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Eastern-Asian Development Model: The Growth-Fostering State
Eastern-Asian Development Model: The Growth-Fostering State
The West has been convinced for decades that there is no alternative to classical capitalism and real socialism
– no third way. After the collapse of the Cold War order, attempts were made to replicate this “no alternative”
concept in the form of the dictate of markets as provided for in the neoliberal Washington Consensus.
Meanwhile, East Asia has invented a combination of the market and state intervention, known as enabling
state, facilitating state or “growth-fostering state”. The author of this article argues and explains that the
new theory by Justin Yifu Lin, referred to as New Structural Economics, cannot be fully understood without
this broader context. Another claim made here is that, rather than a new economic theory, NSE is really an
innovative concept of industrial policy which – unlike the industrial state model, or, more specifically, the
developmental state closely tied to “Asian values” – can be applied in other catching-up economies and
regions as long as they are determined to combine the market with the strong state.
Keywords: development models, industrial policy, Eastern Asia, China, emerging markets – catching-up
economies.
Introduction
For several decades of the Cold War era, the world was doomed to a peculiar
and unavoidable duopoly, also in economic terms: classical capitalism, roughly
along the lines defined by John M. Keynes, in the United States and in Western
Europe, clashing with more uniform socialist system, or state socialism, also known
as “real socialism”, in the USSR and the Eastern Bloc. As we know from such
studies – already classical – as János Kornai’s (1993), the latter model involving the
domination of ideology and politics in the economy, centralisation, planning, and
soft budget constraints first led to widespread deficits, then occurred economically
inefficient and non-viable, and finally collapsed.
Before that, however, for a few decades, political and even academic community
considered the situation binary – we had a choice between either a liberal open
economy or a centrally-planned model (Bolesta, 2007, p. 105). Yet, at the turn of
the 1960s, an ideological and economic alternative appeared in some part of the
42 http://dx.doi.org/10.7172/978-83-65402-51-6.wwz.2.2
world – East Asia1. First in Japan (Bolesta, 2015, p. 24), later in some other places
of the region2, and finally in China, a completely new model was established. It is
this model that is discussed herein, also with reference to a new ideological and
political proposal, namely Justin Yifu Lin’s new theory presented in this volume.
The basic assumption and hypothesis of this study is that the new theory by
J.Y. Lin can be fully and more deeply understood only in a broader context of
model solutions applied previously in East Asia and that it comes as no surprise
whatsoever that such a theory – concerning mainly industrial policy and, to a lesser
extent, the whole economy – was conceived in the People’s Republic of China
(PRC). There is much evidence that it can be very useful for economically lagging
emerging markets. Nonetheless – and this is the second hypothesis of this article
– it is doubtful and questionable whether it might be so effectively implemented
in other areas than East Asia or Southeast Asia (primarily the countries of the
Association of Southeast Asian Nations – ASEAN), mainly for cultural reasons.
1 I suggest the term “East Asia” rather than the often used “Far East”, as the latter is abRussian
derived from Dalniy Vostok, meaning areas situated “behind the Ural” as Russians understand it.
2 Hong Kong was a British colony until July 1997 and has been a special region of China since
then, while Taiwan, despite meeting the criteria of being a state, still has an unregulated
international legal status, hence is not a UN member.
3 Lin writes about “structuralism”, hence his “neostructuralism”, i.e. a reference to Keynes.
However, we would rather term it welfare state (Walicki, 2013, p. 321).
Bogdan Góralczyk, Eastern-Asian development model: the growth-fostering state 43
– small, inexpensive but elitist state bureaucracy staffed by the best managerial
talent available in the system;
– political system in which bureaucracy has a sufficient room for manoeuvre to
take initiative and operate effectively;
– market-conforming methods of state intervention;
– a pilot organisation, namely the MITI4.
4 In Singapore, the Economic Development Board exists. In South Korea, there is the Economic
Planning Board, and Taiwan has the Council on Economic Planning and Development
(Bolesta, 2015, p. 39).
5 For an excellent comparative analysis of the developmental state and the neoliberal package
identified as the “flying geese” paradigm see Kasahara, 2013. For an in-depth and thorough
analysis of neoliberalism see Walicki, 2013.
44 http://dx.doi.org/10.7172/978-83-65402-51-6.wwz.2.2
as the second half of the 1970s – the world’s second-largest economy, next only to
the US (Vogel, 19996). No wonder that other nations in the region quickly followed
the example. There were four: Hong Kong, South Korea, Singapore and Taiwan,
referred to as Newly Industrialized Countries (NICs), or commonly as “Asian
tigers”, in world literature. They did not replicate the model developed in Japan
exactly. Hong Kong and Taiwan focused on small and medium-sized enterprises
rather than on large public-private conglomerates, with the latter having combined
a flexible market with a less flexible state (Castells, 2009, p. 239). All of them,
however, shared such features as: methodical development planning to constantly
move towards modernity and modernisation (from textiles to heavy industry,
followed by high technologies, and from production to services); export-oriented
and open economy, but also reservoirs of cheap labour force (at least at early
stages of modernisation and reform); and often imposed social discipline (in some
cases including repressions). The system was dynamic but also ruthless whenever
necessary (which meant whenever the government deemed it appropriate) (Castells,
2009, pp. 253, 254).
Despite emerging controversies and contradictory assessments, NICs benefited
greatly from the Japanese experience (the model implemented in South Korea
proved to be closest to the original), adapted the model developed in Japan to their
own local conditions, and then enjoyed as big economic success as Japan did. Their
success generated considerable interest, which enticed many scientists to study them
carefully. For example, Alice Amsden presented a key volume on South Korea
(1989), Robert Wade published his observations on Taiwan (1990), and Manuel
Castells, a famous sociologist, made perhaps the most thorough comparison of all
four countries (2009, pp. 230–277).
Growing and increasingly extensive literature identified further important
features of the developmental state model, such as:
– development based on either large public-private conglomerates (zaibatsu/
keiretsu in Japan, chaebole in South Korea) or small and medium-sized
enterprises (Taiwan and Singapore);
– careful planning of state modernisation and a gradual but clear shift toward
modern technologies and from production to services;
– the entire model based on export-oriented policy with reasonable reliefs (tax,
special trade zones, etc.) to exporters;
– conscious inclusion of foreign capital (FDI) in development and modernisation
policies of the state (Hong Kong and Singapore in particular);
– skilful but effective elimination of solutions alternative to those proposed by the
state administration (especially in Singapore, initially also in the territory of the
South Korean military regime, which controlled modernisation in 1962–1988).
6 It should be noted that the first version of this seminal book was published in 1979. In 2001,
Vogel published another volume on this subject, entitled: Is Japan Still Number One?
Bogdan Góralczyk, Eastern-Asian development model: the growth-fostering state 45
Japan is known to have broken down economically and financially in the early
1990s. Its system, quite elusive and full of paradoxes (such as the apparently strong
centre and considerable flexibility, reliance on strong personal relationships rather
than on law or institutions, etc.), best defined in the literature by K. van Wolferen,
proved anachronous in the face of new globalisation challenges and under pressures
from international markets (van Wolferen, 1990, p. 49).
From the early 1990s onwards, Japan ran into economic trouble, which naturally
re-opened the debate on the developmental state, its advantages, and shortcomings;
even more so that at that time global markets became dominated by the orthodoxy
of the neoliberal Washington Consensus, so severly pushing for the principles of
free market and private property at the expense of the state and public property
(Walicki, 2013, pp. 12 and 121). Once again, the interest and debate focused on the
state-market interfaces: how many of them should exist and in which proportions?
(Wyĝnikiewicz, 2016). Alex Kerr, one of the most distinguished experts on Japan,
who was extremely critical of its modernisation pathway7, highlighted the main
drawbacks of the model, such as unclear links between public-private companies
and banks and the Ministry of Finance as well as bureaucracy much appreciated
in literature for its professionalism and apoliticism. He accused bureaucracy of
ossification and stated that it was Japan’s only serious irresolvable problem, adding
even more strongly that it was responsible for leading Japan to the brink of disaster
in the 1990s (Kerr, 2008, p. 354). In turn, M. Castells, another insightful researcher
studying the developmental state, sought the causes of Japan’s collapse and the
stock market crash elsewhere, albeit close. He writes that it is not excessive state
intervention but lack of regulation and loose state oversight over the financial
system that were essential decisive factors that made it possible for the financial
crisis to ruin the economy (Castells, 2009, p. 268).
Kerr, van Wolferen, and others have argued that Japan was not adequately
prepared for the challenges of globalisation, it was still a relatively closed country,
and that the stock market crash was largely caused by the then famous Plaza Accord
of September 1985 on the foreign exchange policy and the position of the Japanese
yen, which first led to the loss of export benefits, then debt, and finally deflation,
with which Japan has been struggling for more than two decades (excellent analysis:
Pesek, 2014), unable to break out of the continuous loop.
abenomics, which has been strongly pushed forward since early 2013, has not been
entirely helpful. In contrast, other regional economic tigers are generally performing
very well today. One of them, Singapore, has become the main reference point and
benchmark for the largest tiger that has emerged on this path, namely the People’s
Republic of China (Vogel, 2011, p. 287).
Since the beginning of the reforms launched in December 1978, China has been
moving forward along its own unconventional path, pragmatically integrating market
mechanisms in the centralised planned economy (Lin, 2009, Preface), thus creating
a completely unique model. However, during the first decade of transformation,
it still focused on reforms of real socialism, striving to consolidate it (Chao and
Dickson, 2001, p. 9). Only after 1992, in response to the break-up of the USSR
and the Eastern Bloc and the collapse of the inefficient model of the centralised
planned economy, did Deng Xiaoping propose a totally different approach. Instead
of reforming real socialism (as attempted from the very outset of the reforms), he
suggested that his successors (indeed, it was his political testament) put the Chinese
colossus on the globalisation path by further opening, expanding and liberalising
China’s huge market, and building on the experiences of the NIC “four little
dragons” (si xiao long), in particular Singapore (Deng, 1993, p. 378).
Following new directives, hundreds or even thousands of senior Chinese officials
travelled to Singapore to learn, and Deng himself, a convinced communist, had
already established a close and cordial relationship with Lee Kuan-yew, “Singapore’s
father”, its long-time Prime Minister and a visionary of its development. In fact,
that new strategy implemented in China, communist by name, the model of the
developmental state as already known in Japan and NICs but adapted to the
Chinese needs and conditions. From approximately the 1990s onwards, the model
developed the following characteristics (Góralczyk, 2016, pp. 49, 50):
– high economic growth as the priority of the state policy;
– export as the main driving force of the economy;
– opening of the huge domestic market to trade and world economy, almost
fully capitalist now, and the use of foreign capital (FDI) for China’s own
modernisation needs;
– massive accumulation of largely infrastructural investment and boosting
development in this way (first motorways, then bridges and viaducts, seaports
and airports, and finally fast railways);
– the use of huge (in fact, of a unique size in the world, except perhaps India)
resources of cheap rural and backcountry labour as slave workers8 without social
benefits and with low wages;
8 This unique phenomenon can perhaps be most vividly understood when watching “China”
(Chung-Kuo – Cina), a 1972 documentary directed by Michelangelo Antonioni and available
on YouTube, where one of three episodes clearly shows Chinese peasants doing nothing
because they have no work. This changed radically after 1978. The film by Antonioni – see:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Z9tAd_-2AoM (accessed on: 17.04.2017).
Bogdan Góralczyk, Eastern-Asian development model: the growth-fostering state 47
– the state’s responsibility for strategic decisions and areas (national defence and
astronautics, but also banking, airports, seaports, telecommunications, energy,
etc.) and state interventions undertaken in line with one specific principle: the
invisible hand of the market – yes of course, but where legitimate interests of the
state are at stake, it is the government’s hand, very well visible, that comes into
play (Halper, 2010, p. 8).
It should be observed that many Western experts openly doubt whether China
possesses or has produced its own development model (Halper, 2010, p. 32), treating
it primarily as an authoritarian system (which is, however, a political rather than
economic category). Nonetheless, it appears that the PRC authorities would not
have achieved such a spectacular success in the past four decades without their own
model or a carefully thought-out and implementable vision of national modernisation
and development. Furthermore, after 1992, unlike the Russian Federation under
the leadership of Boris Yeltsin and the vast majority of post-communist countries,
the PRC not only rejected the neoliberal market orthodoxy, treated as having no
alternative according to the Washington Consensus after 1991 (Walicki, 2013, p.b65)
but also skilfully integrated9 the rudiments of the developmental state model in its
own system.
The recorded and statistically proven success (average annual economic growth of
9.8%10 in 1978–2012 in the world’s most populous country!) is the best evidence that
the applied solutions are working well. China has gone its own way, inspiring Joshua
Cooper Ramo, a Western expert lecturing in the PRC, to coin the term of “Beijing
Consensus” (for a good analysis, although full of Western prejudices against China,
see Halper, 2010). Ramo did not fully explain and define its distinctive features
but the main message was more than clear: the Washington Consensus prioritises
the market and private economy, whereas the Beijing Consensus stipulates that
the state maintains the controlling interest and the intervention right, although the
economy is mainly a market economy.
China did not accept that concept: firstly, it was developed by a Western
intellectual and, even more importantly, it went too far in opposing the Washington
Consensus. This resulted in a post-2010 extensive national debate on the “Chinese
developmental model” (Zhongguo moshi) that continues to date (Góralczyk, 2016;
Zheng Yongnian, 2016). Justin Yifu Lin’s concept of New Structural Economics
should be definitely considered in this context. Before that, however, it is important
to address the crucial adaptation of the development model derived from capitalist
Japan and NICs to the PRC with its communist nature and political system.
9 This was done by the third generation of leadership in the 1990s, in particular by Prime
Minister Zhu Rongji, a brisk and brave reformer.
10 Data from: http://www.tradingeconomics.com/china/gdp-growth-annual (accessed on:
17.04.2017).
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The model presented above and developed by Zhu Rongji and others proved
to be effective, yet it also delivered some side effects (the terminology used in the
PRC) of reforms after years of operation. These include excessive enfranchisement
of the CPC nomenclature; wide social disparities (Gini coefficient of up to 0.6,
higher than in the US); regional disparities; excessive support for not always
efficient state-owned conglomerates; natural environment devastation in the course
of rapid industrialisation and urbanisation11.
During the implementation of reforms and the wide-scale debate on the
“Chinese developmental model”, it also appeared that there were at least two
structural barriers disrupting the harmonious functioning of the developmental
state model under “socialism with Chinese characteristics”. The first one was
the legal system that worked so well in Singapore, where regulations are very
strict. The PRC as abcountry of communist origin governed by the “four cardinal
principles” set forth by Deng Xiaoping (Deng, 1988, p. 106)12 is authoritarian, with
the fundamental and overriding principle involving the rule of the CPC, which is
no longer as revolutionary as it used to be during Mao Zedong’s reign (1949–1976)
and is now a classic power party, rather than the rule of law. The second barrier
was the fact that staff and administration officials continued to be largely selected
from among the (more and more enfranchised) nomenclature and not exclusively
based on merit and experience as recommended by the classical model of the
developmental state.
These factors made Xi Jinping, the head (since the end of 2012) of the fifth
generation of leadership, come up with an unprecedented national anti-corruption
campaign that has resulted (at the moment of writing this text) in over 1.2 million
convicts, including people holding highest-ranked offices in the country. More
importantly, in the lively debate on Zhongguo moshi, the “Chinese dream” and the
“great renaissance of the Chinese nation” slogans strongly advocated by Xi Jinping
(2014, p. 37) were combined with the rudiments of the modified developmental
state model consisting of the following (Góralczyk, 2016, p. 59):
– sustainable development instead of growth at all cost (hence a recent decline in
the GDP growth from a double-digit growth to 6.5%);
11 At the end of 1978, at the outset of reforms, 84% of PRC citizens lived in rural areas; in 2014,
as many as 53% lived in cities and Prime Minister Li Keqiang announced that urbanisation
might affect 70% of the population by 2030. See his key speech on this issue delivered
on 25 May 2013. Li Keqiang expounds on urbanization, http://china.org.cn/china/2013-05/26/
content_28934485.htm (accessed on: 17.04.2017).
12 They include: 1. upholding the socialist path; 2. upholding (the people’s) dictatorship;
3.b upholding the leadership of the CPC, Marxism-Leninism, Mao Zedong’s thought and
the latest CPC concepts such as Jiang Zemin’s “Three Represents” theory of 2001 allowing
large capitalists to join the CPC and the recently pushed forward “scientific development
concept” (kexue fazhan guan). More about the latter: http://baike.baidu.com/item/%E7%A7
%91%E5%AD%A6%E5%8F%91%E5%B1%95%E8%A7%82/317422?fr=aladdin (accessed
on: 15.04.2017).
Bogdan Góralczyk, Eastern-Asian development model: the growth-fostering state 49
In other words, he confines himself again to industrial strategy and economy rather
than a broader development model.
Therefore, his new concept should be, above all, seen as a new, innovative theory
of industrial policy linked with one of the basic goals of the new Chinese development
model that is now, and painfully, implemented by the Beijing government, namely
constant emphasis on innovation and technological progress. This is what should
be regarded as the fundamental value of this theory, in particular for “catching-up
economies” as the author calls them. It is the greatest value added of that study and
it seems worthwhile to address this issue more broadly.
J.Y. Lin is definitely right when he writes that “improving infrastructure and
institutions is beyond the capacities of individual firms”. Against this background
and beyond, he is therefore against neoliberalism, which “threw the baby out with the
bath water, vehemently opposing any role for governments”, on the one hand. On the
other hand, what he does not mention or explain (since it is obvious to him) is that
he follows the spirit of the developmental state model by advocating considerable
development planning and a steering role for the state, hence state interventions
also, and perhaps primarily, in the form of a rational and elaborated industrial policy.
It is in this context that the most innovative contents of that text appear, namely
the division of industries into five basic types: catching-up industries, leading-
edge industries, comparative-advantage-losing industries, short-innovation-cycle
industries, comparative-advantage-defying strategic industries. It seems that this
unique division can be effectively and without much controversy implemented in
most “catching-up economies”, if they continue to cling to market orthodoxy and
agree to state interventions.
Long time ago experts concluded that the strength of China’s solutions and
model (still being vehemently disputed) lay and still lies in “rationalisation of the
state” and of the state sector (Chao and Dickson, 2001, p. 26). In other words,
the key to success is a rational state rather than not fully controlled, uncompelled
market (although liberals and neoliberals believe otherwise). Here, however, comes
the proverb of squaring the circle, that is the already mentioned dilemma: how
much state and how much market?
J.Y. Lin does not dwell extensively on this, probably considering it – based on the
previous Chinese experience – quite obvious: the primacy of the state must prevail,
end of story. Nevertheless, others hold different views. Chalmers Johnson clearly
demonstrates that this is the key, most critical dilemma within the developmental
state model. Not only does he point out that there is one major argument against
an industrial policy implemented by the state (or rather its broad-minded elites),
namely a practically evidenced and real threat that diverse and extensive collective
interests, including those of industrial policy makers, may prove more important
than their development policies and strategies (Johnson, 1999, p. 48). Thereby, he
seems to confirm the above-mentioned Alex Kerr’s diatribe against the Japanese
state administration.
Bogdan Góralczyk, Eastern-Asian development model: the growth-fostering state 51
Japan’s experience is a serious warning, yet it is not Japan but Singapore that
provides a model for China. Singapore, as claimed by Lee Kuan-yew, tackled this
issue in one way: by granting the state administration not only the highest possible
authority but also such salaries as those in the private sector. Therefore Singapore,
although Chinese by nature (about 80% of its population is of Chinese origin), is
free of corruption and even leads the Transparency International’s rankings as one
of the least corrupt parts of the world13.
The question is how to develop such honest and transparent managerial classes
in a one-party state primarily governed by the logic and will of the CPC, a party
of power and nomenclature, but also in democratic countries, where the logic of
particracy is prevalent, meaning that party divisions and interests dominate over
the state interests. Lee Kuan Yew advises: “There are three basic essentials for the
successful transformation of any society. First, a determined leadership […] two,
an administration which is efficient; and three, social discipline” (Alison, Blackwill,
and Wyne, 2013, p. 157). He then adds that – as in Singapore – production of future
leaders should start in early schooling, according to their “capability, proclivities,
temperament”, which are “genetic” (Alison, Blackwill, and Wyne, 2013, p. 163).
Except that, from the point of view of liberal democracy, which is apparently
in crisis now, such an approach is nothing different from the manifestations of
authoritarianism or even social engineering, unacceptable in the liberal order. Thus,
no wonder that the two allegations are made against both Singapore and the PRC.
Chalmers Johnson, however, goes even further and deeper in his exploration of
the hitherto experience of introducing the developmental state model and finally
stops at the state-market and government-business environment relations. He finds
that these questions are even more profound than the apparently fundamental
division into autocracy and democracy14. On that basis, he concludes that solely
the issues of individual and social self-discipline as well as the system of values in
place are concerned. Thereby, we reach the very heart of the matter: “dialectical
progression toward public-private cooperation” (Johnson, 1999, p. 58). In this case,
there seems to be only one conclusion: the East Asian value system based on duties
is better suited to implement the developmental state model than the Western
system relying on individual freedoms15.
13 In recent years, its rating has dropped slightly to only eighth position in the 2015 ranking, but
its scores are still very high, placing it among top countries after Scandinavia, New Zealand
and Switzerland. See https://www.transparency.org/cpi2015/ (accessed on: 17.04.2017).
14 Let us remind that he studied the MITI and the Japanese model from 1925 to 1975, when
various political systems existed on the Japanese islands.
15 The idea of “Asian values” was developed in the 1990s by Lee Kuan-yew mentioned above
and Mahathir bin Mohammad, long-time Malaysian Prime Minister. The latter found that
Asia sticks to the overarching values of: social order and good organisation; harmony in
society; responsibility of public officials; respect for authority and hierarchy; whereas the
western system regards the overarching values as individual and connected with freedom of
expression, individual freedoms, individual rights, open debates, and care of oneself. This and
52 http://dx.doi.org/10.7172/978-83-65402-51-6.wwz.2.2
In his theory, J.Y. Lin does not dwell on these dilemmas and challenges since
they might seem to him quite obvious from the Chinese perspective. However,
from the point of view of other cultures and civilisations, in particular, the Western
one, they are not obvious at all. They concern imponderables which no Western
politician (including economic policy makers) can escape while attempting to
implement the propounded model of New Structural Economics and new industrial
policy proposed by that author.
This conclusion should be noted and its importance stressed, even more so
nowadays, when – as predicted by Lee Kuan-yew16 – China neither has nor will
or even “is going to become a liberal democracy; if it did, it would collapse. Of
that, I am quite sure” (Alison, Blackwill, and Wyne, 2013, p. 41). Therefore, we
have to coexist rather than to converge our systems and models of development.
Appropriate conclusions should be drawn in this respect.
Conclusion
This study focused on the developmental state understood as a broader context of
new ideas proposed by J.Y. Lin in this volume. Based on a review of the experiences
of countries and regions that have applied this model with an overwhelming success,
namely Japan, later NICs, and most recently the PRC, the model seems to be specific
and characteristic of East Asia and its “Asian values” rather than abone-size-fits-all
solution capable of being implemented in various parts of the globe. By contrast,
the second, unique idea of that Chinese author, abnew approach to the industrial
policy of the state, may be more universal. Except that, to put it into practice,
ab“green light” is needed for a meaningful role of the state and state interventions
undertaken by wise, experienced and non-corrupt elites. These, however, seem to
be conditions that are difficult to fulfil even in China or Japan, not to mention the
wider world.
J.Y. Lin’s new theories are timely as the entire world and, above all, Western
democracies are learning lessons from the previous neoliberal market orthodoxy
and the resultant – as believed by the majority – extensive crisis in the global
(western) markets in 2007–2008 and afterwards. The present time is also very good
for China, where a great debate is ongoing on the new development model and
conclusions are being drawn from the prior expansive and extensive development
phase and on the threats that it has brought about (Chi, 2010). Paradoxically, the
West is again considering an increased role of the state (hence the discussion on
the developmental state model is even more valid and attractive). On the other
other analyses suggest that Asian values are more strongly linked to collectivity and duties,
while the Western ones are based on individual freedoms. See Mahathir, 1999, pp. 157–168.
16 Who proved that he was right on numerous occasions. Lee Kuan Yew died in 2015.
Bogdan Góralczyk, Eastern-Asian development model: the growth-fostering state 53
these issues is a foregone conclusion yet. However, these questions obviously lie at
the very heart of ongoing academic and political debates and disputes.
Nowadays, the whole world is at a turning point, and any new concepts and
ideas such as those put forward by J.Y. Lin are highly desirable in breakthroughs
and critical times. We are heading towards what is new, albeit we have yet to see
what “new” will mean. Therefore, our investigations are even more difficult and
important.
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Kasahara, S. (2013). The Asian developmental state and the flying geese paradigm. UNCTAD
Discussion Papers, November. New York: United Nations.
Kerr, A. (2008). Psy i demony. Ciemne strony Japonii (Dogs and demons. Tales from the dark
side of Japan). Kraków: Universitas.
Kornai, J. (1993). A Szocialista rendzyer. Kritikai polituikai gazdaságtan (Socialist system.
Critical political economics). Budapest: HVG Kiadói Rt.
Bogdan Góralczyk, Eastern-Asian development model: the growth-fostering state 55
Na Zachodzie przez dekady panowaïo przekonanie, iĝ nie ma alternatywy dla klasycznego kapitalizmu i realnego
socjalizmu, nie ma trzeciej drogi. TÚ bezalternatywnoĂÊ próbowano powieliÊ po upadku ïadu zimnowojennego
dyktatem rynków spod znaku neoliberalnego konsensusu z Waszyngtonu. Tymczasem w Azji Wschodniej
wynaleziono model bÚdÈcy poïÈczeniem rynku i pañstwowego interwencjonizmu, nazwany „pañstwem
rozwojowym”. Autor tego artykuïu dowodzi i wyjaĂnia, ĝe nie moĝna dobrze zrozumieÊ nowej teorii Justina
Yifu Lina, zwanej NowÈ EkonomiÈ StrukturalnÈ, bez tego szerszego kontekstu, a ponadto przekonuje, iĝ jest to
nie tyle nowa teoria gospodarcza, ile innowacyjna koncepcja polityki przemysïowej, która – w przeciwieñstwie
do modelu pañstwa przemysïowego, a ĂciĂlej pañstwa rozwojowego, powiÈzanego z „wartoĂciami azjatyckimi”
– moĝe byÊ zastosowana w innych pañstwach i obszarach „doganiajÈcych”, o ile tylko zdecydujÈ siÚ one na
poïÈczenie rynku i silnego pañstwa.
Sïowa kluczowe: modele rozwoju, polityka przemysïowa, Azja Wschodnia, Chiny, wschodzÈce rynki – pañstwa
doganiajÈce.
Wprowadzenie
Przez kilka dekad, w ramach porzÈdku zimnowojennego, Ăwiat byï skazany na
swoisty duopol, równieĝ w wymiarze gospodarczym: klasyczny kapitalizm, gïównie
w wersji Johna M. Keynesa, w USA i na Zachodzie Ăcieraï siÚ z bardziej ujednolico-
nym systemem socjalistycznym, czyli socjalizmem pañstwowym, zwanym teĝ realnym
socjalizmem w ZSRR i bloku wschodnim. Jak wiemy, chociaĝby z klasycznych juĝ
studiów Jánosa Kornaia (1993), ten drugi model, polegajÈcy na dominacji ideologii
i polityki w gospodarce, a takĝe centralizacji, planowaniu oraz miÚkkich ogranicze-
niach budĝetu, najpierw doprowadziï do powszechnych niedoborów, a potem okazaï
siÚ gospodarczo niewydolny i w koñcu siÚ zaïamaï.
Zanim jednak do tego doszïo, przez kilka dekad nawet w krÚgach akademickich,
nie mówiÈc o politycznych, uwaĝano, ĝe sytuacja jest zero-jedynkowa, mamy wybór
albo miÚdzy liberalnÈ gospodarkÈ otwartÈ, albo modelem scentralizowano-plano-
wym (Bolesta, 2007, s. 105). Tymczasem juĝ na przeïomie lat 50. i 60. ubiegïego
Bogdan Góralczyk, Wschodnioazjatycki model rozwojowy – pañstwo rozwojowe 221
1 ProponujÚ stosowanie terminu „Azja Wschodnia” zamiast czÚsto uĝywanego „Daleki Wschód”
(Far East), bÚdÈcego rusycyzmem wywodzÈcym siÚ z terminu Dal’nij Wostok, czyli w rosyjskim
pojmowaniu, obszarów leĝÈcych „poza Uralem”.
2 Hongkong byï do lipca 1997 r. brytyjskÈ koloniÈ, a od tamtej pory jest specjalnym regionem
Chin, natomiast Tajwan, chociaĝ speïnia kryteria pañstwowe, ciÈgle ma nieuregulowany status
prawno-miÚdzynarodowy, z tego powodu m.in. nie jest czïonkiem ONZ.
3 Lin pisze o „strukturalizmie”; stÈd jego „neostrukturalizm”, a wiÚc nawiÈzanie do Keynesa,
ale my w tym przypadku powiedzielibyĂmy raczej: welfare state (Walicki, 2013, s. 321).
222 http://dx.doi.org/10.7172/978-83-65402-51-6.wwz.2.2
Po latach Johnson (1999, s. 32) uczciwe przyznaï, ĝe szukaï czegoĂ „poza roz-
wiÈzaniami w amerykañskiej i sowieckiej ekonomii” i znalazï, wïaĂnie w Japonii. Na
zakoñczenie tomu o MITI, jak siÚ okazuje pod wypïywem przenikliwego wydawcy
(Johnson, 1999, s. 40–43), skondensowaï on wywody ze swojego pionierskiego
tomu i zwiÚěle wyspecyfikowaï cechy wyróĝniajÈce japoñski model. Zaliczyï do nich
(Johnson, 1982, s. 314–320):
– funkcjonowanie maïej, niezbyt kosztownej, ale elitarnej pañstwowej biurokracji,
korzystajÈcej z najlepszych menedĝerskich talentów dostÚpnych w systemie;
– system polityczny, w ramach którego biurokracja ma wystarczajÈce pole
manewru, by przejÈÊ inicjatywÚ i funkcjonowaÊ efektywnie;
– uzupeïniajÈce rynek metody pañstwowego interwencjonizmu;
– organizacjÚ model pilotujÈcÈ, czyli MITI4.
stwo rozwojowe byïo jedynie „dyktaturÈ rozwoju”, gdyĝ posiada ono, jego zdaniem,
co najmniej podwójnÈ legitymacjÚ: po pierwsze, jest oparte na jasnych, przejrzystych
i korzystnych dla pañstwa i spoïeczeñstwa celach modernizacyjnych, a po drugie,
okazaïo siÚ byÊ niezwykle skuteczne w dziaïaniu.
Koronnym dowodem na obronÚ tej tezy byï ogromny sukces gospodarczy Japo-
nii w tamtym okresie. Albowiem w wyniku wypracowanego stopniowo, ale w peïni
zastosowanego w latach 50. ubiegïego wieku, modelu pañstwo (przegrane, podbite
ibpo raz pierwszy w swych dziejach skolonizowane po II wojnie Ăwiatowej) juĝ wbdru-
giej poïowie lat 70. wyrosïo na drugÈ gospodarkÚ Ăwiata po USA (Vogel, 19996).
Nic dziwnego, ĝe szybko znalazïo naĂladowców w regionie (m.in. Hongkong, KoreÚ
Pïd., Singapur i Tajwan), którzy weszli do Ăwiatowej literatury jako pañstwa nowo
uprzemysïowione (New Industrialized Countries, NIC), zwane potocznie azjatyckimi
tygrysami. Nie do koñca powieliïy one wypracowany w Japonii model. Hongkong
i Tajwan postawiïy na maïe i Ărednie przedsiÚbiorstwa, a nie wielkie konglomeraty
pañstwowo-prywatne, przy czym ten ostatni poïÈczyï elastyczny rynek z mniej ela-
stycznym pañstwem (Castells, 2009, s. 239). Wszystkie z wymienionych pañstw ïÈczyïy
jednak wspólne cechy, takie jak: metodyczne planowanie rozwoju, by stale zmierzaÊ
ku nowoczesnoĂci i modernizacji (od tekstyliów po przemysï ciÚĝki, abpotem wysokie
technologie i od produkcji ku usïugom); proeksportowa i otwarta na Ăwiat gospo-
darka, ale teĝ rezerwuary taniej siïy roboczej (przynajmniej w poczÈtkowej fazie
modernizacji i reform) oraz czÚsto przymusowo narzucana dyscyplina spoïeczna
(w niektórych przypadkach siÚgano nawet po represje). System byï dynamiczny,
ale gdy zaistniaïa taka potrzeba (czytaj: pañstwo tak uznaïo), równieĝ bezwzglÚdny
(Castells, 2009, s. 253, 254).
Mimo budzÈcych siÚ kontrowersji i sprzecznych ocen pañstwa oraz terytoria NIC
mocno skorzystaïy z japoñskich doĂwiadczeñ (najbliĝszy pierwowzoru okazaï siÚ
model zastosowany w Korei Pïd.), dopasowaïy wypracowany tam model do wïa-
snych lokalnych uwarunkowañ, a potem ĂwiÚciïy równie duĝe, jak Japonia, sukcesy
gospodarcze. Ich sukces wywoïaï spore zainteresowanie, w Ălad za którym wielu
naukowców poddaïo je wnikliwej naukowej analizie, m.in. Alice Amsden przedsta-
wiïa kluczowy tom nt. Korei Pïd. (1989), Robert Wade opublikowaï swoje obserwa-
cje dot. Tajwanu (1990), a znany socjolog Manuel Castells dokonaï bodaj najbar-
dziej wnikliwego porównania caïej czwórki (2009, s. 230–277).
Z coraz szerszej i bogatszej literatury zaczÚïy wyïaniaÊ siÚ kolejne waĝne cechy
modelu pañstwa rozwojowego, takie jak:
– oparcie rozwoju albo na wielkich konglomeratach pañstwowo-prywatnych
(zaibatsu/keiretsu w Japonii, chaebole w Korei Pïd.), albo na maïych i Ărednich
przedsiÚbiorstwach (jak na Tajwanie i Singapurze);
– staranne planowanie modernizacji pañstwa i stopniowe, ale wyraěne przechodze-
nie na nowoczesne technologie, jak teĝ od produkcji do usïug;
6 Pierwsza wersja tego znaczÈcego tomu, co waĝne, ukazaïa siÚ w 1979 roku. W 2001 roku
Vogel dodaï kolejny tom na ten temat zatytuïowany: Is Japan Still Number One?
224 http://dx.doi.org/10.7172/978-83-65402-51-6.wwz.2.2
8 Temat jest niezwykle istotny, ale wychodzi poza obszar badawczy niniejszego studium. Zob.
oficjalnÈ stronÚ internetowa japoñskiego rzÈdu na jej temat: http://www.japan.go.jp/abenomics/
(wejĂcie: 15.04.2017).
9 Od XIII zjazdu Komunistycznej Partii Chin – KPCh we wrzeĂniu 1987 r. aĝ do dziĂ formalna
nazwa chiñskiego ustroju brzmi: „socjalizm o chiñskiej specyfice”.
226 http://dx.doi.org/10.7172/978-83-65402-51-6.wwz.2.2
model pañstwa rozwojowego, znany juĝ nam z Japonii czy z NIC, ale dostosowany
do chiñskich potrzeb i uwarunkowañ. Model ten z kolei nabraï, mniej wiÚcej od
poïowy lat 90. XX wieku, nastÚpujÈcych cech (Góralczyk, 2016, s. 49, 50):
– wysoki wzrost gospodarczy jako cel nadrzÚdny w polityce pañstwa;
– eksport jako gïówna siïa napÚdowa gospodarki;
– otwarcie ogromnego wïasnego rynku na handel i gospodarkÚ ĂwiatowÈ, teraz juĝ
niemal w peïni kapitalistycznÈ oraz wykorzystanie obcego kapitaïu (BIZ) na wïa-
sne potrzeby modernizacyjne;
– bardzo wysoki stopieñ akumulacji i nakrÚcanie rozwoju przez inwestycje, w tym
w duĝej mierze infrastrukturalne (najpierw autostrady, potem mosty i wiadukty,
porty morskie i lotnicze, wreszcie szybkie koleje);
– wykorzystanie ogromnych, w istocie jedynych takich na globie, moĝe poza
Indiami, zasobów taniej siïy roboczej na wsi i prowincji do niewolniczej wrÚcz
pracy10, bez Ăwiadczeñ socjalnych i z niskim uposaĝeniem;
– zachowanie strategicznych decyzji i sfer (oprócz obrony narodowej i kosmonau-
tyki, takĝe bankowoĂci, portów lotniczych i morskich, telekomunikacji, energe-
tyki itp.) w rÚkach pañstwa oraz stosowanie interwencjonizmu pañstwowego na
specyficznej zasadzie: „niewidzialna rÚka rynku – jak najbardziej, ale tam, gdzie
chodzi o istotne interesy pañstwa, to jego/rzÈdu caïkowicie widzialna rÚka wkra-
cza do gry” (Halper, 2010, s. 8).
10 Ten swoisty fenomen bodaj najbardziej plastycznie moĝna zrozumieÊ, oglÈdajÈc, dostÚpny
na YouTube, film dokumentalny Michelangelo Antonioniego „Chiny” (Chung-Kuo – Cina)
zb1972 r., gdzie w jednym z trzech odcinków doskonale widaÊ, jak chiñscy chïopi stojÈ zbzaïo-
ĝonymi rÚkami, bo nie majÈ co robiÊ. Sytuacja po 1978 r. diametralnie siÚ zmieniïa. Film
Antonioniego zob.: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Z9tAd_-2AoM (dostÚp: 17.04.2017).
11 Zrobiïa to tzw. trzecia generacja przywódców w latach 90., a szczególnie rzutki i odwaĝny
reformator, premier Zhu Rongji.
Bogdan Góralczyk, Wschodnioazjatycki model rozwojowy – pañstwo rozwojowe 227
z drugiej zaĂ, czego juĝ nie dodaje i nie wyjaĂnia, poniewaĝ jest to dla niego rzecz
wrÚcz oczywista, postÚpuje zgodnie z duchem modelu pañstwa rozwojowego, opo-
wiadajÈc siÚ za istotnÈ rolÈ pañstwa w planowaniu i sterowaniu rozwoju, a wiÚc za
interwencjonizmem pañstwowym, takĝe, a moĝe przede wszystkim, w postaci roz-
sÈdnej i rozbudowanej polityki przemysïowej.
To w tym kontekĂcie pojawia siÚ najbardziej innowacyjna warstwa tego tekstu,
jakÈ jest podziaï gaïÚzi gospodarki na piÚÊ podstawowych branĝ: doganiajÈce, przo-
dujÈce, tracÈce przewagÚ komparatywnÈ, dziaïajÈce w krótkim cyklu innowacji oraz
strategiczne, które z racji niezdolnoĂci do konkurencji nie posiadajÈ przewagi kom-
paratywnej. Wydaje siÚ, ĝe ten wïaĂnie oryginalny podziaï moĝna skutecznie i bez
wiÚkszych kontrowersji wprowadziÊ w ĝycie w wiÚkszoĂci „pañstw doganiajÈcych”,
o ile tylko nie bÚdÈ one nadal trzymaïy siÚ ortodoksji rynkowej i zgodzÈ siÚ na
pañstwowy interwencjonizm.
Juĝ doĂÊ dawno temu eksperci doszli do wniosku, ĝe siïa chiñskich rozwiÈzañ
ibtamtejszego modelu (wokóï którego nadal toczÈ siÚ zaĝarte spory) byïa i pozostaje
„racjonalizacjÈ pañstwa” i sektora pañstwowego (Chao and Dickson, 2001, s. 26).
Innymi sïowy, kluczem do sukcesu jest racjonalne pañstwo, a nie do koñca kontro-
lowany, ĝywioïowy rynek (chociaĝ liberaïowie i neoliberaïowie uwaĝajÈ inaczej). Tu
jednak pojawia siÚ przysïowiowa kwadratura koïa, czyli juĝ wspominany dylemat:
ile pañstwa, ile rynku?
J.Y. Lin za bardzo siÚ nad tÈ kwestiÈ nie rozwodzi, uwaĝajÈc jÈ pewnie – na
podstawie dotychczasowych chiñskich doĂwiadczeñ – za oczywistÈ: ma byÊ prymat
pañstwa. Inni jednak tak nie uwaĝajÈ, a Chalmers Johnson jednoznacznie dowodzi,
iĝ jest to kluczowy, najbardziej newralgiczny dylemat w ramach modelu pañstwa
rozwojowego. Nie tylko wskazuje on, ĝe istnieje jeden koronny argument przeciwko
prowadzonej przez pañstwo (a raczej jego Ăwiatïe elity) polityce przemysïowej,
jakim jest realna, jak wykazuje praktyka, groěba, iĝ róĝnorodne i rozlegïe interesy
grupowe, w tym osób prowadzÈcych politykÚ przemysïowÈ, mogÈ okazaÊ siÚ waĝ-
niejsze od prowadzonej przez nich polityki i strategii rozwojowej (Johnson, 1999,
s.b 48). Tym samym zdaje siÚ on potwierdzaÊ cytowanÈ wczeĂniej diatrybÚ Alexa
Kerra, wymierzonÈ w japoñskÈ pañstwowÈ administracjÚ.
DoĂwiadczenie Japonii jest powaĝnym ostrzeĝeniem, ale modelem dla Chin jest
Singapur, a tam, jak dowodzi Lee Kuan Yew, poradzono sobie z tÈ kwestiÈ w jeden
sposób: nadajÈc administracji pañstwowej nie tylko najwyĝszy moĝliwy autorytet,
lecz takĝe uposaĝenia niczym w sektorze prywatnym. To dlatego Singapur, chociaĝ
chiñski z natury (ok. 80% spoïeczeñstwa pochodzenia chiñskiego) nie jest skorum-
powany, a wrÚcz przewodzi w rankingach Transparency International jako jedno
zbnajmniej skorumpowanych miejsc na globie15.
15 W ostatnich latach jego miejsce nieco spadïo, byï dopiero ósmy w rankingu z 2015 r., ale nadal
tamtejsze wskaěniki sÈ bardzo wysokie i zajmuje pozycjÚ w samej czoïówce, za pañstwami
skandynawskimi, NowÈ ZelandiÈ i SzwajcariÈ. Zob. https://www.transparency.org/cpi2015/
(wejĂcie: 17.04.2017).
Bogdan Góralczyk, Wschodnioazjatycki model rozwojowy – pañstwo rozwojowe 231
16 Przypomnijmy, ĝe badaï MITI i japoñski model na przestrzeni lat 1925–1975, gdy byïy na
wyspach japoñskich róĝne systemy polityczne.
17 KoncepcjÚ „wartoĂci azjatyckich” wypracowali w latach 90. XX wieku, wspominany tutaj,
Lee Kuan Yew oraz dïugoletni premier Malezji, Mahathir bin Mohammad. Ten ostatni
stwierdziï, ĝe w Azji nadrzÚdnymi wartoĂciami sÈ: porzÈdek spoïeczny i dobra organizacja;
harmonia wb spoïeczeñstwie; odpowiedzialnoĂÊ funkcjonariuszy publicznych; poszanowanie
wïadzy ib hierarchia; natomiast w systemie zachodnim nadrzÚdne wartoĂci sÈ indywidualne
i wiÈzane zb wolnoĂciÈ wypowiedzi, wolnoĂciami osobistymi, prawami jednostki, otwartymi
debatami ib dbaïoĂciÈ o samego siebie. Z tej i innych analiz wynika, ĝe wartoĂci azjatyckie
sÈ bardziej zwiÈzane ze zbiorowoĂciÈ i powinnoĂciami, podczas gdy zachodnie sÈ oparte na
indywidualnych wolnoĂciach. Zob. Mahathir, 1999, s. 157–168.
232 http://dx.doi.org/10.7172/978-83-65402-51-6.wwz.2.2
Zakoñczenie
Przedmiotem niniejszego studium byïo pañstwo rozwojowe rozumiane jako
szerszy kontekst nowych idei zaproponowanych przez J.Y. Lina w tym tomie. Na
podstawie przeglÈdu doĂwiadczeñ pañstw i regionów, które ten model nadzwyczaj
skutecznie u siebie zastosowaïy, a wiÚc Japonii, potem zaĂ NIC, a ostatnio ChRL,
wyglÈda, ĝe to jednak model specyficzny, charakterystyczny dla Azji Wschodniej
i tamtejszego zestawu „wartoĂci azjatyckich”, a nie uniwersalny do zastosowania
w róĝnych punktach globu. Bardziej uniwersalne znaczenie moĝe mieÊ natomiast
druga, oryginalna koncepcja tego chiñskiego autora, jakÈ jest nowe podejĂcie do
polityki przemysïowej pañstwa. Tyle tylko, ĝe chcÈc jÈ wprowadziÊ w ĝycie, potrzebne
jest „zielone Ăwiatïo” dla duĝej roli sektora pañstwowego i pañstwowego interwen-
cjonizmu, prowadzonego na dodatek przez mÈdre, doĂwiadczone i nieskorumpo-
wane elity, a to juĝ zdajÈ siÚ byÊ warunki trudne do speïnienia, nawet w samych
Chinach czy w Japonii, nie mówiÈc juĝ o szerszym Ăwiecie.
Nowe teorie J.Y. Lina pojawiajÈ siÚ w dobrym momencie, gdyĝ w caïym Ăwiecie,
a przede wszystkim w demokracjach zachodnich wyciÈgane sÈ wnioski z poprzed-
niej neoliberalnej rynkowej ortodoksji oraz – w opinii wiÚkszoĂci – bÚdÈcego jej
efektem wielkiego kryzysu na rynkach Ăwiatowych (zachodnich) z lat 2007–2008
i póěniejszych. Ten moment jest równieĝ bardzo dobry dla Chin, gdzie równieĝ
trwa wielka debata nad nowym modelem rozwojowym oraz wyciÈganie wniosków
zbpoprzedniej ekspansywnej i ekstensywnej fazy rozwoju i nad zagroĝeniami, które
ze sobÈ przyniosïa (Chi, 2010). Paradoksalnie, jak na Zachodzie mówi siÚ ponow-
nie o zwiÚkszonej roli pañstwa (stÈd rozwaĝania nad modelem pañstwa rozwojo-
wego sÈ tym bardziej aktualne i atrakcyjne), tak w Chinach – jeĂli wierzyÊ przenikli-
wej diagnozie wykïadajÈcego w Singapurze, ale publikujÈcego przede wszystkim na
terenie ChRL Zheng Yongniana – trwa wïaĂnie nadawanie wiÚkszej podmiotowo-
Ăci tamtejszemu spoïeczeñstwu, co moĝe potrwaÊ równie dïugo, jak pierwsza faza
polegajÈca na nadawaniu wiÚkszej mocy pañstwu, czyli nawet ze 30 lat, a dopiero
18 Który za ĝycia wielokrotnie udowodniï, ĝe ma racjÚ. Lee Kuan Yew zmarï w 2015 r.
Bogdan Góralczyk, Wschodnioazjatycki model rozwojowy – pañstwo rozwojowe 233
nie jest, jak dotÈd, nigdzie przesÈdzona, leĝy natomiast – co oczywiste – w samym
sercu prowadzonych debat i sporów akademickich oraz politycznych.
Obecnie caïy Ăwiat znajduje siÚ na zakrÚcie, a w takich przeïomowych czy klu-
czowych momentach wszelkie nowe idee i pomysïy, takie jak te ze strony J.Y. Lina,
sÈ ze wszech miar wskazane. Idziemy ku nowemu, chociaĝ jakie bÚdzie to „nowe”
jeszcze dokïadnie nie wiemy, co nie tylko podnosi poprzeczkÚ, lecz takĝe rangÚ
naszych dociekañ.
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wielkiego mistrza Lee Kuan Yewa [Lee Kuan Yew: The Grand Master’s Insights on China,
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