewed their dark skinned counterparts as less than humans and in this poem
Hughes offers concrete proof of historical equality. By using the larger metaphor of rivers
where civilisations were first created, he talks about how black people should be a part of the
mainstream historical narrative. Negroes have been always been around, be it in
Mesopotamia, or Egpyt, or Congo and modern day America. Racism was rampant in the
America Hughes was writing in. African Americans were emancipated from slavery on paper
but the attitude towards people of colour remained largely discriminatory. The poem is
narrated in first person, with “I” echoing the views of Hughes and representing a universal
person. He places the individual in the universal space, thereby carving out a space for
himself and his marginalised race. Through the reference of ‘ancient’ rivers, the poet is
constructing the genealogy of his community by locating their experiences and interaction
with these ‘ancient’ rivers thus drawing a comparison of civilizations to establish equality.

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3.2.2 Summary and Analysis
Lines 1-3
The poem begins with the speaker talking about his relationship and acquaintance with rivers.
Rivers have existed right from the day our civilisation began. Some of the most important and
ancient human settlements began alongside rivers. These rivers have to been witness to
human history and the speaker is familiar with their legacy. The poet compares the blood that
flows in our veins to the flow of these timeless rivers. They have been there even before we
were created as a race.
In line 3, the poet likens his soul to the depth of these rivers. His mind is now aligned
with the history that these rivers have witnessed. It is as if he is now one with these
historically significant rivers and can feel what they have felt till today.
Lines 4-7
These next four lines all begin with an “I”. He is basically situating himself in historically
important events to provide credibility to the role of “negroes” in building the world as we
see it today. He begins with the river Euphrates where he says he took a bath when humans
were fairly new to the world. One of the longest rivers of the world, Euphrates runs through
the south of Turkey and enters Iraq. Babylon, one of the kingdoms of Mesopotamia was
constructed on the banks of Euphrates.
Next he talks about Congo which is the second longest river in Africa. It is deeply etched
in the making of the African nation as the river runs through the Democratic Republic of the
Congo, The Republic of Congo and Angola. The poet lived in a hut near the Congo and slept
to the soothing rhythm of the river nearby.
Then he talks about the longest river of the world, the Nile. He and his people were part
of the workforce who build the pyramids for the Egyptians and lived alongside the Nile while
crafting history. The entire Egyptian civilisation depended on the Nile for their livelihood. So
even if white people do not want to give any credit to the contributions of the black people,
Hughes is making sure to change the written history.
In the next line, he talks about the river Mississippi which flows in North America. He
talks about Abraham Lincoln and his trip to New Orleans through the river. As a child,
Lincoln used to guide a boat in the river and witnessed slavery firsthand. He passed the
Emancipation Proclamation in 1862 that played a huge role in transforming the lives of
millions of African Americans.
The poet also mentions how he saw the muddy river turn golden during sunset. This
shows that it doesn’t matter how muddy or dirty the waters are, they can still change. It can
be a reference to the lives of African Americans which was equivalent to dirt for the white
masters. Now, they had a voice and change was the order of the day.

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Lines 8-10
These lines are a repetition of the first three lines with slight changes. He reasserts how he
has always known these rivers all his life. This also goes on to stress how black people’s lives
have always had multiple dimensions not talked about before. Because of the connection he
has with these extremely crucial rivers which have served as lifelines for many civilisations,
he is able to concretise his race’s presence through them. He is proud of his race and all these
dusky and ancient rivers bear testimony to African people’s elemental role in continually
shaping human history. The concluding line is an exact repetition of line 3 where the poet
reiterates how his soul is as old and as deep as the rivers he talked about.
3.2.3 Critics Comments
William Hogan in Roots, Routes, and Langston Hughes’s Hybrid Sense of Place says:
In “The Negro Speaks of Rivers ,” Hughes develops a theory of racial
community whose strength derives not from geographical isolation, but from
movement, from cultural flow between communities of color across both
space and time.
The river, both deep and “ancient as the world,” is on one hand a symbol of
rootedness; it is part of the earth, a feature that connects culture to place. Yet
the river also flows, connecting the ancient cultures of Egypt and Africa with
post-emancipation African America. And while the river’s flowing movement
might seem the opposite of rootedness, Hughes brings the two characteristics
together. Indeed, in the logic of the poem, the flow of the river reinforces the
strength of black culture in the United States, nourishing it with history and
continuity. With the image of the river, with its connotations of movement,
rejuvenation, rootedness, Hughes creates a picture of black culture that is both
steeped in tradition and vibrantly able to reinvent itself when necessary.

In The Origins of Poetry in Langston Hughes Arnold Rampersad argues that “personal
anguish has been alchemized by the poet into a gracious meditation on his race, whose
despised (“muddy”) culture and history … changes within the poem from mud into gold.”
In The Life of Langston Hughes, Vol. I, Rampersad says, “With its allusions to deep dusky
rivers, the setting sun, sleep and the soul, “The Negro Speaks of Rivers” is suffused with the
image of death and simultaneously the idea of deathlessness.”
Check your progress:
1. What motivated Hughes to write a poem about the ancient rivers of the world?

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 2. How is discrimination against African Americans intricately connected to the identity
of the poet?
3. Has America progressed in the contemporary world with regard to racism?
3.3 THE SOUTH
The lazy, laughing South
With blood on its mouth.
The sunny-faced South,
Beast-strong,
Idiot-brained.
The child-minded South
Scratching in the dead fire's ashes
For a Negro's bones.
Cotton and the moon,
Warmth, earth, warmth,
The sky, the sun, the stars,
The magnolia-scented South.
Beautiful, like a woman,
Seductive as a dark-eyed whore,
Passionate, cruel,
Honey-lipped, syphilitic —
That is the South.
And I, who am black, would love her
But she spits in my face.
And I, who am black,
Would give her many rare gifts
But she turns her back upon me.
So now I seek the North —
The cold-faced North,
For she, they say,
Is a kinder mistress,
And in her house my children
May escape the spell of the South.
3.3.1 Introduction
Langston Hughes is essentially an American poet of Afro-American origin. His
belongingness is extremely important to understand the context of his poem–“The South”.
Through his poem, Hughes has expressed his resentment towards the mentality which
plagued the Southern states of America as well as his love for the landscape and ambience of
the place. It depicts a kind of love and hate relationship Hughes shares with the South and it
forces him and his people to seek refuge in the North. Leaving the South wasn’t an easy

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decision for the African American slaves as it had been their home for more than two
centuries. They were forced to flee the South. Racism was rampant in North as well but it
was the lesser evil of the two.
Historical Background
In the pre-twentieth Century America, the states were divided on the issue of slavery and the
status of Afro-Americans. While the Northern states were in the favour of abolishing slavery,
the Southern States wanted to continue the tradition of slavery. This political difference
between the two regions was caused by the difference in economy. The economy of Northern
states was based on modern economy i.e. Capitalism and Industrialization. On the other hand
Southern States’ economy was Agrarian in nature. While the Northern States treated both
Afro-Americans and Whitemen equally, the economy in Southern States was based on racism
where the Afro-Americans were forced to work in field in poor conditions. Such mentality
was a product of slave trade introduced in the world after European conquest of Africa. The
Africans were bought and sold in the market for labor work. They were reduced to nothing
but property. ‘Natally Alienated’ and ‘Socially Dead’, they were degraded to a work force
that had no option but to serve their owners/masters. For generations, these slaves were
treated as outsiders but as their roots grew stronger, they were recognized as Afro-Americans.
However, they were yet to be recognized as citizens. Their only social position was that of
property which did not possess any agency of rights.
The Southern States detested Afro-Americans and viewed them as property. The
difference in treatment of Afro-Americans in the North and the South was largely responsible
for the difference in perspectives. Owing to the political conflict, the two states turned against
each other when the bill to abolish slavery was introduced in American Parliament. This was
the immediate cause of American Civil War where the Confederate States of America
clashed with the United States. The latter emerged as winners and finally slavery was
abolished from the American States. However, despite the desperate efforts of the state, the
mentality could not be changed for a long time. Therefore, even though the Confederate
States were defeated, the people did not accept the freedom of Afro-Americans. This forced
the Afro-Americans to seek refuge in the Northern States. In order to get rid of
discrimination, they migrated to the Northern States from late 1800 to early 1900s. It was
believed that the Northern States were a better place for the Afro-Americans since they
recognized their right of freedom.
3.3.2 Summary and Analysis
Lines 1-5
The first two lines use personification to describe how The South is a laid back, easy going
merry place who is unaware of the blood it carries in its mouth. This is a reference to the
Southern Elite who led lavish carefree lives as all their work was done by the slaves they
kept. These elite people did not care to think of these slaves as human beings, let alone

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citizens of the state. They carried the blood of torture on these same mouths through which
they laughed out loud
In the next three lines he says that the South is a warm place, it looks like a beast when it
comes to strength but when it comes to having a mind of its own, it is an “idiot”.
Lines 6-8
Hughes compares The South to that of a small child who is fickle, indecisive, mischievious
and unable to move forward. The North held a patronising stance towards The South. For the
North, the states of the South were unable to progress for the better of the world. The
southerners thought of slaves the same way the north was thinking of the south. For the
southern elite, the slaves were children entirely dependent on their masters for survival.
Hughes is turning using this age old patronising view against the South by calling it “child-
minded”. They did not want to let go of slavery and adopt human decency. Although the
world was changing its views on African Americans, the South was still searching for the
bones of the Negroes in the “dead fire’s ashes”. The South kept on harassing the slaves and
was rigid in its views.
Lines 9-12
Now, suddenly the poet’s tone changes to love and longing for the south, opposite to that of
hatred in the first 8 lines. He talks of the moonshine and the white cotton that grows in the
fields, the radiance and warmth the climate has to offer and the fragrance of magnolias that
grew in abundance there. Although the poet begins with acknowledgement of the racial
injustice and harsh reality that the south has to offer for the African Americans, he cannot
stop himself from describing the beautiful landscape and imagery that The South has to offer.
Lines 13-17
These lines move in and out of attraction, love and hatred, dislike. In the first line, he likens
the south to that of a beautiful woman but this woman is suddenly transformed into a
prostitute who is very attractive and seduces men. She is both brimming with passion and
burning with cruelty. Her lips are sweet but to kiss them is to get infected with syphilis. The
poet is basically lured by the agricultural and fertile bounty the south has to offer. But to stay
means to torture oneself with the inhospitability and cruelty of the masters and the extremely
discriminatory Southern society.
Lines 18-22
Now, he further extends the metaphor of calling The South a seductress. To the poet, the
South is not just a seductress, she is someone who ensnares people with her beauty and
bounty and then crushes them to death by rejecting them. The poet wants to actually give her
all his love but she vehemently rejects this love by spitting in his face. Although his identity
is that of a black man, he would like to shower her earth with gifts. But he faces outright
rejection just on the basis of his appearance. His entire race is rejected by the South because
for her, they are nothing more that slaves.
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Lines 23-28
Post this unfair rejection faced by the poet and his race, he is forced to turn the North, who is
also not entirely welcoming but is better that the south in some ways. In the North, people
were against slavery but racial discrimination continues in many other ways. The poet and the
African Americans had to chose the north and it was only a little kinder mistress that the
south. Even in the north, they had their fair share of struggle to carve a place for themselves.
In this ordeal to leave their homes in search of better opportunities and treatment, the African
Americans were torn between the both in their minds. Their attachment with the South
remained etched in their minds even if they had to live in the North.
Check your progress
1. Why is a comparison drawn between the North and the South of the United States of
America?
2. Do you think the poem is both a personal and a universal depiction of the struggle
faced by African Americans?
Bibliography
 Atmore, Henry. “Langston Hughes.” The Cambridge Companion to American Poets,
edited by Mark Richardson, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2015, pp. 286–
299. Cambridge Companions to Literature.
 Bloom, Harold. Langston Hughes. Blooms Literary Criticism, 2008.
 Gohar, Saddik Mohamed. “Subverting the History of Slavery and Colonization in the
Poetry of M. Al-Fayturi and Langston Hughes.” Western journal of black studies 32
(2008): 16.
 Hogan, William. “Roots, Routes, and Langston Hughes’s Hybrid Sense of Place.”
Bloom’s Modern Critical Views Langston Hughes New Edition, edited by Harold
Bloom, Infobase Publishing, 2008, pp. 183–202.
 Hughes, Langston. ‘Aunt Sue’s Stories’, in The Weary Blues. New York: Alfred A.
Knopf, 2015, pp 39.
 Jordan, Glenn. ‘Re-membering the African American Past’. Cultural Studies, Taylor
and Francis, 2011, 25:6, pp. 848-891, DOI: 10.1080/09502386.2011.605269.
 King, Isabella. “Study Help: ‘The South’ by Langston Hughes - Owlcation -
Education.”
 Owlcation, 10 Mar. 2017, owlcation.com/humanities/Study-Help-The-South-by-
 Rampersad, Arnold. The Life of Langston Hughes. Oxford University Press, 2002.
 “Poem Analyses.” The Collected Poems of Langston Hughes,
collectedpoemsoflangstonhughes.weebly.com/poem-analyses.html.

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  “Poetry for Students”. . Encyclopedia.com. 11 Aug. 2020 .” Encyclopedia.com,
Encyclopedia.com, 1 Oct. 2020, www.encyclopedia.com/arts/educational-
magazines/negro-speaks-rivers.

Suggested texts for further reading

1) Berry, Faith. 1983. Langston Hughes, before and beyond Harlem. Westport, Conn.: Hill.
2) Chinitz, David.1996. “Literacy and Authenticity: The Blues Poems of Langston
Hughes”, Callaloo, vol. 19 (1), pp. 192.
3) Emmanuel, James. 1967. Langston Hughes. New York: Twayne.
4) Mikolyzk, Thomas. 1990. Langston Hughes: A Bio-Bibliography. New York:
Greenwood.
5) Miller, Baxter. 1989. The Art and Imagination of Langston Hughes. Lexington:
University Press of Kentucky.
6) Rampersad, Arnold. 1986-1988. The Life of Langston Hughes. 2 vols. New York:
Oxford University Press.
7) Tracy, Steven. 1988. Langston Hughes and the Blues. Urbana: University of Illinois
Press.
8) Waldron, Edward. 1971. “The Blue Poetry of Langston Hughes”, African American
Review vol. 5 (4), pp. 140-149.
9) Wasley, Aidan. 1998. “An Overview of ‘Mother to Son’, in Poetry for Students.

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 Unit-3d

(i) Perhaps the World Ends Here

(ii) I Give You Back
Joy Harjo
Shriya Pandey

1. Introduction
Joy Harjo was born at Tulsa, Oklahoma on May 9th, 1951. The Native American tribe
Muscogee of Harjo’s ancestors comprised of people from the period between the Upper
Paleolithic and the Neolithic known as the Mesolithic period1 living in the Western
hemisphere. The indigenous spirit of exuberance and resonance echoes through the
multiplicity of an artist who is a woman of mettle. Mettle in her poetry and songs translates as
a euphoric beat and mellow sounds of traditional native Flute, Saxophone and sheer joy of
celebrating the humanness and wisdom of indigenous tribes which does not tuck away
benignity.
Harjo in her work I Give You Back (1983), discusses the internal dialogue with self of
winning over the gloom that has set in because of a discord experienced due constant failure
to rearrange her words as placid and shrinkingly subservient. The lines from one of her oldest
poem are a testimony of a woman who believes in the heart and its power to surpass
hopelessness without giving into the terror of being erased from the Contemporary American
Literary History2, few lines from her poem I Give You Back:
“I am not afraid to be angry.
I am not afraid to rejoice.
I am not afraid to be black.
I am not afraid to be white.
I am not afraid to be hungry.
I am not afraid to be full.
I am not afraid to be hated.
I am not afraid to be loved,
to be loved, to be loved, fear.”

Harjo’s poetry as well as songs are an epistemic modal of a Native American memory
which resists the flow of time. In her blog Harjo talks about the Alto Saxophone which is a
major component of her musical rendition where Harjo pens her Kinship with the modern
contemporary culture and indigenous roots, “The saxophone is so human. Its tendency is to
be rowdy, edgy, talk too loud, bump into people, say the wrong words at the wrong time. But

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then, you take a breath, all the way from the center of the earth and blow. All that heartache is
forgiven. All that love we humans carry makes a sweet, deep sound and we fly a little.”
(Harjo, 2017)

Letter from The End of Twentieth Century (2003), is an album by Harjo in collaboration
with five other tribal artists where she uses the saxophone to chart an elysian canvas drawing
from the idiosyncrasies of Jazz music, percussive and reggae/rock3 along with her sense of
poetic justice, harmony and mythologies. The distilled words used by Harjo acknowledge the
spirit of poetry conjuring the vibration of words to articulate a subterranean region. Harjo is
amongst few of the contemporary American artists such as Jim Pepper, Jim Morrison, Kat
Onoma, Laurie Anderson to name a few, who have employed the genre of “spoken-words &
music”.4 The two bands Harjo is a part of currently are named Aerodynamics and Poetic
Justice.
In an interview given to The Howard County Poetry and Literature Society, The Writing
Life (2008), Barbara Goldberg questions Harjo regarding her induction into the field as a
visual artist who does not distinct between Song, dance and poetry as for her all these forms
of art are “intermingled” to which Harjo replies as, “They’re really all connected. I think it’s
in this, this society that separates. But they all came into the world together.” Harjo’s
fascination with polarities and Muskogee/Muscogee culture is evident in her work as an
artist.
 Check your Progress
1. What do you know about Jazz genre in music?
2. Elucidate on your understanding of Contemporary American History.
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1.1 Learning Objectives
This lesson will enable you to understand:
1. Joy Harjo and her poetry
2. American Contemporary Literary History
3. American Indigenous Tribes
4. American Colonization and literary influence
5. American Post-colonial literary works of indigenous artist
6. Native American Renaissance
1.2 The Life of Joy Harjo
Joy Harjo became the first Native American poet to be named the 23rd Poet Laureate
Consultant in Poetry to the Library of Congress on June 19, 2019. Joy Foster (Birth name)
grew up at the edge of the Civil Rights movement (1954-68) and the Native Rights
Movement5. Harjo is one of the four children born to Wynema Baker Foster of a mixed race
ancestry (of Irish, Cherokee and French) and Allan. W. Foster who belonged to the Muscogee
tribe. Harjo is an alumni of Institute of American Indian Arts, Bureau of Indian Affairs
school and later on completed her major from University of New Mexico.
Harjo has taught in various institutions from American Indian Arts, the University of
Colorado, the University of Arizona, the University of Mexico and is currently employed as a
faculty in the University of Tennessee. She is an enrolled member of Creek Tribe and has
published more than nine books of poetry, a memoir titled Crazy Brave (2012), several plays,
children’s books along with native memory encoded in several albums of music. She has
amassed various accolades from the Ruth Lily Prize for Lifetime Achievement from Poetry
foundation (2017), Wallace Stevens Award (2015), Creative Bravos Award (1996), American
Book Award and the PEN center USA prize for creative nonfiction (2013) and the list goes
on in appreciation of a woman who speaks her heart.
The work of Harjo exudes an understanding of the finer threads of life that are
interconnected imbibed in the voices of wisdom and spirituality of her native tribe. The oral
tradition of storytelling is an integral part of her artwork, words for Harjo are houses in which
resides the spirit of her land and its native tribes. In an article titled An Art of Saying (1995)
Joy Harjo and Mary Leen pen a grounding narrative of interconnectedness between poetry
and oral culture, which develops on the idea of “spoken words and music”:
In oral culture, storytelling maintains and preserves traditions. It takes listeners on a
journey toward a renewal of life, a common survival theme in Native rituals and
ceremonies. Older generations pass on stories told when they were young. Thus,
storytelling knits a new generation into the fabric of generations gone. This act serves
as a “gentle survival” tactic-a productive way to fight extinction. The poet Leslie

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 Ullman (1991:180) has written of the active role of storyteller in Harjo's In Mad Love
and War:
“[H]er stance is not so much that of a representative of a culture as it is the more
generative one of a storyteller whose stories resurrect memory, myth, and
private struggles that have been over- looked, and who thus restores vitality to
the culture at large. As a storyteller, Harjo steps into herself as a passionate
individual living on the edge.”
Harjo’s work is complicit to an altruism which deluged in its understandability of
modern fragments is a firm believer of humane. The artist playing for Poetic Justice is
incessantly adrift to hark to the words in solidarity not just with the indigenous tribes but also
the spirit of nature and feminine. Ecology and feminism are recurrent motifs of the poetry
written and songs sung by Harjo. The aesthetics of an artist cognizant of the feminine motif
of ecology bespeaks in her description of “earth spirit” in Secrets from the Center of the
World (Harjo and Storm, 1989:54):
“Don't bother the earth spirit who lives here. She is working on a story. It is the oldest
story in the world and it is delicate, changing. If she sees you watching she will invite
you in for coffee, give you warm bread, and you will be obligated to stay and listen.
But this is no ordinary story. You will have to endure earthquakes, lightning, the
deaths of all those you love, the most blinding beauty. It's a story so compelling you
may never want to leave; this is how she traps you.”
Harjo is also associated with the second wave of Native American Renaissance 6 that
burgeoned after the implementation of the Indian Self Determination and Educational
Assistance Act of 1975. The literary compositions of the period are distinguishable in their
ambiguity and ambivalence towards a more globalized Native American Identity, that has to
reapportion itself not just in the reservation but also outside of it after being granted the civil
rights and enfranchisement. This Morning I Pray for My Enemies (Harjo, 1995) ingeniously
evinces the feeling of enquiring into the fissures. In an interview with The Howard County
Poetry and Literature Society, The Writing Life (2008) Harjo shares her views with Barbara
Goldberg regarding the poem:
“I don’t want to get entangled in more mess. Yeah and you know I don’t want. I want
to find a way of clarity to work through very chaotic human situation. So, this one
addresses the heart and I didn’t know where the poem is going to go.”
Harjo’s work is imbued with self-expression that is conscious of the spatio temporal as
well the power of listening to the people and the heart.
 Check Your Progress
1. Write a few words about the activism of Joy Harjo.

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2. Poems
2.1 Perhaps the World Ends Here
2.1.1 Introduction
The poem was first published in 1994 in the fourth volume of poetry titled The woman
who fell from the sky (ed. 1996). In a message given by Harjo to Washington Post (2020) she
incandescently views the Kitchen Table as a space which witnessed catharsis intricately
spelled out in search of harmony:
“The very early years of my growing up were the best because my parents were there
and we had a kitchen table. My mother was a good cook and I remember making
ginger bread…my father would go hunting… bow hunting for deer…everything kind
of revolved and I noticed it still does, it revolves around the kitchen, that’s where
there’s always this connection between food and stories [and]. So right now we’re
kind of all of us are sequestered by you know, I hope not by fear but yeah for
protection. You know in our homes around the kitchen table.”
The poem is written in free verse and revolves around a material imagery of Kitchen
Table whilst enquiring into the humane that in its outstanding vivacity is obliged to the
indigenous wisdom of harmony. Sarah Wider elucidates on her view regarding the metaphor
of kitchen table while discussing about her book The Art of True Relations: Conversations on
the Poetic Heart of Human Possibility (Ikeda and Wider, 2014):
“A poem that in many ways belies its title, you have a poem that says perhaps the world
ends here…is it going to be apocalyptic poem, end of the world poem? She goes on to use
this metaphor of kitchen table and how this is where [the] life begins; this is where life ends.
It encompasses all of human life and holds the best of humans and it can at times hold the
worst of humans. As wonderful, beautiful imagery where this kitchen table is so welcoming
that babies feel free to teethe on it but there are kids playing under it and they scrape their
knees, that people may come to the table brokenhearted. But at this table you are put back
together again. It’s a place to dream and that’s where you might have your dreams drink
coffee with you which again is one of those images that brings it so close to home because for
many of us, you know, one of our lovely memories is drinking your tea or drinking your
coffee. At a table with people who support you in what you dream for and what you aspire
[to]. So much emphasis for the kitchen table was placed on community, on a space that was
open, that was welcoming that you could bring your whole self too. But you didn’t feel like
you had to check any part of yourself at the door…wonderful capacity for listening and that
you would have this open hearted listening that wouldn’t be judgmental…opportunity to
imagine how we might bring these kitchen tables with us everywhere we go. So that we could
live in a much more life affirming community and a place that would allow us each to be our
best selves and to do the work that would really heal this world.”

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2.1.2 Lines 1 to 4
The world begins at a kitchen table. No matter what, we must eat to live.
The gifts of earth are brought and prepared, set on the table. So it has been since
creation, and it will go on.
We chase chickens or dogs away from it. Babies teethe at the corners. They scrape
their knees under it.
It is here that children are given instructions on what it means to be human. We
make men at it, we make women.
The Kitchen table becomes pivotal in conjuring the subsequent imageries of fluidity of
time passing through people and captured by the moment in memories. The idea of making
men and women in the table by giving instruction derives from the moral or ethical principles
of harmony and wisdom by indigenous elders who have been witness to the horrors of
colonial and post-colonial power and greed. “We must eat to live” is reflective of a tenor
situated in an era of constant deconstructions and further enquiries by a poet who is fighting
for the visibility of her native land. The gifts of earth are located in a conscience of a woman
who is affronted by the deteriorating climatic conditions and conditions of native women as a
class.
2.1.3 Lines 5 to 11
At this table we gossip, recall enemies and the ghosts of lovers.
Our dreams drink coffee with us as they put their arms around our children. They
laugh with us at our poor falling-down selves and as we put ourselves back together
once again at the table.
This table has been a house in the rain, an umbrella in the sun.
Wars have begun and ended at this table. It is a place to hide in the shadow of
terror. A place to celebrate the terrible victory.
We have given birth on this table, and have prepared our parents for burial here.
At this table we sing with joy, with sorrow. We pray of suffering and remorse. We
give thanks.
Perhaps the world will end at the kitchen table, while we are laughing and crying,
eating of the last sweet bite.
The “End” in the title of the poem subsumes a beginning of consonance in Harjo’s words
“This table has been a house in the rain, an umbrella in the sun.” The web of memories is
recited and encoded in a space that is buzzing with the action which albeit mundane is yet
profound in its humanness. A table of possibilities situated in the Kitchen is an ingenious
metaphor by a woman poet who dislocates the idea of immensity which is phallocentric and
euro-centric. The humble abode becomes the very core of the spiritual and emanates a deep

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wisdom that burgeons from a space which otherwise has been relegated to the feminine and
the familial. Perhaps the world will end here and begin anew as a space more “life affirming”
and “we give thanks” to this warmth which is life eternal. The eleven lines in the poem are of
varied length and use free verse to sketch the movement of life which is nonlinear and subject
to the birth, teething, war, laughter, burial and tacitly placed around the Kitchen table.
 Check Your Progress
1. What are your views regarding Kitchen Table as a metaphor?
2.2 I Give You Back
2.2.1 Introduction
Harjo in an interview with Barbara Goldberg discusses her views about her poem I Give
You Back (1983) for The Writing Life (2008), The Howard County Poetry and Literature
Society:
“One of my oldest poems and it’s a poem that was a gift to me because it was
something that I needed. As a young writer is somebody really getting going. I didn’t
come to poetry naturally…I loved singing and songwriting, it is related. My mother
loved to write songs and I think that’s what she passed on to me and songs for me and
poetry are synonymous.”
In other interview via email with Rob Casper titled A Larger Context that Reveals
Meaning: An Interview with Poet (2020), Harjo verbalizes her meaning for the poem:
“Rob Casper: At this moment, are you thinking of/turning to any poems of yours or
others?
Joy Harjo: About four in the morning a few nights ago, when I knew this question
was going to be asked, I thought of what I call “the fear poem,” or “I Give You
Back.” It was a poem “given” to me not long after I started writing poetry. I came to
realize how much I needed it, and how it came forth and had a life that was larger
than that intimate space in my heart where poetry lives. And as I am thinking about it,
there are some lines that can be revised with substitutions of the reader’s own. It’s the
line, “I give you back to the soldiers . . .”. Those lines could contain the reader’s own
list of what is stunning them with fear…This is straight out of the Mvskoke/Muscogee
tradition of writing poems/songs to directly transform what might be harmful to you
or the people. I am reminded of the Kiowa poet N. Scott Momaday’s poem, “Prayer
for Words,” a poem that will be published in the forthcoming anthology, When the
Light of the World Was Subdued, Our Songs Came Through: a Norton Anthology of
Native Nations Poetry. (It is due out from Norton in August.) It is a poem written to
ensure the poets and those who speak with the intent of poetry have the words they
need. We need the right words now.”

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 The poem. I Give You Back was first published in the year 1983 by W.W Norton &
Company (first edition 2008) and in How we became Human: New and Selected Poems
(2002). The poem is in veneration of the indigenous elders who were enslaved and dislocated
by the colonial powers and were brought to near erasure had it not been for the Native Rights
movement and Civil Rights Movement. The racially discriminating Jim Crow regime and
unrest recorded by the Civil Rights Movement was a defining moment in the U.S. history as
it delineated the futurity of the ideological framework for the Social Movement Theory of
America. The works such as There is a River (1983) by Vincent Harding and Black
Liberation (1955) by George Fredrickson have to an extent shed some light on the
unconstitutional prejudice being eradicated because of the unity and belief in a salutary
world. The white supremacist groups such as White Camellia and Ku Klux Klain according
to Aldon D. Morris in the journal article A Retrospective On the Civil Rights Movement:
Political and Intellectual Landmarks (1999):
“Used intimidation; force, ostracism in business and society, bribery at the polls,
arson, and even murder to accomplish their deeds.”
The Civil Rights Movement (1954-68) became a significant marker in the American
Contemporary history because of the advent of modern communication technologies and its
impact on the visibility of Black Protest movement and propelling various other grass-root
movements. The Native Rights movement had already shaped itself since 1829 after the
colonization of America in 1492 and forced removal of the indigenous people from their
ancestral land. The discriminatory policies of the government and one sided treaties which
served as a scaffold for forced assimilation of Native American population was an
indispensable part of the voices speaking against the oppression by the colonial power. The
1871 Indian Appropriation Act ended the autonomy of Native nations by legally pronouncing
them as Domestic dependent nations. It was in the year 1924 that Indigenous people were
granted U.S. citizenship under the Indian Citizenship Act ensuring protection of individual
rights. Even before the uprising witnessed after the assassination of Martin Luther King Jr in
the year 1968, the American Civil War (1861-65) and Native activism concretized the
platform for the colonized and enslaved masses under the colonial rule of the British empire.
The echo of which was strongly felt in the protest against Indian Termination policy by the
federal government of the U.S in the 1954 which safeguarded forced assimilation of the
native tribes into mainstream American society. The Indigenous Rights Movement is an
ongoing process and cannot be delineated a fixed period in the history. Yet, the Civil Rights
Movement and the Indigenous Rights Movement are corollary in waging their war against
poverty and discrimination.
2.2.2 Lines 1 to 7
I release you, my beautiful and terrible
fear. I release you. You were my beloved
and hated twin, but now, I don’t know you

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 as myself. I release you with all the
pain I would know at the death of
my children.
You are not my blood anymore.
The lines above are a testimony of a poet who is speaking against the injustice
perpetrated on her tribe by the colonial power and an artist who has overcome fear in order to
speak truth. The personification of fear “beloved and hated twin” as an addressee is compact
with the idea of heart and humanity. The polarization of self and fear, “You are not my blood
anymore.” harkens to the conscious which is despondent because of the increasing poverty
and crimes by children of God against one another.
2.2.3 Lines 8 to 15
I give you back to the soldiers
who burned down my home, beheaded my children,
raped and sodomized my brothers and sisters.
I give you back to those who stole the
food from our plates when we were starving.
I release you, fear, because you hold
these scenes in front of me and I was born
with eyes that can never close.
The narrator challenges the self and appreciates it for its determination by
acknowledging the “eyes that can never close”. The eye here is grieving the history of
subjugation “who stole the food from our plates when we were starving” and is imbued with
the feeling of elation by releasing the fear and scenes that are grievous and heinous. The eye
and I of the narrator are a promissory note to the indigenous tribes.
2.2.4 Lines 16 to 28
I release you
I release you
I release you
I release you
I am not afraid to be angry.
I am not afraid to rejoice.
I am not afraid to be black.
I am not afraid to be white.
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 I am not afraid to be hungry.
I am not afraid to be full.
I am not afraid to be hated.
I am not afraid to be loved.
to be loved, to be loved, fear.
The repetition of “I release you”, “I am not afraid” and “to be loved” gives the poem its
aesthetic quality of classical enunciation. The specificities brought in through adjectives such
as angry, hungry, white, black, full and loved are juxtaposed with a verb rejoice which speaks
of carpe diem as well as a wakeful awareness of ethical codes which are independent of fear.
2.2.5 Lines 29 to 40
Oh, you have choked me, but I gave you the leash.
You have gutted me but I gave you the knife.
You have devoured me, but I laid myself across the fire.
I take myself back, fear.
You are not my shadow any longer.
I won’t hold you in my hands.
You can’t live in my eyes, my ears, my voice
my belly, or in my heart my heart
my heart my heart
But come here, fear
I am alive and you are so afraid
of dying.
The poem ends with an enjambment where the narrator repeats “my heart” consecutively
charting an imagery of renunciation of fear that the narrator senses is “so afraid of dying”.
Fear has been expelled from narrator’s self who claims to “take herself back”. The narrator
understands the “shadow” of fear is no more than an illusionary idea which has gripped her
soul because she gave fear the leash over herself. The narrative also is an internal monologue
of an artist who is penning down a eulogy for her indigenous elders. The realization of having
a sense of coherency between the heart and mind impregnates the poem with a sense of
triumph and exuberance.
 Check Your Progress
1. What is the narrator giving back in the poem and why?

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3. Notes (Subscript)
1. Mesolithic Period
The Period is often referred to as a period between the late stone age and new stone age
classified as Neolithic period. The terms have been etymologically established by the works
of researchers in the fields of arts and science. In literary history we constantly see the
reference to it in the form of mythologies, for example it is quite possible the idea of Centaur
as is widely placed as half horse and half human in the epics and literary works alike is akin
to a beginning of pastoral way of life which the advancement of age comes to signify for
declining stone age which is referred to as Upper Paleolithic period synonymously also late
stone age. Harjo’s use of percussive has long withstood as being associated with the Stone
age of occident representing Harjo’s indigenous elders.
2. Contemporary American Literary History
The contemporary American Literary History is often associated with the period after the
turn of 19th century that saw the decline of imperial rule and establishment of an independent
United States. The American History of enslavement and removal from ancestral land also
became a major component of the contemporary literary history influencing the artwork
which recorded various grass-root movements like the Indigenous Rights Movement, World
War I (1914-18), World War II (1939-1845), Cold War (1947-1991) and branching of
Existentialism into Absurdism. The influence is visible in the work of Harjo in the form of
constant enquiries and dialogue with self and a realization of spinning in circles as she also
verbalizes in her interview with HoCoPoLitSo for The Writing Life (2008) by Barbara
Goldberg. Harjo formulates the meaning of writing poetry as unidimensional referring to her
poem Today I Pray for My Enemies:
I didn’t Know where this poem is going to go. I don’t know where they are going to
go…
3. Jazz Music, Percussive and Reggae/Rock
Jazz music is a genre of popular music that developed in the early 1900s in the States and
is associated with underground music of the period composed by Black or African American
artists. Percussive are the instruments which are used to create the sound tempo vibration of
two objects struck together. Reggae/ Rock is a fusion of Reggae and Rock music.
4. “Spoken Words & Music”
The genre of music can be traced back to the oral tradition of tribal history. The words
are given more prominence than the sound effect created through musical instruments.
Usually the beats match the tempo of the spoken words and it is the words that delineate the
pattern of the music composition. This genre of music gained popularity in the late 1980s and
early 1990s.

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5. Refer to section 2.2.1.
6. Native American Renaissance
Native American Renaissance (1983) by Kenneth Lincoln first introduced the term in the
American Literary History. Subsequently, the literary movement shaped itself into waves
distinct in theoretical composition of artist and artistic style. The first wave of Native
American Renaissance was influenced by the likes of Leslie Marmon Silko who were
building on their cultural past. The second wave of artists such as Joy Harjo who seemed to
be more responsive to the multicultural palette of changing literary dimension shaping the
Native American literary and cultural identity.
4. Interviews
a. Published in TIME by Olivia B. Waxman
September 2, 2019
“Waxman : You found your voice as a poet in 1973, a time when a lot of Americans found
theirs. How much was that a factor?
Harjo : I didn’t set out to be a writer. I was shy, quiet, and I loved art because I didn’t
have to speak with anyone. At one point, my spirit said, “You have to learn
how to speak.” I think poetry came to me because there was a lot of change. In
1973, I was 23, a mother of two children, and I was in a very active Kiva club
[that was raising awareness about Native American issues] during the native-
rights movement. We were dispersed Americans, totally disregarded, and I felt
our voices needed to be heard. I started writing poetry out of a sense of
needing to speak not only for me but all Native American women.
Waxman : What do people get wrong about Native Americans?
Harjo : A lot of images [of Native Americans] are based on fairy tales or Wild West
shows. We are human beings, not just people who have been created for
people’s fantasy worlds. There’s not just one Native American. We’re diverse
by community, by land, by language, by culture. In fact, we go by our tribal
names, and there are 573 tribal nations.
Waxman : Do you write every day?
Harjo : I’m often writing something almost every day. I keep journals: one on the
computer, one for dreams, one for general observations and overheard things,
and one for learning jazz standards, so I look up the history of the song, then I
rehearse it and make notes.
Waxman : What time of day do you write best?
Harjo : When the airwaves are clear, either really early–like 6 a.m., 7 a.m., before
anything is said–or really late. It’s important to have a doorway open to the

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 place without words, and that happens more easily when you’ve come from
dreaming.
Waxman : What advice would you give poets?
Harjo : It’s about learning to listen, much like in music. You can train your ears to
history. You can train your ears to the earth. You can train your ears to the
wind. It’s important to listen and then to study the world, like astronomy or
geology or the names of birds. A lot of poets can be semi historians. Poetry is
very mathematical. There’s a lot in the theoretical parts that is similar.
Quantum physicists remind me of mystics. They are aware of what happens in
timelessness, though they speak of it through theories and equations.
Waxman : What history inspired An American Sunrise?
Harjo : It came directly out of standing and looking out into the woods of what had
been our homelands in the Southeast before Andrew Jackson removed us to
Indian territory. I stood there and looked out, and I heard, “What did you learn
here?”
Waxman : What are your plans as the poet laureate?
Harjo : I can remind people that they use poetry, go to poetry, frequently, and may not
even know they are. A lot of song lyrics are poetry. They go to poetry for a
transformational moment, to speak when there are no words to speak.
Waxman : As a singer and saxophonist in the Arrow Dynamics Band, do you plan to
incorporate music in the role?
Harjo : I always play or perform music with my poetry. When poetry came into the
world, it did not arrive by itself, but it came with music and dance.
Waxman : How would you describe the state of poetry?
Harjo : Audiences for poetry are growing because of the turmoil in our country–
political shifts, climate shifts. When there’s uncertainty, when you’re looking
for meaning beyond this world–that takes people to poetry. We need
something to counter the hate speech, the divisiveness, and it’s possible with
poetry.”
b. An Interview with Joy Harjo, U.S. Poet Laureate by Poets.org
Published: April 1, 2019
“Poets.org : What are you looking forward to or hoping to accomplish as the new U.S. Poet
Laureate?
Joy Harjo : It’s quite an honor, and I’m just at the very beginning. I’m assessing how I can
be most useful in this position and, of course, it’s going to have a lot to do
with Native Nations poets. With a huge team, we just finished editing a

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 Norton Anthology of Native Poetry called When the Light of the World Was
Dimmed Our Songs Came Through: A Norton Anthology of Native Nations
Poetry, but it’s also about of course American poetry and American voices,
which is really how we sing the American story, which involves all of the
voices. I keep thinking of a Poetry Ancestor Tree... How would you construct
that? I always tell my students about poetry ancestors. Every poem has so
many poetry ancestors. How can we construct a poetry ancestor map of
America that would include and start off with poetry of indigenous nations?
Those strands would continue into the present with the wonderful young
Native poets we have right now. I guess what strikes me is the diversity—the
diversity of Native poetry, which was here and is here and is still growing, and
the diversity of American poetry, which has roots all over the world—and I’ve
always wanted to show that, ultimately, there’s a root system that’s connected
all over the Americas, which is one body and all over the world. A healthy
ecosystem is a system of diversity. That’s the same thing in poetry, different
poetry streams. It’s the same thing with peoples in a country. Somehow I
would like to pull all that. We have a lot of work to do—all of us.
Poets.org : How would you describe the state of American poetry today?
JH : I see and hear the presence of generations making poetry through the many
cultures that express America. They range from ceremonial orality which
might occur from spoken word to European fixed forms; to the many classic
traditions that occur in all cultures, including theoretical abstract forms that
find resonance on the page or in image. Poetry always directly or inadvertently
mirrors the state of the state either directly or sideways. Terrance Hayes’s
American sonnets make a stand as post-election love poems. Layli Long
Soldier’s poems emerge from fields of Lakota history where centuries stack
and bleed through making new songs. The sacred and profane tangle and are
threaded into the lands guarded by the four sacred mountains in the poetry of
Sherwin Bitsui. America has always been multicultural, before the term
became ubiquitous, before colonization, and it will be after.
Poets.org : What poem do you continually turn to and why?
JH : Adrienne Rich’s “Diving into the Wreck.” I read the poem as an Ars Poetica.
We must know the mythic structures that define us. The structures are not
static. They will never fit into a book of myths, for a book of myths is like
Luis Borges’ The Book of Sand—only the pages are water—history becomes
an anchor. And yes, a weapon for defense: knife, gun, or words. There’s the
armor, and yes, the mask that pumps “blood with power” which connects the
umbilical cord to the mother of knowledge. And then you go down, down the
ladder into the sea of unknowing. “I came to explore the wreck. / The words
are purposes. / The words are maps. / I came to see the damage that was
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 done/and the treasures that prevail.” And always (she is singing now): “the
thing I came for: / the wreck and not the story of the wreck / the thing itself
and not the myth / …the evidence of damage / worn by salt and sway into this
threadbare beauty / the ribs of disaster / curving their assertion…” And this is
how I find my way into a poem, into “a book of myths / in which / our names
do not appear.” There were no Native names in the American book of poetry
when I began writing poetry, though there are many.
Poets.org : If you were to identify a poetic lineage for your work, what would it be?
JH : Each of us is descended from poetry ancestors. It’s the same for any art, any
occupation. There is a lineage of style, knowledge and culture passed from
generation to generation, one artist to another. Ultimately all poetry is related
in the family tree of poetry. My closest relative is my mother and the poems
she taught me by William Blake, the lyrics of Hank Williams, the songs sung
by Nat King Cole. From these came her own song lyrics. From William Blake
it’s not a far leap to Walt Whitman, to Allen Ginsberg, to June Jordan. That is
one line of relativity. Another would come from a line of orators and speakers
on my father’s side. There is a definite art and art form in Mvskoke-language
speech and song making. My cousins George Coser Jr. and Joe Sulphur carry
that forward and are an influence. And when I first began writing poetry as an
art studio student at the University of New Mexico, I looked for indigenous
poetry traditions that were bridging colonization from tribal languages into
English. I went to Africa and found Amos Tutuola and Okot B’Pitek, among
others. And of course, the pueblo Native poets Simon Ortiz and Leslie Silko.
Poets.org : Why does poetry matter?
JH : Poetry is the art that is closest to music, standing between music and narrative
orality (which can be speechmaking, sermon or theater). Poetry is the voice of
what can’t be spoken, the mode of truth-telling when meaning needs to rise
above or skim below everyday language in shapes not discernible by the
ordinary mind. It trumps the rhetoric of politicians. Poetry is prophetic by
nature and not bound by time. Because of these qualities poetry carries grief,
heartache, ecstasy, celebration, despair, or searing truth more directly than any
other literary art form. It is ceremonial in nature. Poetry is a tool for disruption
and creation and is necessary for generations of humans to know who they are
and who they are becoming in the wave map of history. Without poetry, we
lose our way.”
5. What have we learnt so far?
 The life of Harjo
 The oeuvre of Harjo

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  Incumbent United States Poet Laureate
 The social work as a Native American and as an artist (a painter/ filmmaker/
musician)
 Native American Renaissance and Harjo
 Women’s rights and equality
 The poetry of Joy Harjo
 Elements of oral traditions
 Women and ecology
 The Poetry of resistance and transformation

Works Cited
 Harjo, Joy, and Mary Leen. “An Art of Saying: Joy Harjo's Poetry and the Survival of
Storytelling.” American Indian Quarterly, vol. 19, no. 1, 1995, pp. 1–16. JSTOR,
www.jstor.org/stable/1185349. Accessed 19 Nov. 2020.
 Harjo, Joy and Storm, Stephen. E, Secrets from the Center of the World. Arizona.
University of Arizona Press. July 1, 1989
 Morris, Aldon D. “A Retrospective on the Civil Rights Movement: Political and
Intellectual Landmarks.” Annual Review of Sociology, vol. 25, 1999, pp. 517–539.
JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/223515. Accessed 19 Nov. 2020.
 https://www.joyharjo.com/ahhhh-saxophone
 https://youtu.be/888jrmR_1xw
 https://youtu.be/KheSAFMpkHk
 https://blogs.loc.gov/catbird/2020/03/a-larger-context-that-reveals-meaning-an-
interview-with-poet-laureate-joy-harjo/
 https://poets.org/text/interview-joy-harjo-us-poet-laureate
 https://time.com/5658443/joy-harjo-poet-interview/
 https://hocopolitso.org/tag/joy-harjo/

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 Paper-V : American Literature
Unit 4 : Short Stories

Contents
a. Edgar Allan Poe, ‘The Purloined Letter’ Swasti Sharma
b. William Faulkner, ‘Dry September’ Binoy Bhushan Agarwal
c. Flannery O’ Connor, ‘Everything that
Rises Must Converge’ Ankur Yadav
d. Leslie Marmon Silko, ‘The Man to
Send Rain Clouds’ Ankur Yadav

Edited by:
Dr. Neeta Gupta

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 Short Stories Unit-4a

The Purloined Letter

Edgar Allan Poe
Swasti Sharma

1.1 Introduction
1.1.1 About the Author: Born on January 19, 1809, in Boston, Massachusetts, Edgar Allan
Poe was a prolific American short-story writer, critic, editor, and poet. His ingenious style of
writing was reflected in his fascination with mystery and the macabre. As one of the chief
proponents of “art for art’s sake” (more specifically “poem for poem’s sake”) in America,
style, and construction of language became the central concern of his criticism. As a product
of his time, he was also drawn to Romanticism. Poe’s contemporaries who wrote in a similar
vein included Hawthorne, Herman Melville, Ralph Waldo Emerson, and Henry David
Thoreau. His brilliant command over technique fostered authentic imagination among his
readers. In fact, Poe subsequently inspired the French symbolists of the late nineteenth
century who shaped modern literature and art. He has also been recognized for his
contribution to the emerging genre of science fiction. American fiction has been enriched by
his tales of horror and modern detective story which is epitomized in “The Murders in the
Rue Morgue”, first published in Graham’s magazine in 1841. Poe’s creativity, to a great
extent, has been inspired by his own lived experiences.
Born to professional actors-Elizabeth Arnold and David, Poe was orphaned when he was
a toddler. He was shifted into the household of a Richmond merchant named John Allan. He
was introduced to classical education at a young age during his trips to Europe. He attended
the University of Virginia for a brief period of time. However, his gambling debts and
inadequate financial support compelled him to return to Richmond. Disintegrating relations
with his guardian and his own deteriorating financial condition forced him to join the army
under an assumed name. During this period of hardship, he ventured into publication with his
collection Tamerlane, and Other Poems. His negligence towards the training prompted his
dismissal from the U.S. Military Academy. Poe was now fully determined to pursue a literary
career.
New York City was Poe’s subsequent stopover. Poems, his next volume of verses won
appreciation. He turned to prose and began writing for periodicals and journals. His short
story titled “MS. Found in a Bottle” won the admiration and cash reward from a Baltimore
weekly. After assuming editorship of The Southern Literary Messenger, he transformed into a
refined critical reviewer which added credibility to his literary endeavors. Although the
profits were meager, Poe remained adamant. Published in the New York Mirror, his
unforgettable poem, “The Raven,” earned him national attention. After the death of his wife,
Poe became romantically involved with other women. This libertine phase also informed his

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writing. His most ambitious project of producing his own journal remained unfulfilled when
he died in October 1849. Poe was an intellectual beyond his time. The objectivity and
spontaneity found in his prose speak volumes of his imaginative power. As a storyteller, he
underscored the importance of discerning the psychological make-up of the characters. Poe
insisted on literary autonomy and freedom from intellectual imperatives. His corpus is a
testimony of his aesthetics.
1.1.2 “The Purloined Letter”, a short story by Edgar Allan Poe is a tale of ratiocination, i.e.,
the technique involving inductive and deductive reasoning. The stolen letter is the most
coveted possession. The possessor of the letter controls power dynamics. In the first part,
only the royal lady knows the contents of the letter. She, therefore, exercises more power
over the man who is the subject of the letter. By losing the letter to a certain Minister D----,
she is deprived of the control and is rendered vulnerable. By re-purloining the letter, Dupin
not only settles his score with the Minister, but he also restores the balance of power. The
story forms an integral part of Poe’s trilogy of detective stories featuring C. Auguste Dupin, a
fictional protagonist detective. Besides this story, the other two namely “The Murders in the
Rue Morgue” and “The Mystery of Marie Rogêt” foregrounded the popularity of detective
fiction as a genre. After its first appearance in The Gift for 1845 (1844), the story was widely
reprinted.
1.2 Learning Objectives
The primary objective of this Unit is to critically analyze the plot and the underlying themes
of “The Purloined Letter” by Edgar Allan Poe. Through an intensive reading of the story,
several observations have come to the fore as elaborated in the following sections. Critical
engagement with this story helps in positioning it with respect to other stories by Poe. The
backdrop against which “The Purloined Letter” was composed has been recognised as a
significant juncture of the American literature. After going through this lesson the students
will be able to:

❏ Develop a deeper understanding of the short story “The Purloined Letter”

❏ Identify the main themes within the text
❏ Locate the relevance of Edgar Allan Poe as a short story writer within
the framework of American literature
❏ Appreciate the genre of detective fiction

1.3 Summary
1.3.1 Dupin’s First Encounter with the Prefect at his Apartment
The online Collins Dictionary defines the word ‘purloin’ as an act of stealing or borrowing
something without seeking permission. At the outset, the title of the story insinuates
concealment which intensifies the suspense and evokes the reader’s curiosity. The plot
commences with a Latin phrase attributed to Seneca “Nil sapientiae odiosius acumine nimio”
meaning “Nothing is more hateful to wisdom than excessive cunning”. It would not be an
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overstatement to consider this as the central motivation behind Poe’s composition. The plot is
set in motion in a small room in Paris where the unnamed first-person narrator is quietly
sitting with his friend C. Auguste Dupin. A regular admirer of Poe’s works would inevitably
identify that the anonymous chronicler has also narrated “The Murders in the Rue Morgue”.
The anonymous raconteur is recollecting the tragedy of the Rue Morgue and the cruel murder
of Marie Rogêt while sitting comfortably in a library located in Faubourg St. Germain. This
profound meditation is interrupted with the arrival of Monsieur G——, the Prefect of the
Paris police. It is evident that the Prefect is revisiting after a long time for a consultation
regarding a “simple and odd” case.
1.3.2 Method of Purloining the Letter from the Lady’s Quarter
The Prefect initiates his narration with a baffling affair concerning a letter, the prime
possession, which has been stealthily removed from the royal apartments. The repartee
between Dupin and the Prefect indicates that the mystery is quite plain and self-evident. The
police are aware of the identity of the purloiner: Minister D—, a certain government official.
This “affair demanding the greatest secrecy” involves a young lady who initially possessed a
letter that contains sensitive information regarding a man who can be potentially disgraced if
the content is revealed. The method of stealing the letter has been described as “not less
ingenious than bold.” While the young lady was reading the letter for the first time, the man
whom it concerned entered the apartment. To prevent any suspicion, the lady kept the letter
on the table next to her. At this moment, the Minister arrived and his “lynx eye” quickly
scanned the contents of the letter. The conniving Minister spontaneously perceived the
significance of the letter and replaced it with his own insignificant letter which resembled the
original letter of immense importance that the lady wanted to conceal. The “the robber's
knowledge of the loser's knowledge of the robber” weakens the position of the lady upon
whom the Minister D—wields great power. The power thus acquired has been exercised by
the Minister to a dangerous extent. This has made the lady more determined to reclaim the
letter. Out of despair and desperation, the lady has entrusted the Prefect with her secret.
Dupin’s curiosity is aroused and he inquires about any attempt to search the Minister’s
residence. The Prefect denies having found any such letter during their search of the
Minister’s hotel. He recounts the systematic search conducted without the Minister’s
knowledge. The Prefect reiterates the warning, “beyond all things, I have been warned of the
danger which would result from giving him a reason to suspect our design.” He has himself
ransacked D—’s hotel multiple times. This, Monsieur G—the Prefect, did by intoxicating the
servants of the Minister and purloining the key. He abandoned the search when he was fully
satisfied that the letter was not on the premises. While admitting failure, he concedes that the
Minister is a “more astute man” than the Prefect himself. The letter could not be found
hidden on the Minister’s body when he was “twice waylaid” by the police. The Prefect
mentions his willingness to search more thoroughly because the reward is extremely
generous. Dupin requests for details of the search. The Prefect assures him that the police

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have examined every nook and corner of the premises without fail. Dupin makes a suggestion
that they should search the place again.
1.3.3 Dupin’s Second Encounter with the Prefect
A month has elapsed. Once more Dupin and the narrator are sitting together when the Prefect
arrives. While admitting his inability to locate the letter, the Prefect informs Dupin that the
reward has increased. He announces that he is willing to pay 50,000 francs to anyone who
obtains the letter. Dupin asks him to draw a check for that amount. The astounded Prefect
writes the check and Dupin hands over the letter to him. He rushes off to return the letter to
its legitimate owner whereas Dupin enters an explanation. He admits that the Parisian police
are able investigators and extremely efficient at performing their duties.
Check Your Progress
1. Who is narrating the story? What role does he play in the narrative?
2. How and from whom was the letter purloined in the first instance?
3. How did the Police Prefect conduct his search? Why wasn’t it successful?

1.3.4 Dupin’s Detective Inspiration: A Child’s Play

He draws an analogy with a young boy playing “even and odd.” In this guessing game, each
player predicts whether the number of things (usually toys) held by another player is even or
odd. If the child guesses correctly, he is given one of the toys. If wrong, he is bound to lose a
toy of his own. The boy whom Dupin is alluding to is well-versed with the game because he
makes his guesses on the basis of his knowledge of the opponent. When this schoolboy is
caught in a trying situation, he imitates his opponent, in an attempt to understand what the
opponent is thinking. This judgment enables the boy to often guess correctly. Dupin asserts
that “identification of the reasoner's intellect with that of his opponent” ensured the triumph
of his investigative venture. This very technique has been associated with the theorizations by
Rochefoucauld, La Bougive, Machiavelli, and Campanella. Dupin further argues that the
Parisian police didn’t employ this strategy and therefore they failed at obtaining the letter: the
police were searching those areas where they themselves would have hidden the letter.
He maintains that the Minister was cunning enough and he didn’t hide the letter in the
secret nook or cranny. Dupin also refers to the game of puzzles in which one player discovers
a name on a map and challenges the other player to find the same. The amateurs tend to pick
the most minutely lettered names, the hardest names to find are the ones that are quite
obvious.
1.3.5 Re-purloining the Letter
With the knowledge of this game in mind, Dupin narrates his visit to the Minister’s
apartment. After broadly surveying the residence, his eyes caught the glimpse of a group of
visiting cards hanging from the mantelpiece. There was a letter accompanying those cards.
On close observation, Dupin noticed that the letter appeared to have been folded back on
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itself. He becomes sure that it is the stolen document. To generate an excuse for returning
back to the Minister’s quarters, he deliberately left his snuffbox behind. The next morning, he
revisited the residence to retrieve the letter and arranged for someone to make a commotion
outside the window to create a distraction so that he could re-purloin the letter. While the
Minister was engaged in investigating the cause of the noise, Dupin switched the stolen letter
with a fake and recreated the Minister’s own trick. The reason for leaving the duplicate letter
behind was to embarrass the Minister when he acts under the impression that he still
possesses the letter. Dupin informs the reader as well as the unnamed narrator that the
Minister once wronged him in Vienna and he had vowed to give a befitting response at the
appropriate time. In the fake letter is inscribed a French poem that translates into English, “So
baneful a scheme, if not worthy of Atreus, is worthy of Thyestes.”
Check Your Progress
1. What inspiration does Dupin take from the children’s game? How is his investigation
different from conventional investigation?
2. By re-purloining the letter Dupin achieves two objectives. What are they ? How does
he achieve them?

1.4 Critical Analysis

1.4.1 The Genre of Detective Fiction
“The Purloined Letter” foregrounded the new genre of detective fiction stories in American
literature. The author has frequently regarded it as one of his finest creations and literary
critics have appreciated its experimentation with the mystery genre and the departure from
the gothic style. Detective fiction emerged on the literary fore around the mid-nineteenth
century. However, scholar R. H. Pfeiffer has noted that ancient and religious texts bore
similarities with the genre of speculative fiction. Detective fiction is categorized as a
subgenre of crime fiction. The plot usually involves an investigator or a detective who
disentangles a serious crime, often murder. Most detective fiction stories encompass the
following elements:
a) An almost ideal crime that seems unsolvable.
b) A suspect or a pool of suspects who is/are shortlisted based on the circumstantial
evidence.
c) The bungling law enforcement
d) The keen observation of the detective
e) A startling denouement
W. H. Auden states the formula of detective fiction in his essay “The Guilty Vicarage,” that
“a murder occurs; many are suspected, all but one suspect, who is the murderer, are
eliminated; the murderer is arrested or dies” (Auden 407). “The Murders in the Rue Morgue”,
which was written prior to “The Purloined Letter” had produced mental images depicting
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violence involving bodily mutilation and near decapitation by a wild animal. “The Purloined
Letter”, on the other hand, shifted the focus on the symbiotic relationship between the law
enforcement in Paris and a private detective akin to Doyle’s plot in The Adventures of
Sherlock Holmes. Like Doyle’s seminal work, Poe has also woven a frame narrative- a story
within a story. The details of the investigation are revealed to the reader towards the end
when the culprit is ascertained. The relationship between the unnamed narrator and Dupin is
very similar to the friendship between Holmes and Dr.Watson.Both Dupin and Holmes have
quirky interests and have acquired expertise in non-traditional subjects. Dupin specializes in
zoology while Holmes is adept at human anatomy. Both of them solve crimes as a
recreational activity.
1.4.2 Poe’s Distinctive Approach to Storytelling
It is noteworthy that Poe’s story is different from the regular “whodunit” detective story
(short for “Who [has] done it?”) because the identity of the culprit is known from the very
beginning. Considering Poe’s experimental fervor, George Grella has made the following
remarks:
Poe, it is generally agreed, invented the detective story and established its basic
conventions-the murky atmosphere, the insoluble problem, the outre method, the
incredible deductions, the adoring Boswell, and the gifted being who unravels the
most difficult crimes. His prototypical detective, C. Auguste Dupin, possesses a dual
temperament, “both creative and ... resolvent,” combining the intuition of the poet
with the analytical ability of the mathematician; the fusion gives him extraordinary
deductive powers, enabling him, for example, to reconstruct his companion's chain of
thought from a few penetrating physical observations (“The Murders in the Rue
Morgue”). (Grella 35)
Grella has also vividly explained how Dupin’s character combines the traits of “intellectual
brilliance” and “personal eccentricity” which have overtly influenced the evolution of
detective heroes. Readers are able to commend the extent of Dupin’s insight as the story
progresses.
1.4.3 Narrative Technique in “The Purloined Letter”
The narrative unfolds from the perspective of the unnamed narrator who is omnipresent and
is privy to conversations between Dupin and the Prefect. His recollection of the Rue murders
at the beginning of the narrative creates a transitional link between the two stories. The
psychological manipulation in “The Purloined Letter” is in stark contrast with the barbaric
violence committed in “The Murders in the Rue Morgue.” Poe’s story resembles other
detective stories in its disclosure of law enforcement’s inability to decipher the root of the
crime. Even in the previous story comprising Rue murders, the Paris police had to rely on the
intellect of Dupin to bring the case to its logical conclusion. Poe has premised Dupin’s
rationale on his keen sense of observation and composure in the face of dire situations in both
the stories.

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 The plot of “The Purloined Letter” is far from complex. The relay of flashbacks occurs
outside the narrative frame. The Prefect’s investigation of the Minister’s hotel has been
labeled as unintellectual. This observation can be deduced owing to their failure to retrieve
the letter because of their conventional monitoring. Parisian Police’s careful scrutiny
overlooks simple details. Dupin makes the assessment that the police cannot think beyond its
standard procedures. They cannot comprehend a crime from the criminal’s perspective.
Dupin’s reference to the childhood games and his analogy underscores the need to inhabit the
consciousness of the criminal. His approach to solving crime replicates the Minister’s
methodology of committing the crime. However, the reader should note that the intentions of
both are diametrically opposite. While the Minister slyly stole the letter to intimidate and
manipulate someone, Dupin employed his skill to rescue their honour. One must appreciate
that the story departs from the dominant conventions of detective fiction. While many
detective fiction writers are convinced that surveillance is integral to a detective’s
investigation of a crime, Poe rejects the idea. Dupin does not subject the Lady (queen) who
has lost the letter to any form of supervision. Critic Richard Hull has noted that “Poe's Prefect
of Police is a panoptic detective, but he fails because he lacks Dupin's poetic understanding.”
(Hull 203) ‘Panoptic, h ere, implies the panoramic monitoring for the purpose of retrieving
the letter. The Paris police conducts a thorough search without the Minister’s knowledge and
keeps a close watch over his movements. However, their archaic surveillance methods are
futile in comparison with the novelty of the detective. Indeed, Dupin develops an innovative
mechanism to outmaneuver his opponent.
The fulfillment of the promise to seek revenge forms the climax of the story. Dupin’s
words inside the phony letter, translated “So baneful a scheme, if not worthy of Atreus, is
worthy of Thyestes,” are translated into action in his final act of re-purloining the purloined
letter. French dramatist Crébillon’s early-eighteenth-century tragedy Atrée et Thyeste (or
Atreus and Thyestes) encompassed the story of Thyestes who seduced the wife of his brother,
Atreus. In response to this betrayal, Atreus murdered the sons of Thyestes and served them to
their father at a feast. According to Dupin, Thyestes was worthy of this punishment because
he had committed the original crime. Atreus’s revenge was a legitimate retaliation. This
comparison is used by Dupin to morally justify his own actions. The readers also note that the
purloined letter is only a substitute for an illusion of power which neither the Lady nor the
Minister actually possesses.

Check Your Progress

1. Do you think that Dupin’s actions are governed by his personal dislike or his
professional commitment? Justify your response with references from the text.
2. Explain the narrative technique employed by Poe in the short story .
3. Compare and contrast the investigative techniques of the Parisian police and the
private detective. Who is more efficient? Why?

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1.5 Themes
1.5.1 Dynamics of Power
The gender hierarchy operates from the beginning of the story. The Minister abuses his
power by intimidating the lady. Owing to her gender, she cannot publicly expose the immoral
Minister. It is also likely that she may be deemed less credible than the accomplished
Minister. Therefore, she is bound to function within the established framework of the Parisian
society. Her identity and her relationships have been defined in terms of the letter. Notice
how the Prefect states that “The personage robbed” is desperate to reclaim the letter. The
implied meaning of the statement can be interpreted through a nuanced understanding of the
social position of the Lady. Despite her association with the influential class, she does not
possess any true power of her own. Similarly, even the minister is operating under the
misconception that he is indomitable. The final act of re-purloining the letter ruins his
ambitions.
1.5.2 Use of Logic
C. Auguste Dupin has used abstract logic in “The Purloined Letter.” It is a tale of
ratiocination that prefers logic over horror as a narrative tool. Dupin successfully deduces the
whereabouts of the letter based on the Minister’s thought process. As described above, he
draws inspiration from children’s games involving imitation. In order to overcome the
opponent, a child often mimics him. This helps him to understand what the opponent is
thinking. Based on the judgment, the child wins the guessing game. Dupin investigative
technique is based on simple and unembellished analogies. He does not approve of grand or
exalted methods which the police regularly employ. He successfully traces the trajectory of
the Minister’s thought and reclaims the letter. Additionally, he also avenges his own
humiliation at Vienna.
1.5.3 A Psychological investigation of Dupin’s methods
Dupin’s inspiration is drawn from the rustic game played by children. His innovative method
is derived from deep evaluation of the human psyche. His unparalleled observation makes his
detective skills more effective than the mundane conventional Parisian police methods. The
game of guessing involves nuanced understanding of the human mind. The expertise of the
school boy is premised on his cognitive skills to imitate and manipulate the opponent. This,
the boy does by “identification of the reasoner's intellect with that of his opponent." This
simple yet profound method has been co-opted by the detective. By predicting the actions of
the Minister based on his intentions, Dupin successfully retrieves the letter.

1.6 Characterization
1.6.1 C. Auguste Dupin
C. Auguste Dupin is an expert sleuth who features in “The Murders in the Rue Morgue” and
“The Purloined Letter”. In the story, the expert investigator has rejected the obsolete
conventional police methods. Dupin acknowledges that traditional law enforcement measures
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are judiciously used during an investigation by the police. But, these measures are unoriginal
and do not yield results. The Parisian police are more interested in the specifics of the case
and have lost objectivity. “The Murders in the Rue Morgue” had demonstrated the inefficacy
of the police to look beyond the gruesome double homicide. Dupin is objective, cold and
skeptical. For him, the crime scene is a site of calculation.
“The Purloined Letter” remarkably illustrates Dupin’s adventurous zeal. By risking his
own self, he retrieves the letter. The Paris police were cautious of Minister D——, an
influential official, Dupin remained indifferent to the social station of the purloiner. He is
extraordinarily patient in repaying the slight. His mode of investigation thrives on intuition
and personal cunning, which cannot be institutionalized in a traditional police force.
1.6.2 The Police Prefect
Monsieur G—, the Prefect of the Parisian police, is a representative of the law enforcement
machinery. Both his encounters with Dupin invite sharp criticism from the detective
regarding the outdated procedures undertaken during the formal investigation. The Prefect
acts as the spokesperson for the Lady under duress in her absence. He tries to convince Dupin
that he has thoroughly searched the premises of the culprit Minister. Yet, Dupin remains
unconvinced. It is so because the standard investigation by the police lacks imagination and
proves ineffective. The Prefect is unable to think outside the box. His enterprise is limited to
codified rules and regulations. Only Dupin can function freely and for that reason, the Prefect
seeks his help.
Check Your Progress
1. Compare and contrast the character of Dupin and Minister D——.
2. Discuss the role of logic in the short story
3. Critically analyze Dupin’s investigative method.
4. What lessons have you drawn, as a reader, from “The Purloined Letter”?

1.7 Summing Up
Now that you have read the story, you will be able to appreciate the craft of Edgar Allan Poe.
As the forerunner of detective fiction in America, he encouraged critical thinking among the
reading public. The story launches a departure from the ordinary narrative. Both form and
content are vital to Poe’s oeuvre. The story confirms his ingenuity.
Works Cited
 Auden, W.H. “The Guilty Vicarage: Notes on The Detective Story, By an
Addict.”Harper’s Magazine May (1948): 406–12. 1 Dec. 2013
‹http://www.harpers.org/archive/1948/05/0033206›.
 Block, Louis J. “Edgar Allan Poe.” The Sewanee Review, vol. 18, no. 4, 1910, pp. 385–
403. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/27532400.
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 Bretzius, Stephen. “The Figure-Power Dialectic: Poe's ‘Purloined Letter.’” MLN, vol.
110, no. 4, 1995, pp. 679–691. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/3251199.
 Grella, George. “Murder and Manners: The Formal Detective Novel.” NOVEL: A
Forum on Fiction, vol. 4, no. 1, 1970, pp. 30–48. JSTOR,
www.jstor.org/stable/1345250.
 Hull, Richard. “‘The Purloined Letter’: Poe's Detective Story vs. Panoptic Foucauldian
Theory.” Style, vol. 24, no. 2, 1990, pp. 201–214. JSTOR,
www.jstor.org/stable/42945851.
 The Purloined Letter. London: Ulysses bookshop, 1931. Print.

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 Unit-4b

‘Dry September’
William Faulkner
Binoy Bhushan Agarwal

1. Introduction
The ‘short story,’ a form pioneered by Washington Irving, Herman Melville, Nathaniel
Hawthorn and Edgar Allan Poe, is seen as a genre defining moment in the history of literary
development in America. Its pivotal place in the American literary imagination was such that
Frank O’Connor called it America’s “national art form”.
William Faulkner not only adds to this “national art form” but also gives it its regional
American-ness. Many of his stories are reminders of the past, particularly the antebellum, the
remnants of which still inform and define the contours of the present day society. What
makes his writings still resonate in our present times is his succinct understanding of the
modern condition of our human lives. In commenting on what constitutes good writing, he
said, in his Banquet speech for the Nobel Prize in Literature, that it was ‘the problems of the
human heart in conflict with itself which alone can make good writing.’ It is such a
precarious condition of conflict that he recognizes in his own life. Necessitated by his
ancestral lineage and his own politics of race, it makes itself visible in the tensions of race
and gender and which find a literary expression in his stories.

Figure 1: William Faulkner

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2. About the Author
Born in New Albany, Mississippi, on September 25, 1897, William Cuthbert Faulkner was a
prolific American writer whose literary genius resulted in many novels, short stories and
poetry. The protean nature of his literary output is in itself a testament to his fecund
imagination as a writer whose prolific contribution can also be measured in terms of the
many huge recognitions he received in the form of Nobel Prize in Literature, and the two
Booker Prizes in his lifetime. With a vast and varied corpus of literary works that he wrote
and published, much of which he produced in the 1920s and the 1930s, the years of Southern
renaissance, he defined the lineaments of what is known as Southern literature with its own
distinctive topoi. In all, he transposes the racial concerns of the Deep South in which the
latter is deeply implicated with its long and complex history of prosperity and violence, onto
the imaginary landscape of Yoknapatawpha. This fictive topography then becomes the
Faulknerian site whereupon he explores questions of race and gender among other things.
In his role as a writer, his expansive imagination was not untouched by the social and
political realities of his day and age. Consequently, he transformed the lived realities of a
Southern life that he witnessed from so close, and also knew through an association with his
African American nanny, Caroline Barr, into materials for his fiction. In and through a fictive
universe of his own creation, he would explore the processes of racialization, and its
reinforcement in everyday practices, and the ways in which racial prejudice and sexism
fueled a system of injustice, exploitation and vigilantism.
With that brief introductory idea about William Faulkner and his writings, we shall be
reading one of his most widely read short story, “Dry September” first published in the
Scribner’s Magazine in 1931. But before moving onto a section wise critical summary and
analysis of the story, it is imperative to understand our objectives in reading it.

3. Learning Objectives
 To explore the historical context and the developments that affected slavery.
 To understand how cultural norms and stereotypes reify and reinforce prejudices.
 To explore how the above norms and prejudices shaped the black lives.
 To gain insight into how slavery affected African Americans even in the post-bellum
America.
4. Contexts: Historical and Cultural

In this section, you will be familiarized with some important historical and cultural terms and
events as useful markers to understand the context and legacies of slavery and racism in
America. Knowing more about the historical context in which the story is located- post-
bellum American South- will help appreciate the text better. These multi-layered contexts
form a definitive backdrop to the larger story of African Americans, and the white’s
treatment of them in America and in “Dry September” in particular.

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4.1 Civil War (1861-1865)
Fought over the terrain of slavery, the Civil War ranged from 1861 to 1865. In this anti-
slavery war, the Union that comprised of the Northern states of America was pitted against
the eleven slave states of Southern America known as Confederates. While the Union, led by
the President Abraham Lincoln, argued for the abolition of slavery the Confederates were
opposed to it. The reason for latter’s resistance to the abolitionists was mainly because the
South’s agrarian economy and the plantation moguls were heavily reliant on the free labour
provided by the slaves and their huge investment in the slave trade. The Union’s call for re-
structuring of social, political and economic relations by way of ending slavery concluded on
contradictory emotional notes. On the one hand it resulted in the much awaited Emancipation
Proclamation on January 1, 1863; but on the other hand, it witnessed the tragic assassination
of Abraham Lincoln by John Wilkes Booth, a Northern Confederate sympathizer. Walt
Whitman, America’s national poet, was profoundly affected by the Civil War, and mourns
the monumental loss of Abraham Lincoln in his elegy “O Captain! My captain!”.

Figure 2: A sketch depicting slavery

4.2 Emancipation Proclamation

Abraham Lincoln introduced the Emancipation Proclamation, initially, as an inevitable war
time measure on September 22, 1862. Seeking to abolish slavery, it was effected even while
the Civil War was still on. It pronounced ‘(t)hat on the first day of January in the year of our
Lord, one thousand eight hundred and sixty-three, all persons held as slaves within any State,
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or designated part of a State, the people whereof shall then be in rebellion against the United
States shall be then, thenceforward, and forever free; and the executive government of the
United States, including the military and naval authority thereof, will recognize and maintain
the freedom of such persons, and will do no act or acts to repress such persons, or any of
them, in any efforts they may make for their actual freedom.’
Lincoln’s humane understanding of the plight of slaves, and his belief in the equality of
all informed his vision of the Emancipation Proclamation that proved to be historic. Such a
view is further underscored in his now iconic speech known as ‘The Gettysburg Address’
wherein he mourned the loss of the dead soldiers. In it also, he affirmed his ‘resolve that
these dead (Union soldiers) shall not have died in vain- that this nation, under God, shall have
a new birth of freedom- and that government of the people, by the people, for the people,
shall not perish from the earth’.
4.3 Reconstruction Era (1863-1877)
Following the end of the Civil War that had cost lives and property on both sides, the
champions of Reconstruction aimed at building anew the lives of African Americans and the
erstwhile slaves. Aiming to integrate them in a holistic manner and to provide protective
safeguards, the Reconstruction policies intended to extend the civil rights including the
citizenship and voting rights to them as well. Consequently, the three major amendments to
the United States Constitution that sought to alter the future race relations and the conditions
of the disenfranchised black community were as follows:
(a) The Thirteenth Amendment abolished slavery and involuntary servitude ‘except as a
punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted’.
(b) The Fourteenth Amendment effected citizenship rights and equal protection under
the laws ‘to all citizens born or naturalized in the United States’ including the
erstwhile slaves.
(c) The Fifteenth Amendment prohibited the government from denying or infringing
upon a citizen’s right to vote on ‘account of race, color, or previous condition of
servitude’.
While the success of the Reconstructions efforts have been contested, they cannot be
dismissed altogether.
4.4 Jim Crow Laws
In order to contain the racial threat and fear of interracial social intercourse and
miscegenation, official laws were enacted and executed to enforce a racialized code of
behaviour. With its ‘separate but equal’ principle, the Jim Crow laws granted legitimacy to
racial segregation in public places in the South. Apart from a disgruntled sense at the
abolition of slavery, the Southerners’ were also highly resentful of the African Americans
whose winning the Civil War reminded them of their own defeat therein. As a result, the Jim
Crow laws were enacted which basically tended towards showing the African Americans

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their place by restricting their mobility. Effectively, it was an underhand way of undoing the
achievements of the Emancipation Proclamation, and the efforts of Reconstruction era.
Closely tied to these historical developments were certain black stereotypes and white
myths that were part of the racist fabric of the nation that helped perpetuate violence and
racism in America, more so in the Deep South.
4.5 The Old South Myth
Built on the back of black labour and slave trade the agrarian economy in the American South
flourished which provided for the luxurious and laid back lives of its plantation owners and
slave masters. The idealized South also sustained certain cultural myths that were projected
as its core values. Adding to the idealized notions of white supremacy were some key
gendered conceptions namely the white goddess concept and the Southern gentleman.
However, with the abolition of slavery which demanded a realignment of the traditional order
the Southerners, caught in the historical flux, found it difficult to reconcile to the new
emergent order. Consequently, they ended up reviving and reinforcing some of the cultural
and gendered myths, popularly known as the Southern myths or the Old South myths, only to
consolidate their own fractured selves, and re-establish themselves as superior to the African
Americans.
4.6 The White Goddess concept
One such white mythology deeply embedded in the Deep South was the “white goddess
concept”; an idea whereby the white people claimed that a Southern white woman could not
lie, and therefore would not engage in deceit. That this alibi becomes a touchstone of virtue
for the white females in the American South, however, comes with a price that is paid by the
black lives. That white Southern women, who by such logic become paragons of virtue and
up-righteousness, would often use this to implicate black people was no secret as the
infamous Scottsboro Trials of 1930s proved. In this classic case of white privilege and racist
antagonism toward the African American people in the Jim Crow South, the case has two
white girls who implicate nine young African American teenage boys on false charge of
raping them while on a train journey, and a lynch mob demanding justice on their own terms.
It resulted in protracted court cases, biased judgments and unfair trials for the accused
Africans Americans. It can safely be argued that it was the white man’s revulsion at the
prospect of miscegenation between white women and black men that helped sustain the myth
of the white goddess.
4.7 The Southern Gentleman
Like the white Southern women wrapped in the Southern belle mythology, the Southern
gentlemen too had a distinct white masculinity to uphold. The Southern gentleman embodied
a cultural ideal. Emmeline Gross defines him thus; ‘(a) ristocratic at heart, Victorian in his
manners, the Southern man was characterized by autonomy, self-discipline, and integrity,
combining all the elements of older chivalric codes with an acute sense of private and caste
power’. This they sought to fiercely maintain even in the Post-Reconstruction era which

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tested the chivalric code of conduct which governed the white Southern men. Faced with the
challenges of the post-Civil War, they suffered from a crisis of white masculinity.
4.8 Self-Check Questions
1. What does the Emancipation Proclamation achieve for the African American
community?
2. How do you reconcile the contradictions of the constitutional abolition of slavery on
the one hand with the Southern legislation of Jim Crow laws on the other hand?
3. How does the myth of racial superiority sustain itself in post-bellum Deep South?

5. Critical Summary
William Faulkner’s “Dry September”, published in 1931, evokes an atmosphere of fear and
uncertainty looming large for the black population as in the case of Scottsboro boys. The
narrative unfolds the workings of a prejudiced white mob-mentality seeking instant justice
which, here in the story is, fueled by a rumour. Though never made clear but only suggested
obliquely, the rumour is, most likely, an accusation of sexual violation. A (rape) charge has
been leveled by a white spinster, Miss Minnie Cooper, against a black watchman named Will
Mayes for whose blood the white mob of Jefferson is baying.
5.1 Section I
The first section of “Dry September” sets the tone and tenor of the story. Set in the Southern
town of Jefferson, the story opens on a hot September evening in a salon that is animated
only by ‘the rumour, the story, whatever it was’. Even though nobody knew exactly what had
transpired between ‘Miss Minnie Cooper and a Negro’, opinions have been formed by the
occupants in the barbershop. Except for the barber, Henry Hawkshaw, the others are almost
convinced of the truth of the matter. It’s another story that nobody wants or attempts to find
out the truth. Any suggestion that Will Mayes, the accused Negro, is innocent, and the white
woman, Miss Minnie Cooper, might be lying is met with condescension, insult and veiled
threats such as “you damn nigger lover” or “Do you accuse a white woman of lying?”.
Notwithstanding the heated arguments among the white majority of townsmen who are
gathered in the shop, the barber, himself a white Jeffersonian, takes it upon himself to defend
Will Mayes. He insists on Will’s innocence, and attempts to convince his detractors, who
seem to be hounding for a black man’s blood, not to jump the gun.
This gathering of a mob that seems only interested in pursuing quick justice for their felt
wrong, lacks a leader and that vacuum is soon enough filled by McLendon, the war hero. He
quickly succeeds in exploiting the situation, and manages to leave with his ‘army’ of men to
set things right, to avenge the black man’s alleged insult and violation of a white woman. His
difference from Henry Hawkshaw who is his polar opposite is underlined when the narrator
tells us ‘(t)hey looked like men of different races’.
This section ends with Henry Hawkshaw running closely on the heels of McLendon in a
desperate attempt to save Will Mayes, and the two barbers who remain in the shop pondering
over the (im) possibility of Will Mayes attacking Miss Minnie Cooper.
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5.2 Section II
This section, a window to her past, introduces Miss Minnie Cooper to the readers who is so
far presented through others’ opinions about her. She is already, in the town’s opinion,
somebody who entertains delusional thoughts about herself with her ‘man scare’ stories. In
Section II, we find her in the grip of ennui relegated as she is ‘into adultery by public
opinion’. She comes across as a languishing body who is conscious of her past when she was
the toast of the town in her days of youth. However, unlike her contemporaries she has not
been able to move onto other womanly roles that society expects of women nor can she come
to terms with the fact of her ageing. She spends her idle days sitting in the porch, would go
downtown to watch movies and so on. Twelve years ago, she had a short lived affair with a
forty year old bank cashier that once again brought her into notice, primarily for two reasons.
First, the affair renewed her desirable self, and second, because she had the ‘first motoring
bonnet and the veil the town ever saw.’ Almost a decade later, she once again finds herself a
castaway with no male attention. Rather, her feeble attempts at presenting herself as still
attractive by way of her dressing and attempting to join in the company of her young
“cousins” makes her an oddity and subject to salacious gossip.
5.3 Section III
With section III we move into the action scene as it were. Once again the gothic atmospherics
are stressed upon. The recurring motifs of dust, cloud, fog, the waning moon and “dry
hissing” collectively add to the sepulchral quality, and intensifies the tension in the moment.
McLendon with his cohorts is at the ice plant where Will Mayes was a night watchman. In
the darkness of the night, they are here to apprehend and “kill him, kill the black son”. In a
dramatic sequence of events the drama unfolds where they drag and handcuff him, and finally
they put him in a car. Even though he pleads innocence and Hawkshaw still argues Will’s
case, the blood thirsty gang of white men refuse to pay any heed to their pleadings. In the
claustrophobic space of the car, McLendon hits Will Mayes. And then something happens
that makes the barber, Hawkshaw, jump out of the car. Enveloped in the darkness of the night
and the dust, this section closes with McLendon and his men, except Butch, returning in their
car, and a little later, the barber limping his way back into the town. The narrative neither
depicts nor relays what they did to Will Mayes though the curtains suddenly fall on him.
Nonetheless, we are sure Will Mayes has been killed just as we are sure of his innocence, and
Miss Minnie Cooper’s lies.
5.4 Section IV
This section stands out among the others for two things. One, as an absolute space of white
presence with ‘not a Negro on the square. Not one’. Two, the feverish excitement that it
generates in Minnie and her friends as well as the young white men who now do take note of
her presence. The now fully reclaimed space of white is animated by an excitement that finds
its parallel in the ‘picture show’ such that it looked like ‘a miniature fairyland’. In this
fairyland which is a zone of fantasy, Miss Minnie Cooper is back to being the center of

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attention. Her friends seek a vicarious pleasure in asking Minnie the details about it, the
molestation, even while they doubt the alleged rape. It ends on a note of untrammeled
excitement such that Minnie becomes hysterical, and is brought back home by her women
friends whose eyes aglitter with the fantasy of miscegenation.
5.5 Section V
The shortest of all, this section unlike the previous ones is not set in a public space like the
barbershop, or the ice plant or the square, but rather within an intimate space of home. That
this section focuses on a private space of home, and that of McLendon’s, is interesting. What
is more intriguing is that it ends not with Minnie or Will Mayes whose story it seemingly is.
On the contrary, the narrative ends with the image of McLendon coming back to his
‘birdcage’, and physically assaulting his wife. Exhausted, he stood panting and the weather
and the cosmos once again take precedence.
5.6 Self-Check Questions
1. How do people in the barbershop respond to the rumoured event?
2. Why do you think Will Mayes is the target of violence?
3. How does Minnie find herself moving from the margin to the center of townspeople’s
attention?

6. Critical Analysis: Themes, Motifs & Symbolism

William Faulkner in his short story ‘Dry September’ explores the racial and sexual delusions
of the white race in the town of Jefferson which is symptomatic of emergent anxieties in the
wake of economic and social restructuring of the American South. The racial delusion is
amply evident in the commonly felt sense of supremacy of the white race, a ‘commonsense’
that has been destabilized in the changing times of the post-Civil War. The new laws and
constitutional amendments meant to empower the blacks have cast a shadow on the racial
fantasy of white race hegemony. In such a context of a society in flux that is witnessing some
of the most unprecedented changes, racial prejudices join hands with gender biases and
sexual insecurities. This in turn leads to reinforcing of new forms regulating racial and social
codes. Thus collectively, they perpetrate the belief in their status as the supreme and
sacrosanct race.
Broadly speaking, its thematic issues can be read along the axis of race and gender. In
particular, it is about the crisis of white masculinity. In this intertwined narratives of race and
gender, some of the other equally important issues and motifs that need further interrogation
are as follows:
6.1 Ambiguity
‘Dry September’ opens in a salon with a discussion about ‘the rumor, the story, whatever it
was’. The ambivalence with which the narrative starts becomes one of the most defining
conditions of their existence as well as a trope that Faulkner employs in his narrative of

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racism in the American South. Even when the rumor is spelt out a little later by McLendon as
‘a black son rap(ing) a white woman on the streets of Jefferson’, the air of ambiguity that
surrounds the allegation is never lifted off. Rather, the narrative abounds with textual
moments that suggest that townsmen believe in the rumor in spite of themselves. For
instance, when a third man in the salon asks, “Did it really happen?” McLendon pounces on
him to ask, “Happen? What the hell difference does it make? Are you going to let the black
sons get away with it until one really does it?”’
The story resounds with similar sentiments of disbelief interlaced with relishing of the
salacious gossip that echoes till the end. Minnie’s friends ask each other ‘“Do you suppose
anything really happened?”, their eyes darkly aglitter, secret and passionate.’ In the gap that
lies between the rumor and any certainty of it is what produces the thrill and pleasure and use
value (of the rumor) for each member of the white race.
The air of un-believability that surrounds the rumor does nothing to demolish it or to
even imagine a possibility for a fair trial which could have established the veracity of the
matter. Even though Henry Hawkshaw, a white barber who is the voice of reason in the story
constantly maintains his firm conviction in the innocence of Will Mayes who has been
accused of raping the white woman Minnie Cooper, insists – “I don’t believe Will Mayes did
it… I know Will Mayes”, there is nothing that can stop the white men gathered in his shop
from forming a gang that would go on to lynch Will Mayes. For them, there is absolutely no
difference between fact and fiction, and the ambiguity allows them to set their own narrative
to it and use it to justify their own purposes.
The ambiguity and a willful refusal to give any benefit of doubt to Will is further
underscored in the closing remarks of two white men who are left behind after McLendon
and others leave to get hold of Will Mayes:
“Jee Christ, Jee Christ,” the second whispered.
“You reckon he really done it to her?” the first said.
6.2 Interracial Intimacy
In cases involving miscegenation the ‘white goddess’ concept was used as a deterrent against
interracial carnal desire. For a racist mind, it was hard to imagine coloured men as objects of
a white woman’s erotic desires. That this myth informs their defense is revealing given that
the various moments of such utterances almost become a refrain in the story.
“Do you accuse a white woman of lying?”
“Won’t you take a white woman’s word before a nigger’s?”
This implies that in any narrative of interracial intimacy between black man and white
woman, it was assumed that it was the black man who willfully forced himself upon the
white woman because the latter would never consent to such possibilities of intimate
encounters. By the same stroke, it also meant that there was therefore no need to look for
“facts” because “What the hell difference does it make?” when a white woman could not be
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accused of lying which automatically shifted the onus of the lying/offence onto the black
man.
Further, a focus on the ways in which the men respond to the rumor and to McLendon’s
exhortations prove that ‘these men are as much prisoners of the old traditions as is Minnie
Cooper’ (Volpe 64). McLendon’s extreme disregard for corroborative evidence and the
refusal to acknowledge a willful design in the repetitive pattern in Minnie’s accusations is
also an indication that suggests that the punitive action that is so vigorously sought for is
more to preempt any future possibility of any form of contact between the white woman and
the “Negroes” than to deliver ‘justice’ to the ostensibly sexually violated woman.
Conclusively, in his short story, “Dry September”, Faulkner presents a critique of race
and racism through the trope of ambiguity and rumor. By dramatizing the process and the
aftereffects of mob lynching within the framework of race and gender, he lays bare its
unwarranted ramifications for all those involved as well as the threat of miscegenation and
black man’s sexuality.
6.3 Doubt- “rumor, the story, whatever it was”
A recurrent note of doubt interrupts the narrative of “Dry September”. It not only introduces
an element of suspicion regarding the nature and validity of the accusation, but also makes
one think about the fairness of the mob violence as incited by McLendon. In addition, it also
betrays an anxiety on part of the white men to make a point about the kind of racial and
sexual power they can wield over the blacks.
The refusal to go for a judicial process of trial and to insist on the truth of the case in the
face of an absolute lack of concrete evidence just made it easier for them to sacrifice Will
Mayes at the altar of racial and gender insecurities. They could thereby reassure themselves
of the relevance of their existence but more importantly of their physical body that is both a
site for erotic fantasies as well as a source of immense anxiety in the light of its disuse or
abandonment. A sense of Minnie-as-discarded lies in other’s neglect of her who is left to
languish in the absence of any male attention, and McLendon’s strong physique suggestive of
his warrior like leadership quality, being a commander of troops in the past, again is
languishing for it has no value in the post war Jefferson.
What Faulkner thereby also manages to do is to establish the innocence of Will Mayes
despite the presence of ambiguity looming large in the story. It is precisely in the lack of any
conclusive evidence in the story to confirm the allegation, and yet a stubborn insistence to
treat Will Mayes as the culprit that his innocence is hinted at.
Among other reasons why impenetrability vis-à-vis the trope of rumour is deliberately
maintained is because what Faulkner is here most concerned with is not in the actuality of the
incident but in exploring the making of a mob psyche and the ways in which it seeks to
justify its skewed notions of justice through violence. A vicious sense of revenge that informs
the mob mentality here is telling on the ways in which it seeks false ruses to display its
aggressive masculine self. That Faulkner’s interest here lies in exploring the white anxieties
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and racism in the American South through an exploration of the mob mentality can be further
substantiated in the fact that the lynching/ killing scene is not presented in the story. To insist
on that here in this particular scene is to miss the larger perspective on the workings of a
racist mindset that Faulkner seems to highlight. And that they succeed in driving home this
point is evident when the readers are told ‘“There’s not a Negro on the square. Not one.”’
In the final analysis, it is the ambiguity that makes possible this double take on rumor
where disbelief and vicarious enjoyment of it can coexist with manufactured consent through
people who were ‘attacked, insulted frightened’ into believing it. It is by maintaining the
ambiguity that in the name of defending female honor, the Southern men settle their own
ambivalences about their manhood and role in a changing social economy.
6.4 Lynching

Figure 3: Minnesota lynchings, Duluth, 1920.

Within the intertwined criticism of the politics of race and gender, is also embedded a critique
of lynching in the racist America. It would be worthwhile to remember that lynching in
America was a spectacle; a carnival like event which had people flocking to the site to
witness the drama of lynching. A quick glance at the photographic archive of images and
photographs of the time document the terrible drama that would unfold in a manner of public
event. That the hanging lynched black bodies had people jeering and kind-of-celebrating the
white supremacy is telling not only of the white brutality of it but the spiritual, moral and
ethical emptiness of the white folk. It is a terrible fact that racism continued long into the
twentieth century despite the constitutional abolition of slavery. The disregard for the
freedom guaranteed under the law, and the concomitant Jim Crow laws that enforced a
‘racialized code of behaviour’ along with racial segregation in public places speaks volumes
about the position of the blacks and the African American or mixed race people in the
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America. It is reflective of the various forms in which violence and racial hatred would
manifest itself in both obvious and insidious ways.
In the story “Dry September”, the act of lynching has a two pronged effect. One, it helps
them reassert and ‘activate’ their white masculinity that links sex and violence with power.
Two it also works effectively to remind the black community of its position as an outcaste,
and hence the need to keep themselves away from common spaces of interracial contacts.
This in turn will allow for a re-activation of interest in and from the other sex of their own
race. Both sexual and racial atrophy is thereby sought to be contained thus.
The urgency with which McLendon appoints himself as the vigilante leader is in itself a
telling commentary on the subtext of lynching and racial hatred. It is in the act of lynching
that the thus sanitized space will allow for a shaken white masculinity and an obsolescent
female sexuality to make a comeback. It is in this space purged of any black presence that
white desirability is reactivated. Experiencing a renewal of self, Minnie arouses the interest
of the town such that ‘even the young men lounging in the doorway tipped their hats and
followed with their eyes the motion of her hips and legs when she passed’ reminiscent of her
earlier days when she ‘(rode) upon the crest of the town’s social contemporaries.’ Her delight
in the excitement that she now sends rippling through the crowd is prolonged in the notice
that other gentleman too take note of when they marvel, “Do you see?”
6.5 Crisis of white masculinity – ‘The South don’t want your kind here’
As the analysis above suggests, the white men are victims of gendered notions of masculinity
that places a premium on certain expectations and ideals of men at which they fail miserably.
Arguing for a focal shift on white masculinity I suggest that it is in his characterization of
McLendon that Faulkner dramatizes the crisis of white masculinity. A preponderance on the
weather conditions in the story is what obfuscates the issue of the crisis of white masculinity
in “Dry September”. As a result, this aspect is hardly commented upon in critical studies of
Faulkner’s works. That Faulkner chooses to end “Dry September” with the ‘war hero’
returning home where his wife awaits his arrival, to provide a glimpse of the marital world of
the man, and a failed one at that, is a good enough indicator to argue that white masculinity
and its failure is also the focus of Faulkner. Had it been only about an exploration of racial
anxieties, the concluding section would have had nothing to offer and would have been
extraneous to the story.
It is not only McLendon who suffers from such anxieties but the townspeople too.
Though they might require a bit of coaxing and cajoling they too are quick enough to allay
them in the only way known to them that is through violence. Fear becomes a governing
force in their lives. In switching over to McLendon’s side despite their suspicions about it,
the fear of not conforming to standards of masculinity is as strong an impulse as is the idea of
racial purity.
In his failure to relive his earlier self as a warrior McLendon ends up more exasperated.
This perhaps explains his abuse of his wife. Thus in order to account for that lack of a strong

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masculine self, they seek to wrap it up by slipping into the role of a male protector at the
slightest pretext as offered by the rumor. And here the gendered expectations of men is
inextricably intermeshed with the racial ideals of the Southern white world both of which
dictated that (white) men protect white women from the bestial and devouring sexuality of
black men.
6.6 Weather
“It’s this durn weather,” another said. “It’s enough to make a man do anything. Even to her.”
Though obvious it is one of the most commented upon motifs in Faulkner’s “Dry
September”. Ostensibly, it is the dry hot weather, ‘aftermath of sixty-two rainless days’ that
is driving everyone crazy. The opening note with its ‘bloody September twilight’
foreshadows the terrible event that is about to unfold. In light of a rumour of a purported
attack on a white woman by a black man, and the consequent rage of the white people, the
justification for their retributive impulse is sought in the weather which they believe is
responsible for people’s behaviour. The suggestion perhaps is also that even if Miss Minnie
Cooper has lied, it is not her but the weather which is to be blamed.
In a clever twist of irony the haunting atmospherics become an apt metaphor for the
malaise that shrouds the townspeople. It is symptomatic of a moral aridity and spiritual
sterility that clouds their ethical judgment, obscures any sense of reasoning and elides justice
in this town.
6.7 Moving Pictures
The visual cultures, here the ‘moving pictures’, “picture show” or the cinema, floods them
with images of what is sexy and how to conform to such notions of beauty and sexual
desirability. However, it does nothing to equip them to deal with it once the youthfulness
fades away, or for those who experience failure in trying to live up to those romanticized
representations of beauty, masculinity or aesthetic desirability. This state of confusion and
paradox that results in a paranoia is pithily articulated in the story when the readers are told
of a fascinating but terrible montage wherein real lives and the reel lives where ‘silver dreams
accumulated’ are juxtaposed. Faulkner writes, ‘It was like a miniature fairyland with its
lighted lobby and colored lithographs of life caught in its terrible and beautiful mutations.’
The ‘moving pictures’ in the story that Minnie is so fascinated by is the source of her
fantasies and the delusions that she entertains. While the source (cinema) is fascinating and
beautiful, it proves ‘terrible’ for her for it is precisely her inability to adhere to those images
of ‘beautiful women’ that renders her irrelevant for the townsmen whose own sense of
‘furious unreality’ is also a product of the cinematic representations that circulate and help
establish ideas about what constitutes a strong masculine self.
6.8 Narrative Technique
In so far as narrative technique is concerned, Faulkner stands out for two reasons. One, in the
vein of modernist writers’ he usually employs the stream of consciousness technique in most

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of his works to give his readers an insight into his characters minds. Two, he uses quite long
sentences with elaborate and complex syntax which is seen as typically Faulknerian. “Dry
September” is narrated in the third person by an unnamed narrator who does not let out as
much. For instance the narrator makes it clear that no one in the barbershop "knew exactly
what had happened”. Though not an omniscient narrator, he is also not an unreliable narrator.
He chooses to work with suggestion as it drives home the point more powerfully. Oscillating
between narrations of the present and the past, the narrator is objective in his telling. He
recounts events and the characters’ past without passing judgment.
6.9 Self-Check Questions
1. Elaborate on the function of the weather and references to the dust, the moon and the
stars?
2. Critically comment on the ‘crisis of white masculinity’ in “Dry September”.
3. Comment on the narrative technique deployed in the short story “Dry September”.
7. Character Analysis
7.1 Minnie Cooper
Miss Minnie Cooper now in her late thirties was once upon a time the toast of the town.
However, in an attempt to re-live the past she spends her day in the porch appearing in ‘a lace
trimmed boudoir cap’, or kills her time by going downtown with her friends in her ‘new voile
dresses’ and striking bargain for the sake of it. While she was a nubile beauty she was much
sought after until her friends and the social circle became class conscious. Unlike her friends
she could not come to terms with the reality of her aging ‘haggard look’. With ‘furious
repudiation of truth in her eyes’ she still desired to be in parties. It was in a party when it hit
her hard that she stopped socializing. That her friends’ children called her “aunty” proved to
be a cruel reminder. Nevertheless she found solace in the myths of ‘popular Aunt Minnie”
that she was in her younger years. None of which stopped her from finding a lover, albeit
fleetingly, and who got her the attention she desired with his ‘first automobile in the town’.
And twelve years later when she is castaway as an adulteress living a solitary life, the Cashier
would still visit the town on the eve of the Christmas. Though she does not seem to have any
lover as of now, she is still supplied with whisky ‘by a youth, a clerk at the soda fountain’
who believes ‘she’s entitled to a little fun.’ Amidst all this emptiness and a vague attempts to
enact the past Minnie continues with her evening outings with young “cousins”. She tries her
best to appear her best though the ‘lounging men did not even follow her with their eyes
anymore.’ All this however changes in Section IV when she becomes the center of attention
so much so that she has a fit and has to be taken home.
Miss Minnie Cooper whom we see in Section II and Section IV, is the one who has
apparently made allegations against Will Mayes of having attacked her. It is interesting to
note that the exact nature of violence is not named. That it is only a rumour that she has
possibly levelled this charge is constantly affirmed by her previous ‘man scare’ stories. Also,
it is McLendon who labels it as “rape” for the first time, and nothing in the text undercuts that
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assumption. With not a single utterance from her despite being at the heart of the rumour,
Faulkner points to the silencing of women across cultures as the concluding section of the
story also establishes.
7.2 Will Mayes
Will Mayes, a black man, works in an ice plant. He is the one whom Miss Minne Cooper has
apparently accused of having raped her. Despite his centrality to the narrative as the main
accused, his corporeality hardly occupies much textual space in the story. The reader meets
him only briefly in the third section of the story where McLendon along with his cohorts have
managed to kidnap him. The closest we get to him is in the claustrophobic space of a car
where he is handcuffed and pressed from all sides. His very limited presence serves to point
to many things. One, his physical marginalization within the narrative serves to suggest his
position of marginality in the white dominated racist South. That he is not allowed an
opportunity for defense, and any suggestion of his innocence carries scant regard in this
xenophobic society is a mirror of the society where the blacks were not merely victimized
and their voice suppressed but also whose presence was sought to be obliterated.
7.3 McLendon
McLendon, the war hero, is the main catalytic agent in the narrative. The very description of
his physique and his posture serves to present him as a poster boy, the white male protector of
the Southern belle. His commandeering skills help him to quickly mobilize the white folk
into a group with himself as their self-appointed leader. Leading from the front like he did in
France, during the war time, he seizes upon the present opportunity to teach the Negro a
lesson. Without specifying what exactly he is going to do to Will Mayes, he engineers a lynch
mob that would not ‘let a black son rape a white woman on the streets of Jefferson”, or “let
the black sons get away with it until one does it’. More particularly, his naming of the charge
against Will Mayes as “rape”, also reminds the readers of the white man’s fears of
miscegenation and interracial intimacies.
Ultimately, in the final section, we find him manhandling his wife; an act which is in
contradiction to his professed aim of protecting the white women. The farce of protecting
white women is, thus, exposed in his treatment of his wife whom he physically abuses even
without any provocation. The last image of him as a ‘panting’ animal that ‘hunted furiously’,
then, also exposes the fragility of the normative masculinity that is cracking beneath its
surface.
7.4 Henry Hawkshaw
The barber, Henry Hawkshaw, is the voice of reason who asserts Will Mayes’s innocence.
That he is white, but unlike the townspeople he still argues in favour of a black man helps
complicate the larger picture of race. Through him Faulkner suggests that even in the deeply
racist South, there are still a few white men who will stand by reason and morality. The
author does this not to downplay racism but to present a more complex understanding of race

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relations. In addition, he suggests, through Hawkshaw, how one deliberately does not pay
heed to one’s conscience.
7.5 The Bank Cashier
The Bank Cashier, a minor figure even though white, suggests male virility. He was Miss
Minnie Cooper’s partner in the past when she would ‘ride upon the crest of the town’s social
life’. His associations with changing female partners, car, money and affluence underscore a
patriarchal culture which allows a man to celebrate his desirability and virility but which in a
woman is seen as a vice, and reflective of her loose morality and easy availability. That the
town is judgmental of Minnie’s actions, and has relegated her out of its memory is self-
evident; perhaps a result of her flaunting her sexuality. But the same treatment is not reserved
for the bank cashier who is no different from Minnie in capitalizing on his physical charms
and privilege. Rather, he is still, even after so many years, welcome to the town and is a kind-
of-celebrated figure even while Miss Minnie is languishing in her advancing years, and seems
to be living a delusional life desirous of male attention.
8. Summing up
Why read him, today? Does race still matter?
Of late, the hashtag ‘Black Lives Matter’ has been resounding in our society which has
turned into a movement calling to attention the atrocities and discriminatory practices that
still continue against black people in present day. Many examples from the recent past have
shown time and again that skin colour does matter. Race still matters. We as a society, and
America in particular, despite its much celebrated status as a melting pot of cultures is
undergirded by racial tensions, anxieties and centuries old stereotypes of racialized ideas of
white supremacy and black as deviant. In such a context of unequal power relations based on
colour, a rising spate of hate crimes, mass killings, public shootings, and black victimization,
reading William Faulkner, and by extension, understanding race relations in the age of much
touted globalization, takes on an urgency of its own. Faulkner’s short story ‘Dry September’
with its grammar of subtlety makes for an apt reading to critique race and racism in today’s
day and time when it has taken on new forms. Faulkner’s stories are thought provoking.
Through them, he makes his readers think about the pervasive, relentless and dehumanizing
presence of racism in the black and African American lives.
9. Further Readings
Harper Lee’s To Kill a Mockingbird, William Faulkner’s Light in August, and “Hair”.
10. References
Agarwal, Binoy Bhushan. “To be a White and Male in the American South: Negotiating Race
and Gender in William Faulkner’s ‘Dry September.’” English Forum, Vol. 4, 2015, pp. 49-
62.

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Faulkner, William. “Dry September” Scribner’s Magazine. 1931. This Unsettling Place:
Readings in American Literature, A Critical Anthology. Eds. Akhil Katyal and Anannya
Dasgupta. Delhi: Worldview, 2014. 187-202.
---, “William Faulkner, Banquet speech.” The Nobel Prize. Web.
https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/literature/1949/faulkner/speech/. Accessed 09 October,
2020.
Gros, Emmeline. The Southern Gentleman and the Idea of Masculinity: Figures and Aspects
of the Southern Beau in the Literary Tradition of the American South. Diss. Georgia State
University, 2010. ScholarWorks @ Georgia State University. Accessed 06 October 2014.
Katyal, Akhil., and Anannya Dasgupta, eds. This Unsettling Place: Readings in American
Literature, A Critical Anthology. Delhi: Worldview Publications, 2014.
Mosse, George L. The Image of Man: The Creation of Modern Masculinity. New York and
Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996.
U.S. Constitution. Amend. XIII-XV, Sec. 1. Web.
https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/GPO-CONAN-1992/pdf/GPO-CONAN-1992-7.pdf
Accessed 08 October 2020.
Volpe, Edmond L. ‘“Dry September”: Metaphor for Despair.’ College Literature Vol. 16,
No. 1 (1989): 60-65. JSTOR. Web. Accessed 28 July 2014.

11. Image Courtesy

Figure 1: William Faulkner, Photo: Mississippi Encyclopedia.
Source: https://mississippiencyclopedia.org/entries/william-faulkner/. Accessed 10 October
2020.
Figure 2: A sketch depicting slavery, Photo: BBC News.
Source: https://www.bbc.com/news/education-48097051. Accessed 10 October 2020.
Figure 3: A postcard of the Duluth lynching, June 15, 1920. Photo: Wikimedia Commons.
Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Duluth-lynching-postcard.jpg. Accessed 10
October 2020.

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 Unit 4c

Everything that Rises Must Converge

Flannery O’ Connor
Ankur Yadav

1. About the Author

Born in Georgia, Flannery O’Connor had a short but admirable life writing short stories,
novels, essays and reviews. She also drew cartoons and while she was at Georgia State
College for Women, her college magazine as well as her campus newspaper carried her
illustrations. She wrote two novels, thirty two stories and numerous essays. She died in 1964
when she was thirty nine of a disease named lupus.
Flannery O’Connor wrote during a time of radical social change in American society.
She never considered herself liberal or political but deeply religious at a time when those
around her were becoming secular. She managed to incorporate what was going in the South
concerning integration and civil rights, in her writings. Her writing reflected her Roman
Catholic faith and persistently examined the moral and ethical codes of behaviour. Her
posthumously compiled Short Stories won the 1972 US National Book Award for Fiction.
2. Introduction
‘Everything That Rises Must Converge’ by Flannery O’ Connor was first published in 1961.
The story takes place during the civil rights movement in America. For years, the blacks had
been suppressed by the whites. They were not given equal rights in the society and were
confined as slaves. They were seen as different human beings and discriminated on the basis
of their skin color. However, in mid-1900’s several protest movements gained momentum to
end such segregation based on color. Soon black Americans began to make themselves heard
in America by demanding equal rights. The Federal and State government made numerous
reforms to uplift the financial conditions of poverty stricken people and eradicate racial
discrimination. By the 1950’s, the aristocratic plantation system ceased to exist and the urban
areas began experiencing rising demands of job seekers. This led the college admissions to
rise along with higher education becoming more affordable and accessible for the whites as
well as the black people.
In 1954, the blacks achieved a milestone when the Supreme Court ruled that segregation
on the basis of color in public is unconstitutional and ordered the “equal” guideline to end the
same in all public domains. The result was supposed to be a smooth transition from a
segregated state to an integrated state where both Black and White people would live in
harmony and with regard for each other. On the surface, the Blacks and Whites could ride the
same buses, attend the same school and hold the same jobs. However, in actual fact,
resentment simmered in both groups and things did not go as smoothly as expected. Both
sides felt threatened. One could see the old order slipping away and the other was

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apprehensive of the future which looked ambiguous. There was thus an increasing tension
among people to assert their individuality in order to secure their place in the society. In her
story Flannery O’Connor deals with these growing issues and effectively portrays the
struggle to maintain or redefine a sense of identity of one’s own.
3. Learning Objectives
After going through this study material you would be able to
 Critically engage with the story and analyze it through different points of view.
 Understand the social and historical context of the story.
 Understand the condescending psyche of the Whites towards the Blacks and the
ambiguity in their behaviour.
 Comprehend the ground reality and know how the civil rights movement was
affecting the daily lives of people.
 Recognize the need and struggle of characters to redefine their sense of identity.
 Understand whether there can be any solution to the problem as presented in the story.

4. Summary
One evening, Julian Chestny, a recent college graduate prepares to accompany his mother to
her weight reducing classes at YMCA. He accompanies her there every week as his mother is
skeptical of taking a ride alone since integration. While getting ready Mrs. Chestny
contemplates returning her new hat for paying the gas bills. While passing through their
deteriorated neighborhood, Julian imagines owning a house on the countryside. He opines
that he will make money soon, although he knows he will never be able to do so. His mother
tries to raise his spirit by saying “Rome was not built in a day” and that all good things take
time. Mrs. Chestny keeps talking to Julian and reminds him of his grandfather’s lineage and
plantation fields. Julian asserts that days of slavery are over. His mother is of the view that
the Blacks are free to rise but they should do it “on their own side of the fence”, separately
from the Whites. As his mother talks about her nurse, Caroline, in a condescending way,
Julian muses with the idea of sitting with a black person to redress her prejudices against the
black community.
Arriving at the bus stop, Julian removes his tie, immediately prompting his mother to
rebuke him for looking like a thug. Julian reverts that culture is indeed in one’s mind and is
not reflected by one’s appearance and looks. To which his mother replies that it is “in the
heart” and “in how you do things and how you do things is because of who you are.” We
see a generational gap here between the mother and son and their different approach to life.
After boarding the bus, Mrs. Chestny is relieved as there is no black person in the bus. She
strikes a conversation with a white lady and tells her about Julian. She tells her that Julian
sells typewriters but he wants to be a writer. Meanwhile Julian slips into his mental bubble
where he judges his mother for living in a dilapidated fantasy world of false pretentiousness:
“Behind the newspaper Julian was withdrawing into the inner compartment of his
mind where he spent most of his time. This was a kind of mental bubble in which he
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 established himself when he could not bear to be a part of what was going on around
him. From it he could see out and judge but in it he was safe from any kind of
penetration from without. It was the only place where he felt free of the general idiocy
of his fellows. His mother had never entered it but from it he could see her with
absolute clarity.”
Although, he feels contempt towards his mother he realizes her sacrifices in raising him
and giving him a good education.
A well-dressed black man soon boards the bus and starts reading his newspaper. Julian,
in a bid to make his mother uncomfortable, tries to initiate a conversation with him but ends
up asking him for a lighter. It becomes embarrassing as he doesn’t smoke and has to soon
return the lighter to the black man who too finds it awkward. Julian again slips into his
mental bubble and dreams of multiple ways to recompense for his mother’s prejudices
against Blacks. He envisages taking home a black Lawyer or a Professor for discussion. He
also contemplates calling a black Doctor home but does not want his mother to suffer a
stroke. Finally, he imagines having a black woman as his partner thus forcing his mother to
accept his relationship with her. The bus stops and Julian is brought out of his mental bubble.
A sullen looking black woman with a baby, boards the bus and Julian notices something
familiar about her. The black woman is wearing the same hat as that of his mother. He thinks
this incident will teach his mother a permanent lesson. Much to his bewilderment, he finds
his mother amused by the incident. In fact, she begin to play with the baby boy. Julian knows
that his mother “lumped all children, black and white, into the common category, “cute,” and
she thought little Negroes were on the whole cuter than little white children.” He sees her
smiling at the little boy as he climbed on the seat beside her. The black woman discourages
her baby boy by not letting him play with Julian’s mother and even yanks him to her side.
Both the woman and Julian de-board at the same point. Julian has a terrible intuition that
now his mother will give this baby boy a penny out of her gracious pretentiousness. And his
fear turns into reality when despite his multiple warnings; she gives the boy, a penny. The
black woman is infuriated by this gesture and exclaims “He doesn’t take nobody’s penny”!
She then swings her purse and knocks Julian’s mother to the ground.
Julian pulls up his mother and chides her about her obsolete graciousness. He asserts that
in the present times not only this black woman but no Black will take her condescending
pennies. He even exclaims gratuitously that even the hat looks better on the black woman
than her. Trying to hold her arm he sees a stunned expression on his mother’s face. She asks
him to call Grandpa and Caroline, and jostles from his grasp only to crumble on pavement.
He dashes forward and finds her face fiercely distorted, one eye unmoored and the other fixed
and closed. Julian begins to run for help but is unable to find anyone to help him and
eventually Mrs. Chestny dies.

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4.1 Check Your Progress
 Discuss the mother-son relationship in the story. What values does each generation
represent? Which character is more dependent on the other? Which Character is more
admirable and why?
 Is ‘Everything That Rises Must Converge’ a story of racism in America? Explain with
the help of suitable incidents from the story.
 Why do you think Carver’s Mother doesn’t want him to play with Mrs. Chestny?
What comment is O’Connor making about integration?
 What do you think really happens at the end of the story?
5. Analysis
Flannery O’Connor knits a story that is devoid of conventional atrocities on the Blacks and is
rather a subtle narrative depicting the world after legal desegregation in the country. She
portrays a Southern society still harboring racial attitudes despite the integration that should
have worked towards bringing the two races together.
5.1 Ambiguity
Connor’s characters maintain pretentious social decorum without even realizing the racist
undertones of their behavior. Julian’s Mother is the epitome of such a spirit. Though she is of
the firm view that blacks can rise but only on their side of the fence yet she plays with the
black boy Carver and even tries to give him a penny out of good intentions just as any old
person would humor a child. She however does not realize the patronizing attitude implied in
the act. Julian toois an equally ambiguous character as he professes to be broadminded but
secretly longs for his ancestral wealth from plantation fields that implies he is not fully
contented with the integration. His liberal education does not match up with his real life
where he fails to connect with any black person at all. As Connor observes “he had never
been successful at making any Negro friends.” Both characters however, though not
comprehensively accepting, are not evil either.
5.2 Struggle for Identity
All the characters in O’Connor’s story scuffle to redefine or maintain their sense of identity.
“The world is in such a mess” observes Mrs. Chestny. “If you know who you are you can go
anywhere” is her advice to her son. Julian however understands the turmoil of the times they
are living in and he retorts : “Knowing who you are is good for one generation only. You
haven’t the foggiest idea where you stand or who you are.” Mrs. Chestny however stubbornly
persists in her bigoted views emphatically stating that the blacks should “rise on their side of
the fence.” The ones she feels most sorry for are the “ones that are half white. “According to
her “They are tragic” being neither here nor there, neither black nor white, having lost their
identity completely.
Apart from Julian and his mother, the other white woman on the bus also harbors racist
prejudices and asserts the same by changing her seat once the black man boards the bus to
mark her supremacy. On the other hand, the black characters are in a constant struggle to

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assert their individuality and new found respectability. The black Man does not show any
intention to talk to anyone but wants to stamp his new found authority through his
appearance. Carver’s Mother also showcases same racist attitudes by not allowing her son to
play with Mrs. Chestny and ends up hitting her without comprehending her real intentions.
5.3 Nostalgia for the Past
“Your great-grandfather was a former governor of this state,” she said. “Your grandfather
was a prosperous landowner. Your grandmother was a Godhigh,” Mrs. Chestny nostalgically
tells her son. She fails to realize that in the present context these memories have no meaning.
Julian’s irritation with her comes out in the way he lashes out at her: “Will you look around
you,” he said tensely, “and see where you are now?” and he “swept his arm jerkily out to
indicate the neighborhood, which the growing darkness at least made less dingy.” Gone are
the past glories and the status that the family enjoyed. In comparison the present is bleak and
stark. O’ Connor’s story criticizes the very nature of humans to hinge back to their past
continuously and of looking at things through the past spectacles. Julian’s Mother constantly
delves deep into her past and even finds her happiness from it. But in doing so, she ignores
the present and the prevailing customs. Her act of scolding Julian when loosening his tie is an
example of past aristocratic customs. She constantly ignores to look into prevailing customs
and learn the ways of contemporary society which in turn give rise to her bigoted attitude.
After being lectured by his mother about his noble roots, Julian swings his arm around their
neighborhood and implores her to see the obnoxious present. Through his action, Julian
explains to his mother that the past in which she still believes is no more. She is living a lie
because her situation, and the South, more broadly has changed forever.
5.4 Motifs and Symbols
Of the numerous convergences of the story, that of the hat is of utmost importance. Both Hat
and Penny are used as symbols by the author to represent two different perspectives of people
converging on a specific point to make the reader understand the contemporary issues of the
American Society. It is not a mere coincidence that both, the black and the white woman, are
wearing the same hat but it is a reinforcement of the changing times that Carver’s mother can
also wear the same hat as that of a white woman and can ride the same bus. The hat brings
both women on the same plane of status and class. The ferocity of such convergence arises
from the conflicts of old codes and new-found identity of these characters. While Mrs.
Chestny infuriates Carver’s Mother with her old codes of manner, on the other hand, Carver’s
Mother in a bid to reinforce her identity, trespasses the humane codes and strikes Julian’s
Mother with her bag.
The Penny that Mrs. Chestny gives to Carver symbolizes her patronizing attitude towards
black people. Although she offers the penny out of her love and kindness but she doesn’t
realize the racist and condescending undertones of her offering. For centuries, the black
people have been suppressed by the white people for material wealth and goods. The black
people have been allowed only basic things for their livelihood. The act of giving money to
Carver is therefore a symbolic continuation of the Blacks’ dependence on Whites. Fueled by

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centuries of rage and anger, Carver’s mother lashes out at Mrs. Chestny and rejects her
offering.
5.5 The Ending: The Final Convergence
The final convergence of the story begins with Julian realizing that his mother is more
severely hurt than he has reckoned. Initially, he thinks that his mother has been taught a good
lesson. He begins chastising her with his liberal ideas and asserting the changes that have
taken place in the state. But as he realizes that she is drifting away, he calls for her with his
never shown love. Ironically, the attempt to converge with his mother comes terribly late. Her
death jolts Julian and brings him to a point where he is unable to confront his own reality.
Her death blurs the boundaries of black and white and his understanding of right and wrong
to an extent where it is increasingly difficult for him to understand this world through these
set rules.
After the death of Mrs. Chestny, we realize that the world is perhaps, not that simple.
None of the characters in the story is evil enough to be hated; neither can any of them be
praised. Each one of them has his own codes which ultimately lead to a catastrophe that
questions the consistency and logic of the new social order of the world. The story descends
into deeper disharmony, with the death of Mrs. Chestny, rejecting the possibility of a shared
social order.
5.6 The Point of View
By using slightly modified omniscient point-of -view narrative technique, O’Connor moves
back and forth, more precisely in and out of Julian’s mind to create a rippling effect on the
readers. She reports the incident both as an outsider and as reflected from Julian’s
consciousness. The very essence of Julian’s ‘mental bubble’ where he ‘could see out and
judge’ gives us Julian’s reaction to the things and the author intervenes only when she
requires to exert something or comment specifically. As we see things from Julian’s point of
view primarily, it is easier to misjudge his mother. To assume that her behavior only conceals
hatred for Blacks is a mistake loosely made by the readers.
5.7 Narrative Technique
Throughout ‘Everything That Rises Must Converge’, the story contrasts the reality of the
world with the characters’ perception of that reality. This contrast makes clear how biases, by
impeding a person’s understanding of reality, create anxious social conditions like those in
1950’s in American Southern states. The story’s fundamental contrast between reality and
perception comes in its very narration. The story is told by a close third person narrator that
only has access to Julian’s internal world, and whose tone of narration mirrors Julian’s own
way of thinking and speaking. When the narrator discusses Julian, then, it seems reasonable
that the narrator is expressing Julian’s own sense of himself. For instance, when the narrator
says that Julian spends most of his time in the “inner compartment of his mind,” which
allows him to judge in a way that’s “safe from any kind of penetration from without,” this
seems to express Julian’s own view of himself. While Julian considers himself being superior
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because of his “inner compartment” it is clearly manifested that both Julian and the narrator
are far away from reality.
The story presents numerous incidents portraying the conflict of reality and perception.
Both Julian and his mother have their very own objective views which they want others to
believe in. Julian’s Mother wants to project that she has raised a boy well. She takes pride in
the fact that Julian has gone to college and is good looking. On the other hand, Julian believes
that having relationships with the Blacks will make clear his moral views to the world. In
fact, in his bid to assert his moral superiority he even fantasizes to marry a Black woman. The
incident of Julian’s Mother giving a penny to Carver is also a mere kind and generous action
towards a cute child, but Carver’s Mother finds it to be intensely condescending. This
divergence in the two women’s perceptions of reality leads to a physical confrontation and
further chaos.
5.8 Check Your Progress
1. What is the significance of the Hat and the Penny in the story?
2. After making such a big deal about her new hat, why do you think Julian’s Mother
isn’t bothered when she sees Carver’s Mother with the same hat? Does her reaction go
against the idea that she is racist?
3. What is the final convergence in the story?

6. Themes
6.1 Racism
The story is set in the South of America soon after the racial integration was enforced by the
law in the country. It depicts how even after the integration, individuals are struggling to
maintain their identity. The Whites are unable to accept this integration and the Blacks are
trying too hard to assert their new found identity. Such is the prejudice among them that they
are not able to see even the fundamental similarities between one another. This makes it
extremely difficult for the people to connect with each other and form any kind of bond.
The author makes it very obvious to the readers that Julian’s mother has racist traits. She
is skeptical of this integration reform and does not wish to travel in a bus, alone, because of
the presence of the Blacks in the bus. She prefers the arrangement when no Black person is
travelling in the bus. She firmly believes that Blacks and Whites are not equal and this
integration law is no good. Her prejudice is deeply rooted in her upbringing where she has
always seen Blacks placed much lower in the strata of the society. The story however marks
the fundamental similarities between the Blacks and Whites but Julian’s mother ignores any
such similarity. Just like Julian’s mother, Carver’s mother is also unnamed. She is wearing
the same hat as that of Julian’s Mother and Julian is quick to point it out even to his mother.
But she does not pay heed to the fact. Julian even terms Carver’s mother as her “black
double”. However, the story manifests that Julian’s mother is unable to find any similarity
because of her racist attitudes.

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 Julian believes himself to be morally superior than his mother and shows himself as
vexed by his mother’s aristocratic ideals. But in practicality, he is no less patronizing than his
mother. He considers Blacks as different human beings, much like his mother. He wants to
talk to them to either irritate his mother or prove himself morally superior. The fact that he is
unable to connect with Blacks is the product of his hollow ideals and beliefs.
The story further shows how the Blacks are not themselves freed of the crippled
mentality. The constantly pervasive racism does not allow them to trust anyone and make
them only skeptical towards the Whites. The author through this story asserts that not only
the Whites but the Blacks too have developed prejudices which in turn do not allow them to
see the things as they are. The act of Julian’s mother giving Carver a penny is more out of her
love towards children, than being a “hand out”. But the prevailing mistrust does not let
Carver’s Mother consider it as an act of love and she explodes in anger, striking Julian’s
Mother with her purse and refusing, what she thinks, is a hand out. The racist undertones of
this society of which Julian’s Mother is also a part makes it impossible even for the other
characters to consider it as a genuine act of love. The story concludes by suggesting that
perhaps a society marred by racism is unable to forge connection and belief amongst people
hence the eradication of these racist beliefs is the only possible solution to this inhumane
issue.
6.2 Social Order and Disorder
‘Everything That Rises Must Converge’ is a story about the breaking of traditional social
order and hierarchies that the integration has led to. In traditional Southern American Culture
there is an emphasis on “who you are” which determines one’s place in the social order. The
person is supposed to behave in a certain way based on one’s birth and class. Mrs. Chestny
argues that the culture of a person is reflected by what’s in their heart and how they “do
things”, both are immediate product of “who you are”. This sense of social order is based on
Mrs. Chestny’s desire to cling to their past history and lineage. However, Julian is vexed by
such thoughts as the estate is now in ruins. The gothic world of their neighborhood with sky
being “dying violet” and the houses being in ugly state is in complete contrast with the
romantic memories of their past lineage. This ugly neighborhood clearly suggests the death of
the old order in the story.
After the fight between Mrs. Chestny and Carver’s Mother, the peak point of social
disorder, the utter chaos extends to the face of Mrs. Chestny. Her distorted face implies that
her belief in the old social order is destroyed. The incident manifests that O’Connor never
suggests that a newer or a better order has risen to replace the old order. Instead she subverts
the idea of any order by depicting that there isn’t much consistency or moral logic to the
world they live in. Both the black and white people have not shown any consistency to
maintain a simplistic moral order in the society. The story’s ending seems to suggest that the
possibility of a shared order and morality is bleak.
6.3 Check Your Progress
1. What comment is O’Connor making about the contemporary social order in the story?
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 2. What idea do you get about racism in “Everything that Rises Must Converge”? How
is the contemporary society suffering from this issue?
3. Comment on the theme of conflict of reality and perception in the story.
7. Characters
7.1 Julian: Julian is a recent college graduate who is completely embittered by the
contemporary atmosphere around him. Although he presumes himself to be liberal and
unbiased towards the Blacks, he is as narrow minded as his mother. He is brought up with a
narrow set of experiences and a confined worldview of his mother. Because of his college
education he seems to overarch himself as liberal. But he is unable to forge any kind of bond
with the Blacks. In fact, he finds it an ardent task to even converse with them. This is clearly
manifested in the incident in the bus, where, in order to strike a conversation with a Black
man, he ends up making the incident awkward by first asking for a lighter himself and then
returning it without using it.
It can be stated that Julian tries to connect with the Blacks more out of his desire to
annoy his mother rather than to forge any bond. He reflects his own irritation by annoying his
mother. To him, bringing home a Black is a triumph of his college education and not his
individuality. His fantasizing world of connecting with the Blacks is as far from reality as his
mental bubble.
Julian has only contempt and disregard towards his mother. He lacks respect for his
mother and doesn’t even try to hide his lack of respect. He makes fun of her hat, desires to
slap her, considers himself a martyr as he accompanies her to the weight reducing classes and
urges to break her spirit. He is disillusioned by confining his understanding to his faltered
individuality.
7.2 Julian’s Mother: Mrs. Chestny is the epitome of old southern gentility possessing racist
undertones while maintaining social decorum. Being a middle-aged woman, she relies on her
son and has made numerous sacrifices for his education and upbringing. It is more of her
affection towards Julian than fear of integration that she wants him to accompany her to the
weight management classes.
Her condescending attitude towards the Blacks is a product of her fear arising from the
integration of the Blacks in the mainstream White society. She is of the view that the Blacks
must rise but within their own fence. Her outdated perception of the society and the ideas of
racial inequality are formed by her upbringing. She harbors the social decorum of her class
which prompts her to give Carver a penny without really comprehending the racist undertone
of the act.
Julian’s mother is hinged back to her past and constantly longs for her old family
lineage. She often fantasizes about the past glory and draws her happiness from them but
irritates Julian in the process. Ironically, in the climax of the story, she is pushed further back
to her past. After being hit by the Black woman, she goes into shock and finds herself trapped

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in the past. She asks Julian to call his grandfather and nurse both of whom she associates with
security and comfort but both are long dead.
7.3 Check Your Progress
1. Do you think Julian is a good son? What is the driving force behind his anger towards
her mother?
2. Give a brief character sketch of Julian’s Mother. Do you think she is guilty of clinging
to her past? What is her reason for doing so?

8. Summing Up
In ‘Everything That Rises Must Converge’ all the characters converge on the bus. The title
‘Everything That Rises Must Converge’ undercuts the whole idea of Julian’s mother about
“rising in their own fence” doctrine. Julian’s Mother ignores the fact that there is no way to
rise without converging. Black people in the story are “rising” and they are rising so high that
they will leap over their fence and converge with the white people. And this convergence is
asserted by the same hat of the black and white woman and we see in the bus that blacks and
whites are not so different at all.
Initially ‘Everything That Rises Must Converge’ appears to be a simple story but as the
story concludes we realize that not everything can be simply termed as Black and White. The
story breaks traditional social order and portrays the conflict that arises because of the
changes happening in the process. The story shows how the aristocratic hierarchy built first
on slavery, then on segregation, is giving way to an integrated society with equal rights to
both the Blacks and Whites. But this transition is not as smooth as it seems for ordinary
people, rather it is a turbulent one.
Work Cited
O’Connor, Flannery. Everything That Rises Must Converge. New York: Farrar Straus and
Giroux, 1978. 3-24.
Bibliography

 Whitt, Margaret Earley. Understanding Flannery O'Connor. University of South

Carolina Press,1997.
 Chardin, Pierre Teilhard De. Building the Earth and The Psychological Conditions of
Human Unification. Avon (Discus Edition),1969, p. 11.
 Martin, Carter W., The True Country: Themes in the Fiction of Flannery O’Connor,
Nashville, TN: Vanderbilt University Press, 1968.
 Bloom, Harold, ed., Flannery O’Connor: A Comprehensive Research and Study
Guide, New York: Chelsea House, 1999.

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 Unit 4d

The Man to Send Rain Clouds

Leslie Marmon Silko
Ankur Yadav

1. About the Author

Leslie Marmon Silko is a Native American novelist, poet, story writer, and essayist. She was
born in 1948 to a family whose ancestry includes Mexican, Laguna and European heritage.
She grew up on the Laguna Pueblo Reservation listening to the stories and myths of her
native culture which later became an inspiration for her work.Her mixed ancestry has
influenced her writings in numerous ways where the attempt has always been to retain her
Native American culture. Silko garnered early literary acclaim for her short story ‘The Man
to Send Rain Clouds’, which was also awarded a National Endowment for the Humanities.
2. Introduction
The Story ‘The Man to Send Rain Clouds’ by Leslie Marmon Silko written in 1967,
highlights the cultural divide between the Native American protagonists and the Christian
Priest, Father Paul. In the Christian world, it is only God who can shower rain whereas in the
Pueblo world people believe it is the task of every dead man to send the rain for the better
lives of Pueblo tribesmen. From their respective positions on either side of this cultural
divide, the characters exercise an interesting episode of power struggle and dominance
between the Christian and the Pueblo world. The struggle in the story turns into a ritual not of
confrontation but of asserting dominance over one another through the various means of
subversion, evasion and finally adaptation to adhere to the Pueblo culture. By doing so, the
author also warrants her cultural stance towards native culture and her affinity towards Native
Americans.
3. Learning Objectives
The story draws a distinction between two different cultures of Christian world and the
Native America’s Laguna Pueblo tribe. By critically engaging with the story and analyzing it
through different points of view, you will learn about the two cultures and their traditions. By
explaining the social and historical context of the story, you will be able to–
 Learn the distinction between the two cultures
 How the culture of a society impacts individual lives
 Understand the power struggle arising from the conflict between two cultures

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4. Summary
4.1 Old Man Teofilo found Dead
The story begins with two men from Laguna Pueblo tribe - Leon and his brother in-law, Ken,
finding the corpse of their grandfather, Teofilo. They find him under a cottonwood tree
dressed in his Levis jacket and blue jeans. Teofilo was herding sheep before his demise and
as he has been dead for a day, the sheep have now strayed away. Leon and Ken first gather
the sheep and then begin the death rituals of their tribe in a bid for proper afterlife of their
grandfather. They draw a streak of white on his forehead, a strip of blue on his cheekbones, a
yellow streak under his nose and paint green across his chin. A grey feather is also tied into
his hair. After painting according to their customs, they then wrap his body in a blanket
muttering “send us rainclouds, grandfather.” On their way back home, they meet the local
Christian priest, Father Paul. He asks them about the whereabouts of Teofilo and suggests
they should not leave Teofilo with the sheep alone. Leon doesn’t tell father Paul about
Teofilo’s death instead replies that everything is “O.K. now”.
4.2 Preparations for the Funeral
In Part II, we see Leon and Ken arriving at their home and declaring the news of Teofilo’s
demise. Louise, Leon’s wife and Teresa then dress Teofilo in new clothes in accordance with
their tribal customs. Ken leaves, stressing about gravediggers and the need of burial before
dark. The news breaks to the neighbor who brings food not for the family but forthe
gravediggers to eat after finishing their task of grave digging.
4.3 Proceeding for Burial
In Part III, the author depicts the funeral proceedings of Teofilo.People sprinkle cornmeal
around the body of Old Teofilo out of their custom and beliefs. And as the funeral is over,
they load the dead body in the pickup to reach the graveyard for the burial. Louise hesitantly
asks Leon if they can ask father Paul to sprinkle some holy water over the body, to which
Leon readily agrees.
4.4 Two Cultures Intersecting :Sprinkling of Holy Water
In Part IV, we find Ken driving all the family members to the graveyard while dropping Leon
midway at the church gate to bring Father Paul to sprinkle the holy water. Father Paul gets
upset after hearing about the demise of Teofilo. He lays emphasis upon doing the last rites
according to the Christian tradition for Teofilo. Father Paul initially refuses to sprinkle holy
water on the body as the Christian burial tradition is not followed but eventually relents to do
same. When Father Paul first sees Teofilo’s body in the graveyard, he becomes skeptical. He
thinks it is some Indian trick being played by Laguna Pueblo tribe in order to harvest a good
crop. However, he pours the holy water on the body. As Father Paul returns, Leon notices the
sun setting down. He feels good as they finish all the rituals before sunset as per their tribal
custom and traditions. Moreover, he is happy that the holy water has been sprinkled on
Teofilo’s body which will bring them “big thunderclouds for sure”.

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4.5 Check Your Progress
 How is the Native American attitude toward death presented in the story? Are they
afraid of death?
 What did Leon and Ken do when they found their grandfather’s body?
 Why did they not tell Father Paul about Teofilo’s death?
 What is Father Paul’s reaction on seeing Old Teofilo’s dead body?
5. Analysis
In this story we see the co-existence of the Christian traditions and Native American Culture
and the conflict arising between the Native American and the Christian customs following the
death of Old Teofilo. The Native Americans do not believe in the “Christian culture”
imparted by the European countries. The Laguna Pueblo tribe has a firm belief in their culture
and the tribesmen do their best to adhere to their customary beliefs and traditions in the story.
5.1 The Native Customs
The dichotomy between the two cultures is drawn from the very outset of the story, beginning
with the dressing of the old man. Unlike the Christian culture, Teofilo is dressed in his jacket
and jeans suggesting his adherence to the Native American culture. The two men, Leon and
Ken perform all the necessary religious rituals of painting his face with certain colors and
tying a grey feather before wrapping his body in the blanket. While wrapping his body in the
blanket, they mutter “send us rain clouds, grandfather”. These words speak a lot about the
Laguna Pueblo tribes’ dire need of rain and their dependence on agriculture. Traditionally,
the main occupation of this tribe is agriculture and geographically the area they reside in is
tropical in nature, hence the rain plays an important role in their lives. This incident also
portrays the Laguna Pueblo legend that if proper rituals are followed, then the dead man will
send clouds and rain to irrigate their farms that would lead to a good crop.
Unlike Christian traditions, Death is not the end in the Native American tradition. By
hiding the death of their grandfather from the Christian Priest, Father Paul, they allow their
grandfather’s funeral as per their Native customs. Quite contrary to the Christian tradition,
there is no crying and sobbing on the demise of their grandfather but an urgency to strictly
adhere to their traditions for a good afterlife of their beloved grandfather. After reaching
home and dressing the dead Teofilo in new clothes, we see Leon and Ken finishing their food
and having their coffee much to the dismay of the Christian stereotypes. The concept of
neighbor bringing food for the gravediggers is strikingly different from those of the
Christians. This bringing of food not only symbolizes the unity of their tribe but also the
robust relation among them. By bringing food, the neighbors resolve the realistic issue of
Teofilo’s family to cook for the gravediggers and infer a more practical approach towards
life. The food brought by the neighbors can be eaten by the gravediggers to satiate their
hunger after finishing their task.

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5.2 The Conflict with Christian Traditions
In the funeral, we see the funeral-goers sprinkling cornmeal near the body with the belief
that the Old Teofilo will have adequate food and won’t be hungry in his afterlife. These
beliefs about afterlife give rise to one of the most conflicting event in the context of story.
After the funeral is over, Louise hesitantly asked Leon whether they could ask the local
priest, Father Paul, to sprinkle some holy water “so he won’t be thirsty” in the afterlife.
Despite the explanation given by Louise, it is evident that she uses the reason not because of
her robust belief but more so to convince Leon by a not so Christian rooted explanation to
bring the priest. Although, Leon readily agrees to call the Priest.
The incident of holy water disappearing as soon as it touches the grave also infers several
meanings. Symbolically, it depicts the desperate longing of Teofilo’s family about getting the
holy water sprinkled on the body. On the other plane, it shows the desperate need of rain in
the region where the soil is so dry that it soaks the water as soon as it falls. It also alludes to
the August rain that falls in the presence of the sun and evaporates as soon as it touches the
ground. Both the importance and the absurdity of the religious rituals are propounded by the
fact that Leon believes that the holy water, despite being a Christian tradition, will bring
showers of rain for them and their crops.
5.3 An Implied Critique
Silko is critical not only of the fanaticism of Father Paul but the Christianity as a whole.
When Leon goes to Father Paul’s house, he sees “the brown sofa, the green armchair, and the
brass lamp that hung down from the ceiling by links of chain.” Clearly, these things don’t
point towards the austerity of a religious person. The scene becomes much more emphatic
considering the livelihood standard of the tribesmen. Contrary to the preaching of ‘need’, the
household of Father Paul seems full of expensive things which are beyond the reach of
general public. The scene also underlies the corrupt codes in the Christian religion.
5.4 Symbolism
The symbolism becomes more interesting with the Church door which has “symbols of
the Lamb”. The Lamb has a clear allusion to the Bible. Jesus Christ is also known as the
Good Shepherd in the Christian mythology. For Christians, Jesus Christ is their
intermediator. He will speak for them when a need arises, will intervene for them too. The
Old Teofilo dies herding the sheep and when Leon and Ken mutter “send us rainclouds,
Grandfather”, they echo his role as an intermediator. And as Christ, the death of Teofilo is
destined to bring better life to them.
5.5 The Conclusion
The story’s conclusion also echoes the dual interpretation of the title. The Old Teofilo is
not the only “man to send a rain clouds” but the priest also has his own significance attributed
to the title of the story. The Priest is not a member of their Laguna Pueblo community, but is
as important as Teofilo to their customary beliefs to send the rain clouds.

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 5.6 Check Your Progress
How does Silko depict the closeness of the Native American Community?
How does the Native American attitude contrast with the attitude of other cultures
towards death?
What is the significance of cornmeal and holy water in the story?
6. Themes
6.1 Conflict of Culture
The story demarcates the cultural divide between the Christians and the Native Americans.
Father Paul, the Christian Priest continuously tries to assert his authority and enforce the
Christian traditions and culture on the native people. The cultural rift between the Priest and
the Pueblo tribe is lucidly manifested and manipulated in the very first conversation of Leon
and Father Paul. Leon brushes aside the conversation about Teofilo by asserting to Father
Paul that everything is alright. Believing everything to be okay, Father Paul tries to show
pastoral care to Leon that an old man like Teofilo should not be left alone with the sheep.
Through this, Father Paul is not only forcing his authority but also undermining the culture of
Pueblo tribe by misinterpreting the status of elders among them. However, both Leon and
Ken find these remarks natural and Leon replies that this would not happen now. Without
really understanding his undertones, Father Paul assumes his supposed authority and asks
them to come to the Christian mass prayer along with Teofilo. This further strengthens the
fact that he does not have anything to do with Teofilo’s well-being but is more concerned
about the expansion and dominance of his culture.
Further, in the conversation with Leon after hearing about the demise of Old Teofilo,
Father Paul asserts the need of burial according to the Christian tradition, again ignoring the
Pueblo culture. Leon softly refutes the urgency of such customs and instead persuades him
only to sprinkle holy water for the greater good of their tribe. Here again, we see Father Paul
bidding to stamp his authority and force his culture on the Pueblo tribe. And it is only when
he realizes that he is unable to force Leon to do burial in accordance with the Christian
culture that he relents to sprinkle holy water on the grave. This scene again portrays Father
Paul as the preacher of his Christian culture only. On first hearing about the demise of Old
Teofilo, he is not shocked or grieved instead insists Leon to have told him earlier so that he
could have brought the “last rites anyway”. So much skeptical is he towards the Pueblo tribe
that he wonders whether they are playing any trick by faking the death of Old Teofilo. The
fact “it took him a long time to twist the lid off the holy water” manifests his unwillingness to
perform the ritual as he was not able to mark his supremacy among the Pueblo tribe.
6.2 Check Your Progress
1. How do the Native American and Christian Cultures intersect in the story?
2. Do you think that these two cultures complement each other or do they conflict?

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7. Characters
7.1 Father Paul
Father Paul, the local priest, is the emblem of the Christian tradition in the story. His name
and position are both reminiscent of the apostle Paul of the New Testament, who spends most
of his time converting people to Christianity. His intention when he asks Leon and Ken about
not coming to the mass prayer and his comment “we missed you last Sunday. See if you can
get Old Teofilo to come with you” manifest that he wants all of them to follow the Christian
traditions. Moreover, it is not his concern for Old Teofilo’s health but his attendance that is
important to him. Hearing about the Old Teofilo’s demise, Father Paul suggests Leon that he
“could have brought last rites anyway”. To this a smiling Leon replied “It wasn’t necessary
father”. The priest staring down asserts again “For a Christian burial it was necessary”. The
incident depicts the peak of the conflict arising from the clash of two cultures. Initially, the
priest is reluctant to pour the holy water as the ceremony is not performed in accordance with
the Christian traditions. He, however, relents to sprinkle the holy water eventually. The
fanaticism of Father Paul is at its peak as he wonders how they have managed to dig a grave
in such a short span of time. The Priest is even skeptical of the dead body of Old Teofilo. To
him the body seems strikingly small and looking at the red blanket in which the body is
wrapped, he suspects whether it is some trick played by the tribesmen for their good harvest.
7.2 Leon
Leon is the main protagonist of the story. He is an epitome of the new Native American
embodiment, which the writer is keen to endorse. Throughout the story Leon maintains a
calm head and adheres to his tradition by integrating with Christian culture. Through his
pragmatic approach he is able to integrate Christian Culture and Pueblo traditions. He paints
his dead grandfather’s face smilingly according to his Native American customs. He has
complete faith in his traditions and believes that the spirit of his dead grandfather will bring
rain. He is a man of few words and has a calm, strong sense of dignity. In a bid to perform the
funeral as per his native traditions, he hides the news of his grandfather’s death from Father
Paul. At home, he informs his family of Teofilo’s death with few words. Later he tells about
Old Teofilo’s death to Father Paul and even persuades him to sprinkle holy water courtesy his
chosen words and without any argument.
7.3 Old Man Teofilo
Teofilo is perhaps the most important character in the story. He is “the man to send the rain
clouds”. Although dead he compels the conflict between Native American and Christians in
the story. He wears the traditional American clothes. He makes moccasins for the ceremonial
dances in the summer which signify his adherence to the native ways and practices. From the
conversation between Father Paul and Leon it is also pretty evident that he also does not like
to go to church. He seems to be well respected among his community people. It is his
adherence to the native practices that drives Leon and all the community members to perform

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his last rites according to their own ways. He remains relevant even after death because of the
Native American cultural practices.
7.4 Check your Progress
1. What do we learn about Leon from the story? Why don’t Leon tell Father Paul about
his grandfather’s death when he passes his car?
2. Why is Father Paul an “outsider”? What are Father Paul’s ambitions? Why can’t he
achieve them?
Summing Up
In this short story of Teofilo’s burial and his transformation into the man who will send rain
clouds, Leslie Marmon Silko has crafted one of the most striking tales by depicting the
encounters of the conversion of native people into Christianity. Demonstrating the means by
which Pueblo people have survived this enforcement, she has elevated the story to a parable
of cultural endurance. Silko attains this place by not rooting belief and ritual in their culture
but with a more pragmatic approach to maintain the Pueblo tradition and renewal of their
traditions by incorporating useful elements from Christian culture. The story is resolute in its
endearing approach for the fellow Native Americans to not let Christians engulf their religion
and proposes a regeneration of Native culture.
Works Cited
 Silko, Leslie Marmon. “The Man to Send Rain Clouds”. Nothing But the Truth. Ed
John L. Purdy and James Ruppert. New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 2001. 358-61.
Bibliography
 Krupet, Arnold. “The Dialogic of Silko’s Storyteller,” in Narrative Chance, edited by
Gerald Vizenor, University of New Mexico, 1989, pp. 55-68.
 Seyersted, Per. Leslie Marmon Silko, Boise State University, 1980.
 Ruoff, A. LaVonne. “Ritual and Renewal: Keres Traditions in the Short Fiction of
Leslie Silko,” in MELUS, Vol. 5, No. 4, Winter, 1978, pp. 2-17.
 Danielson, Linda L. “Storyteller: Grandmother Spider’s Web,” in Journal of the
Southwest, Vol. 30, No. 3, Autumn, 1988, pp. 325-55.

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 Paper-V : American Literature
Unit 5 : Readings

Contents
a. Declaration of Independence Ankita Sethi
b. Ralph Waldo Emerson, ‘Self Reliance’ Dikshya Samantarai
c. Martin Luther King Jr., ‘I have a Dream’ Swasti Sharma
d. Frederick Douglass, ‘A Narrative of
the Life of Frederick Douglass’ Ankita Sethi
e. Adrienne Rich, ‘When We Dead Awaken:
Writing as Re-vision’ Shreya Seth

Edited by:
P.K. Satapathy

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180
 Unit-5a

‘Declaration of Independence’
‘Abraham Lincoln Gettysburg Speech’
Ankita Sethi

Both the narratives refer to the core American ideals i.e. liberty, equality and happiness of all
American people. The only difference is that the Declaration adopted these values in order to
emancipate the colonists from the authoritarian rule of the British crown whereas Lincoln
invoked the same values to liberate the Afro-American slaves from the chains of slavery.

Learning Objectives
The objective of reading both the texts is to enable you to understand the essence of
narratives that defined the political landscape of the USA. The goal would be achieved
through a critical engagement with the pivotal issues and their discursive deployment in the
given texts. Right to ‘liberty, equality and happiness’ of all beings, lies at the heart of both the
texts. By exploring the historical, political and philosophical contexts, the piece will help you
to:
 Understand the psyche of the masses when they are continually suppressed and how
suppression leads to resistance and revolution
 Acknowledge the ill effects of imperialism and slavery
 Appreciate the importance of being aware of one’s rights and duties at an individual
as well as national level
 Realize the benefits of collective power
 Recognize the moral values that people should stand by, both during and after the war

DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE
About the Text
‘The United States Declaration of Independence’ formally termed as ‘The Unanimous
Declaration of the Thirteen Colonies of United States of America’, is not just a text, it makes
significant intervention in determining the way of life since the date of its ratification on 4th
of July 1776, is now celebrated as the American Independence Day. It is the formal
announcement that the thirteen colonies will no longer be under the dominion of the crown of
Great Britain. This historic event took place in the year 1776, Philadelphia and shaped the
political identity of the American people. It is a document by the people, of the people and
for the people in its truest sense and is exemplary of the faith of the Americans who decided
to fight back tyrannical control of their colonial master. As the title suggests, it is the first

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official document by the populace containing the demand for their rights. It gave justification
to the resistance of the masses and encouraged them to come forward, secure their nation and
live on their own terms. It advocated the collective power of the masses and inspired them to
unite for a greater cause and prepare for the war known as the American Revolutionary War
(1775-1783). The text has a universal appeal and cannot simply be limited to a particular time
frame.
Political Background of the text
To understand the importance of the text vis-à-vis the importance of independence of the
masses, one needs to look into the political history of the land. After the ‘discovery’ of
America by the Italian explorer Christopher Columbus, it took a couple of centuries to
establish colonies which continued to be ruled by the English crown. It was in the year 1775,
that the armed conflict started and further gave rise to the resistance in the masses. Attempts
were made by George III, the imperial ruler, to subdue the voices of resistance. He even used
force for this purpose. Within few months, the masses understood that reconciliation is
unworkable and they united against the colonial power. This argument of the populace was
further substantiated by the pamphlet by Thomas Paine, another eminent revolutionary figure
of the time. In his pamphlet titled, ‘Common Sense’ he argued about the essentiality of basic
and natural human right like freedom. The success of this pamphlet and selling of 1,50,000
copies further ensured that the fire of revolt was fanned. Individual liberty was given more
importance than the power of the authority. The autonomy of the parliament was considered a
threat to the happiness and liberty of the individual. The masses protested in large numbers
against new bills as well hefty taxes which were imposed on them by the imperial powers.
Whereas, England had absolute control over the land and policies of the thirteen colonies of
America, people had none. Various political acts were initiated which were not acceptable to
the public and were called the ‘Intolerable Acts’ for their crude nature. These acts were
imposed to have monopoly over finances of the thirteen colonies. Even after all the hard
work, masses had to pay taxes and revenues to England thus bringing prosperity to England
and marginalization of the American populace. All these factors lead to the drafting of the
text making people believe that they don’t have to tolerate the oppression.
Composition of the text
In continuation of the political restlessness, five representatives were given the task of
drafting an official document, containing the intention of the local masses who were suffering
at the hands of the British ruler. These five men were, Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Franklin,
John Adams, Roger Sherman and Robert R. Livingston. Jefferson is credited for writing most
of its part. He drafted it in five parts including- Introduction, Preamble, main body in two
parts and the conclusion. The beginning of the text aimed at justifying the cause behind the
resistance and revolution. It stated that freedom is the basic human right and no human being
can be denied that. It follows the same argument throughout, stating the grievances against
the rulers and the need to bring a change to the history of the nation. The inspirational
language and the basic idea of equality is of utmost importance till date. The text remains to
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be vital for the nation and lays foundation for the ideals that the people follow today or
believe in today. It paved way for American Revolutionary War and the declaration is
revered, for without it, USA would not have been the nation as it is today. The expansive
language and the lofty ideals are open to interpretations and translations even after centuries.
Brief Summary
The basic aim of the declaration was to defend the actions of the colonists as well as to
encourage other nations to come forward and help the colonies. The hazardous revolutionary
acts were justified as well as encouraged as it provided the masses with an alternative
political vision. The Declaration is based on the premise that tyranny of any sort will always
end in resistance. It shows the revolutionized masses with the spirit to fight against the
tyranny of George III. The main body of the Declaration consists of the allegations against
the tyrannical ruler for his unjust ways. The pronoun ‘he’ has been used to put 27 allegations
on the cruel ruler. He was charged of being unjust to the people, enforcing laws in favor of
imperial powers, without the consent of the colonists. He was blamed to have disrupted the
day-to-day life of the populace by implementing unfair policies and acts such as confiscation
of American ships, heavy taxes, unfair judicial system, etc. It supports the revolution of the
people because it was inevitable. The basic argument was based upon the origin of human
beings. It argues that it is not the government that creates men, but vice versa. Men, being the
highest of all creation are created by God and it is these men who created government in turn.
Like every creation, the government also owes to its people. It has the obligation to work for
the betterment of the masses and pay them back. The sacred human being needs to be happy
and liberal and the authorities need to ensure this happiness and liberty of the people. Created
by God, human beings have every right and reason to alter the government if it does not
allow them to practice their basic human rights. The anatomy/phenomenon of life and
creation has been used here in order to justify the seriousness and sanctity of the existence of
human beings. Any sort of tyranny is thus intolerable because God is absolute and His
creation is sacred thus tyranny of any sort is bound to culminate in revolution.
The idealistic language of the text suggests that whole purpose of the government is to
ensure basic rights of its masses. It is the “right of the people to alter or abolish” the
government if it fails to do so. For the times in which it was written, the text was full of
revolutionary ideas as well as phrases. It was quite radical to talk about uprooting the
monarchy and prioritizing people’s rights as well as powers. It definitely won the support of
the people because it represented people as submissive, weak while the ruler was oppressive,
unjust and harsh. The grievances and allegations are formed on the ground of basic rights of
the people and the responsibility of the government towards its people and any failure will
obviously be dealt with revolt and resistance. If a person is found allegedly guilty, he must be
put into trial but the government has no right to impose taxes from the individuals and
hamper their personal growths.

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MAJOR CHARACTERS
Thomas Jefferson
Thomas Jefferson is one of the founding fathers of the Independent United States of America.
At the time of Declaration, he was a plantation owner and a lawyer and went as a delegate
from Virginia to the second Continental Congress. He was appointed to draft the Declaration
of Independence soon after Richard Henry Lee called for independence in June 1776.
Although Jefferson’s draft was heavily edited by delegates of Second Continental Congress,
he is still attributed as the author of the Declaration. Thomas Jefferson continued to be an
eminent politician and statesman in early American politics as he served as Secretary of the
State and the third President of the United States of America.
The British King
The Monarch of Great Britain and Ireland, King George III (1760-1820) was the scion of a
German Royal Family, House of Hanover. King George like no other British Monarch ruled
with absolute tyranny and accomplished such aims by invalidating various policies in the
colonies. He also tried to weaken the strength of the parliament by repeatedly assigning new
ministers to do his bidding. Such behavior led to political destabilization of the United
Kingdom and also brought stringent decrees and regulations on the colonies.
John Locke
John Locke, an English Philosopher regarded as one of the most eminent personalities of the
Enlightenment era. Owing to his philosophies, he is widely regarded as the ‘Father of
Liberalism’. The idea in his ‘Two Treatises of Government’ (1690) criticized the institution
of the divine right of the sovereigns and argued that the power of the state rested in the hands
of the people. Locke firmly believed that governments should protect the natural rights of
men, and it is the responsibility of people that they should uproot such a system that fails to
do so. His incendiary and revolutionary ideas are invoked in documents like the Virginia
Constitution (1776) and the Declaration of Independence.
Self-check Questions
Q1. What do you understand by ‘Liberty and Equality for all’ in context to the American
Declaration of Independence?
Q2. What values and ideals does Abraham Lincoln ask the future generation to advocate?
How do you think they should strive to uphold them?
Q3. In the light of USA’s traditional motto ‘E Pluribus Unum’ which means ‘One out of
many’, comment on the importance of unity.
Significance of the text
Independence of a nation remains to be one of the most important episodes of its socio-
political history. Years of colonization and the freedom movement is not unknown to India as
well. For years, the populace was under the dominance of the colonial masters. Similarly,
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Americans struggled to pave their way towards independence. ‘Fourth of July’ marks the
independence of thirteen colonies, now known as United States of America. The text and the
political event is of utmost importance to Americans but other nations also took inspiration
from this and fought against the British colonizers. The text also emphasizes the role of the
populace in formation of a government or a nation. It proves that government does not make
people in fact it is the people of a country that make the government. The resistance of the
masses against the then government which denied them access to their natural/birth rights,
proves to be revolutionary.
It lies at the very heart of the American constitution because it lays the foundation stone
on which the entire political landscape American democracy is built. Not just for the
colonists, but the basic argument that the government exists to serve its people who have
every right to denounce and abolish it, lies at the center of any democratic nation. It does not
encourage a state of anarchy, but the individual is always prioritized than the social system or
the society of which he/she is an integral part. The struggle of the Americans became
exemplary for other nations as well where the masses united and decided to get freedom from
the colonial masters, such as in France where shortly after American independence, Louis
XVI lost his power. The text also points out why independence is necessary for the prosperity
of the land and its people. It is not just a document, it holds emotional values too and is close
to the hearts of the masses. This was officially accepted by the Congress on 4th of July, which
is accredited with the independence of the nation. It addressed the resentment of the people at
the hands of the colonizers. The text made the natives believe in themselves and convinced
them into believing that they don’t need to tolerate the unjust ways of the colonizer. It
justified the need to seek independence and not just America but other colonized nations
came forward for this.
Critical Commentary
The Declaration of Independence is an essential political document as it provided Americans
with the understanding of values and ideals of their new nation. The preamble is specifically
important because it is a document that bridges gap between the practical and the ideal i.e.
politics and philosophy of the day. The preamble communicates the foundational ideals and
also requests the nations of the world to recognize USA as an independent and new country.
The reason that the Declaration is able to serve as a link between politics and philosophy
is only because of the author Thomas Jefferson and English philosopher John Locke. The
preamble is heavily influenced by the philosophy of the enlightenment era from the 18 th
Century, especially Locke who propounded that, ideals such as health, protection of life,
liberty and possession are integral to human nature. Locke also criticized the popular idea of
divine right to rule and believed that law-making should rest with the people. Jefferson
adopted these principals and asserted that, ‘Life, Liberty and Happiness’ are unalienable
rights. Jefferson was influenced by such values, asserted and justified that people should
overthrow their governments if they are not able to safeguard their basic rights. Thus in this
way, a synthesis of philosophy and politics was effected by drafting of declaration.
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 The Declaration of Independence is a paramount document because it defines the cultural
ethos of USA even as it is today. It must be noted that the Declaration is not considered as a
document having any legal authority, despite that it is cited as a ‘sacred’ document that
consolidates the principals of equality. The Declaration has some fair share of criticism as
well, since Jefferson who asserted on ‘liberty and equality’ might not have considered the
same for the African-American slaves. Ironically, Jefferson was a large plantation owner as
well as a slave holder. The preamble is also a testament of Jefferson’s skill with diplomacy.
In the document, arguments were laid to justify why the thirteen colonies in America should
oppose the despotic rule of King George III. Jefferson was aware that European countries at
the time were monarchies too. The revolutionary nature of the Declaration was bound to
create similar ripples across the world. However, he also recognized that amicable bonds that
the new nation had to maintain. Thus he carefully drafts and communicates that not every
power must be challenged, not all monarchy must be dethroned but only those which are
dictatorial, like King George’s.
ADDITIONAL NOTES ON THE TEXT
The Thirteen Colonies
The Thirteen British Colonies in North America comprised Pennsylvania, Virginia, Rhode
Island, Massachusetts, North Carolina, New Hampshire, New York, Connecticut, Delaware,
New Jersey, South Carolina, Maryland, and Georgia. In May 1775 each of these colonies sent
a representative to the Second Continental Congress to have a deliberation with the
representatives of the Crown on the independence of the aforementioned colonies. Initially
the argument seemingly shelved the path towards Independence. However, by July 2 nd 1776
all thirteen colonies unequivocally agreed to fight for independence.
Second Continental Congress
The first continental Congress constituted twelve colonies which excluded Georgia. The
meeting took place on 5th September 1774 and promised to meet again should the peace
negotiations with the British Empire fail. Thus the Second Continental Congress, all thirteen
of the original colonies, formed and took meeting in May 1775, Philadelphia. In April 1775,
all the thirteen colonies were unofficially at war with Great Britain that was the undercurrent.
However, the Second Continental Congress’s duty was to not only coordinate the defensive
war effort against the British Empire but also debate upon the topic of independence from it.
Allegations put on George III
King George III exercised absolute control over British Colonies on the American soil.
According to Thomas Jefferson the colonists silently suffered 27 abuses at the hands of the
British Crown, but no more, and decided to lay bare these abuses to the entire world.
The first 12 of these 27 abuses are mainly directed towards King George’s totalitarian
control instead of practicing representative government. In such a government, power is
given to the people so they can make laws that are benefits all. However, King George

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impeded practicing such form of governance by disbanding representative colonial bodies,
disallowing legislations recommended by the colonies, appointed his own ministers and
inhibited with naturalization of citizens in new regions. The situation only worsened as King
George encumbered with civil rights and judicial processes of the colonists. Judges were
made dependent on him for their employment and revenue; colonies were not allowed to have
any autonomy over their judicial powers. King George, no doubt is an authoritarian who
maintains fear and submission among the colonists by placing strong military troops who
report only to him. He is an oppressor who heavy levy taxes on the colonists for the standing
military.
Abuses from 13 to 22 illustrate the destruction of colonists’ ‘Right to Autonomy’ by the
unwelcome involvement of the British Parliament. This is validated when the King, ‘along
with others’ passed legislations and laws without the colonists’ consent. These legislations
severely obstructed the freedom of trade with other nations by shutting them off, imposed
heavy taxes without colonists’ approval. Furthermore, the legislations passed by The Empire
ensured complete reign by wresting away all the power from the colonial governments and
forbid them to make any more changes.
The last 5 abuses from 23 to 27 specifically focus on King George’s movements which led to
violence, bloodshed and wars. The declaration recounts how the King suppressed the voice of
dissent through violence and military control. He systematically ordered the British armies to
obliterate colonists’ resources, destroy their settlements, ruin their navies/ships and lay waste
to their lives in general. He accomplished his nefarious schemes with the help of hired
mercenaries and to intimidate the colonists. He allowed the Native Americans to attack the
colonies; instigated them to fight each other and forced kidnapped American sailors to serve
the British navy.
ABRAHAM LINCOLN’S GETTYSBURG SPEECH
About the Text
On the afternoon of 19th November, 1863, the 16th president of the United States of America,
Abraham Lincoln, delivered a speech at ‘Soldiers National Cemetery’ in Gettysburg,
Pennsylvania. The speech was given when the Union army’s victory was secured over the
Confederate army at the battle of Gettysburg (July 1-3, 1863), a conclusive battle that
changed the course of American Civil War (1861-1865).
Political Background of the Text
The milieu of the Gettysburg address depended upon the decisive victory of the primary
Union army. It was the Army of Potomac led by Major General George Meade who secured
victory over the confederate army of Northern Virginia led by General Robert Lee, at the
battle of Gettysburg. The American Abolitionist Movement gradually built its momentum
right after the American Revolution (1765-1783). It became a force to be reckoned and
gained widespread popularity especially in the northern states. This put them ideologically in

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conflict with that of the southern states who viewed slavery as ‘good’. Later this ideological
conflict culminated into the American Civil War in which the two factions were Union of the
Northern States who were against slavery and the secessionists, Confederation of the
American South, who supported slavery.
About the Author
Remembered as one of the greatest presidents to serve the United States, Abraham Lincoln
served for presidency from 1861-1865. Despite his humble beginnings he rose to become a
lawyer and a towering American statesman. Lincoln worked tirelessly to uphold the ideals of
equality and fraternity embedded in the Declaration of Independence. During his presidency
(1861-1865) he successfully led the country through its greatest constitutional, political and
moral crisis in the American Civil War. Owing to his leadership, tactics and his proclivity to
rebuild the nation, post war, he was able to maintain the Union, abolished slavery,
strengthened the federal government and modernized American economy. However, one does
not earn popularity without earning a few enemies and he earned many. On 15 th April 1865
Lincoln was assassinated by a confederate apologist John Wilkes Booth. Today Abraham
Lincoln is remembered as a hero and a martyr by the American public.
Summary the Text
The key address in this dedication ceremony was Edward Everett’s, a famed speaker of his
time. The speech was around thirteen thousand words long and spanned for nearly two hours.
It was delivered without the aid of notes. His speech took its influence from the ancient
Greek Oration. In the address, Everett made several war-time and battle references that
included the ancient Greeks like the Battle of Marathon. He drew similarities between the
ongoing American Civil War and the English Civil War, the War of Roses, and wars in the
continental Europe. He laid out a detailed examination of the confederate uprising and gave a
thorough explanation of events leading up to the Battle of Gettysburg itself.
In view of such a delivery, Lincoln’s epigrammatic address would have hardly attracted
anybody’s attention. The opposition even criticized it despite that it soon went down in
history to become one of most memorable speeches. The very next day of the ceremony,
Everett himself lauded the address by writing a letter to Lincoln, “I wish that I could flatter
myself that I had come as near to the central idea of the occasion in two hours as you did in
two minutes.”
The Gettysburg speech is a momentous appeal to the American public for upholding
ideals such as nationalism, equal rights, republicanism, democracy and equal rights which are
enshrined in the Declaration of Independence. The speech is noted for its succinctness, mere
271 words, 10 sentences and delivered in just over two minutes, the address went down in
history as one of the most important and persuasive testimonials of the American National
Purpose. It was especially dedicated to the soldiers of Union who fell at the battle of
Gettysburg around four months prior to the address at the national military cemetery. The
North’s victory was one of the most crucial battles in the American Civil War.

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 The speech begins with “Four score and seven years ago” considered now as a
remarkable phrase, Lincoln travels back in time by reminding people of the enduring national
values that the declaration of independence upheld and eloquently summarizes in one
sentence “Liberty for All and Equality for All”. Lincoln asserted that The United States is
unique that no nation had ever been founded on a commitment to liberty and equality and that
civil war is a test to see if a nation based on such ideals could survive. Despite the victory of
the Union Army he is not keen on celebrating the momentous win, rather he dedicates the
address to the soldiers and eulogizes their valour who laid their lives for the great American
ideals, humility and sincerity is reflected in his speech as he proclaims that the lives of the
soldiers have ‘consecrated’ the very ground on which the address is delivered with their
blood and mere words would be nothing but a feeble attempt to match the war heroes’
sacrifices. Ironically, when Lincoln speculated that the world will hardly remember what he
said but remember what the war heroes did for the nation, the world remembers what Lincoln
said and forgot the actions of the soldiers. To this Lincoln says that it is up to the living to
endorse the memory of the fallen, to remember their noble sacrifices and shoulder the
American ideals of equality and liberty like the fallen did when they went to fight for a just
cause. Are they, the American public, prepared to do what is necessary to uphold the same
founding values? It is essential to remember that the Gettysburg address is a war-time speech
and Lincoln’s chief aim is to consolidate the will of his Union contemporaries for the
oncoming battles and challenges but at the same time he is also hopeful for the future thus
addresses the American civilian to take the mantel of responsibilities as well. He concludes
with an exhortation that the sacrifices made must not go in vain and that this country, with
guidance of God will experience a renaissance of freedom and that democracy shall not
perish from earth.
Self-check Question
Q1. What was the purpose of the Gettysburg Address?
Q2. What would be the impact of a speech like ‘Gettysburg Address’ in today’s world?
MAJOR IDEAS FROM BOTH THE TEXTS
1. Liberty and Equality v/s Tyranny
“We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are
endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life,
Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness?”-The American Declaration of Independence
“Four score and seven years ago our fathers brought forth on this continent, a new
nation, conceived in Liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created
equal.”-Gettysburg Address
If we consider the milieu of the times, the aforementioned statements are resounding ideas
that revolutionized the political landscape of America. Although separated by almost a
century, both the narratives are compelling and influential. The 18th as well as the 19th

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century America was not the land of the free. However, the difference was of the oppressors.
In the previous century the English Crown exercised absolute subjugation whereas in the later
century African and African-American slaves were under the tyranny of the white American
public, especially in the South. One must note that even under the domination of English
crown, women and Blacks belonged to marginalized sections as the latter were slaves
nonetheless. Even after the independence, Blacks remained slaves for almost a century,
before being emancipated. The basic argument is that all human beings are born equal and are
entitled to equal rights and autonomy in the social system, of which they are an integral part.
It propagates that people are free and must be treated as free human beings and if any system
or any government makes them feel different, there is an urgent need and responsibility to
change that entire system. Considering this in mind it’s no wonder that the feeling of
resentment among the populace gave rise to two major conflicts that sculpted America as it is
today. The first major war being the ‘The American Revolutionary War’ against ‘The British
Empire’ which lasted for 8 years from 1775 to 1783 and the second ‘The American Civil
War” between the ‘Union’ under the leadership of the President Abraham Lincoln and the
secessionists ‘Confederate’ of the American South which went on for four years from 1861 to
1865. Previously the colonists and African-American slaves were subjected to mistreatment
at the hands of tyrannical powers. Their roles and rights were not acknowledged and the
oppressor continued marginalizing them unapologetically.
2. Rights and Duties
Rights and duties of an individual are closely knitted and cannot be distinguished as separate
independent entities. The declaration explicitly states and makes the American public aware
of their rights and encourages them to secure it. Evoking the principles of liberty and equality
enshrined in the Declaration, Abraham Lincoln exhorts the American people to once again
fight for justice and equality, in the same way as their forefathers did against tyranny and
oppression. It stated that the masses are entitled to some basic rights by birth and any
violation should be dealt with revolution. It becomes the duty of the people to dethrone the
power that controls them and abolish the government which denies them happiness and
liberty. During and before the American Revolutionary War the British Empire dissolved the
legislative institutions without taking people’s opinion into consideration. In much about the
same way slavery was legalized, educating African and African-American slaves was
punishable by law, and there was no legal action against the horrors and crimes committed
against the slaves. Definitely both the texts connote severe limitations in people’s freedom
and subjecting them to absolute domination. However, to practice Rights and Duties one
must be ready to fight for them. Thus the struggles eventually led to great and bloody wars
both the times, to quote a civil rights activist, A. Philip Randolph, “Freedom is never given, it
is won.” Both the documents brings it to people’s attention to safeguard the founding ideals
of American democracy.

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Suggested Readings
 Armitage, David. “The Declaration of Independence in World Context.” OAH
Magazine of History, vol. 18, no. 3, 2004, pp. 61–66.
 Bell, Barry. “Reading, and ‘Misreading,’ the Declaration of Independence.” Early
American Literature, vol. 18, no. 1, 1983, pp. 71–83.
 Fesler, J. W. “Lincoln's Gettysburg Address.” Indiana Magazine of History, vol. 40,
no. 3, 1944, pp. 209–226.
 LaFantasie, Glenn. “Lincoln and the Gettysburg Awakening.” Journal of the Abraham
Lincoln Association, vol. 16, no. 1, 1995, pp. 73–89.
 Locke, John. Two Treatises of Government. 1689.
 Smith, William Raymond. “The Rhetoric of the Declaration of Independence.” College
English, vol. 26, no. 4, 1965, pp. 306–309.
 WALSH, MARION. “American Civil War.” History Ireland, vol. 28, no. 3, 2020, pp.
10–10.

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 Unit-5b

Self-Reliance
Ralph Waldo Emerson
Dikshya Samantarai

1. Learning Objectives

After reading this unit you will be able to:

 Know about Ralph Waldo Emerson as an author
 Understand his philosophy through his essay Self-Reliance
 Comprehend the essay “Self-reliance” in a critical manner

2. Introduction
Emerson is a 19th century essayist and poet credited with having begun the
Transcendentalist movement in New England. Following the profession of his father who
was a preacher, he became one under the Unitarian ministry. Emerson’s sermons were always
idealistic and ventured away from traditional doctrines. When his wife died early as a result
of tuberculosis, he became much more sceptical about life. With renewed consciousness, he
now explored the problems posed by the portrayal of miracles in books about divinity. For
him, direct sense experience was what mattered most. After he left preaching, he dedicated
the rest of his life to developing philosophy based on strict individualism, self-reliance and
self-sufficiency. Instead of believing blindly in what is passed to us through religion and
society, Emerson wanted individuals to become spiritually aware by delving inwards.
Self-Reliance is taken from Emerson’s lectures and was published in 1841 in the
collection titled Essays: First Series. It has come to be one of the most widely read essays by
Emerson and is behind the foundational ideas that construct transcendentalism and
individualism (American). The concept of self-reliance recurs throughout Emerson’s work. In
1839, one of his journal entries say, “Trust thyself. Every heart vibrates to that iron string.”
This essay is a thorough depiction of his belief in the individual’s power to formulate their
own ideas without conforming blindly to the society. Before writing this essay on self-
reliance, Emerson had already talked about self-reliance in two other speeches, The American
Scholar and The Divinity School Address. In the first one he says how one should not entirely
stay dependent on books but rather rely on oneself and in the second essay he talks about how
one should search for divinity within oneself instead of seeking it through religion. It is not
possible to talk about transcendentalism without the core concept of self-reliance. As
Emerson himself says, “In all my lectures, I have taught one doctrine, the infinitude of the
private man.”

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3. Summary
The essay opens with a Latin epigraph Ne te quaesiveris extra,” which means “Do not
seek outside yourself.” It is roughly made up of three parts. In the first part, Emerson talks
about how self-reliance is important as a concept. In the second part he elaborates on the
relationship between self-reliance and the individual and in the third part he describes how
society and self-reliance can function with each other.
Part One
Emerson begins the essay with an anecdote about a painter whose verses he read. He
found them “original and not conventional”. He believes that this kind of original holds true
value, whatever the subject may be. This story asserts the central idea of what he is going to
talk about in the entire essay: “To believe your own thought, to believe that what is true for
you in your private heart is true for all men,—that is genius.” For him all truths actually begin
in our minds and are then projected outwards. What was once our innermost thought
transforms into the outmost later. It is also one of the central ideas of Transcendentalism. We
should go on an inward voyage and look within ourselves and instead of dismissing those
thoughts, appreciate them. We need to look at ourselves and not look for ideas in others’
minds. Our minds continuously send us signals. We need to learn how to detect those flashes
of light that cross our minds instead of leaning on the light of what has been passed down to
us by bards and sages. But individuals tend to dismiss “without notice his (their) thought,
because it is his (theirs)”. Self-acceptance and self-discovery are the qualities that education
should teach us, not “imitation” or “envy”. The cultivation of knowledge has to be done in
the fields of our minds instead of being derived from others. “Trust thyself” and the
“transcendent destiny” of your life.
Now, to be able to trust ourselves we need to take a trip to our childhood and the
openness that we experienced along with it. Our childhood was filled with “oracles” that
nature yielded in us. As babies and children we used to be “unaffected, unbiased, unbribable,
unaffrighted” and slowly we lose all these attributes as we grow up. This authenticity that we
used to carry is lost to the conformity that society demands out of us. We can hear these
fading voices of authenticity in our heads till they become “inaudible as we enter into the
world.” In order to be self-reliant, one needs to acknowledge that “nothing is at last sacred
but the integrity of your own mind and “must be(come) a non-conformist.” Definitions
handed down to us through education are not to be trusted entirely. We must not seek
morality and goodness from “large societies and dead institutions.” A self-reliant individual
“must not be hindered by the name of goodness, but must explore if it be goodness … The
only right is what is after my constitution, the only wrong what is against it.” Emerson
believes that he must do what concerns him and not what others think he should do.
Blindly listening to churches whose values are dead and political parties that are outdated
will conceal “the impression of your character.” Emerson advices us not to make false
connections by socialising with people as he would like us to build our reputation through

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hard work. He further says that religious communities have fixed ideologies and promote
unoriginality and conformity. If he knows a person’s religious inclination, he becomes aware
of the arguments that person is going to provide. In this manner the individual’s freedom is
curbed and a minister preaching for a particular religious sect is bound by “communities of
opinion.”
Part Two
Emerson then proceeds to say how not only the society but we also cause our own
limitations. As individuals, we are afraid of trusting ourselves with anything new and get too
comfortable with consistencies of our life. Any change or contradictory opinions scare us and
we shun it: “a foolish consistency is the hobgoblin of little minds, adored by little statesmen,
philosophers, and divines.” We need to grow out of our comfortable cocoons are explore new
ideas every single day.
Our conformity actually shadows our true character. If we remind someone of something
else then there is no originality in that. Each character should be highly individualised and
that does not come with behaviour that is conforming in nature. If we look at history we can
see how only a few people’s biographies stand out and thus they acquire centre stage. To be
able to practice self reliance we need to have the right kind of confidence within ourselves.
We shouldn’t feel inferior in front of anything, be it a person, a book or a place. We need to
own it and formulate our own “verdict” about it. Be it “kingdom or lordship” or “a common
day’s work”, they carry the same value. Our regular activities are as crucial as any
“renowned” activities of the past. According to him, self trust is a virtue that will bring forth
our genius.
Talking about the presence of God in our lives and self-trust, Emerson argues that if God
exists, he should “communicate, not one thing but all things.” Truth will reveal itself to us
directly, without a mediator. He advises us to rely on god of experience and not on the god of
books. By giving us the example of how nature runs on self-sufficiency, he asks us to trust
our experiences and instincts before anyone else’s opinions. Nature always survives in the
present without falling back on the past and we should learn how to do the same.
He then discusses about the society and the self. He says that we need to fend for
ourselves and take entire responsibility about our actions. Whatever “folly” we witness
around us, be it family or friends, we do not need to adapt them. We should look at the world
as if it is conspiring against us by clouding our minds with trivialities of day to day
relationships: “No man can come near me through my act”. We need to outgrow the customs
surrounding us and concentrate on following “the eternal law”. According to him, one should
not sacrifice one’s freedom and power in order to save relationships. He further says that we
should be “godlike” and formulate our own laws and doctrines. Society functions in a way so
as to cripple us and makes us afraid of fulfilling our own wants. Society chooses our life and
relationships for us and we keep waiting for chance to strike.

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Part Three
In the next part, Emerson analyses social life by listing four aspects about it. He says we
need to have “a greater self-reliance” that can begin a revolution in these different areas of
society. The first one is religion and the first thing that is problematic about religion is prayer.
Self-Reliance and prayer are opposite to each other because praying involves seeking
guidance “abroad”. He questions the need for praying as if we are truly one with God, why
do we need to beg through prayer. The guidance and validation that we seek through prayers
originates in our “regrets” and discontentment in life. Prayers are the result of some
intelligent religious minds and if they are popularised among untrained minds, it results in
idolatry. People believing in that faith soon begin to look up to their masters and thus blindly
follow them.
The second aspect is the culture of Americans. He says that many Americans love
travelling to Europe looking to self-culture themselves because America lacks it. Emerson
challenges the popular notion of travelling and says that a true self-reliant person should need
not travel: “the soul is no traveller; the wise man stays at home”. Travelling shouldn’t be
done in a quest for knowledge; rather the traveller should learn not to expect anything other
than what they already know. We usually travel for a change of space or to escape the
sadness we are experiencing. But according to Emerson these are false expectations as
irrespective of the place the person will have to face: “the stern fact, the sad self, unrelenting,
identical, that I (they) fled from”.
The third aspect where the concept of self-culture is applied by Emerson is art. All kinds
of travelling and imitation of cultures foreign to us are reflective of the unsoundness of our
minds. He calls the intellect of Americans “vagabond” and advises Americans to get out of
the remains of the past and distant lands. There is a need for us to realise that “beauty,
convenience, grandeur of thought exist around us, not in faraway places. He further says that
we need to self-teach ourselves and no teacher can make us aware of who we are. We have to
learn to know ourselves and stay away from mere imitations. He cites the example of
Shakespeare who never had any master.
The fourth aspect Emerson talks about is the relationship of “spirit of society” with itself
and with self-reliance. Addressing how society is actually stagnant he explains how for
everything that is given to us, something is taken away with it. He supports this statement
with some examples: with the advent of civilization, we lost our “aboriginal strength”, we
lost our skills with technological advancement and virtue is replaced by religion. Real
progress can happen only when we are convinced that “no greater men are now than ever
were”. He uses the analogy of a wave to describe how society’s progress is actually stagnant
as even of the wave keeps moving forward, the water stays the same. Society makes us
dependent on properties and alliances with institutions and thereby we lose all connections
with ourselves. We should divert our energy towards protecting our individual personalities
instead of protecting these institutions. We keep on looking for chance and fortune to knock
at our doors while instead we should concentrate on gaining peace from within.
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4. Critical Commentary
Self-Reliance addresses both the significance of independence to the individual and the
relationship of that independent individual to society. It is a call to the person to announce
their autonomy from society, however all through the article, Emerson clarifies that
confidence derived from self-reliance eventually benefits society in a few unique manners.
Self-reliance isn't narcissism. It actually focuses on the establishment of a general public
made up of people who shun “consistency,” raise doubts about people in authority, and look
for true meaning in their lives and as a result make a more immaculate society.
In “Self-Reliance”, Emerson underscores that self-trust implies failing to imitate another
and seeing rather the significance that lies inside us. “Character” is consistently special and
individual yet additionally frequently “misconstrued.” The possibility of incredible men of
extraordinary character also echoes all through his later undertaking like in the
“Representative Men” (1850). His articulation here in “Self-Reliance that “all set of
experiences settle itself effectively into the life story of a few strong and sincere people is
complementary to his investigation of this topic in the essay “History” (1841) and appears to
be the motivation for the particular instances of Plato, Shakespeare, and the other such
brilliant minds as examined further in “Uses of Great Men” (1850).
Self-Reliance also establishes a study of the general public, the organizations that hinder
the self-trust of the individual, in particular religion, governmental issues and ways of
thinking. Against the legislators and thinkers who vie for our brains he encourages us to
remain solitary and also to confide in ourselves. Institutions demand conformity to rules,
ceremonies, and custom. The clergyman, in specific, is limited by faction, by networks of
sentiment and isn't a free man. These contemplations reveal Emerson’s own reasons behind
leaving the service of preaching quite a long time ago. Religion, in Emerson's view, is just the
most barefaced case of looking for something more prominent outside of oneself, and we
ought to look for a unique connection to the universe.
Same is the case with principles and strategies of reformers. Emerson is decided, all
through his works, that we can't infer goodness or ethical qualities from the doctrines
preached to us. But we can just recognize it from within ourselves. Consequently,
independence is the premise of social change, for in building better people we manufacture a
superior society. Emerson got back to this perspective on change over and over all through
his works, as people around him submitted themselves to different causes related to
abolitionist ideas, women’s rights, education, labour reforms and utopianism. Emerson
opposed joining associations and in his overall proclamations on change he never pledged
any allegiance to a solitary reason. He rather contended for a general change and called for
scrutinizing the character and self-trust of the reformer himself as opposed to the unfairness
of the issue at hand. He tended to issues independently in papers for example, “American
Slavery,” “Emancipation of the Negroes in the British West Indies,” and “Woman,” however
in “Self-Reliance” he gives an unmistakable and earnest clarification for why he won't offer
any money to every single cause, training the sincere reformer to rather, “Go love thy infant;
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love thy wood-chopper: be good-natured and modest: have that grace; and never varnish your
hard, uncharitable ambition with this incredible tenderness for black folk a thousand miles
off. Thy love afar is spite at home.”
5. Self-Check Questions
 How did Ralph Waldo Emerson feel about religion and his job as a preacher?
 What do you understand by the concept of Self-Reliance?
 How can one become self-reliant?
 Why is self-reliance important for an individual according to Emerson?

Bibliography
 Bloom, Harold. Ralph Waldo Emerson. Bloom's Literary Criticism, 2008.
 Emerson, Ralph Waldo. “ESSAYS.” The Project Gutenberg EBook of Essays, by Ralph
Waldo Emerson., www.gutenberg.org/files/16643/16643-h/16643-h.htm.
 Hodder, Alan D. “‘After a High Negative Way’: Emerson's ‘Self-Reliance’ and the
Rhetoric of Conversion.” Harvard Theological Review, vol. 84, no. 4, 1991, pp. 423–
446., doi:10.1017/s0017816000017946.
 The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. “Ralph Waldo Emerson.” Encyclopædia
Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 21 May 2020,
www.britannica.com/biography/Ralph-Waldo-Emerson.
 Wayne, Tiffany K. Critical Companion to Ralph Waldo Emerson. Facts On File, 2013.

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 Unit-5c

‘I Have a Dream’
Martin Luther King Jr.
Swasti Sharma

“There comes a time when one must take a position that is neither safe, nor politic, nor
popular, but he must take it because conscience tells him it is right.”
―Martin Luther King Jr., A Testament of Hope

1.1 Introduction
1.1.1 Martin Luther King Jr. was a Baptist minister and a civil rights activist who
theorized on race relations in the United States. He was a prominent leader of the Southern
Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) and had delivered many motivating speeches
against the unethical and immoral racial segregation in the United States. He played a pivotal
role in legally ending the aforementioned discriminatory practice. Moreover, he was the chief
force behind the introduction of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of
1965. The Civil Rights Act ended segregation in public spaces and rendered discriminatory
behavior at the workplace illegal. Such a fundamental right was recognized only after a long
struggle. Dr. King devoted his life to the upliftment of the distressed African American
underclass. For his persistent contribution, he was awarded the prestigious Nobel Peace Prize
in 1964. Dr. King is celebrated across the globe as the champion of race relations. Inspired by
M.K. Gandhi’s principle of non-violence, Dr. King led peaceful protests. While some of his
contemporaries advocated equality through violent and disruptive activities, Dr. King rooted
his faith in the potential of words and acts of nonviolent resistance. From steady campaigns
against poverty to civil disobedience drive, he was persistent. Dr. King was a true
representative of his times. He was deemed an aspirational figure- an educated, middle-class
African American man with oratorical skills-who redefined the American dream.
Born on January 15, 1929, Michael Luther King, Jr. (later changed his name to Martin)
was raised in a racially segregated society. His family had a long tradition of pastors,
beginning with his grandfather. He was raised in a religious setting and his faith shaped his
character to a great extent. He received a Bachelor’s degree from Morehouse College in
1948. He pursued his theological study at Crozer Theological Seminary in Pennsylvania.
Later, he also received Ph.D. By 1954, Dr. King was elevated to the rank of pastor of Dexter
Avenue Baptist Church in Montgomery, Alabama. Moreover, he was a member of the
executive committee of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People
(NAACP), one of the premier organizations working for the cause of the marginalized
African American community. Dr. King personified the Black aesthetic in the ‘50s and the

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‘60s. The Montgomery bus boycott became the touchstone that inspired other peaceful
protests and sparked a pan-American debate over the status of African Americans in the
United States. The Birmingham Campaign in 1963 solidified Dr. King’s leadership. In his
letter from Birmingham jail, addressed to fellow clergymen, Dr. King wrote:
In any nonviolent campaign, there are four basic steps: collection of the facts to
determine whether injustices are alive, negotiation, self-purification, and direct action.
We have gone through all of these steps in Birmingham. There can be no gainsaying
of the fact that racial injustice engulfs this community. Birmingham is probably the
most thoroughly segregated city in the United States. Its ugly record of police
brutality is known in every section of this country. Its unjust treatment of Negroes in
the courts is a notorious reality. There have been more unsolved bombings of Negro
homes and churches in Birmingham than in any other city in this nation. These are the
hard, brutal, and unbelievable facts. On the basis of them, Negro leaders sought to
negotiate with the city fathers. But the political leaders consistently refused to engage
in good-faith negotiation.
(King, Letter from Birmingham Jail)
This letter transformed into the manifesto of the burgeoning Civil Rights Movement. For his
concerted and relentless endeavors, he was named Man of the Year by Time magazine in
1963. This introduced him to the global platform. He was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize at
the age of thirty-five. On the evening of April 4, 1968, in Tennessee, Martin Luther King Jr.
was assassinated.
1.1.2 Civil Rights Movement refers to a series of coordinated protests and demonstrations
that catalyzed outlawing of racial segregation in the United States. The insurgency intensified
in the wake of World War II. The movement arose against the prejudiced Jim Crow laws (in
the Deep South) that stigmatized African American community. These laws were enacted to
ensure sustenance of segregation and slavery. Physical coercion and ideological subjugation
of African American people in the U.S. prompted them to initiate resistance against racial
oppression. The movement rose to national prominence in the 1950s. Civil Rights activists
were not only seeking to abolish discrimination on the basis of race but also remained
committed to confronting enduring socio-economic repercussions of centuries of bias. Dr.
King’s Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) provided an institutional
framework to support local protest movements. Even students became pioneers of the
movement. They organized several sit-ins on college campuses and lunch counters. Freedom
rides of 1961 enlarged the scale and intensity of the movement. The moderate leaders of the
movement, like Dr. King, warned against the use of brute force. These mass demonstrations
culminated on August 28, 1963, in the March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom, which
was attended by over 200,000 participants. Civil Rights Act was signed by President Lyndon
Johnson on July 2, 1964.
1.1.3 “I have a dream” address was delivered by civil rights activist Dr. Martin Luther
King Jr. at the Lincoln Memorial on August 28, 1963 for the March on Washington for Jobs
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and Freedom. The monumental protest march directed the attention of the fellow Americans
and international audience towards the systemic discrimination encountered by African
Americans on a daily basis a century after emancipation. The iconic speech has been
registered in the annals of history as a defining moment that shaped the contemporary African
American discourse. Dr. King Jr. had given several lectures and speeches prior to the
aforementioned address, in which he underscored the gap between the American dream and
actuality. In 1962, Dr. King addressed Booker T. Washington High School in Rocky Mount,
North Carolina where he used the “I have a dream” refrain. His March on Washington speech
became the cornerstone of the Civil Rights Movement and it pushed the administration to
enact the Civil Rights Act of 1964 prohibiting racial segregation
Check Your Progress
1. Summarize the aforementioned accomplishments of Dr. King in your own words.
2. What was the driving force behind the Civil Rights movement. Can you think of a
similar movement in the Indian context? Discuss.

1.2 Learning Objectives

The primary objective of this Unit is to critically analyze the “I have a dream” by Martin
Luther King Jr. and to furnish a brief background of the Civil Rights Movement that
redefined the status of African Americans in a majoritarian white society. Through an
intensive study of the speech, several observations have emerged to the fore, as elaborated in
the following sections. Critical engagement with this speech helps in contemplating the self-
positioning of African American intellectuals in the 1950s and 1960s. The backdrop against
which “I have a dream” speech was composed became a cornerstone in the expression of
Black lived experience. After going through this lesson the students will be able to:
❏ Develop a deeper understanding of “I have a dream” speech

❏ Identify the main ideas incorporated in the speech

❏ Locate the significance of Martin Luther King Jr. as the foremost interpreter of
African American predicament in the twentieth century
❏ Appreciate the principles that inspired Dr. King

1.3 Summary
Delivered during “March on Washington”, I have a dream speech became one of the most
famous addresses by Martin Luther King Jr. The fundamental motivation was to advocate for
equal rights in access to opportunities and freedom. Lincoln Memorial in the city of
Washington, D.C. hosted this unprecedented event that became a turning point in the history
of the United States. Even a hundred years after Emancipation Proclamation, African
American community was subjected to racial bias. Racial profiling led to disproportionately
low employment rate of Black people in the U.S. Dr. King began his speech by describing the

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Declaration of Independence as a “promissory note” that was applicable to all. He asserted
that African Americans had gathered to “cash this check” which was promised to them by the
united American dream. He described the Civil Rights Movement as “the whirlwinds of
revolt…[shaking] the foundations of our nation” and this perturbed the government. He urged
both White and colored communities to come together in this larger battle for justice. He
rejected the call for a “cooling off” period made by political leaders. He reiterated:
Now is the time to rise from the dark and desolate valley of segregation to the sunlit
path of racial justice. Now is the time to lift our nation from the quicksands of racial
injustice to the solid rock of brotherhood. Now is the time to make justice a reality for
all of God's children. (King, A Call to Conscience 113)
Dr. King announced that the Civil Rights Movement had several aims: ending police
brutality; indiscriminate use of boarding and lodging facilities; unbiased transportation
;removal of discriminatory signs like “For whites only” across towns and cities; and right to
vote, among others.
Dr. King was referring to the omnipresent persecution of African Americans who had
been deliberately ghettoised over centuries. While stating that the non-existent representation
of African Americans in the public sphere had led them to “the valley of despair”, he claimed
that his dream was not detached from the American dream. He said: “I have a dream that one
day this nation will rise up and live out the true meaning of its creed: “We hold these truths to
be self-evident, that all men are created equal””(King, A Call to Conscience 116). This
statement circumscribed the essence of mass protests against the administration. He urged his
followers from the Southern states, where racism was rampant, to continue the fight. His
dream highlighted the importance of cooperation and negotiation between Blacks and Whites.
He declared that Mississippi had the potential of becoming an “oasis of justice and freedom.”
In his most powerful statement, he expressed his desire of creating an America where
people’s identities would not be determined by “the color of their skin but by the content of
their character.” He dreamt of desegregation in all public funded institutions like schools and
colleges. It is important to note that the movement was followed by a demand for affirmative
action which opened up Ivy League universities to colored communities. Dr. King
unequivocally stated that “March on Washington” was an attempt to “hew out of the
mountain of despair a stone of hope” and in doing so, to restore the democratic principles
which were enshrined in the Declaration of Independence. By reconstructing a new minstrel,
Dr. King gave a clarion call to all his fellow African Americans to strive for freedom. He
lauded America for its diversity. In addition, he implored all communities to join hands to
end discrimination, including Jews who were the victims of anti-Semitism. Dr. King paid
homage to his ancestry by including a verse-line from an “old Negro spiritual”:
Free at last! Free at last!
Thank God Almighty, we are free at last! (King, A Call to Conscience 119)
He closed his speech on an optimistic note.

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Check Your Progress
1. On the basis of your reading of the speech, state five important objectives of Dr.
King’s dream.

1.4 Critical Analysis

1.4.1 The Context
Dr. King had synthesized his landmark ‘I have a dream’ speech by incorporating
elements from his previous speeches. Alexandra Alvarez has noted:
The usual addressee of a religious sermon is God. Here, the addressee of the
ceremony is the nation of the United States, and more specifically the Congress,
which is to discuss the Civil Rights Act. The march is organized for the purpose of
solving a conflict between the black population of the United States and the white
government (Alvarez 348)
Dr. King reelected upon the collective consciousness of African Americans while speaking.
The dream results from the memory of racial violence. It is important to note Dr. King was an
integrationist who believed in combining the African American experience with the
mainstream American identity. While he cherished the heterogeneity of expressions within
the fold, he opposed radical measures. Many scholars have noticed underlying differences
between the approaches of Dr. King and Malcolm X, another visionary Black intellectual
who championed the cause of African American underclass. Scholars who have attempted to
interpret King's ideas and persuasiveness in the light of King's biographer Stephen Oates,
have often underscored that “theological erudition” shaped his personality. His study of
theology is evident in his reminiscing of the “Negro Spiritual” which is a form of religious
hymn associated with Black churches. This form of oral tradition reminded African
Americans of the hardships of slavery. King's initiation in the folk pulpit was part and parcel
of his lineage.
1.4.2 Dr. King’s Rhetorical Ingenuity
Martin Luther King Jr. employed the rhetorical strategy to hold American administrators
accountable for their gross dereliction of constitutional virtues. Through this speech, he orally
subverted the hierarchy of power which comprises primarily an invisible system of normative
discrimination. Six important characteristics pertaining to the art of public speaking were
illustrated in Dr. King’s speech -emphasis by repetition; periodic reminder of the underlying
theme; utilization of appropriate quotations or allusions; foregrounding arguments through
substantiation; and lastly, use of figures of speech to highlight contrasting concepts.
Elizabeth Vander Lei has made the following observation:
“The rhetorical context of” I Have a Dream, “the March on Washington, can best be
described as a ceremonial protest, a bittersweet, annual celebration that African
Americans began 130 years before “I Have a Dream.” Over long decades, African

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 American preachers and political leaders, including Frederick Douglass, repeated and
polished the jeremiad components of “I Have a Dream.” At the March on Washington
and in “I Have a Dream,” King introduced the rest of the nation to these African
American rhetorical traditions that contextualize protest with long-suffering
confidence that African Americans would be “free at last.” Rooted in the richness of
these traditions, King's message captivated his listeners in 1963 and continues to
capture the imagination of subsequent generations (Lei 84)

*Jeremiad: A prolonged mournful complaint or lamentation.

1.5 Summing Up
Let us end with an interesting anecdote. Martin Luther King Jr. met Malcolm X , a Muslim
African American leader only once on March 26, 1964. Both were critical of each other’s
political and philosophical views. However, both shared the same goal: equal rights and
justice for black people in America. This symbolises the plurality of African American
discourse. Dr. King was the chief proponent of the struggle for racial parity.

Check Your Progress

1. Who was the intended audience of Dr. King’s speech and why ? Elaborate.
2. Describe the rhetorical brilliance of Dr. King’s speech.
Works Cited:
Alvarez, Alexandra. “Martin Luther King's ‘I Have a Dream’: The Speech Event as
Metaphor.” Journal of Black Studies, vol. 18, no. 3, 1988, pp. 337–357.

Andrews, William L., Frances Smith Foster, and Trudier Harris. 1997. The Oxford
Companion to African American Literature. New York: Oxford University Press.

Jones, James. 1976. “The Transformation of Fair Employment Practices Policies.” In Federal
Policies and Worker Status since the 1930s, edited by J. P. Goldberg, E. Ahern, W. Haber,
and R. A. Oswald. Madison, WI: Industrial Relations Research Institute.

King, Martin L, Clayborne Carson, and Kris Shepard. A Call to Conscience: The Landmark
Speeches of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. New York: IPM (Intellectual Properties
Management), in association with Warner Books, 2001. Print.

King, Martin Luther, Jr. Letter From the Birmingham Jail. [San Francisco]: Harper San
Francisco, 1994.

Lei, Elizabeth Vander, and Keith D. Miller. “Martin Luther King, Jr.'s ‘I Have a Dream’ in
Context: Ceremonial Protest and African American Jeremiad.” College English, vol. 62, no.
1, 1999, pp. 83–99.

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 Unit-5d

A Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass

Chapters : 1-7
Ankita Sethi

Introduction
A Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, is one of the three autobiographies of an
American slave published in 1845. As the title suggests, it is about the harrowing experiences
of slavery that the writer had from an early age. Soon after its publication, the text got a wide
readership, not only in America but all over the world. It is a symbolic narrative that recounts
the rise of Frederick Douglass (1818-1895) from a slave to a fearless humanist,
philanthropist, social reformer and a spokesperson for human rights. Born to a slave woman,
Harriet Bailey, he altered his destiny and carved his own path. He left his heroic legacy
behind which is appreciated till date and continues to have universal appeal. The two
autobiographical sequels are titled, My Bondage and My Freedom (1855) and the Life and
Times of Frederick Douglass (1882). The first-hand experience of the writer takes the reader
into the traumatic account of the writer in a brutal world of slavery. He was an example for
other slaves of his time and became what others could only aspire to. The text critiques the
time in which it was written and serves to add to the higher cause, which was abolition of
slavery in America.
Douglass wrote this book so that he could reach to the wider masses and narrate his
experiences. After his escape when he became an orator for the abolitionist movement, some
people could not believe that he was a slave because of his eloquent speeches. He wrote his
first autobiography so that the reader could travel along with him on his journey. He joined
William Lloyd Garrison in his noble cause, who wrote the preface for Douglass’s
autobiography. In his preface, Garrison explains how the harrowing narrative of Douglass
during a speech moved him so much that he started hating slavery even more. He explains
how one’s colour or race has nothing to do with the thinking capabilities of an individual and
a white person will be as ignorant as a black if he/she is denied knowledge and education like
the slaves. Despite this denial, Douglass managed to maintain his dignity and articulate
manners. He was a man of great morals and a strong will power which lead him to carve his
own path despite the adverse circumstances. While the society and the slave holders did
everything to crush the spirit of slaves; Douglass rose from the ashes and established himself
as one of the major personalities of nineteenth century who raised his voice for the abolition
of slavery and equal treatment of all human beings, irrespective of their race or colour. He
had full conviction in the cause and believed that the masses need to be aware of their rights
in order to claim them. He brought various changes to the abolition movement as well.

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Learning Objectives
The objective of reading this text is to acquaint you with the importance of autobiographical
narrative which will expose you verbatim to the brutality of slavery. This aim is achieved by
critical engagement with its major themes. The Narrative is one of the essential texts which
will provide you with background, historical context, the knowledge of African American
culture, social conventions and the importance of biographical writing. This particular lesson
will enable you to:
 Understand the institution and notion of slavery, as depicted in the autobiographical
work.
 Situate the nexus of slavery within the broader theme of racism.
 Have an insight into the harrowing experiences faced by a slave.
 Empathise with the marginalized and the downtrodden.
 Understand the value of why all people should be treated as equals.
Major and Minor Characters
Captain Anthony: Captain Anthony is one of the two masters that Douglass served; he is a
superintendent and a clerk, a kind of overseer of overseers, working for Colonel Lloyd, the
other master and the original slave-holder. Captain Anthony like any slave-holder was a cruel
man who took sadistic pleasure in dispensing harsh punishments to the slaves. In the
Narrative he is described as having carnal interest in Douglass’s aunt, Hester, as she was
more beautiful than most black and also white women. Notwithstanding his attraction
towards her, he brutally whipped her for not paying heed to his desires when demanded. He is
referred to as a ‘Captain’ as he once piloted ships in the Chesapeake Bay. Captain Anthony
has three children; two sons, Andrew and Richard and a daughter, Lucretia.
Colonel Edward Lloyd: The original slaveholder, Colonel Lloyd is an extremely rich slave-
holder under whom Captain Anthony worked. He owned three hundred to four hundred
slaves at the time and had not even seen most of them. Colonel Edward Lloyd was a harsh
slave-holder much like his employee; although he never meted out punishment on his own.
He expected absolute subservience from his slaves. No matter how unjust or harsh the
punishment was, he expected his slaves to tolerate it without a word. Described as a
meticulous man, he casually administered whips through his sons or sons-in-law, for slightest
of mistakes made by the slaves. He was also crafty and devised stratagems to prevent slaves
from eating his prized fruits from the orchards.
Sophia Auld: Wife to Hugh Auld and mother of Thomas Auld, Sophia never owned a slave
and was a working woman who lived with her family in Baltimore. In the beginning, she is
described as a kind woman with a polite disposition towards Douglass. She is considered as
quite liberal as she refused to treat Douglass as a mere slave and rejected subservience. She
even started teaching him alphabets. This confounded Douglass, simply because he was not
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accustomed to such behavior. However, she was soon transformed into a cruel mistress.
Sophia Auld is the only character, apart from Douglass, who undergoes transformation. She
is used as a symbol to show the de-humanizing effect slavery has on owners as well.
Aunt Hester: Aunt Hester is an extraordinarily attractive woman, more attractive than most
black and white women. Douglass’s aunt is the center of Captain Anthony’s carnal interest,
but nevertheless she too suffered whippings. It was Aunt Hester’s whipping that scarred
Douglass and introduced him to the hellish horrors of slavery.
Mr. Gore: Mr. Austin Gore replaced Mr. Hopkins as the second overseer. What
distinguished Mr. Gore was not his cruelty, but his ambition. His pride was such that he
expected no disapproval from slaves and administered punishment without a second thought.
His cunningness sowed discord among slaves and he exploited this opportunity to dole out
even more punishments. He expected slaves to bow down before him and was absolute with
his domination over the slaves. Mr. Gore is described as a quiet man, who never joked and
performed vicious deeds of punishments with nonchalance. His absolute terror and
calculating demeanor made him one of the feared overseers of his time.

Chapter wise Summary

Chapter-I
Fredrick Douglass was born into slavery in Talbot County, Maryland, and did not know his
age or the year he was born in, for slaves were deprived of such information, a fact that
disheartened him as white children knew their ages. He later estimated that he must have
been born in the year 1818 as he overheard a comment made by his master about his age.
Douglass’ mother Harriet Bailey, was the daughter of Isaac and Betsey Bailey, and was
separated from Douglass at a very young age, a common practice which ensured a weak bond
due to lack of affection and care between the mother and her child. Due to such a
relationship, young Douglass was nonchalant when he learned about his mother’s death,
comparing it to the death of a stranger. Since his mother died without ever revealing the
identity of his father, Douglass didn’t know for sure but only postulates that he might be the
son of the slaveholder, that his master could be his father. Impregnating slave women was a
common place practice which created children of mixed race who became slaves themselves.
It was quite profitable since the numbers kept on increasing. However, the slave owner’s
white wife was unhappy by the presence of interracial children, owing to which these
children either suffered incessantly or were sold off. Douglass recounts that he had two
masters, first of whom was called Captain Anthony, his farms and his slaves were under the
care of a cruel overseer Mr. Plummer, a violent drunk who was always armed with a cow
skin lash and a cudgel which he often used on the slaves. He recalls one episode which was
etched into his memory when his aunt, Hester was brutally whipped by the Captain. The
Captain calls for Hester one night only to find that she was not present because she went out
to meet another slave named Ned. Douglass implies that the captain had sexual interest in her
owing to her beautiful appearance. The Captain brought her home, stripped her to the waist

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and whipped her. Douglass was terrified as he saw the brutality and hid in a closet, lest he be
punished in such a manner.
Chapter-II
Captain Anthony had two sons named Andrew and Richard and a daughter Lucretia who was
married to Captain Thomas Auld and the entire family lived in one house upon a land owned
by Colonel Edward Lloyd. The Captain was Colonel Lloyd’s superintendent and clerk, a kind
of an ‘overseer of overseers’. Douglass narrates that it was in this place that he witnessed the
whipping of his aunt and the initial impressions that slavery made on his mind. He describes
that tobacco, corn and wheat were the principal products raised in great abundance on that
farm. A sloop or a boat was used to carry all the products to the Baltimore market. The vessel
was named in honor of colonel’s daughter, Sally Lloyd and Captain Auld was the master.
Colonel Lloyd owned about three hundred to four hundred slaves and all the slaves reported
monthly for their allowance of food, and yearly for their clothing. The total sum of their
yearly clothing could not have exceeded more than seven dollars. The allowance for children
was given to their mothers or old guardian women, since children did not work in the fields
they were given nothing but one linen shirt. Apart from that, the slaves were also given one
coarse blanket but no beds. Douglass says that the slaves never noticed the lack of beds as
they were exhausted from the day’s work. The overseer of Colonel’s plantation was known as
Mr. Severe and rightly so on account of his brutish and barbaric behavior towards the slaves.
After Mr. Severe died he was replaced by Hopkins who was comparatively kinder and less
harsh. The home plantation of Colonel Lloyd was called the ‘The Great House Farm’ since it
resembled a country village and the slaves regarded it highly and considered it a privilege to
be sent for a chore. Those who were sent for an errand would sing spontaneous bitter-sweet
songs. Douglass admits that owing to his lack of comprehension in his youth, he could not
understand the underlying meaning, but understood them only later when he remembered
them and was often moved to tears that the songs were bitter complaints about slavery.
Chapter-III
Colonel Lloyd had cultivated a fine garden which attracted people far and wide from places
such as Baltimore, Easton and Annapolis. The hungry slaves were attracted to the fruits
cultivated in his garden. After several failed stratagems, devised to stave them off, the
Colonel found the most successful one which was to tar the fence that surrounded the garden.
Any slave that was smeared by the tar would be whipped severely by the gardener and out of
fear of being whipped the slaves eventually stopped. The colonel also had an impressive and
sophisticated stable which was maintained by a father-son duo, Old Barney and Young
Barney. The Colonel was meticulous to a fault when it came to horses and their care. He
often whipped the duo over insignificant things which were even beyond the caretaker’s
control. No matter how outrageous the accusations were, the slaves were never allowed to
have a say. Colonel Lloyd always insisted on a submissive behavior on part of the slaves and
expected them to stay silent and receive punishment without comment. The whippings were
often administered by either of his three sons or three sons-in-law. He was extremely rich and
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owned hundreds of slaves, so much that he had never even seen some of them. Douglass
recounts an incident when the Colonel happened to meet his slave without identifying himself
and asked him about his master’s treatment of him. Unbeknownst to him, the slave honestly
confessed the ill-treatment. Several weeks later, the slave was chained and sold to a slave
trader in Georgia as a punishment. This was not uncommon for the slaves to receive severe
treatment without even being aware of their faults. The suppression of the truth was
extremely common, often when slaves were asked about the treatment by their masters they
always said that they were contended because of the fear of punishment. The slaves often got
competitive over whose master is kinder, when this was far from the truth.
Chapter-IV
Soon Mr. Hopkins was fired by Captain Anthony and was replaced by another overseer, Mr.
Austin Gore. Mr. Gore was described as cunning, cruel and an ambitious man. He ruled with
absolute domination and meted out punishment often finding an excuse to do so with a cool
demeanour. Mr. Gore lived on the ‘Great House Farm’ and expected all the slaves on the
plantation to bow down before him as he bows to the Colonel. An incident that recounts his
cool and casual barbarism was when a slave called Demby ran off to a nearby creek to soothe
the pain inflicted by Mr. Gore’s whipping. He gave Demby a three-count to come out of the
creek. When Demby failed to do so even after the third call, he was unflinchingly shot. When
questioned about his actions, Mr. Gore calmly responded that Demby was setting a bad
example for other slaves. He lived without any consequences and was respected as an
overseer for his talent. Douglass recounts many such examples where the slave owners
casually killed their slaves. People like Mr. Thomas Lanman from Maryland boasted of
violently killing two slaves. In that same place, wife of a slave owner beat Douglass’s wife’s
cousin to death with a stick, in which case no legal actions were taken or arrest was made. In
another case, Mr. Beal Bondly shot an elderly slave of Colonel Lloyd’s and it did not even
attract Colonel’s complaint.
Chapter-V
Until old enough, slave children were not allowed to work in the fields. They were given
petty household chores only. Douglass was also given household chores and got a chance to
spend most of his leisure time in the company of Master Daniel Lloyd who treated him quite
well, got attached to him and even protected him. Douglass did not suffer from whips and
punishments as much as he did from hunger and much severely from the cold due to which
he developed wide cracks in the legs. Slave children were treated with as much disregard as
the adults even if the treatment was not as brutal and harsh, it was definitely inhuman. They
were given corn mush to eat, like animals from a large communal tray. They devoured the
mush like pigs with a few satisfied bellies. Douglass must’ve been 7-8 years old when he was
sent to Baltimore to live with Mr. Hugh Auld, brother to Captain Anthony’s son-in-law.
Douglass was ecstatic and happily prepared himself for three days cleaning and scrubbing
himself in the nearby creek. He was also rewarded with a new pair of coarse linen trousers.
Despite the possibility that Baltimore could be as hard as his present plantation, he was
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excited to go there as Tom his cousin described it as an impressive city. Douglass had no
attachment to his former plantation as he did not consider it as his home. Before leaving, as
the ship started to sail, Douglass took one last look at Colonel Lloyd’s plantation and hoped
that it would be the last time he would have to see it. After the ship had sailed, it made a stop
on the docks of Annapolis and Douglass was thoroughly impressed by it. Although in
retrospect, it paled in comparison with great northern industrial cities. After the ship reaches
on a Sunday morning, Douglass reaches his new home and was greeted politely by Sophia
Auld, her husband Hugh Auld and their son Thomas Auld who was Douglass’s master.
Douglass acknowledged this deliverance as divine providence. Had he not been removed
from Colonel’s Lloyd’s Plantation he would have remained a lifelong slave. He recalls that
from the earliest memory of sensing that he would not remain a slave which gave him hope in
trying times.
Chapter-VI
Life at the Auld household was absolutely different from that on the Colonel’s plantation.
Douglass was not used to such treatment and he was taken aback by Mrs. Sophia Auld’s kind
and gentle behaviour towards him. She did not appreciate his subservient behavior and did
not punish him even when he looked her in the eye, a transgression which would’ve surely
invited severe punishments earlier. Initially, Mrs. Auld began teaching the alphabet and a few
small words to Douglass. When it came to her husband’s attention, he immediately asked her
to stop as education made slaves sad and unmanageable. Having overheard this, Douglass
was brought to a sudden revelation and understood what he must do to win his freedom and
thanked Mr. Auld for the enlightenment. In Baltimore and in many cities, slaves enjoyed
comparatively greater freedom than those on the rural plantations, since urban slave-owners
were careful not to appear cruel to their non-slaveholding counterparts. However, there are
exceptions, like the Hamiltons, who mistreated their two young slave girls so much that they
were starved and their bodies were mangled from Mrs. Hamilton’s periodic beatings.
Chapter-VII
Douglass’s stay at Hugh Auld’s household was for seven years only, during which he learned
to read and write all by himself. Slave-holding hardened Mrs. Auld and she no longer tutored
Douglass. Douglass lamented that the mentality of slavery stripped basic human sympathy
from even the inherently good natured soul like Mrs. Auld and changed her into cruel and
hardened slave owner. Douglass’s path to self-education was aided by poor local boys with
whom he exchanged bread for reading lessons. He was tempted to show his gratitude by
acknowledging them but didn’t. He feared that if he mentions their names, they will suffer as
teaching black was considered an offence. At the age of twelve, Douglass came across a
book The Columbian, a philosophical dialogue which takes place between a master and his
slave. In the book, the master laid down the argument in favour of slavery while the slave
refuted each one of them eventually earning his freedom from his master through persuasion.
The book helped Douglass to understand but it also made him hate his masters as he acutely
understood the injustice meted out against him and his fellow slaves and it filled him with
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despair and regret. It was during this time that Douglass entered a period of suicidal despair.
He also came across the word ‘abolitionist’ which means ‘antislavery’. This word had a huge
impact on his psyche because prior to this, he wasn’t even aware of any such concept. One
day, Douglass helped two Irish sailors at the wharf without them asking for help. They
realized that he would be a slave for the rest of his life and encouraged him to run away to the
North for freedom. Douglass, however, didn’t respond owing to his lack of trust on whites, as
they tend to goad slaves into running away only to recapture them for a reward. But, the idea
kept lingering in his head. As Douglass’s journey progressed, he also learned to write by
watching ships’ carpenters write letters on lumber. He practised his writing on walls, fences
and on the ground in the city. Soon, he started competing with the local poor boys to see who
can write the best or can copy from the dictionary. When the Aulds would leave Douglass
home alone, he would write in Thomas Auld’s discarded notebooks. So, with such
painstaking efforts, he learned to write.
Self-Check Questions
Q1. “The cheerful eye under the influence of slavery soon became red with rage.” Comment
on how slavery transforms both the slaves and the slave-holders.
Q2. Comment on Douglass’s journey as a slave.
Q3. In the light of Colonel Lloyd’s treatment of his slaves, elaborate upon the kind of
relationship that is shared between the Master and the Slave.
Q4. Write a character sketch of Sophia Auld.

Themes
Sense of Dignity
Douglass’s narrative encourages the reader to be courageous enough to fight the
circumstances. He became exemplary and taught others to be self-reliant in the face of
misfortune. At the house of Auld, Douglass was exposed to education but it is soon halted.
However, he started educating himself despite receiving no benefits from his master. His
pathos reflected in the narrative shows that he had deep regard and understanding for the
human life. Inherently every human being desires basic human respectability, which treats
him/her in the same regards as others of respectable circle. Douglass’s deep sense of
frustration stems from the gap that he was unable to bridge for a long period of time. But this
did not hamper his spirit and he fought the circumstances.
Role of Education
Education and awareness plays a great role in one’s life. In case of Frederick Douglass and
hundreds of other slaves like him, education served as a means of self-awareness which led
them towards the path of freedom. Without education, the mere thought of the journey
towards freedom, could not have been possible. It is in Chapter 6 and Chapter 7, that the
reader witnesses the growth of the protagonist because of education. Just like other basic
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rights, the slaves were forbidden to get any education. They were not supposed to be capable
of reading and writing as the masters feared that it would enhance their mental capabilities
and the power of reasoning, hence making them unmanageable. Douglass’s keenness on
educating himself deepened his understanding of the evils of slavery. He understood that
slavery not only harms the slave but the slave holder as well as. It corrupts them and strips off
their humanity. Through the aid of education and learning that he managed to receive, he
started regretting his condition. He became aware of his pathetic condition and started hating
his masters. This landed him into utter despair and he started feeling suicidal. It was his will
and determination that lead him to express his deep feelings through words, thus leading him
to his emancipation.
Inhumane Treatment
Throughout the narrative, the writer recounts multiple incidents that made an indelible mark
on his psyche. Such were the harrowing events that it induced paralyzing fear at the time and
when he thought about those events in retrospect he was moved to tears. In the first chapter,
he saw his aunt getting stripped to waist for a slight disobedience for which she was whipped
brutally. A vivid description is given which encapsulated the horrors of punishment. The
brutality was normalized to such an extent that slaves regarded their respective masters as
good natured if they were less violent than their ‘crueler’ counterparts. This inhuman
treatment was common in rural as well as the cities. Sophie Auld is one such example who
was kind initially to Douglass initially but transformed into a cruel slave-holder.
Physical Slavery vis-à-vis Mental Slavery
Slavery was not just physical but mental as well, and both are interlinked in an absolute
subjugation of the blacks. The most common was dehumanizing the slaves by punishing them
with severe whipping even in case where faults were insignificant or out of their immediate
control. During the time of annual distribution of clothes and ration, the slaves were provided
with scanty resources and were fed like farm animals. They were subjected to excruciating
labor, and often tolerated severe weather conditions as long as they were alive. In chapter IV,
a slave named Demby was killed when he refused to come out of the creek despite Mr.
Gore’s command. When asked for the reason behind such a behavior, Mr Gore simply replied
that Demby was setting a bad example for other slaves. In chapter III, there is another event
which shows how mental slavery was practiced. The slaves were punished heartlessly for
petty matters. No matter how outrageous the accusations were, the slaves were not supposed
to question the motives and complain. Colonel Lloyd always insisted on a submissive
behavior on part of the slaves. He wanted them to stay silent and receive punishment without
a uttering a word. This is evident of how mental slavery along with physical, sets out to work.

Self-Check Questions
Q1. What do you think about the writing style and language of the author?
Q2. Had it been a biography, do you think the language and the style would have differed in
any way?
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Q3. How important a role did education play in Douglass’s emancipation?
Q4. Draw differences between mental and physical slavery and elaborate with at least one
incident.
Q5. Casteism is to India what Racism is to America. Describe the similarity between these
spread across different notions.
Critical Appreciation
It is a coming of age text which poses serious questions about the institution of slavery. Being
a slave narrative, it not only narrates the life of a slave but poses serious questions on the
socio-political scenario of the time. The journey of the protagonist makes it a bildungsroman,
showing different facets of his life. The use of powerful language by the narrator adds to its
effects on the reader. Since it is a first-hand account, it evokes a feeling of empathy in the
reader, thus granting success to the writer who establishes a unique relationship with the
reader.
The text critiques how slavery was normalized through the use of measures. The slaves
were made to feel that the treatment they were getting was natural and inevitable and that
they were born to be in this state. They were denied any sort of education or knowledge
because that would put a threat on the entire institution of slavery. Their quest for literacy
thus became a part of their resistance and the struggle for it. The slaves suffered from not just
physical but psychological abuses as well. They were not even considered human beings and
were denied any sort of basic right. They were considered to be emotionless and if by mistake
any slave showed any emotion towards the other slave, they were severely punished for that.
Lack of awareness on the part of the slave, was what had been used as the most important
tool to keep them mute. To demand for one’s right, one needs to be aware of it and thus the
slaves were always kept in the darkness of ignorance and illiteracy because the masters feared
that the brightness of education will bring some power to the slaves, which the masters could
not afford.
The text is also a scathing commentary on the dehumanizing aspect of slavery, not only
on the slave but on the slave-holders as well. It comments on how slavery like a plague
mutated the inherent good and gentility in a person, into something grotesque and fearsome.
It encouraged dominance over life and even death of a racially different being and this
discrimination was legalized as educating a black was considered an offense. Thus, even if
some perceptive people thought of slavery as evil their opinions would be quickly brushed off
and they would eventually be assimilated into the common discriminatory consciousness that
run amuck amongst the slave holders. Owing to their violent punishment meted out on slaves,
a deep psychological trauma is etched onto their minds. No doubt, the collective social
memory of the slaves would be mixed feelings of fear, sadness, pain and remorse. But no
matter how bleak the situation was, there were instances when Douglass still found hope for
the future that eventually led to his emancipation. He always knew that he won’t remain a
slave despite his hatred and suicidal tendency. Whether this yearning for freedom was
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inherent or not, one cannot truly know, but the role that education played was of utmost
importance. It was because of education that Douglass was able to develop his critical
thinking and was able to reflect upon his scenario. He could feel a range of emotions and
expressed them with such conviction that it moved his audiences. Education incited in him
the intellectual curiosity which nudged him on a path of self-learning. It played the most vital
role in his emancipation. Thus education did not only play a direct hand in Douglass’s
freedom from slavery, but also freedom from ignorance.
Further Readings
 Andrews, William L. “Frederick Douglass, Preacher.” American Literature, vol. 54,
no. 4, 1982, pp. 592–597.
 Boxill, Bernard R. “Frederick Douglass's Patriotism.” The Journal of Ethics, vol. 13,
no. 4, 2009, pp. 301–317.
 Buccola, Nicholas. The Political Thought of Frederick Douglass: In Pursuit of
American Liberty. New York: New York University Press, 2012.
 Garrison, William Lloyd. “‘Frederick Douglass as Orator and Reformer’ (1895).”
Douglass in His Own Time: A Biographical Chronicle of His Life, Drawn from
Recollections, Interviews, and Memoirs by Family, Friends, and Associates, edited by
John Ernest, University of Iowa Press, Iowa City, 2014, pp. 176–181.
 Mullane, James Thomas. “The Road to ‘I‘Dentity in ‘Narrative of the Life of Frederick
Douglass, an American Slave.’” CEA Critic, vol. 57, no. 2, 1995, pp. 26–40.

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 Unit- 5e

When We Dead Awaken: Writing as Re-Vision

Adrienne Rich
Shreya Seth

1. Learning Objectives
After going through this lesson you will be able to:
 Understand the central anxieties that are faced by women authors through the
perspective of a prominent author Adrienne Rich.
 Understand the essay as a criticism of the patriarchal society that keeps women
narratives hidden.
 Understand the struggle of women authors in finding their own voices because the
society constantly gives them a narrative to follow.
 Understand the fear that women writers feel in presenting their true self, if and when
they manage to get an essence of that.
 Identify some other themes of the essay and critically engage with them.
2. About the author
Adrienne Rich is a 20th century American poet and essay writer. She was very vocal about the
oppressed condition of the women in the society. She is credited for coining the term ‘lesbian
continuum,’ “which is a female continuum of solidarity and creativity” that is impactful in
filling the voids of women's lives.
A Change of World, her first collection was selected by renowned poet W. H. Auden for
the Yale Series of Younger Poets Award. Snapshots of a Daughter-in-Law: Poems (1963),
another of her important collections, explores issues of identity, sexuality, and politics both
private and public. She uses a wide range of poetic techniques for highly formal and rhyme
rich poetry using the cadences of everyday speech, enjambment, and irregular line and stanza
lengths.
3. Detailed Summary and Analysis of the Essay, ‘When We Dead Awaken: Writing as
Re-Vision’
Rich in her remarkable essay begins by pointing out to Ibsen’s play, which is also where the
title of the essay is taken from ‘When We Dead Awaken’. This play highlights the ‘use’ of
women by male artists in their life and works in turn creating a social culture that will always
take women as objects to be utilized. But that is not the subject of the play; the subject is the
slow awakening of women to this use and what her life has been put to.

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 Rich quotes Bernard Shaw who in 1900 wrote of this play, “…that men and women are
becoming conscious of this; and that what remains to be seen as perhaps the most interesting
of all imminent social developments is what will happen “when we dead awaken”.
Self Check Question
1. Justify the title of the essay, ‘When We Dead Awaken: Writing as Re-Vision’
The present time when women are becoming aware and men are also undergoing the
process of understanding is both an invigorating as well as scary. The time of awakening
consciousness is confusing and disorienting but it is affecting the lives of both women and
men equally, even women who are unaware of it and men who deny its claim upon them.
The understanding of what leads to the discrimination has been studied for many years,
some suggest that it is the oppressive economic system that sits at the heart of the civilization
and leads to discrimination between men and women, some others suggest all other
discriminations stem from the intrinsic sexual discrimination. In recent times the connection
between sexual biases and political ideology is being established, this connection creates an
understanding of the problem at a much nuanced and deeper level. These understandings are
leading to the awakening of consciousness, but now not one at a time like a segregated event
in history but as a collectively live reality.
Rich explains that this stirring up of self calls for looking at things in a fresher, newer
perspective, for reading texts with a new critical lens and for re-visioning the already seen.
The moment of awakening is not just any moment in history though; it is one that is essential
for women’s survival, for it helps them understand the prejudices they have been immersed in
for ages and helps them in turn to know their true selves. This awakening is a journey of self
identification for the women, and also for them to avoid the destruction of self that the
patriarchal society enables.
2. How will the re-awakening affect the readings and interpretations of the literary texts?
A feminist reading of literature, explains Rich, would create an insight into women’s
lives, their reality, how they imagine their reality, how they are asked to imagine it, and lastly
how language which is essentially patriarchal is their entrapment but can also be at the same
time the point of liberation.
Tradition of the past has to be well known because only when one knows their past will
they stop holding on to it and will be able to do away with it. Understanding the concept of
sexual identity created by orders of the past traditions is essential because it should be
prevented from asserting itself in the new order. A completely new exploration has to be
undertaken by women writers, but these images of women liberation are both difficult to
create and comprehend since these are not grounded in the past and there is little or no
support of the past for their novel formulation. Nothing in history supports the new narrative
so for them to create a ‘new psychic geography’ is difficult as well as dangerous.

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 Rich further mentions a quote by Jane Harrison referring to a representation of women
by male characters–
“By the by, about "Women," it has bothered me often-why do women never want to
write poetry about Man as a sex-why is Woman a dream and a terror to man and not the other
way around? ... Is it mere convention and propriety, or something deeper?”
3. What is the relevance of the quote by Jane Harrison, that A. Rich points out?
Rich agrees to Harrison’s statement and starts contemplating possible reasons for the
same. In order to negotiate the answer to the question, she refers to two20th century poets
Sylvia Plath and Diane Wakoski who were both able to present men as a fascination but
mostly as a terror and the source of this terror is his power ‘to dominate, tyrannize, choose, or
reject the woman’. The man is represented through that force and power that he exercises
over the woman. As a result of such representation these women writers are also able to
create a sense of their own identity. Knowing that such power is exercised by the man over
them, they write ‘poetry of dynamic charge’, ‘rhythms of struggle’, ‘need, will, and female
energy’.
Jane Harrison considers convention and propriety as reasons for men not finding space as
a sex in women’s writing, are not too precise for Rich. According to her, up until very
recently women were not aware of the power exercised by men over them and so were not in
tune with their anger. The women writers as a result wrote about love as their source of
suffering, and this suffering as inevitable to their female life. She mentions poets like
Marianne Moore and Elizabeth Bishop who never talked of sexual relationships in their
poetry and maintained their safe distance from the topic.
Another aspect of exploration that Jane Harrison’s question would require is an
understanding of the roles men and women play in their artist partner’s life. Women have
been a ‘luxury’ for male artists, playing the role of artist’s muse but also his ‘comforter,
nurse, cook, bearer of his seed, secretarial assistant and copyist of manuscripts’. To highlight
the role of man for a female artist Rich quotes an incident that Henry James mentions
described to him by the male French writer Prosper Merimee when he was living with a
female French writer George Sand, “he once opened his eyes, in the raw winter dawn, to see
his companion, in a dressing- gown, on her knees before the domestic hearth, a candlestick
beside her and a red madras round her head, making bravely, with her own hands, the fire that
was to enable her to sit down betimes to urgent pen and paper. The story represents him as
having felt that the spectacle chilled his ardor and tried his taste; her appearance was
unfortunate, her occupation an inconsequence, and her industry a reproof-the result of all of
which was a lively irritation and an early rupture.”
The women artist attempting to create art is an unfortunate scene for the men, her work is
called inconsequential and this discouragement is the reason why women writers struggle to
create works in tune with her true actual self, she fears the language and the form and it

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creates an overpowering dominance over her that she isn’t able to survive through her
internal strength primarily because the discouragement is so sharp.
4. Why is women’s role as a writer considered inconsequential?
In Virginia Woolf’s A Room of One’s Own, Rich recognizes her painstaking effort to
maintain a calm, detached tone something she observes she herself does and a lot of other
women authors do as well. They are in tune with their anger but take all possible effort to
avoid seeming angry. Virginia Woolf, while she is addressing the audience of women, is also
acutely aware of the men who would be certainly hearing her, Morgan, Lytton and Maynard
Keynes and also her father, Leslie Stephen and so it a conscious effort to maintain the calm
composure even when attacks are made on her integrity. She uses the language to create the
identity for self but also uses it to protect herself from the male gaze and opinion.
5. Why does Virginia Woolf in her essay A Room of One’s Own, use a calm and composed
tone instead of an angry one?
No male writer, on the other hand has ever written primarily or even largely for a women
audience. In the decision of themes, language and form, there is not even an obscure thought
of female criticism for the man, but for the female writer even when she is writing and talking
to women she is consciously also writing at the same time for men. Women have to stop
feeling intimidated not only by conventions but also by their internalized fears, only then she
can be herself and talk about her emotions honestly; this Rich exclaims would be an
extraordinary moment for female reader and the writer.
Rich further discusses that it is easier to talk about women writers because they have a
special place in the male psyche. It is much more dangerous to talk about women who could
not be writers because they have to wash dishes and take care of their children, even more
difficult to talk of women who have to take care of other people’s laundry, dishes and
children and those that sell their bodies to feed their children. Women writers are special,
romanticized by men until they remain in the periphery and do not threaten the central
position of power men occupy. These special women then are ‘token women’, those that have
been lucky, not just skilled because a lot of skilled women have been denied the space to
grow. This ‘special woman’ then can only have meaningful existence when she can speak of
the women whose specialness is thwarted.
Rich recounts her personal journey as an author to indicate the problematic power
dynamics created around this special woman. She understands her privilege as she was born
in a white, middle-class household where her father always encouraged her to read and write.
In the early years of her life she wrote for him, to always please him and never displease. She
also wrote to please other men, who were not a terror, a fascination but literary masters.
There were a lot of books that she had access to as well, but these were all books written by
men where women appeared frequently, but either as beautiful, or concerned about beauty or
fearing the loss of beauty. Or, characters like Maud Gonne, who was represented as cruel
because she denied being a poet’s luxury.

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6. Rich explains her own life journey, the personal to understand the larger political
struggle of the women writers. Explain.
A women writer is met with a lot of confusion when she sits down to write, she is met
time and again with images, narratives and language that men have created, these negate her
own identity, all that she stands for. She finds no guides, she finds beauty, sacrifice,
modestly, forced morality but not herself. Rich’s writing therefore, as she confesses was first
formed by male poets- Frost, Dylan Thomas, Donne, Auden, MacNiece, Stevens, Yeats –
even though she read all the female authors she could find with great keenness. In retrospect,
she observes that in her early poems the confusion is clearly evident; she was writing keeping
her literary masters and their themes at hand.
She talks of one of the popular poems she had written in her early life and one where the
‘split’ of two values that are presented before her were quite evident, between the girl who
defined herself as a writer and the girl who was defining herself in relationships with men.
The text she refers to is called “Aunt Jennifer's Tigers” and is one that is often cited as one of
her important feminist texts, for it talks of a woman in a difficult oppressive marriage who is
trying to create an escape and a voice of her own through her art of knitting and sewing. The
tiger she knits is to become a symbol of her own freedom.
“Aunt Jennifer’s tigers prance across a screen,
Bright topaz denizens of a world of green.
They do not fear the men beneath the tree;
They pace in sleek chivalric certainty.

Aunt Jennifer’s fingers fluttering through her wool

Find even the ivory needle hard to pull.
The massive weight of Uncle’s wedding band
Sits heavily upon Aunt Jennifer’s hand.

When Aunt is dead, her terrified hands will lie

Still ringed with ordeals she was mastered by
The tigers in the panel that she made
Will go on prancing, proud and unafraid.”

Rich comments on the tone of the text being distant, intentionally cool and unnecessarily
composed, something she also pointed out earlier in the tonality of Virginia Woolf’s essay,
‘A room of one’s own’. In presenting her narrator in neatly laid rhymes, she denies her the
anger that she would have culminated in years of a problematic marriage; she creates as a
result a woman who is imaginary and not real. The woman she creates is extremely different
and distant from the author herself, first separated due to the formalistic tone of the poem,
and then in her age as well.

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 Her tone she says was strategic, like the protective ‘asbestos gloves’; it allowed her to
say things she couldn’t otherwise. She talks about using another strategy she used in her
poems, that of hiding. In the poem ‘The Loser’ she uses the persona of man who is thinking
about a woman in two different phases of her life.
Adrienne Rich published her writings early; because if she had titles to her name it meant
that others would agree that she was a poet. So she soon dived into traditional marriage life
which seemed to her like the obvious next step, bearing three children by the time she was
thirty. She was attempting to chose a life that was available to the men, one in which
‘sexuality, work and parenthood’ could coexist, with little realization as to how different her
situation is in comparison to the men. She soon started feeling a looming sense of
dissatisfaction, something that she didn’t understand at that time, and there were no shared
narratives of women that could help her.
She wasn’t happy with what she was writing and even though she was still publishing
books and fulfilling all the domestic roles of a woman, she knew something was lacking and
she started looking at herself as a failed poetess and a failed woman. She was losing touch
with who she was and what she wanted to say. In a poem called ‘Halfway’ she had written
about herself, “A young girl, thought sleeping, is certified dead”, she just needed to find
herself some thoughts. During this period in her life, Rich confesses that she hardly wrote
anything and whatever she did it frustrated her further, because she couldn’t hear herself
through the words.
It is based on the experiences of this period in her life, that she makes pertinent
observations about women writing poetry. She states for creating art, one needs to
immerseoneselfin an alternate space of imaginative experience, far from reality. In order to
create alternatives one has to imagine and re-imagine, and allow imagination to be let free
from the shackles of everyday reality. Women do not have that luxury, the traditional
domesticity is such a constant reminder to her of her truth, of her reality that she cannot re-
write. The fearless imagination needed to transcend the submissive ways of thought, do not
come easy to her.
7. What could be some of the reasons for the void that Rich felt existed in her life?
She also realized through her owning seeking of it desperately, that time was something
that was hard to come by to women authors, time to think about self, about their politics,
“about pacifism and dissent and violence, about poetry and society and about my own
relationship to all these things.” It is only much later in life through these understandings that
she could write poetry that was about the women experience and not universal as she was
indoctrinated to do. She realized that political is not that which is outside, but is very much
internal and she has to get in tune with it to create texts about true woman experience. She
talks about a later poem she wrote called "Snapshots of a Daughter-in-Law," which was much
longer and looser in format than she allowed herself. She understands that how she still hid
behind the distant ‘She’ than the first person ‘I’ but she was realizes how she was much more

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honest to her truth. Second Section of the text talks of a woman “who thinks she is going
mad; she is haunted by voices telling her to resist and rebel, voices which she can hear but
not obey.”
Rich later writes a poem called ‘Orion’ which talks of the reconnection with the part of the
self that was denied to come forward. The contradiction that she explored in this poem was
between the love women are destined to reserve for their male partner to the one that they
have for self. This poem attempts to re-imagine the definition of love itself. Another poem
that she mentions in the essay is called “Planetarium,” which was written after a visit to a real
planetarium, where she read about the work of Caroline Herschel who was an astronomer and
with her brother William, her name however remained obscure.
8. What is the importance of some of her later poems that Rich mentions in this part of the
essay?
She ends the essay by recounting a dream where she is supposed to be reciting her poetry
before a women’s meeting, and she starts singing a jazz song- which she thinks is extremely
appropriate to inspire women writers for theirs too is a song of pain, of agony, of
victimization and of anger. This anger should be not be suppressed because it is the result of
extremely real and tangible subordination that women have been subjected to for years. And
as women consciousness rises and she starts creating unheard narratives about herself giving
true expression to her subjectivity, men will also have to find their own subjectivity.
9. What is the relevance of the dream that Rich concludes the essay with?

4. Themes of the Essay, ‘When We Dead Awaken: Writing as Re-Vision’

4.1. The Reawakening
The essay talks at great length about the awakening of consciousness; this reawakening is an
urge for women writers and readers to write and read with a difference, to find the slippages
in the repeated narratives they have been given about self, to deconstruct and reconstruct their
understanding of womanhood, to find a voice that is their very own. The essay also lays out
difficulties that women authors would come across in the process of the getting back their
consciousness, but those can only be overcome with expression of self, unabashed and
fearless.
4.2. The personal and political dichotomy
Women are supposed to take charge of the domestic space, whereas men are responsible for
the public space. The divide between these two is so strongly etched that these are seen as
completely separate. Rich in the essay talks about a moment in her life where she understands
that politics is not just that which is outside but also that which is inside. A woman in her
interactions in the house, in her relationships with her partner and her children, in her
negotiations with her filial responsibilities is maneuvering through complex political
ideologies that must be understood to break down the subordination.

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4.3. A room of one’s Own
Virginia Woolf wrote in her famous essay, A Room of One’s Own that for a woman to be a
writer she should have some inheritance and a room of her own. This room is not just a
physical space of quiet writing but also a mental acceptance of women as writers, an
acknowledgement not by the male world but by the author herself. It is this acceptance of
self, by the self, that is the ultimate sign of awakening of consciousness.
Sources
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adrienne_Rich
https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poets/adrienne-rich
https://liternet.bg/publish21/e_rich/writing.htm

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