Republic of the Philippines

SURIGAO DEL SUR STATE UNIVERSITY

GRADUATE STUDIES
Main Campus, Rosario, Tandag City

Student: JENNIFER A. YBAÑEZ

Course: MSTSS 205 ASIAN ANTHROPOLOGY
Professor: DR. RAMEL TOMAQUIN

MAJOR EXAMINATION
Discuss the following:
1. The Major Areas of Anthropology

The search for a set of principles which governs man’s physical and cultural
development is the primary central theme of anthropology. There are a great many
different problems related to the central theme. For instance, why has man changed
physically? Why are there so many distinctive human types despite their common
origin? What accounts for the many wide differences in languages and cultures? What
is the nature of 15 culture and how do cultures change? It is therefore like many other
disciplines, divided into different branches, each having to do with some specialized
aspect of the general field.

A. Socio-Cultural Anthropology
Second half of the 19th century was the beginning period of the socio-
cultural Anthropology. It is being inspired by the idea of evolution after the
Darwin’s Publication of the 3 Origin of Species. Many socio-cultural
anthropologists become interested in exploring the possibility of a similar
process of evolution in the field of society and culture. They focused in the
study of preliterate societies in the belief that they represented the earliest
condition of human society and culture. All of them who got themselves
involved in the comparative study of preliterate societies and cultures at that
time, with the intention of studying origin and evolution preferred the term
ethnologists for them. It deals with man in the context of society and culture.
While society’s presence is attested at sub-human level, culture is exclusively
a human phenomenon. Broadly speaking, it concentrates on the life patterns
of people It develops as a science of socio cultural similarities and differences
with no limitation of time and space. The life of people has several
dimensions, and the attempts to study each one in detail has resulted in the 4
origin and growth of several sub-branches from the elementary branch of
socio-cultural Anthropology such as Economic Anthropology, Political

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 Anthropology, Psychological Anthropology, Anthropology of Religion
and so on and so forth.

B. Physical Anthropology
It is a branch of Anthropology which attempts to explore human mystery
related to their origin, differentiation, diversities and distributions. With the
advancement of genetical sciences, it becomes more and more biology
oriented, and by virtue of it, its area of study got considerable extension. By
considering the whole situations, it can be divided into the following sub
branches:
a) Primatology - It is the Scientific study of primate group of mammal.
Man, the central figure of Anthropological study, belongs to the order primate
of animal kingdom. The primates, starting from the smallest rat like micro
cebus to the largest huge bodied gorilla, in their various stages of
development show different life patterns. The integrated study of the
primates, in the background of physical Anthropology gives an intrinsic value
to understand the position of man.
b) Ethnology - It is the study of human diversities. All the living men in the
world are categorized into different groups broadly known as races. These
are now understood as the Mendelian Populations, an inbreeding group of
humanity sharing a common gene pool. It also attempts to explain the nature,
formation and differentiation of the racial groups
c) Human biology- It deals with the concrete biological principles and
concepts of man. It is differed from the 8 biology of other animals because of
the impact of cultural achievement. It is highly influenced by culture as well.
Culture, sometime, remodeled biological phenomenon. Physical
anthropologist attempts to understand this biological feature of man and their
successive development, changes in structure and function through time.
d) Paleoanthropology - It is the branch of physical anthropology which
deals with the documentation of biological history of mankind. They work on
fossil evidences collected from the different layers of the earth. It also
attempts to reconstruct the link between the human and non-human traits that
had so long been lost. They evaluate the fossil remains found from different
sites and establish their status and evolutionary significance.
e) Human Genetics- Genetics deals with the inherited characters. There
is a genetic relation between parents and their offspring. The tendency of
inheritance of parental characters in known as heredity. The heredity and its
mechanism must be well understood in order to know the origin and evolution
of man. Human genetics is a specialized branch of physical Anthropology
which reveals the mechanism of heredity of various traits in men.

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 f) Nutritional Anthropology- It deals with the matter related with the
nutritional perspectives of human beings and their subsequent growth and
development. The population of a country needs proper growth and
development. Growth, however, is depended on two factors – heredity and
environment. This branch of knowledge concerns with the impact of these two
factors on human beings as well.
g) Medical Anthropology – It studies disease patterns and their impact
on human societies. Medical Anthropologist attempts to bring into light the
socio-cultural as well as 9 genetical or environmental determinants of disease
within a population through the close study of the people and their way of life.
This proves very much effective in combating different diseases in human
societies.
h) Physiological Anthropology- This branch deals with the internal
organs of the human body in order to understand their bio-chemical
constitutions. It is also concerned with how the physiology of man interacts
with the external factors like climate, food habit, etc. Moreover, it studies bio-
chemical variations in man and other primates.
i) Forensic anthropology- It deals with the skeletal structure of hominids
and non-hominids to understand the similarities and differences of the body
parts. This branch of knowledge becomes very effective in the detection of
criminals as well as in the identification of the nature and status of individuals
through their biological remains.
j) Dental Anthropology- This branch of knowledge deals with teeth and
its pattern. The teeth provide the body shape and size as well as food habit,
and related behavior patterns. The dental morphology helps us to understand
human evolution, growth, body morphology, genetical features, etc. It is
therefore, a specialized knowledge which attempts to study the distribution of
different dental traits among different population.
k) Anthropometry- It is the anthropological Science of measurement.
This study is not only useful in the study of gradual human development
through evolution and in understanding the racial discrimination patterns but
also helpful in the day to day way of life which is exclusively related to human
bodily forms.
l) Ergonomy- This branch of physical Anthropology is concerned with the
correlation between the static body dimensions and the designing of machine
to be driven by man – this branch of knowledge is very important by the very
fact that many groups of people differ in body size as a result of varied
biological and environmental factors.
m) Demography- It is the Science of population. It deals with fertility and
mortality. These two factors are again influenced by heredity and
environment. As it is concerned with the traits like growth, age – sex
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 structure, spatial distribution, migration in addition to fertility and mortality of
the population, it naturally becomes a specialized branch of physical
Anthropology.
n) Ethology- It is the science of animal behavior. The data obtain from the
study of other primate behaviors are being used to help explain the basic
background of human behaviors and to suggest how human ancestors may
have acted on the different issues.

C. Archaeological Anthropology
This branch of knowledge attempts to trace the origin, growth and
development of culture in the past. By past we meant the period before
history when man had not acquired the capabilities of language, not merely to
speak but also to write in order to record the story of his life. The
Archaeological Anthropologist differs from the socio – cultural Anthropologist
in two important aspects: a) The former studies past cultures while the latter
studies present. b) The former lacks the advantage of personal contact and
interaction with the people he is studying which the former enjoys.
Archaeology can tell us about the technology of peoples by analyzing the
tools they have left behind. Based on this, it can shed light on the economic
activities of the people who utilized that technology. The artistic capabilities of
people become apparent through the remains of fine engravings on pottery,
intricate designs on jewelry, etc. Physical remains of housing can reveal
certain aspect of social structure. Besides, certain aspects of religious beliefs
can also be guessed by observing burial sites and the articles kept in graves.
Such various aspects that Archaeological Anthropologists study begin with an
attempt to understand the geological processes, particularly the Great Ice
Age, and the succession of climatic phases that have left behind stratigraphic
evidences in river terraces and moraines. Further, it studies man as an
artificer. Based on the types of stone tools, they divided the cultural
development of man into three stone Ages: Paleolithic (Old stone Age),
Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age) and Neolithic (New Stone Age).
D. Linguistic Anthropology
Linguistic Anthropology is that branch of anthropology which deals with
language. It is concerned with the languages of all people, past and present
as it is the chief vehicle through which man preserves and transmits his
culture from generation to generation. It also interested in the relationship
between language and cultural cognition as well as cultural behavior.
Linguistic Anthropology has following branches:

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 a) Descriptive or structure linguistics – It deals with the description of
languages.
b) Historical Linguistics – It deals with origin and development of
languages.
c) Socio – cultural linguistics or Ethno linguistics – It studies how
languages are used in actual speech and cognition. It not only sheds light on
the universal properties of languages but also answers many questions like
how languages of people differ and how they are employed to perceive the
socio -cultural milieu in which a people live are sought.
The Linguistic Anthropology thus, tries to understand the roles of language
in human life and the part it has played in the amelioration of humanity.

http://content.inflibnet.ac.in/data-server/eacharya-documents/
5717528c8ae36ce69422587d_INFIEP_304/5/ET/304-5-ET-V1-S1__file_1.pdf

2. The Evolution as school of thought

To understand the foundation of early man’s thinking, we need to start at one of the
most confounding principles of human thought: the origins of human consciousness.
That’s to say, when did we start being aware, creative and mindful?
Evolution is the product of a slow, ever-changing process precipitated by a host of
environmental factors. So we can almost certainly agree that the way we imagine,
problem-solve, think, and create must be vastly different today than it was in the times
of our Paleolithic relatives.
For centuries, our Neanderthal cousins and homo sapiens remained two separate
family lines shrouded in mystery — one based on limited technology (in the years
before Darwin’s eponymous The Order of Species, scientists licked fossils to determine
their origins) and archaic, wide-sweeping, sometimes pejorative judgments based on
fossil findings and human remains. In other words, much of science then was based on
assumptions and beliefs.
Only recently has new research indicated that we share a lot more in common with
these Neanderthals than we imagined. And, it’s precisely this research that puts a
flashpoint in the discussion of what it is that truly makes us human. That’s coupled with
a lot of research that extends beyond the world of anthropology, including a host of
research areas including evolutionary biology, philosophy, and neuroscience.
We’re the only species that is simultaneously on a quest to understand why we have
arrived where we’re at today, how we got here, and yet, at the same time, be in the
position to create an outcome of our choosing. It’s why we are able to envision a world
that goes beyond our wildest imagination — one with driverless cars, flying machines,
robots, and space travel.

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 https://evernote.com/blog/understanding-the-evolution-of-human-thought/

3. Major theories in Anthropology

A. Actor- Network Theory

- Methodological approach to social theory where everything in the social and
natural worlds exists in constantly shifting networks of relationships. It posits
that nothing exists outside those relationships. All the factors involved in a
social situation are on the same level, and thus there are no external social
forces beyond what and how the network participants interact at present.
Thus, objects, ideas, processes, and any other relevant factors are seen as
just as important in creating social situations as humans. ANT is
a constructivist approach in that it avoids essentialist explanations of events
or innovations (i.e. ANT explains a successful theory by understanding the
combinations and interactions of elements that make it successful, rather than
saying it is true and the others are false). Likewise, it is not a cohesive theory
in itself. Rather, ANT functions as a strategy that assists people in being
sensitive to terms and the often unexplored assumptions underlying them. [3] It
is distinguished from many other STS and sociological network theories for its
distinct material-semiotic approach.
B. Alliance Theory
- also known as the general theory of exchanges, is a structuralism method
of studying kinship relations. It finds its origins in Claude Lévi-
Strauss's Elementary Structures of Kinship (1949) and is in opposition to
the functionalist theory of Radcliffe-Brown. Alliance theory has oriented
most anthropological French works until the 1980s; its influences were felt in
various fields, including psychoanalysis, philosophy and political philosophy.
C. Cross-Cultural Studies
- sometimes called holocultural studies or comparative studies, is a
specialization in anthropology and sister sciences
(sociology, psychology, economics, political science) that uses field data from
many societies to examine the scope of human behavior and test hypotheses
about human behavior and culture. Cross-cultural studies are applied widely
in the social sciences, particularly in cultural anthropology and psychology.
D. Cultural materialism 
- is an anthropological research orientation first introduced by Marvin Harris in
his 1968 book The Rise of Anthropological Theory, as a theoretical paradigm
and research strategy. It is said to be the most enduring achievement of that
work. Harris subsequently developed a full elaboration and defense of the

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 paradigm in his 1979 book Cultural Materialism. To Harris social change is
dependent of three factors: a society's infrastructure, structure, and
superstructure.
E. Culture theory 
- is the branch of comparative anthropology and semiotics (not to be confused
with cultural sociology or cultural studies) that seeks to define
the heuristic concept of culture in operational and/or scientific terms.
F. Feminist anthropology 
- is a four-field anthropology (archeological, biological, cultural, linguistic) that
seeks to transform research findings, anthropological hiring practices, and the
scholarly production of knowledge, using insights from feminist theory.
G. Structural functionalism
- is "a framework for building theory that sees society as a complex
system whose parts work together to promote solidarity and stability”. This
approach looks at society through a macro-level orientation, which is a broad
focus on the social structures that shape society as a whole, and believes that
society has evolved like organisms. This approach looks at both social
structure and social functions. Functionalism addresses society as a whole in
terms of the function of its constituent elements;
namely norms, customs, traditions, and institutions.
H. Symbolic anthropology 
- is the study of cultural symbols and how those symbols can be used to gain a
better understanding of a particular society. According to Clifford Geertz,
"believing, with Max Weber, that man is an animal suspended in webs of
significance he himself has spun, I take culture to be those webs, and the
analysis of it to be therefore not an experimental science in search of law but
an interpretive one in search of meaning".
I. Performance studies is an interdisciplinary field that studies performance and
uses performance as a lens to study the world. The term performance is broad,
and can include artistic and aesthetic performances like concerts, theatrical
events, and performance art; sporting events; social, political and religious
events like rituals, ceremonies, proclamations and public decisions; certain kinds
of language use; and those components of identity which require someone to do,
rather than just be, something. Consequently, performance studies are
interdisciplinary, drawing from theories of the performing arts, anthropology and
sociology, literary theory, and legal studies.

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J. Political Economy in anthropology is the application of the theories and
methods of historical materialism to the traditional concerns of anthropology,
including, but not limited to, non-capitalist societies. Political Economy introduced
questions of history and colonialism to ahistorical anthropological theories of
social structure and culture. Most anthropologists moved away from modes of
production analysis typical of structural Marxism, and focused instead on the
complex historical relations of class, culture and hegemony in regions
undergoing complex colonial and capitalist transitions in the emerging world
system.

K. Practice theory 
- is a theory (or 'family' of theories) which seeks to understand and explain the
social and cultural world by analyzing the basic bodily, knowledge based
practices that interconnect to form more complex social entities like groups,
lifestyles, social fields or entire societies
L. Structural anthropology 
- is a school of anthropology based on Claude Lévi-Strauss' idea that
immutable deep structures exist in all cultures, and consequently, that all
cultural practices have homologous counterparts in other cultures, essentially
that all cultures are equitable.
M. Post-structuralism 
- is the literary and philosophical work that both builds upon and rejects ideas
within the intellectual project that preceded it: structuralism. Structuralism
proposes that one may understand human culture by means of
a structure modeled on language (structural linguistics).
N. Systems theory in anthropology 
- Is an interdisciplinary, non-representative, non-referential, and non-Cartesian
approach that brings together natural and social sciences to understand
society in its complexity. Complex systems in nature—for example,
ecosystems—involve a dynamic interaction of many variables (e.g. animals,
plants, insects and bacteria; predators and prey; climate, the seasons and the
weather, etc.) These interactions can adapt to changing conditions but
maintain a balance both between the various parts and as a whole; this
balance is maintained through homeostasis. Human societies are complex
systems, as it were, human ecosystems. Early humans, as hunter-gatherers,
recognized and worked within the parameters of the complex systems in
nature and their lives were circumscribed by the realities of nature. But they

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 couldn't explain complex systems. Only in recent centuries did the need arise
to define complex systems scientifically.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_anthropology

4. Emerging Fields of Anthropology

- Applied Anthropology
The ultimate aim of the study of man is not only merely acquiring
knowledge regarding man, society and culture, but in applying the knowledge
so gained in solving the practical problems faced by mankind all over the
world. In this effort, Anthropologists often work closely with the administrators
of the government. The applied 13 Anthropologists’ role may be seen as that
of a consultant to the government. The Applied Anthropologist has a role in all
the three events – before, during and after – of a welfare programme. His
initial work comprises a pre-study of the people and their culture. The
diagnosis of the problems affecting their society comes next. Suggesting
specific solutions to those problems involve at the outset the careful
consideration of the pros and cons of the developmental project. The
Anthropologist has to undertake the job of on-going supervision and analysis
during the application of the approved scheme for its proper implementation.
Moreover, an evaluation of the entire project has to be done in order to review
the work, correct any mistakes that might have crept in and recast the work
for better results. Evaluation thus serves the important purpose of exposing
the pitfalls in the project that serves as a sanction in future. The efficiency of
Applied Anthropology lies in overcoming the barriers of change and in igniting
the stimulants of change. The cultural barriers to change arise from factors
relating to values and attitudes including tradition, Fatalism, ethnocentrism,
pride and dignity, norms of modesty, the logical incompatibility of culture
traits, superstitions, etc. Social barriers to change arise from group solidarity,
public opinions, conflict, factionalism, vested interest, lack of authority within
family as well as political structure, social stratification, class, caste, etc. In
brief, Applied Anthropology has mostly dealt with planned change and
development in third world countries. Conclusion: Seemingly, Anthropologist
is given the status of social engineer by some scholars while social doctor by
others, which in fact, is not an exaggeration.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropology

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 5. As a specialist in Social Science, what are the relevance of the subject to
you?

As a specialist in Social Science, I came to see the need for education to make
students feel confident and capable, whatever their background. To achieve this, ideas
taken from the social sciences in general, and from anthropology in particular, can be
useful. Using anthropological understandings of race, gender and class can give room
for a more inclusive education that avoids cultural determinism and gives more attention
to culture as a set of inquiries, skills and language. With this idea, I can consider ways
to encourage students to be individually active and informed in response to social
change and to crises such as wars, forced migrations and their long-lasting effects.

The second idea is to recognize the rapidly changing social realities of today’s
students. Many individuals today find themselves disconnected from their native, home
or national culture, heritage and language. Cultures and identities have become hybrid
and fluid. By recognizing this, I can help students find their way actively and consciously
in the multitude of choices available to them.

Anthropology can help me educate the students through exploring the social, cultural
and political circumstances that shape their lives. It can lead them in understanding
issues such as social, economic, environmental and historical changes and
developments, as well as gender roles and languages and dialects, including those
learned from local heritage and folklore.

This subject will help me incorporate cultural awareness into my classroom

curriculum. I can think of several strategies that I can use to build trusting relationships
with diverse students.

The goal of anthropology is to understand the human condition. The human

condition includes what has happened in the past, what is happening now, and what will
happen later on. Again, the great thing about anthropology’s subfields is that we can
use each other’s knowledge and research techniques to better understand why we act
the way we do, and how it affects our physical, cultural, social, and political
environments. This is how anthropology affects the world we live in. After all, it is easier
to help others when you first understand them.

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 6. As a Social Science teacher, how can you develop instructional materials
needed in teaching culture and cultural change?

I will use methods such as participant observation and interviews. Involvement of

this kind would introduce students to first-hand local knowledge. It would boost the role
of student as agents of culture change in their communities.
For example, teachers could lead students in researching the history of their city or
town, the tangible and intangible heritage and local customs. The students will then
have the skills in Interpreting human diversity, comparative analysis of data, research
and report writing and communication skills.
Another is an activity that will express interest in the ethnic background of my
students.  Students will do research and share information about their ethnic
background by providing them questionnaires. It is of note that this task helps students
realize that their beliefs and traditions constitute a culture as well, which is a necessary
breakthrough in the development of a truly culturally responsive classroom. 
In a culturally responsive classroom, diversity of language is celebrated and the level
of instructional materials provided to non-native speakers are tailored to their level of
English fluency.  Accompanying materials should be provided in the student’s primary
language and the student should be encouraged to master English.
I will make an activity using the minds of the learners. Example by getting them to
think about an experience in their own culture before providing them with a similar one
in another culture and by getting them to ‘translate’ a new experience in another culture
into an equivalent experience in their own culture. Provide cultural encounters through
visits, video, songs, literature, simulations. Facilitate connections between the old and
the new by encouraging the learners to constantly think of comparable personal
experiences. Stimulate multi-dimensional representation of cultural experiences through
visualization and inner voice activities. Provide focused discovery activities which guide
the learners to find out things for themselves.

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