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Norman J.-Herbs and Spices - The Cook's Reference - Over 200 Herbs and Spices, With Recipes For Marinades, Spice Rubs, Oils and More-2015
Norman J.-Herbs and Spices - The Cook's Reference - Over 200 Herbs and Spices, With Recipes For Marinades, Spice Rubs, Oils and More-2015
&SPICES
HERBS
&SPICES
Jill Norman
Photography
Dave King
For Paul, who made it possible
DK INDIA
Senior Art Editor Ivy Roy
Project Editor Janashree Singha
Art Editors Sourabh Challariya, Tashi Topgyal Laya
Managing Editor Alicia Ingty
Managing Art Editor Navidita Thapa
DTP Designers Satish Chandra Gaur, Anurag Trivedi
Pre-production Manager Sunil Sharma
DK UK
Managing Editor Dawn Henderson
Managing Art Editor Christine Keilty
Senior Jacket Creative Nicola Powling
Producer, Pre-Production Rebecca Fallowfield
Senior Producer Jen Scothern
Art Director Peter Luff
Category Publisher Peggy Vance
Sweet herbs 27
Sweet cicely 27 • Marigold 28 • Basil 30 Preparing herbs 118
Asian basils 34 • Bay 36 • Myrtle 38 Stripping, chopping, and pounding herbs 119
Angelica 39 • Scented geranium 40 Drying and rubbing herbs 121 • Making vinegars,
Lavender 42 • Woodruff 46 • Pandan 47 oils, and butters 123
Minty herbs 66
Mint 66 • Calamint 70 • Catnip 71
Oniony herbs 72
Garlic 72 • Green onion 77 • Chives 78
Chinese chives 79
Acknowledgments 336
8 INTRODUCTION
Introduction
Since publication of the first edition of this book in 2002, our willingness to
try new foods has grown. Pomegranates and mangoes, fennel, kale, many
varieties of potato, salad greens, and fresh herbs are readily available.
The range of spices and blends has extended online and in shops.
Sauces from Japan and Korea, fresh Mexican chillies, chilli and herb
pastes from Peru, khmeli suneli from Georgia are all there, indicating
our interest in these cuisines. Wasabi cultivation has spread to the UK
and saffron is being grown again near Saffron Walden in Essex.
Food scientists are creating new spice colourants without chemical
synthesis. These experiments are in their early days, but freeze-dried
and ground rock samphire, Crithmum maritimum, also known as sea
fennel, produces a vivid green powder with salty, aromatic notes of
celery, green citrus peel, and ordinary fennel. Pasta flavoured with this Geranium
powder turns a delicate green and makes a fine dish with a seafood sauce.
In the first edition, I wrote about food companies producing “aroma-
fingerprints” (p.128). Flavour drops that extract flavour tones from edible plants
were developed for the NASA space food programme. Further use of these
concentrated, natural products, extended initially to molecular gastronomy, now
they are sold to everyone on the internet. The range is extensive, and includes
fruits, spices, champagne, and other drinks. A similar range of concentrated
natural herb and spice flavour pastes is available too.
I am not recommending that you use these in place of herbs and spices, but
you might want to experiment with one or two, if cooking a large quantity of
a dish, for which only one drop, much diluted, may be needed.
Information on individual herbs and spices has been updated where
necessary; more spice and herb mixtures, sauces and condiments have been
added, and a short section on salt. Salts of different colours and textures, from
all parts of the world, are now sold widely, and salt is a frequent companion
to herbs and spices. The recipe chapter is longer and contains several new
recipes, reflecting the wider use of herbs and spices in everyday cooking as
well as recipes for dishes from spice and herb producing regions.
INTRODUCTION 9
Wasabi Mace
European definitions of herbs and spices are not used worldwide. In Southeast
Asia any aromatic plant used fresh is a herb, but once the same substance is
dried it is classed as a spice. In the US, the American Spice Trade Association
defines “any dried plant used primarily for seasoning purposes” as a spice; this
includes dried herbs, even dehydrated onions, but not what we would call spices
when these are used in their fresh form.
have long been integrated. Chinese cooking is based on a theory that well-being
is brought about by the careful balancing of the five flavours – sweet, salty, bitter,
sour, and pungent – with the texture and colour of the food. Yin herbs such as
mint and parsley slow down the metabolism, whereas yang spices such as chilli
and ginger activate it. Similar principles are followed in Iran, where the cook
strives to maintain a balance between ingredients classed as hot or cold. In the
West, herbs and spices add flavour to low-salt and low-fat foods, and some
evidence suggests that garlic may help lower cholesterol.
Introducing
herbs
Fresh herbs are now so widely available from supermarkets,
garden centres, as well as specialist nurseries that the most common
ones often form part of the weekly shopping. Herb specialists usually
sell several varieties of basil, mint, thyme, or marjoram, and herbs
like rau ram and Chinese chives have been adopted. There are still
some – perilla, mitsuba, Vietnamese balm, rice paddy herb, epazote –
that remain hard to find, though it is possible to order seeds online.
Pounding leaves
Herbs intended for sauces or pastes may be
pounded in a mortar and pestle. Other ingredients
may be worked into the crushed herbs.
their flavour. Whether fresh or dried, these herbs should be used sparingly or they will
overwhelm other flavours in the food instead of complementing them.
Herbs added early on in cooking will release their flavours into the dish. Dried herbs
should always be put in at the beginning, and herbs with tough leaves, such as rosemary,
lavender, winter savory, thyme, and bay, will withstand long cooking. If you add sprigs of
herbs to a dish, remove them before serving. To restore the aroma of herbs used in a slow-
cooked dish, stir a few finely chopped leaves into the pan towards the end of the cooking
process. Strongly flavoured herbs, such as mint, tarragon, fennel, marjoram, and lovage,
can be added at any stage during cooking. The essential oils of delicate herbs, like basil,
chervil, chives, dill, coriander, perilla, and lemon balm, soon dissipate when heated.
To keep them fresh in taste, texture, and colour, add them just before a dish is served.
18 FRESH AND MILD HERBS
TASTING NOTES
Parsley has a lightly spicy
aroma with hints of anise
Parsley
and lemon; its taste is tangy, Petroselinum crispum
herbaceous, and has a light,
peppery note. Flat-leaf parsley Probably the only herb considered indispensable by most
has a more persistent and finer
flavour than curly parsley, and western cooks, parsley is a versatile hardy biennial, native
a finer texture. Both bring out
the flavours of other seasonings. to the eastern Mediterranean region. Today it is cultivated
throughout most of the temperate world. Hamburg parsley,
which is valued for its root rather than its leaves, was first
PARTS USED grown in Germany in the 16th century.
Fresh leaves are the most
used, but stalks are good for
flavouring stocks; Hamburg Culinary uses
parsley is grown for its roots.
Parsley is liked for its clean, fresh taste parsley at the end of cooking time for
and is rich in iron and vitamins A and a fresh flavour. Sprigs of dark green,
C. It is used in sauces, salads, stuffings, deep-fried curly parsley make an
BUYING / STORING and omelettes in many parts of the excellent garnish for fried fish. Hamburg
world. In Anglo-Saxon cultures its use parsley is used in soups and stews, but
Buy a pot of parsley for your
as a flavouring ingredient (except for it can also be blanched and roasted
windowsill; or buy a bunch,
wrap it in plastic and store in parsley sauce) rather than simply as a or cooked in other ways as a root
the refrigerator. Discard any garnish is quite recent. Add chopped vegetable. It mashes well with potato.
sprigs that look slimy and it
should keep for 4–5 days.
Parsley can be chopped and
frozen in small containers or
in ice-cube trays with a little
water. Don’t buy dried parsley.
Hamburg parsley
P. c. var. tuberosum
Mostly cultivated in central and northern
Europe, Hamburg parsley is no more difficult
to grow than leaf parsley. The root is rather
like a small parsnip, or occasionally round, like
celeriac. Its flavour is between those of parsley
and celeriac, combined with a light nuttiness.
The leaves have a coarse flavour and texture.
20 FRESH AND MILD HERBS
TASTING NOTES
Purslane has little aroma; the
fleshy leaves and stems have
Purslane
a refreshing, lightly piquant, Portulaca oleracea
astringent, lemony taste, and
a crunchy, juicy texture. Purslane is a sprawling annual that grows wild through
much of the world. It has been used as a food plant for
centuries in southern Europe and the Middle East. An
PARTS USED
important source of iron and vitamin C, purslane is also
Leaves and young shoots. The
flowers can be added to salads. one of the best plant sources for Omega-3, one of the
Purslane is always eaten fresh. fatty acids that help to maintain a healthy heart.
FLAVOUR PAIRINGS
Good with beetroot, broad
beans, cucumber, eggs, feta
cheese, new potatoes, spinach,
tomatoes, yogurt.
Combines well with borage,
chervil, cresses, rocket, salad
burnet, sorrel.
FRESH AND MILD HERBS • CLAYTONIA Claytonia perfoliata 21
FLAVOUR PAIRINGS
Combines well with cresses,
chives, rocket, sorrel.
22 FRESH AND MILD HERBS
TASTING NOTES
Borage has a gentle aroma
and a somewhat stronger
Borage
flavour of cucumber. It is Borago officinalis
cool and fresh-tasting, with
a slight saltiness. This robust, annual herb, native to southern Europe and
western Asia, is now naturalized throughout Europe and
North America. It is worth growing just for its dazzling,
PARTS USED
blue, star-like flowers. The old herbalists held that borage
Leaves and flowers. Avoid the
bristly stalks. made people cheerful and courageous; it is now known to
stimulate the adrenal glands and have mild sedative and
anti-depressant effects.
BUYING / STORING
Borage is best used fresh.
Leaves can be kept for a day or Culinary uses
two in the vegetable drawer of Borage is essentially a salad herb. spinach or with breadcrumbs, egg,
the refrigerator, either wrapped Shred the young leaves because and Parmesan to stuff ravioli and
in damp kitchen paper or placed
inside a plastic bag. Flowers are
their hairy texture is disagreeable cannelloni. The Turks add the leaves
best used soon after picking or if they are left whole. Combine the to green pea soup. The flowers will
they will wilt. Freeze them in ice shredded leaves with cucumber impart a delicate cucumber note to
cubes and serve in drinks. tossed in yogurt or soured cream, salads, and they look wonderful floating
and add them to dressings and salsas. on a creamy soup or flavouring a jug
Tough older leaves can be sautéed, of Pimm’s. They can also be candied
or cooked in water and treated like to decorate cakes and desserts. Use
GROW YOUR OWN spinach. The Italians use borage with borage sparingly.
Grow borage in well-drained
soil in a sunny spot. It is a large,
untidy plant and will self-seed Fresh leaves and flowers
easily. Plant borage only where Of borage species, only B. officinalis
you intend it to grow because it is edible. The white-flowered
has a long taproot and does not cultivated variety B. o. ‘Alba’
like to be moved. Harvest young
can be used in the same
leaves in spring and summer,
way as the blue or purple-
and pick the flowers as soon
as they open. flowered varieties.
FLAVOUR PAIRINGS
Good with cucumber, eel, and
other fatty fish, potato salad,
white cheeses, yogurt; Pimm’s
and other long summer drinks.
Combines well with chervil,
cresses, dill, garlic, mint, rocket,
salad burnet.
FRESH AND MILD HERBS • SALAD BURNET Sanguisorba minor 23
FLAVOUR PAIRINGS
Good with broad beans, cream
cheese, cucumber, eggs, fish,
salad leaves, tomatoes.
Combines well with chervil,
chives, claytonia, mint, parsley,
rosemary, tarragon.
24 FRESH AND MILD HERBS
TASTING NOTES
Green perilla is sweetly yet
strongly aromatic, with notes
Perilla
of cinnamon, cumin, citrus, Perilla frutescens
and anise basil, and a pleasant
warmth on the palate. Red The aromatic leaves of perilla – or shiso, to give the plant
perilla is less aromatic and has
a more subdued flavour. It is its Japanese name – are widely used in Japan, Korea, and
faintly musty and woody with
cumin, coriander leaf, and Vietnam. More recently they have been discovered by cooks
cinnamon overtones. in Australia, the US, and Europe. An annual herb, related to
mint and basil, perilla is native to China. The flavour of dried
perilla only palely reflects that of the fresh.
PARTS USED
Leaves, flowers, and growing
sprouts. Seeds are harvested Culinary uses
commercially for their oil.
In Japan red perilla is mostly used substitute dried if necessary. I grow
for colouring and pickling umeboshi perilla (seeds are readily available
(salted and dried “plums”). Green online), and while I mostly use the
BUYING / STORING perilla is served with sushi and red in salads and as a garnish, I
sashimi – it is said to counteract increasingly extend my use of the
Fresh perilla leaves are sold
parasites in raw fish. The leaves are green. I add it to slices of lemon or
in oriental shops. They keep
for 3–4 days in a plastic bag also used in soups and salads and to lime in the cavity of fish to be roasted
in the vegetable drawer of the wrap rice cakes. Coated with batter on or steamed, to sauces for fish and
refrigerator. Growing sprouts one side only, they are deep-fried for chicken, and to salsa verde instead of
are sold by some greengrocers tempura. The Vietnamese shred green basil. Sometimes I use it instead of basil
and supermarkets. Red leaves perilla and add to noodles; they serve with tomatoes, or with pasta or noodles.
are sold pickled in vacuum
meats, prawns, and fish wrapped in Oil extracted from the seeds is a rich
packs. Dried perilla is available
from Japanese shops. leaves with a dipping sauce. source of Omega-3 fatty acids.
Chopped green perilla gives a
wonderful flavour to cooked rice;
FLAVOUR PAIRINGS
Good with beef, chicken,
courgettes, fish, mooli,
noodles, rice, tomatoes.
Combines well with basil,
chives, fresh and pickled ginger,
lemon grass, mitsuba, parsley,
sansho, wasabi.
FRESH AND MILD HERBS • MITSUBA Cryptotaenia japonica 25
FLAVOUR PAIRINGS
Good with eggs, fish and
seafood, mushrooms, poultry,
rice, and as a garnish for
most vegetables, especially
sweet roots such as carrots
and parsnips.
Combines well with basil,
chives, ginger, lemon balm,
lemon grass, marjoram, sesame.
26 FRESH AND MILD HERBS
TASTING NOTES
Orach is not aromatic; the leaves
have a mild, agreeable, spinach-
Orach
like flavour, which contrasts well Atriplex hortensis
with more pungent salad herbs.
Orach belongs to the goosefoot family, as does epazote
(p.116). It grows wild in Europe and much of temperate
PARTS USED Asia and was formerly gathered and also cultivated for use
Young leaves. as a vegetable. Its old popular name was mountain spinach.
Out of fashion for a long time, orach has been rediscovered
as an attractive salad herb.
BUYING / STORING
Seeds and plants are available
from specialist nurseries. It is Culinary uses
best to use leaves straight after
picking but they will keep for Orach is best used as a salad herb, but it can also be
a day or two in a plastic bag cooked with spinach or sorrel (it alleviates the acidity
in the refrigerator vegetable of the latter). The triangular leaves, particularly of red
drawer. Orach is sometimes orach, make an attractive addition to the salad bowl,
included in up-market bags and an ornamental asset in the garden.
of salad leaves.
Fresh leaves
Green orach may have red-tinged stems;
GROW YOUR OWN red orach has deep plum-coloured leaves
Orach produces bigger leaves if and stems.
planted in rich, well-drained soil.
Red orach benefits from partial
shade, where the leaves will not
scorch in hot sun. It grows fast,
and it is best to sow seeds in late
spring and again in summer for
a continuous supply of young
leaves. Orach has a tendency to
grow tall and straggly, but the
plants should remain bushy if
you harvest leaves regularly and
remove the flower spikes as they
begin to form. Orach is a self-
seeding annual.
FLAVOUR PAIRINGS
Good with catalogna
(puntarelle), corn salad, lettuce,
mizuna, mustard greens, and
other salad leaves.
Combines well with borage,
chicory, the cresses, dill, fennel,
purslane, rocket, salad burnet,
and sorrel.
SWEET HERBS • SWEET CICELY Myrrhis odorata 27
Fresh sprigs
By late spring the large, feathery plant
bears sweetly scented, lacy, white flowers, GROW YOUR OWN
followed by large, attractive seed heads. Sweet cicely is easy to grow
and prefers semi-shade. Cut
back the whole plant after
flowering to encourage new
growth. Cut leaves between
spring and autumn, flowers
in spring, and green seeds
in summer.
FLAVOUR PAIRINGS
Good with apricots,
gooseberries, nectarines,
peaches, rhubarb, strawberries,
root vegetables; chicken,
prawns, and scallops.
Combines well with chervil,
chives, lemon balm, lemon
verbena, mint, and vanilla.
28 SWEET HERBS
TASTING NOTES
Pot marigolds have a sweet,
resin-like aroma, French
Marigold
marigolds a distinctive Calendula officinalis and Tagetes species
muskiness with light citrus
notes that reminds me Marigolds are used in many different ways. The dried,
of coriander seeds. Fresh
marigold petals have a ground petals of pot marigold (C. officinalis) and French
delicate, aromatic bitterness
and earthy taste. The leaves marigold (T. patula) are prized in the Georgian republic;
are slightly peppery. in Mexico and the southern US, Mexican mint marigold
(T. lucida) is used as a tarragon substitute; in Peru huacatay
(T. minuta) is an essential flavouring; in Europe fresh petals
PARTS USED
are used as a garnish and in salads.
Fresh and dried petals, fresh
young leaves.
Pot marigold C. officinalis
This marigold is a long-lived annual with pale
BUYING / STORING green, lance-shaped leaves and single or double
flowers. The petals and young leaves should be
Marigold petals can be dried used immediately after picking.
in a low oven and then ground.
Dried pot marigold petals can
be bought from some herb and
spice suppliers; dried marigold
powder is less easily found.
Store dried marigold petals and
powder in airtight containers.
The leaves of Mexican mint
marigold will keep for a day
or two in a plastic bag in
the refrigerator.
Culinary uses
Apart from adding a lively note to aromatic staples – chillies, garlic, marry well with tarragon. They
salads, marigold petals have long walnuts. Georgians prefer the also combine well with melon,
been used to colour food and give French marigold, and the flavour summer berries, and stone fruits.
it a slightly pungent flavour. Fresh blends particularly well with Huacatay, also called black mint,
petals can be added to cookies and cinnamon and cloves. They call it is strongly aromatic with citrus
small cakes, to custards, savoury Imeretian saffron after the province and eucalypt notes and a bitter
butters, and soups. Dried petals of Imereti, where the dried petals aftertaste. Black mint is hard to find
were often used to adulterate saffron; are highly appreciated. fresh outside South America, though
they can be used as an inexpensive Mint marigold leaves are used jars of black mint paste are available
substitute for colouring rice. with other indigenous American online. Widely used in Peruvian
In Georgia powdered petals are foods – avocado, corn, squash, cuisine, often combined with ají
an essential flavouring, used in tomatoes – as well as with fish, amarillo (p.247), it flavours sauces,
spice mixtures and with other chicken, and other foods that meats, and stews.
French marigold
T. patula
This marigold species is a bushy
annual with divided, toothed leaves
and flat single or frilly double flowers
that vary in colour from yellow to
deep orange.
30 SWEET HERBS
TASTING NOTES
Sweet basil has a complex
sweet, spicy aroma with notes
Basil
of clove and anise. The flavour Ocimum species
is warm, peppery, and clove-like
with underlying mint and anise Lightly brushing basil leaves releases an aroma that
tones. Purple (opal) basil, bush
basil, lettuce basil, and ‘Ruffles’ promises warmth and sunlight – in every Greek village the
basils have rather similar
flavours (pp.31–33). intoxicating fragrance of basil fills the air. Basil belongs to
the mint family, as is clear from the minty, anise notes that
accompany its sweetness. Native to tropical Asia, where it
PARTS USED has been cultivated for 3,000 years, it is now grown almost
Fresh leaves; add buds from everywhere where the climate is warm enough.
flower spikes to salads or use
as a garnish.
Sweet basil O. basilicum
Also called Genoese basil, this plant has large, bright green, silky
BUYING / STORING leaves and small, white flowers. Good for all western cooking, it is
the best basil for pesto, pistou, and tomato salads. It combines very
Most basil leaves bruise and well with garlic. One way to preserve the leaves is to put them in a
wilt easily, so avoid bunches
jar with an airtight lid, layer lightly with salt, and cover with olive
with drooping or blackened
oil. Kept in the refrigerator, the leaves eventually blacken, but they
leaves. Store for 2–3 days in
damp kitchen paper or a flavour the oil beautifully.
plastic bag in the refrigerator
vegetable drawer. Thai basil
(p.35) is more sturdy and will
keep for 5–6 days. Sweet basil
and Thai basil plants are sold
in many supermarkets. Basil
leaves will freeze well for up
to 3 months; one of the best
ways is to purée them with
a little water or olive oil and
freeze in ice-cube trays.
Purple basil
O.b. var. purpurascens
This handsome plant, also called opal basil, has purple
or almost black leaves and pink flowers. It is highly aromatic,
with clear notes of mint and clove. Use with rice and grains
and to add a splash of colour to salads.
32 SWEET HERBS
O. b. ‘Purple Ruffles’
‘Purple Ruffles’ is an ornamental plant with
large, shiny, purple-maroon leaves with a ruffled
edge and pink flowers. Its flavour is warm and
liquorice-like. ‘Green Ruffles’ has big, lime-green
leaves with a frilly edge and white flowers. Use
both as sweet basil (p.30).
O. b. ‘Cinnamon’
This variety is native to Mexico. The leaves
are flushed purple and the flowers pink. It
has a pronounced, sweet scent with clear
cinnamon notes rising above hints
of camphor. Serve it with bean
and pulse dishes and with
spicy, stir-fried vegetables.
O. ‘African Blue’
This variety has become one of my favourite basils for its
striking appearance and excellent flavour. The leaves are
mottled green-purple, the flowers purple. It is strongly
scented with peppery, clove, and mint notes and
a hint of camphor in the background. Use it
with rice, vegetables, and meats; it is very
good in potato salad and makes
an outstanding pesto.
Unlike most basils,
it is a perennial as
long as it is kept
frost free.
Lettuce basil
O. b. var. crispum
This basil has large, floppy, wrinkled leaves with
a soft texture. It is excellent in salads, or chopped
and mixed with diced tomato and extra virgin
olive oil to make a pasta dressing. Lettuce
basil is much prized in southern Italy.
34 SWEET HERBS
Asian basils
Asian basils (many are Ocimum basilicum varieties) are as numerous as European basils,
and herb nurseries now supply some of the common ones. Their flavours differ from
those of western basils because of the different chemical constituents of the essential
oils. The dominant aroma constituent of sweet basil (p.30) is linalool (floral) with some
methyl chavicol (anise) and a little eugenol (clove), but in Asian basils methyl chavicol
is dominant with some eugenol and a little camphor.
TASTING NOTES
Bay has a sweet, balsamic
aroma with notes of nutmeg
Bay
and camphor and a cooling Laurus nobilis
astringency. Fresh leaves are
slightly bitter, but the bitterness The bay tree is native to the eastern Mediterranean, but has
fades if you keep them for a day
or two. Fully dried leaves have long been cultivated in northern Europe and the Americas.
a potent flavour and are best
when recently dried. It came to symbolize wisdom and glory to the Greeks and
Romans, who crowned kings, poets, Olympic champions,
and victorious generals with wreaths of its glossy, leathery
PARTS USED leaves. Although there are several varieties of bay, only
Fresh and dried leaves. L. nobilis is used in the kitchen.
BUYING / STORING
Culinary uses
Bay leaves yield their flavour slowly, so first), or add them to a pilaf. Bay is
Fresh leaves can be used they are useful in stocks, soups, stews, always included in a bouquet garni,
from a tree, but are less bitter
if kept until wilted. To dry fully,
sauces, marinades, and pickles. Put a and to flavour the milk for béchamel
lay leaves flat in a dark, well- leaf or two on top of a homemade pâté sauce. It goes well with beans, lentils,
aired place until brittle. If or terrine before baking it; add bay to and tomatoes, especially to flavour
stored in an airtight container, any fish stew or combine with lemon a tomato sauce.
dried leaves keep their aroma and fennel when filling the cavity of The Turks use bay in steamed
and flavour for at least a a fish to be baked; thread leaves onto and slow-cooked lamb dishes;
year, but stale leaves have
no flavour.
kebabs (soak dried leaves in water the Moroccans in chicken and
Fresh leaves
Fresh leaves need to be crushed or
rubbed to release their aromatic
compounds. Bay is indispensable
in French and Mediterranean cooking.
SWEET HERBS • BAY Laurus nobilis 37
lamb tagines; the French partner it Two or three bay leaves flavour a dish FLAVOUR PAIRINGS
with beef in Provençal daubes. Bay for four to six people; if you put in too
Essential to bouquets garnis,
also gives a pleasant, unusual, spicy many, the flavour is too strong. Remove béchamel sauce.
fragrance to custards and rice pudding the leaves before serving. Note also
Good with beef, chestnuts,
and to poached fruit dishes. In Turkish that in India, parts of the Caribbean, chicken, citrus fruits, fish,
spice bazaars, boxes of dried figs are and South America, leaves of other game, haricot beans, lamb,
often lined with bay leaves. species may be called bay leaves. lentils, rice, tomatoes.
Combines well with allspice,
garlic, juniper, marjoram
Bouquet garni and oregano, parsley, sage,
A bouquet garni is a bundle of herbs used savory, thyme.
to flavour slowly-cooked dishes. This one
includes a few sprigs of thyme and
parsley and a bay leaf (recipes, p.266).
Dried leaves
Dried bay leaves should remain a matt,
sage green, and not turn yellow or
brown. Crumble or grind the leaves
only when you need them.
38 SWEET HERBS
TASTING NOTES
All parts of the plant are
aromatic. The leaves are
Myrtle
slightly resinous with a Myrtus communis
sweet, orange-blossom note;
they taste juniper-like and Myrtle is native to the hilly regions of the Mediterranean
astringent. The berries are
sweet with notes of juniper, basin and the Middle East, where for centuries it has
allspice, and rosemary.
The flowers are more been used as a flavouring. Although mainland Europe
delicately scented. came to prefer imported oriental spices, myrtle continued
to be an important flavouring on the Mediterranean islands
of Crete, Corsica, and Sardinia.
PARTS USED
Leaves, flowers, berries.
Leaves, flowerbuds, and Culinary uses
berries may be dried.
Use myrtle flowers picked straight to impart a juniper-like flavour. Place
from the plant in salads or as a myrtle berries and a clove of garlic
garnish. The leaves make a good in the cavity of pigeon or quail to be
BUYING / STORING flavouring for pork and wild boar, roasted or fried, or use them as you
and for venison, hare, and pigeon. would juniper berries. Crush dried
Myrtle plants can be bought
Use very sparingly and add towards buds and berries and use as a spice.
from specialist nurseries. Use
leaves fresh from the plant or the end of cooking if you are making Myrtle leaves are still used in southern
dry them in a dark, well- a stew. Combine with thyme or savory Italy as a wrapping for small, newly
ventilated place until brittle, to flavour meat and game, or with made cheeses; as the cheeses cure,
then keep in an airtight fennel to flavour fish. When barbecuing the leaves absorb their moisture, at the
container. Dry buds and meat, add a few sprigs to the charcoal same time giving them a subtle flavour.
berries in the same way,
and then store.
Fresh sprigs
Common myrtle is
most frequently used,
GROW YOUR OWN
but the compact M. c.
Myrtle is a half-hardy, subsp. tarentina, native
evergreen shrub with small, to Corsica and Sardinia
shiny, oval leaves, bearing where it is used
scented, white flowers with with chicken and
pretty, yellow stamens in
pork, has the same
summer and purple-black
fruits in autumn. In cool aromatic qualities.
climates, a young myrtle plant
is best grown in a container
and taken indoors in winter.
Once established it can be
planted out in a sunny,
sheltered site. If frost
threatens, the plant may
be protected with fleece.
Myrtle leaves can be
harvested throughout
the year.
SWEET HERBS • ANGELICA Angelica archangelica 39
FLAVOUR PAIRINGS
Good with almonds, apricots,
hazelnuts, plums, rhubarb,
strawberries; fish and seafood.
Combines well with anise,
juniper, lavender, lemon balm,
nutmeg, pepper, perilla.
40 SWEET HERBS
TASTING NOTES
There are hundreds of varieties
of scented geraniums, smelling
Scented geranium
of apple or citrus fruits, Pelargonium species
cinnamon, clove, nutmeg or
mint, roses or pine. The best Scented geraniums offer a profusion of perfumes that echo
for cooking are rose- and
lemon-scented plants. the scents of other plants. The plants were carried to Europe
from South Africa in the 17th century and had reached
America by the 18th. Their commercial potential was realized
PARTS USED in the mid-19th century when the French perfume industry
Fresh leaves. Flowers have found a way to use oil from rose-scented geraniums in place
little fragrance, but make a
pretty garnish for desserts. of imported and costly attar of roses.
Although leaves retain their
aroma when they die on the
plant or are dried, they are
not good for cooking.
Fresh leaves
Geranium leaves
release their fragrance
when they are brushed
against or rubbed.
SWEET HERBS • SCENTED GERANIUM Pelargonium species 41
Culinary uses
Sugar scented with rose geranium Strain and add 2 tbsp lemon juice rose geranium goes well with apples,
leaves can be used for desserts and for lemon-scented leaves, or blackberries, and raspberries; lemon
cakes. Bury a handful of the leaves 1 tbsp rose water for rose-scented geranium with peach, apricot, and
in a jar of caster sugar and leave for ones. Store in an airtight jar in the plum. For ice creams, custards, and
two weeks. Remove the leaves refrigerator for a week or so. Use sauces, infuse 10–12 lightly crushed
before use. scented sugar when cooking leaves in 500ml (16fl oz) heated cream
Geranium leaf syrup can be used blackberries or mixed berries for a or milk, cool, strain, and use.
to make sorbets, to poach fruits, or summer pudding, or add a couple Rose geranium leaves may be
diluted for a refreshing drink. Bring of leaves to the pan. used to line the bottom of a cake
250ml (9fl oz) water and 150g (51⁄2oz) Macerate summer fruits in wine tin before pouring in the batter; this
sugar to the boil, add 10–12 lightly or syrup that contains a few geranium gives a subtle flavour to a sponge
crushed geranium leaves, remove leaves. When making jam or jelly, cake or pound cake. Remove the
from the heat, and leave to cool. add leaves for the last few minutes; leaves when the cake has cooled.
Rose
geranium
P. graveolens
This variety is an upright
plant with triangular, deep-
cut leaves and small, pink
flowers. The scent is a blend
of rose and spice, reminiscent
of Turkish delight.
P. ‘Lady Plymouth’
This variegated variety has triangular,
deep-cut leaves edged with cream, pink
flowers, and a lemon-mint-rose scent.
42 SWEET HERBS
TASTING NOTES
Lavender has a penetrating,
sweetly floral, and spicy aroma
Lavender
with lemon and mint notes; Lavandula species
the taste echoes the aroma
with undertones of camphor The sight of the deep purple-blue lavender fields shimmering
and a touch of bitterness in
the aftertaste. The flowers in the heat as you travel down the Rhône valley is, for me,
have the strongest fragrance,
but leaves can also be used. the first real indication of reaching the warm south. Native
to the Mediterranean region, lavender became a popular
garden plant in Tudor England. Today lavender is grown
PARTS USED in many parts of the world for display, for the kitchen,
Fresh and dried flowers; leaves. and for its aromatic oils.
FLAVOUR PAIRINGS
Good with blackberries, Fresh
blueberries, cherries, damsons,
mulberries, plums, rhubarb, leaves
strawberries; chicken, lamb, Like rosemary,
pheasant, rabbit. lavender has tough
Combines well with marjoram, leaves that must be
oregano, parsley, perilla, savory, chopped finely; flowers
rosemary, thyme. also have a firm base, but
petals can be plucked out.
SWEET HERBS • LAVENDER Lavandula species 43
Dried flowers
Soft, floral-scented, English lavender
Culinary uses
is no less prized for its oils than the Lavender is very potent and
intensely aromatic original lavender must be used sparingly. A
from the Mediterranean. few dried lavender flowers
immersed in a jar of caster
sugar for a week or so will
give it a fine, sweet aroma.
Alternatively grind fresh
lavender flowers and sugar
to a powder – this gives a
stronger flavour since
grinding breaks down the
buds and the sugar absorbs
the aromatic oils. Use the
sugar for baking and desserts.
Fresh flowers may be
chopped and added to a cake,
shortbread, or sweet pastry
mixture before baking. Scatter
petals over a cake or dessert
to decorate it. Add flowers to
a jam or jelly towards the end
of the cooking time, or to fruit
compotes for a sweetly spiced
note. Infuse them in cream,
milk, syrup, or wine to
flavour sorbets and other
desserts. Lavender ice cream
is very good, or try adding
lavender to chocolate
ice cream or mousse.
Lavender is successful with
savoury dishes, too. Chop
leaves for a salad or scatter
flowers over the top. Add
chopped flowers to rice.
Use chopped flowers and
leaves to flavour a leg of
lamb, roast or casseroled
rabbit, chicken, or pheasant.
Add lavender to marinades
and rubs. Lavender also
makes an excellent vinegar.
Around the Mediterranean
lavender is used in herb
mixtures. In Provence it is
French lavender L. stoechas blended with thyme, savory,
Also called Spanish lavender, this bushy shrub has narrow, and rosemary; in Morocco
green leaves and purple flowers topped by purple bracts.
it is sometimes used
Some varieties are hardy, others are half-hardy and may
in ras el hanout.
survive the winter in a sheltered spot. L. stoechas has a
more pungent camphor note than L. angustifolia.
Lavender is grown commercially on a large scale, mainly
to be distilled for its aromatic oils. Long neglected in the
kitchen, the herb is slowly making a comeback as a versatile,
unexpected flavouring in savoury and sweet dishes.
46 SWEET HERBS
TASTING NOTES
The fresh plant has a faint
scent, but cutting releases
Woodruff
the smell of new-mown hay Galium odoratum
and vanillin. Flowers are
more lightly scented than As its name suggests, woodlands are the natural habitat
leaves; the flavour echoes
the scent. of this low, creeping, perennial herb. Native to Europe
and western Asia, woodruff is now also found in temperate
North America. Its pretty, star-like, white flowers and neat
PARTS USED ruffs of narrow, shiny leaves make it a most attractive garden
Leaves and flowers, plant in spring.
whole stems.
Culinary uses
BUYING / STORING The pleasant aroma of woodruff is at wine, Sekt, sugar, mint, and lemon
Plants are available from its best when the herb has wilted. The balm. Woodruff can also be infused
garden centres and herb principal traditional use of the herb is in marinades for chicken and rabbit,
nurseries. Woodruff sprigs in the Waldmeisterbowle (Waldmeister in dressings for salads, in wine to
are best picked and kept for is the German name for woodruff) or make a sabayon or sorbet. Use only
a day or two before using.
Maibowle. These are both names for one or two stems and remove before
The aroma strengthens when
the leaves are wilted or dried, a punch made to celebrate May Day serving or using the liquid. Woodruff
and the leaves keep their aroma (and other occasions too) using white flowers are decorative on salads.
when frozen. To freeze, spread
the woodruff on a tray, and
once frozen, store in a plastic
bag in the freezer.
Culinary uses
To use pandan leaves, pound or scrape BUYING / STORING
them with the tines of a fork to release Fresh pandan leaves may be
their flavour, then tie in a loose knot so found in oriental shops. They
that the fibres do not come loose. keep well in a plastic bag in
Add a leaf or two to rice before the refrigerator for 2–3 weeks.
Neither frozen nor dried pandan
cooking to give it a light fragrance,
can match fresh leaves for
as they do in Malaysia and Singapore. fragrance. Bottled leaf extract
Cooks there also use pandan leaf as has an unnaturally bright colour
a flavouring for pancakes, cakes, and and quickly loses what aroma it
creamy desserts made with sticky rice has. Pandan powder has a light
or tapioca. A knotted leaf is sometimes grassiness that fades after a few
months. Kewra essence or
added to a soup or curry, and in Sri
kewra water (essence mixed
Lanka it adds its flavour to curry powder. with water) will keep for 2–3
Leaves are also used to wrap food. Thai years if tightly closed and
cooks steam or fry parcels of pandan- stored away from strong light.
wrapped chicken or weave leaves as
containers for desserts.
Kewra essence is used in India to
flavour pilafs and meat dishes as well as HARVESTING
sweets and kulfi. It can be diluted with a Pandan trees, with their shiny,
little water and sprinkled into a dish just sword-like leaves growing
before serving. It also gives a special spirally around the trunk, can
flavour to homemade lemonade. be seen in gardens throughout
southern Asia. They grow
easily, especially in damp areas.
Leaves are harvested at any
time; flowers are at their
best soon after they open.
FLAVOUR PAIRINGS
Fresh leaves Good with chicken, coconut,
Juice from the leaves is used for curried dishes, palm sugar, rice.
colouring food; to extract the juice, Combines well with chilli,
put 4–5 coarsely chopped leaves coriander, galangal, ginger,
into a blender with a little water. makrut lime, lemon grass.
48 CITRUS OR TART HERBS
TASTING NOTES
The whole plant has a distinctive
citrus aroma. The flavour is
Bergamot
citrus with an added warm, Monarda didyma
spicy note. Flowers are more
delicately flavoured than Native to North America, the Monarda genus is named
the leaves.
for the 16th-century Spanish physician, Nicolas Monardes,
whose Joyfull Newes Out of the Newe Founde Worlde was
PARTS USED the first American herbal. The name bergamot probably
Fresh and dried leaves; derives from the similarity of the plant’s aroma to that of
flowers. Dried leaves are the bergamot orange. Another name is bee balm, because
used for infusions.
the flowers attract bees.
TASTING NOTES
When crushed the young leaves
have a fresh, lingering, lemon
Lemon balm
scent and a mild lemon-mint Melissa officinalis
flavour. The aroma is subtle and
pleasant, and not as penetrating Lemon balm is a perennial of the mint family, native to
as that of lemon verbena or
lemon grass. southern Europe and western Asia, and now cultivated
widely in all temperate regions. With its crinkled, serrated
leaves and tiny white or yellowish flowers, it is not a showy
PARTS USED plant, but earns its place in the garden by attracting bees
Leaves, fresh and dried. and by its agreeable lemon scent.
Fresh leaves
GROW YOUR OWN Always cook with fresh leaves, and use
Lemon balm is easy to grow from generous amounts because the aroma is
seed or by dividing the root stock delicate. The variegated form, M. o. ‘Aurea’,
in spring or autumn. Cut back can also be used.
after flowering to encourage new
growth. Balm grows vigorously
and will spread unless kept in
check: in a small garden it is best
grown in a pot. Harvest leaves
early in the season before they
become rank.
FLAVOUR PAIRINGS
Good with apples, apricots,
carrots, soft white cheeses,
chicken, courgettes, eggs,
figs, fish, melon, mushrooms,
nectarines.
Combines well with bergamot,
chervil, chives, dill, fennel,
ginger, mint, nasturtium, parsley,
sweet cicely.
CITRUS OR TART HERBS • VIETNAMESE BALM Elsholtzia ciliata 51
BUYING / STORING
Culinary uses
Vietnamese balm is grown
Vietnamese balm is used to flavour vegetable, egg, and mostly by nurseries that
fish dishes, in soups and with noodles and rice. It may supply herbs to Southeast
be added to the platter of herbs that accompanies many Asian restaurants, and is sold
Vietnamese meals. In Thailand it is most frequently by oriental shops, but it is not
yet widely available in Europe or
cooked and served as a vegetable.
North America. Leaves keep for
3–4 days in a plastic bag in the
refrigerator vegetable drawer.
Fresh leaves
Vietnamese balm has been used as a GROW YOUR OWN
culinary and medicinal plant for many Vietnamese balm is a perennial,
years in Southeast Asia, but as yet is often grown as an annual. It can
little known to western cooks. be grown from seed outdoors
when the frosts are over, and is
likely to become invasive in
warm, moist conditions. Sprigs
from an oriental shop can be
encouraged to root by standing
them in water. Cuttings taken
in autumn will root and
survive if kept in a warm
place. Harvest leaves from
spring to early autumn.
FLAVOUR PAIRINGS
Good with aubergines, lettuce,
cucumber, mushrooms, spring
onions, starfruit, fish, seafood.
Combines well with coriander,
chillies, Asian basils, galangal,
garlic, mint, perilla, tamarind.
52 CITRUS OR TART HERBS
TASTING NOTES
Lemon verbena has an intense,
fresh lemon aroma. The taste
Lemon verbena
echoes the aroma but is less Aloysia citriodora
strong; it is more lemony than
a lemon, but lacks the tartness. Lemon verbena is native to Chile and Argentina and was
Leaves keep their fragrance
quite well when cooked. taken to Europe by the Spaniards and to North America by
The aroma of dried leaves
is retained for up to a year. a New England sea captain in the 18th century. In France it
was taken up by toilet-water manufacturers for its aromatic
oils. Until 100 years ago it was widely grown as an ornamental
PARTS USED garden plant; it certainly merits a place in any scented garden
Leaves, fresh and dried. for its intoxicating, pure lemon fragrance.
BUYING / STORING
Culinary uses
Lemon verbena is a natural companion flavouring for desserts and drinks. Add
Many herb nurseries stock to fish and poultry; put some sprigs into sprigs to a syrup for poaching fruit,
plants. Cut leaves may be
kept for a day or two in the
the cavity or chop and use in a stuffing chop finely for a fruit salad or tart, or
refrigerator. Sprigs can also be or marinade. The vibrant, clean taste is infuse in cream to make a fresh-scented
put in a glass of water for 24 also good with fatty meats such as pork ice cream. Koseret, Lippia adoensis, is
hours. Leaves can be chopped and duck, in vegetable soup, and in a similar to lemon verbena and widely
and frozen in small pots or in rice pilaf. Lemon verbena is used as a used as a herb in Ethiopia.
ice cubes. To dry, hang stalks
in a dark, well-ventilated place.
Dried leaves make an excellent
tisane, often sold as verveine.
Fresh sprigs
Add sprigs to iced tea or summer
coolers, or make an infusion of fresh
leaves. Lemon verbena makes one
of the best and most refreshing
GROW YOUR OWN
of all tisanes.
Lemon verbena needs sun
and well-drained soil. Leaves
can be harvested throughout
the growing season. Regular
trimming will make the plant
bushier, and it should be cut
back in autumn to remove weak
branches. It is not frost-hardy, so
is best grown in a container and
taken indoors in winter, when it
will shed its leaves.
FLAVOUR PAIRINGS
Good with apricots, carrots,
chicken, courgettes, fish,
mushrooms, rice.
Combines well with basil,
chillies, chives, coriander, lemon
thyme, mint, garlic.
CITRUS OR TART HERBS • SASSAFRAS Sassafras albidum 53
Dried leaves
The large leaves, which
GROW YOUR OWN
provide dramatic autumn
colours, may have one, Sassafras trees are mostly
two, or three lobes, even found in the wild. Only young
specimens can be transplanted
on the same branch.
because established trees have
long taproots, and so they are
seldom offered for sale. Leaves
for making commercial filé
powder are harvested in
spring, then dried
and ground.
Filé powder
Filé powder is
essential in creating
the rich texture of
Louisiana dishes.
It also serves as
a condiment to
accompany them.
54 CITRUS OR TART HERBS
TASTING NOTES
Crushed leaves have a coriander
and citrus aroma, sometimes
Houttuynia
with distinctive fishy notes. The Houttuynia cordata
flavour is sourish and astringent
with similarities to rau ram This perennial, water-loving plant is not appreciated as a
and coriander but with fishy
undertones; it is aptly known herb by western cooks, but it is widely used in Southeast
as fish plant and Vietnamese
fish mint. Some plants smell Asia. Native to Japan, houttuynia now grows wild across
rank, while others are pungent much of eastern Asia. The dark green-leaved variety is most
but pleasing. People either
love or hate this herb. commonly used for cooking, but you can use the striking
cultivated variety H. c. ‘Chameleon’, which has green, red,
pink, and yellow foliage. In Vietnam houttuynia is called
PARTS USED rau diep ca; the name is anglicized to vap ca in the West.
Fresh leaves.
Culinary uses
In Japan, houttuynia is used as a and duck, with raw vegetables to
BUYING / STORING
vegetable rather than a herb, and dip in fiery nam prik, or as a salad.
Plants are available from simmered with fish and pork dishes. Combine it with lettuce, mint, young
nurseries and garden centres. In Vietnam, where it is very popular, it nasturtium leaves and flowers. I have
Crush leaves to smell them
is chopped and steamed with fish and shredded it into stir-fried vegetable
before buying. Leaves will keep
for 2–3 days in a plastic bag chicken. Leaves can also be shredded and seafood dishes and into fish soups.
in the vegetable drawer of into a clear oriental soup. More often Coriander, rau ram, or culantro could
the refrigerator. it is eaten raw, to accompany beef be used instead.
FLAVOUR PAIRINGS
Good with coconut milk, fish
and seafood, lime juice,
noodles, rice, shallots,
green and root vegetables.
Combines well with chillies,
coriander, lemon grass,
galangal, tamarind.
56 CITRUS OR TART HERBS
TASTING NOTES
Sorrel has no aroma; the taste
of garden sorrel ranges from
Sorrel
refreshingly tangy and sharp to Rumex acetosa, R. scutatus
astringent, and large leaves may
be slightly bitter. The texture is This member of the dock family grows wild in Europe
spinach-like. Buckler leaf sorrel
has a milder, more lemony, and and western Asia and is worth growing in the garden.
more succulent flavour.
Garden sorrel, R. acetosa, is the common variety; French
or buckler leaf is more delicate; astringent R. sanguineus
has slender leaves with striking veins. Sorrel has been
PARTS USED
appreciated for the tartness it imparts to rich foods
Fresh leaves.
since ancient times.
FLAVOUR PAIRINGS
Good with chicken, cucumber,
eggs, fish (especially salmon),
leeks, lentils, lettuce, mussels,
pork, spinach, tomatoes, veal,
watercress.
Combines well with borage,
chervil, chives, dill, lovage,
parsley, tarragon.
LIQUORICE OR ANISE HERBS • AGASTACHE Agastache species 57
Anise hyssop and Korean mint can be leaves in a salad will add an elusive
used interchangeably in the kitchen. anise note; mix with other summery
Widely used in teas or summer drinks, herbs to add to pancake batter or an BUYING / STORING
they can also be used in similar ways omelette, or to make a herb sauce for
Some specialist nurseries stock
to anise. Use in marinades for fish and pasta with olive oil, sautéed fresh plants. Leaves are sturdy and
seafood, chop them into rice, or add to breadcrumbs, and garlic. Agastaches keep in a plastic bag in the
chicken or pork dishes. Their natural are also good with summer fruits – refrigerator vegetable drawer for
sweetness complements the sweetness apricots, blueberries, peaches, pears, 4–5 days. Leaves can be frozen,
in beetroot, carrots, squash, and sweet plums, raspberries. To make agastache but are best used fresh. Dry
leaves only to make infusions –
potatoes; they combine well with honey, fill a small jar with leaves and
otherwise don’t bother.
green beans, courgettes, and tomatoes. flowers, pour in warmed runny honey,
Use as a garnish, or stir in chopped cover, and leave for a month.
leaves just before serving. A few
GROW YOUR OWN
Anise hyssop and Korean
Anise hyssop Flowers mint prefer a sheltered, well-
A. foeniculum drained spot in full sun. Both
Anise hyssop
Anise hyssop, also called can be grown from seed. After
smells of anise
liquorice mint, is an upright,
2–3 years plants can be divided
and its flowers
and replanted. If you leave some
branched plant with grey- resemble those flowers to seed, agastaches will
green, oval leaves tinged of hyssop, but it self-seed but the new plants
with purple. The showy, lilac is not related to come up quite late in the year.
flower spikes appear in late either plant. Harvest young leaves throughout
summer and attract bees. the growing season. They are
most aromatic just before
the plant flowers.
FLAVOUR PAIRINGS
Good with green beans,
root vegetables, courgettes,
pumpkin, squash, tomatoes,
berries, and stone fruits.
Combines well with basil,
bergamot, chervil, marjoram,
mint marigold, parsley, salad
burnet, tarragon.
58 LIQUORICE OR ANISE HERBS
TASTING NOTES
Chervil is sweetly aromatic.
The taste is subtle and
Chervil
soothing, with light anise Anthriscus cerefolium
notes and hints of parsley,
caraway, and pepper. Native to southern Russia, the Caucasus, and southeastern
Europe, chervil was probably introduced to northern
Europe by the Romans. A traditional symbol of new life,
PARTS USED
the arrival of chervil in markets signals springtime, when
Fresh leaves; flowers
for garnish. chervil sauces and soups appear on menus in France,
Germany, and Holland. Often seen in restaurants as a
garnish, chervil deserves to be more widely used in
BUYING / STORING domestic cooking.
Chervil is not a herb for long
keeping; in a plastic bag or in
damp kitchen paper it will keep Fresh leaves
for 2–3 days in the vegetable Chervil grows quickly and can be harvested
drawer of the refrigerator. 6–8 weeks after sowing, but its lifespan is
You may find a pot of chervil short – once it flowers it is of no use in the
in the supermarket in spring. kitchen. Be rigorous about cutting out flower
Chopped and frozen in small stems and harvest frequently, cutting
containers it will keep for
outer leaves first to encourage
3–4 months. Chervil butter
can be frozen. Dried chervil new growth at the centre
has almost no flavour and is of the plant.
not worth buying.
Fines herbes
This classic French flavouring for egg,
fish, and poultry dishes is a combination
of chervil, chives, parsley, and tarragon
(recipe, p.266).
60 LIQUORICE OR ANISE HERBS
TASTING NOTES
The leaves are sweetly
aromatic, with hints of pine,
Tarragon
anise, or liquorice; the flavour Artemisia dracunculus
is strong yet subtle, with spicy
anise and basil notes and a Native to Siberia and western Asia, tarragon was
sweetish aftertaste. Long-
cooking diminishes the unknown to Europe until the Arabs introduced it
aroma but the flavour
is not lost. when they ruled Spain. During the 16th and 17th
centuries, the development of classic French
cooking extended its use in the kitchen. Indeed,
PARTS USED the best cultivated variety is usually called French
Fresh leaves and sprigs. tarragon (or, in Germany, German tarragon) to
distinguish it from the inferior Russian variety.
BUYING / STORING
French tarragon A. d. var. sativa
Supermarkets sometimes have
This tarragon has mid-green leaves and is the
pots of tarragon, but otherwise
sell sprigs in minute quantities, preferred culinary variety. The leaves can be
so it is a good idea to grow your harvested when required, and whole stalks
own. Avoid the Russian variety removed for drying in mid summer.
when buying plants. Young sprigs
keep for 4–5 days in a plastic bag
in the vegetable drawer of the
refrigerator. To dry stalks, hang
in bundles in an airy, dark space,
but they lose much of their aroma;
freezing the leaves, whole or
chopped, retains more of
the flavour.
TASTING NOTES
Dill leaves have a clean, fragrant
aroma of anise and lemon. The
Dill
taste is of anise and parsley, Anethum graveolens
mild but sustained. The seeds
smell like a sweet caraway due An annual plant, native to southern Russia, western Asia,
to carvone in the essential oil;
the taste is of anise with a and the eastern Mediterranean, dill is widely grown for its
touch of sharpness and a
lingering warmth. feathery leaves (often called dill weed) and its seed. Indian
dill, A. g. subsp. sowa, is grown primarily for its seed, which
is lighter in colour, longer, and narrower than European dill
PARTS USED seed and has a more pungent taste. It is preferred for
Fresh and dried leaves; seeds. curry mixtures.
BUYING / STORING
Culinary uses
Fresh dill is an excellent partner for In northern and central Europe, dill
Choose a bunch that looks fish and seafood. Scandinavian dishes is used with root vegetables, cabbage,
crisp and fresh. If you have
a large quantity, use it quickly;
include herrings marinated with dill, cauliflower, and cucumber. Some
after 2–3 days, kept in a plastic gravad lax (salmon cured with salt and Russian cooks use it in borscht,
bag in the refrigerator, it will dill and served with a mustard and dill their classic beetroot soup, and dill
droop. You may be able to buy sauce), and crab, scallops, or prawns combined with soured cream or yogurt
a plant in a supermarket or from with a creamy dill sauce. and a little mustard also makes a good
a greengrocer. Dried dill stored
in an airtight container will
keep its flavour for up to a year.
Similarly stored seed has a shelf
life of 2 years. Ground dill seed
does not keep.
sauce for beetroot. German cooks and salad dressings, especially FLAVOUR PAIRINGS
make a similar sauce, but replace the for potato salad.
Leaves good with beetroot,
mustard with horseradish and serve Both leaves and seeds are used broad beans, carrots, celeriac,
it with braised beef. In Greece, dill in pickling, as in the crunchy dill- courgettes, cucumber, eggs, fish
is added to stuffed vine leaves. In pickled cucumbers of a New York and seafood, potatoes,
Turkey and Iran, dill flavours rice, deli and the garlicky version popular rice, spinach.
broad beans, courgettes, and celeriac. in Poland, Russia, and Iran. Seeds Leaves combine well with
Spinach with dill and shallots is a are added to breads and cakes in basil, capers, garlic, mustard,
standard Iranian dish, echoed in Scandinavia, where they are also horseradish, paprika, parsley.
a lentil and spinach dish of northern used to flavour vinegar. In India, Seeds good with cabbage,
India that uses both dill leaves and seeds and leaves are used in curry onion, potatoes,
pumpkin, vinegar.
seeds. Don’t forget dill for salads powders and masalas.
Seeds combine well with
chilli, coriander seed,
cumin, garlic, ginger,
Drying leaves mustard seed, turmeric.
Dill leaves can be dried, either
by spreading them on a cloth
and leaving in a dark, warm,
well-ventilated place for a few
days, or in the microwave.
Dried leaves retain some
of the aroma and flavour
of the fresh plant.
Seeds
The seeds are oval and flattish with five ribs, two of which
form a broader rim. They are extremely light: 10,000 weigh
only about 25g (scant 1oz). Harvest seeds when they are
light brown and fully formed; put seed heads
in a large paper bag and leave in a warm
place until dry. When they have dried,
rub the seed heads between the hands
to separate seeds from husks. Use
the seeds for slow-cooked foods.
64 LIQUORICE OR ANISE HERBS
TASTING NOTES
The whole plant has a warm,
anise-liquorice aroma. The taste
Fennel
is similar: pleasantly fresh, Foeniculum vulgare
slightly sweet, with a hint of
camphor. Fennel seed is less This tall, hardy, graceful perennial, indigenous to
pungent than dill, and more
astringent than anise. the Mediterranean and now naturalized in many parts
of the world, is one of the oldest cultivated plants. The
Romans enjoyed fennel shoots as a vegetable; the Chinese
PARTS USED and Indians valued fennel as a condiment and digestive
Young leaves, flowers, pollen, aid. Today in India fennel water is used to treat colic
stalks, seeds.
in babies. The herb should not be confused with the
bulbous sweet or Florence fennel, F. v. var. dulce,
BUYING / STORING which is eaten as a vegetable.
Leaves will keep in a plastic bag
in the refrigerator for 2–3 days.
Stalks can be used fresh or tied Green fennel F. vulgare
in bundles and hung up to dry; Green fennel is a tall, stately plant with tangled, Stalks
store in an airtight container and feathery foliage. All parts of the fennel plant are Stalks have a mild
use within 6 months. Seeds will edible; the roots are no longer eaten, but the leaves,
keep for up to 2 years when flavour that keeps well
stalks, and fruits (seed) are esteemed as flavourings. when they are dried.
stored in an airtight container.
Wild fennel pollen, an intensely Fennel’s anise character derives from anethole, the
flavoured, golden-green dust, main constituent of its essential oil, which is most
can be bought via the internet. concentrated in the seed.
TASTING NOTES
Spearmint is mellow and
refreshing, with a sweet-sharp,
Mint
pleasantly pungent flavour Mentha species
backed by hints of lemon.
Peppermint has pronounced One of the most popular flavours in the world, mint is at
menthol notes and a fiery
bite, yet is also slightly sweet, once cooling and warming, with a sweet fragrance. Native
tangy, and spicy with a fresh,
cool aftertaste. to southern Europe and the Mediterranean, mints have long
naturalized throughout the temperate world. They hybridize
easily, leading to some confusion in their naming, but for the
PARTS USED cook they broadly divide into two groups: spearmint and
Leaves, fresh and dried; peppermint (pp.68–69).
flowers for salads
and garnishes.
Fresh leaves
The most widely grown mint, spearmint or garden
mint (M. spicata), has pointed leaves and bears lilac
BUYING / STORING flowers in late summer. This mint and its cultivated
Supermarkets sell pots of varieties suit all recipes calling for mint. Leaves can
spearmint and bunches will be picked thoughout the growing season but are best
keep for 2 days in a glass of harvested shortly before flowering, when the essential
water in the kitchen, or in the oils are at their strongest. The aroma of mints is due
refrigerator. Leaves can be to menthol, which also leaves cooling and mild
chopped and frozen in small numbing sensations in the mouth.
containers or mixed with a little
water or oil and frozen in ice-
cube trays. Mint dries well; pick
before flowering and hang
bunches in a dry, airy place,
or dry stalks in a low oven or
microwave. Store dried mint
in an airtight container.
DRIED LEAVES
Spearmint is the dried mint most commonly
found commercially. The aroma is pungent and
concentrated but lacks the sweetness of fresh.
68 MINTY HERBS
OTHER MINTS
Peppermint M. x piperita This mint Pineapple mint M. s. ‘Variegata’ Field mint, corn mint M. arvensis
is a hybrid of spearmint and water Smaller than apple mint, this mint has This mint has downy, grey-green
mint. A vigorous plant with tall stems light green leaves edged with cream. leaves and whorls of pink flowers
and long, green, slightly hairy leaves. Young leaves have a tropical fruit on the stem. Pungently aromatic but
Rather strident and pungent. Use aroma; older leaves are more minty. fairly mild in flavour, it is often used
sparingly for desserts, cooling drinks, Use young leaves to flavour salads, in Southeast Asian cooking. It has
and fresh or dried for teas. Grown cool drinks, and fruit desserts. a high menthol content.
commercially for its oil. Pennyroyal M. pulegium There
Basil mint M. x piperita citrata ‘Basil’
Tashkent mint M. s. ‘Tashkent’ The leaves of this mint are dark green are upright and creeping varieties
This cultivated variety has large with a purple tinge; they have a of this plant. It smells very strongly
leaves and deep pink flowers. It spicy scent with light notes of basil. of peppermint and has an intense,
has an intense aroma and flavour. Good for aubergines, courgettes, bitter flavour. I recommend using
Use as spearmint. and tomatoes. it with caution.
TASTING NOTES
The whole plant smells
warm and minty with notes
Calamint
of thyme and camphor; the Calamintha species
taste is pleasantly pungent,
warm, minty, and peppery These aromatic, perennial plants deserve to be better known.
with a light bitterness in the
aftertaste. Lesser calamint has For the cook, lesser calamint, C. nepeta, also called nepitella
a stronger odour and flavour
than large-flowered calamint. or mountain balm, is the most rewarding. Common calamint,
C. sylvatica, is less fragrant but can be used in the same way.
Large-flowered calamint, C. grandiflora, is a showy garden
PARTS USED plant and the leaves are used for infusions. The calamints
Leaves and sprigs; flowers for are related to savory.
garnishes and salads.
Culinary uses
BUYING / STORING Lesser calamint is a favourite flavouring in Sicily and Sardinia;
also in Tuscany, where it is popular with vegetables and especially
Calamint is not available as a
in mushroom dishes. The Turks use it as a mild form of mint. It is
cut herb, but specialist nurseries
stock plants. In North America good with roasts, stews, game, and grilled fish; in stuffings for
calamint is often available under vegetables and meat; and in marinades and sauces. Fresh leaves
the name nepitella. Sprigs will are best for cooking; dried are used for infusions. Large-flowered
be good for 1–2 days if kept in calamint has big, slightly floppy leaves.
a plastic bag in the refrigerator.
Tie stalks in bundles to dry and
hang in a well-ventilated place.
Fresh sprigs
Lesser calamint is a bushy plant
with downy, greyish foliage. It
bears small, lilac or white flowers
GROW YOUR OWN
throughout the summer.
Calamint prefers a chalky,
well-drained soil and full sun,
although it will tolerate partial
shade. It can be propagated by
division or grown from seed.
Large-flowered calamint makes
a handsome garden plant; all
are attractive to bees. Leaves
may be harvested from spring
to late summer.
FLAVOUR PAIRINGS
Good with aubergines,
beans, fish, green vegetables,
lentils, mushrooms, pork,
potatoes, rabbit.
Combines well with bay, chilli,
garlic, mint, myrtle, oregano,
parsley, pepper, sage, thyme.
MINTY HERBS • CATNIP Nepeta cataria 71
TASTING NOTES
Raw, dried garlic is pungent
and hot; “wet” garlic is milder.
Garlic
The disulphate allicin is formed Allium sativum
when raw garlic is cut, and this
accounts for the smell that raw Garlic is native to the steppes of central Asia and spread first
garlic leaves on the breath.
Cooking garlic degrades the to the Middle East. It was one of the earliest cultivated herbs,
allicin but forms other disulphates
that have less odour. Black garlic but its early use was mainly medical and magical – except in
was first used in Korean cooking ancient Egypt where it was eaten in quantity. When the first
and in recent years it has become
popular in the West. The heads English settlers took it to America it was still regarded as
are gently heated for several a medicinal herb. Today it is recognized for lowering blood
weeks to achieve a blackened
appearance. The slow-heating pressure and cholesterol, but its culinary use has become
caramelizes the garlic, the flesh
is soft, almost jellied and the vastly more important.
flavour is mellow, balsamic, and
slightly nutty. Use as fresh garlic.
PARTS USED
Fresh heads
At the beginning of the growing season,
Bulbs. heads of new “wet” garlic are succulent and
mild and have a soft, thick, white skin.
BUYING / STORING
Garlic is available all year
round. Choose unbruised,
firm heads without signs of
mould or sprouting. If your
garlic is sprouting, remove
the indigestible green shoots.
Store garlic in a cool, dry
place. Dehydrated garlic
flakes, granules, and powder
are available. Garlic paste
can be had frozen, in tubes.
Smoked garlic is chic but not
especially useful.
ONIONY HERBS • GARLIC Allium sativum 73
Dried cloves
Dried cloves of garlic may
have a white, pink, or violet
skin, depending on variety.
Garlic was one of the earliest herbs to be cultivated.
Although its strong taste and smell were disliked by many,
its medical and magical properties were never in doubt.
Its culinary use is greatest in Southeast Asia and Europe.
76 ONIONY HERBS
Garlic varieties
Several plants have aromatic qualities similar
to those of garlic. Slender rocambole is actually
related to the leek. European wild garlic, or
ramsons, comes closest to garlic in taste and
has the advantage that it can be gathered
early in spring. The huge cloves of elephant
garlic, A. ampeloprasum, may be too mild
for real garlic aficionados, but they are good
roasted with other vegetables. North American
wild garlic, A. canadense, has a flavour between
garlic and leek.
Ramsons A. ursinum
Ramsons grow wild in much of Europe. The leaves resemble
those of lily-of-the-valley, but with the smell of wild garlic; the
flavour is milder than the smell. They are easy to cultivate, but
invasive. Leaves are picked in late winter and early spring;
then come the more strongly scented, white, star-like flowers;
the bulbils have the strongest flavour of all. Leaves are
best used fresh to enhance winter salads, to garnish
potato and egg dishes, in soups, in cream or
yogurt sauces, with asparagus or morels in
a risotto, cooked briefly with spinach, or
wrapped around fish fillets
before steaming.
ONIONY HERBS • GREEN ONION Allium fistulosum 77
TASTING NOTES
All parts of chives have a
light, onion aroma and
Chives
a spicy, onion flavour. Allium schoenoprasum
This smallest and most delicately flavoured member
PARTS USED of the onion family originated in northern temperate
Stems and flowers. zones. Chives have long grown wild all over Europe
and North America, but widespread cultivation in
Europe does not seem to have begun until the later
BUYING / STORING Middle Ages. The herb became popular only in the
Buy a clump from a nursery and 19th century.
divide the small bulbs as needed
to guarantee a sufficient supply.
Drying chives is pointless, but
chopped and frozen they retain Culinary uses
their flavour tolerably well. Use Chives should never be cooked,
straight from the freezer. since cooking quickly dissipates
their taste. Chopped with a knife
or with scissors, they can be added
in generous measure to many dishes
GROW YOUR OWN
and salads. Their delicate onion
Chives grow as grass-like flavour, crunchy texture, and fresh
clumps of hollow, bright green green appearance livens up potato
stalks, with small, spherical, pink
to purple flower heads. They are salad and many a soup, and lends
hardy perennials, easy to grow an equally upbeat note to any herb
in any garden soil, but they must sauce. It has become traditional to
be watered well because the serve chives with butter or sour
small bulbous roots remain very cream as a dressing for baked
near the surface. Propagate by potatoes. Stirred into thick yogurt,
division. The plants die back in
winter, but reappear very early chives make a fresh relish for grilled
in spring. They should be cut, fish. The attractive, bright flowers
preferably the outer ones first have a pleasant, light, onion taste
to keep the clump tidy. Always and look good scattered over herb
leave some top growth on the salads or added to omelettes.
clumps to preserve the strength
of the bulbs.
FLAVOUR PAIRINGS
Fresh stems
Essential to fines herbes.
Chives should be crisp,
Good with avocados, not floppy. Use quickly
courgettes, cream cheese,
after cutting.
egg dishes, fish and seafood,
potatoes, smoked salmon,
root vegetables, yogurt.
Combines well with basil,
chervil, coriander, fennel, sweet
cicely, paprika, parsley, tarragon.
ONIONY HERBS • CHINESE CHIVES Allium tuberosum 79
BUYING / STORING
Culinary uses
Oriental shops sell the chives in
Cut into short lengths, Chinese chives the flowers are ground and salted to bundles, and blanched chives
can be quickly blanched to accompany make a spice. Blanched chives are a and the stiff flowerbud stalks
pork or poultry. They are used in spring popular but expensive delicacy; they in smaller bundles. Once cut,
rolls and added at the last minute for are stirred into soups, noodle dishes, chives wilt quickly – blanched
pungency in stir-fried dishes of beef, and steamed vegetables at the last Chinese chives fastest of all.
Green chives will keep for a
prawns, tofu, and many vegetables. minute. Flower stems and leaves
few days in a plastic bag in
Little bundles dipped in batter can of Chinese chives look good placed the refrigerator but the
be deep-fried. The flower buds, sold inside a bottle of white wine smell is strong.
separately on their stalks, are a much- vinegar and soon give it
prized vegetable. In China and Japan, a light garlic flavour.
TASTING NOTES
Cutting celery leaves have a
herbaceous, parsley-like aroma
Celery
and taste combined with warmth Apium graveolens
and a bitter note. Chinese celery
is similar in flavour. Water celery Wild celery, or smallage, is an ancient European plant
has a fresh taste; parsley notes
are more dominant than celery’s from which garden celery and celeriac were bred in the
warm bitterness.
17th century. Cutting or leaf celery resembles the original
wild celery. Chinese celery is mid-green with leaves similar
to those of garden celery. The unrelated water or Vietnamese
PARTS USED
celery, Oenanthe javanica, has upright stalks with small,
Leaves, stalks, and fruits (seeds).
serrated leaves; do not confuse it with the poisonous
European water dropwort, O. crocata.
BUYING / STORING
Cutting celery will keep for 4–5 Cutting celery A. graveolens
days. Leaves of garden celery
Cutting celery looks like a dark green, glossy
will last for about the same time.
Chinese celery is often sold with version of flat-leaf parsley. It produces an
its roots and will last for a week if abundance of leaves on erect stems to
kept whole. Water celery keeps for form a bushy plant.
1–2 days. Store them all in plastic
bags in the refrigerator. Seeds in
an airtight container will remain
aromatic for up to 2 years.
FLAVOUR PAIRINGS
Good with cabbage, chicken,
cucumber, fish, potatoes, rice,
soy sauce, tomatoes, tofu.
Combines well with cloves,
Seeds
coriander leaves, cumin, Celery seed has an aroma and taste that
ginger, mustard, parsley, is much more pronounced than that of the
pepper, turmeric. parent plant. It is penetrating, spicy, with hints
of nutmeg, citrus, and parsley and it leaves
a somewhat bitter, burning aftertaste.
BITTER OR ASTRINGENT HERBS • CELERY Apium graveolens 81
Culinary uses
Cutting celery is used in Holland, dishes, rice, and noodles throughout The Japanese use it for sukiyaki.
Belgium, and Germany as a garnish Southeast Asia. I have also enjoyed It also flavours tomato salad.
or stirred into dishes before serving. a very good Thai dish of fish steamed The Russians and Scandinavians
It is one of the herbs used for the with Chinese celery. add the seeds to soups, and a
traditional dish of eel in green sauce. Garden celery and celeriac are few lightly crushed seeds give
In northern France it is sold as a eaten raw or cooked as vegetables, a pleasant warmth to dressings
soup herb; in Greece it is popular but you can also use the leaves as for winter vegetable salads. Indian
in fish and meat casseroles. Cutting a flavouring. Cooking tempers the cooks also pair celery seed with
celery is useful because you can pick bitterness of all types of celery, but tomato in curries. Try seeds in
leaves to add to bouquets garnis, they retain their other aromatic potato salad, in cabbage dishes,
soups, and stews, instead of having properties. Water celery, with its in stews, and in breads. Because
to use a celery stick. mild taste, is very popular in Vietnam they are so small, celery seeds are
Chinese celery is used as a as a salad herb, or lightly cooked, usually used whole. The flavour is
flavouring and as a vegetable. It is when it is added to soups, fish, and strong: use sparingly. Celery salt
rarely eaten raw. Stems are sliced chicken dishes. Thais use it in a is a mixture of ground seed and
and used in stir-fried dishes; leaves similar way and serve it raw with salt, usually about 75 per cent salt
and stems flavour soups, braised larp or blanched with nam prik. and 25 per cent seed.
Chinese celery
A. graveolens
Chinese celery (kun choi)
looks like a small head of
green garden celery. The
stalks are thin and hollow.
82 BITTER OR ASTRINGENT HERBS
TASTING NOTES
Lovage is strongly aromatic,
somewhat similar to celery (in
Lovage
French it is called céleri bâtard, Levisticum officinale
or false celery) but more pungent,
with musky overtones and notes Lovage is native to western Asia and southern Europe,
of anise, lemon, and yeast. The
aroma and taste are distinct where it has been used since Roman times; outside Europe
and tenacious.
its use has never become popular. Wild and cultivated forms
are indistinguishable, and the herb has long been naturalized
elsewhere – even in Australia. In Italy it is chiefly associated
PARTS USED
with Liguria – the name levisticum may be a corruption of
Leaves, stems, roots, seeds.
ligusticum, or Ligurian. The Pilgrim Fathers are believed
to have taken lovage to North America.
BUYING / STORING
Seeds and ground, dried roots Fresh stalks
can be bought from some spice Lovage is a tall, stately umbellifer with rather
merchants. Cut lovage is seldom large, dark-green, toothed leaves and ridged,
sold, but it is easy to grow your hollow stems. The small but attractive yellow
own; buy seeds or plants from flowers bloom in late summer, then give way
a herb nursery. Pick leaves at to huge heads of seeds.
any time; in a plastic bag they
will keep for 3–4 days in the
refrigerator. Cut stalks off at
their base, the outer ones
first. As the seeds turn brown,
pick fruiting stalks and hang
them upside down to dry,
with a paper bag over the
seed heads. These will keep
for a year or two.
TASTING NOTES
Hyssop has a strong and pleasant
aroma of camphor and mint. The
Hyssop
taste of the dark green leaves is Hyssopus officinalis
refreshing but potent, hot, minty,
and bitterish – reminiscent of Hyssop is a low, perennial shrub, semi-woody and semi-
rosemary, savory, and thyme.
evergreen, that is native to northern Africa, southern Europe,
and western Asia. It is a handsome, compact plant that has
PARTS USED long been naturalized in central and western Europe. The
Leaves and young shoots; Romans used it as a base for a herbal wine, and it was
flowers. cultivated as a condiment and a strewing herb in monastic
gardens during the early Middle Ages.
BUYING / STORING
In a plastic bag in the vegetable Culinary uses
drawer of the refrigerator Hyssop leaves and young shoots summer drinks, digestives, and
hyssop will keep for about can be used in salads (to which the liqueurs. It is very good in fruit pies
a week.
flowers can make a robust garnish) and compotes, and with sherbets
or added to soups. The herb is and desserts made using assertively
particularly good in rabbit, kid, and flavoured fruits such as apricots,
GROW YOUR OWN game stews; rubbing it on to fatty morello cherries, peaches, and
meats such as lamb can make them raspberries. A sugar syrup made
Hyssop grows well from easier to digest. It has long been for a fruit dish will benefit from
seed but can also be divided
or propagated by cuttings. It used to flavour non-alcoholic boiling with a sprig of hyssop.
likes dry, rocky, well-drained
soils, needs sun but tolerates
shade, and is hardy enough for Fresh sprigs
northern temperate zones. Every Hyssop should be used sparingly
3 years or so, hyssop plants or it will overwhelm other flavours.
should be divided or they will
become too woody. As hyssop
is virtually evergreen, its leaves
can be picked even in winter.
The long, dense flower spikes
that appear in late summer are
attractive to bees. Their colour
depends on the variety grown:
H. o. albus has white flowers;
H .o. subsp. aristatus, dark blue
ones; H. o. roseus, pink.
FLAVOUR PAIRINGS
Good with apricots, beetroot,
cabbage, carrots, egg dishes,
game, mushrooms, peaches, Leaves
pulses, pumpkin, squashes. Both leaves and flowers
Combines well with bay, retain much of their strength
chervil, mint, parsley, thyme. when dried. The tiny flowers
have a more delicate flavour
than the leaves.
BITTER OR ASTRINGENT HERBS • CHICORY Cichorium intybus 85
FLAVOUR PAIRINGS
Good with fresh cheeses,
lettuce and other salad
greens, nuts.
Combines well with chervil,
coriander, cresses, parsley,
purslane, salad burnet,
sweet cicely.
86 PUNGENT AND SPICY HERBS
TASTING NOTES
The basic taste is warm, slightly
sharp, and bitterish with a note
Oregano and marjoram
of camphor. To this marjoram Origanum species
adds a sweet, subtle spiciness,
even in temperate climates. Low, bushy perennials of the mint family, the marjorams
Oregano is more robust and
peppery, with a bite and often and oreganos are native to the Mediterranean and western
a lemony note. These qualities
diminish in colder climates. Asia. The plants are often confused, partly because marjoram
used to have its own genus, Majorana, but also because the
word “oregano” is often used simply as a term for a certain
PARTS USED type of flavour and aroma. Thus, unrelated plants with a
Leaves, flower knots. similar aromatic profile may also be called oregano.
BUYING / STORING
Marjoram and oregano plants
can be bought from herb Common oregano
nurseries and supermarkets. O. vulgare
To dry the herbs, pick stalks
This plant has reddish stalks that are
after the flower buds form
slightly woody; the leaves are mid-
and hang bunches in a well-
ventilated, dry place. Rub the green and hairy underneath; the
leaves off and store them flowers deep pink, white,
in an airtight container. In or mauve.
supermarkets oregano is more
easily available dried than fresh.
Dried oregano keeps for a year.
Dried leaves
Dried marjoram and oregano are
more intensely aromatic than fresh
and have a stronger flavour. Several
varieties of oregano are sold dried
under the Greek name rígani.
PUNGENT AND SPICY HERBS • OREGANO AND MARJORAM Origanum species 87
OTHER OREGANOS
There are a number of unrelated oregano are Poliomintha longiflora the centre (p.176), can be bought from
plants used and sold as oregano. and Monarda fistulosa var. menthifolia. Iranian shops, as can the powdered
These grow in the southwestern US spice. Golpar has a herbaceous, balsam
Cuban oregano, Plectranthus
and Mexico, where they are prized for aroma with yeasty overtones. The taste
amboinicus, is a tender perennial with
their pungent flavours. Cumin and is mellow at first but has a persistent
an intense flavour, native to southern
coriander (cilantro) are their natural bitter note. When cooked, mellowness
Africa, now widely cultivated in the
partners in the kitchen. dominates. It is used in soups,
tropics. Its pungent, thick leaves are
particularly lentil and bean, in pickles,
good to eat raw; they are much used in Golpar, an Iranian spice described
over broad beans or potatoes, and
the Philippines and in Cuba, especially erroneously as marjoram or angelica
eaten as a snack on pomegranate seeds.
for black beans. Use in marinades for seed, is in fact the seed of a hogweed,
fish or meat or add towards the end Heracleum persicum. Whole seeds,
when braising. Also marketed as yellow-green with brown markings in
TASTING NOTES
Strongly aromatic, warm and
peppery, resinous and slightly
Rosemary
bitter, with notes of pine and Rosmarinus officinalis
camphor. Nutmeg and camphor
are present in the taste; the Rosemary is a dense, woody, evergreen perennial, native
aftertaste is woody, balsamic,
and astringent. The flavour to the Mediterranean but long cultivated in temperate
dissipates after leaves are cut.
Flowers have a milder flavour zones throughout Europe and America. It has been grown
than leaves. in England since Roman times and is hardy enough for
all but the most northern zones. In the early 9th century,
Charlemagne, in his Capitulaire de Villes, included it in
PARTS USED
the list of essential plants to be grown on the imperial
The small needle-like leaves,
sprigs, stalks, flowers. estates; in the later Middle Ages it was still used as a
strewing or incense herb.
BUYING / STORING
Buy plants from a nursery,
or grow from cuttings. Pots
of rosemary are available all Fresh leaves
year round from supermarkets Rosemary leaves can be tough, so they
and greengrocers. This means
are best chopped before being added to
there is little demand for dried
any dish in which they will be eaten.
rosemary, although this retains
most of its flavour and the leaves
can easily be crumbled for use.
Herbes de Provence
Used with meat, game, vegetable,
and tomato dishes, this herb blend
can be fresh or dried. This version
includes rosemary, thyme, marjoram,
savory, and bay (recipe, p.267).
92 PUNGENT AND SPICY HERBS
TASTING NOTES
Sage can be mild, musky, and
balsamic, or strongly camphorous
Sage
with astringent notes and a warm Salvia species
spiciness. Generally, variegated
species are milder than common The sages are native to the north Mediterranean and are
sage. Dried sage is more potent
than fresh and can be acrid and mostly perennial, shrubby plants that thrive on warm, dry
musty; it is best avoided, except
for tea. soils. The great variety of their textured, velvety foliage –
from pale grey-green to green splashed with silver or gold,
as well as the dark leaves of purple sage – makes them
PARTS USED attractive garden plants as well as an invaluable addition
Leaves, fresh or dried. All sages to the cook’s repertoire of seasonings.
have attractive, hooded flowers
that make pretty garnishes.
Common sage S. officinalis
There are broad and narrow-leaved varieties
BUYING / STORING of common sage. Young, green leaves are less
pungent than the older, grey ones. Narrow-
Pots of sage are now sold in leaved sage has pretty, lilac, blue, or
many supermarkets. Fresh sage
white flowers. Broad-leaved sage
leaves, ideally, are picked and
seldom flowers.
used as soon as possible. If you
buy them, wrap in kitchen paper
and keep in the salad drawer
of the refrigerator for no more
than a few days. Dried sage will
keep for up to 6 months when
stored away from light in an
airtight container.
Purple sage
S. o. Purpurascens Group
This sage has musky, spicy
tones and is slightly less
pungent than common
sage. It rarely flowers,
but when it does the
blue flowers look
stunning against
the foliage.
Bouquet garni
for meats
Little bundles of herbs such as
this can be varied to suit the dish
to be cooked. Sprigs of thyme,
sage, cutting celery, and parsley
make a fine flavouring for stews
(recipes, p.266).
94 PUNGENT AND SPICY HERBS
S. o. ‘Icterina’
This cultivated variety has pretty
gold-and-green variegated
foliage, but rarely flowers. The
flavour is considerably milder
than that of common sage.
TASTING NOTES
The whole plant has a warm,
earthy, and peppery fragrance
Thyme
when lightly brushed. The taste Thymus species
is spicy, with notes of cloves and
mint, a hint of camphor, and a Thyme is a small, hardy, evergreen shrub with small,
mouth-cleansing aftertaste.
aromatic leaves, indigenous to the Mediterranean basin.
It grows wild on the hot, arid hillsides of its native region,
PARTS USED where it has infinitely more flavour than it ever achieves
Leaves and sprigs; flowers in cooler regions. Wild thyme tends to be woody and
for garnishes. straggly. Cultivated varieties have more tender stalks
and a bushy form; there are hundreds of them, each
with a slightly different aroma, and they have a
BUYING / STORING
tendency to cross-breed as well.
Many varieties of thyme are sold
by nurseries, but make sure they
smell when brushed lightly by
hand. Common and lemon thyme Common thyme T. vulgaris
are available as growing plants The basic thyme for cooking, also called garden thyme,
or fresh sprigs from supermarkets. is a cultivated variety of wild Mediterranean thyme. It
Fresh leaves will keep for up to forms a sturdy, upright shrub with grey-green leaves
a week stored in a plastic bag
and white or pale lilac flowers. There are a number of
in the refrigerator. Dried thyme
will retain its flavour through garden thymes, including English “broad-leaved” and
the winter. French “narrow-leaved” varieties.
Lemon-scented thyme
T. sp. ‘Lemon Mist’
This lemon-scented thyme has narrow
leaves and a mounding growth habit.
It is used in salads and as a flavouring
for tea. A few chopped leaves added
in the last few minutes of cooking
will add zest to soups.
100 PUNGENT AND SPICY HERBS
TASTING NOTES
Savories have a peppery bite.
Summer savory has a subtle,
Savory
herbaceous scent and flavour, Satureja species
is agreeably piquant, slightly
resinous, and reminiscent of Highly aromatic, as the name suggests, savory was one
thyme, mint, and marjoram.
Winter savory has a more of the strongest flavourings available before spices reached
assertive, penetrating aroma
and flavour, with notes of Europe. Summer savory (S. hortensis) is native to the eastern
sage and pine. Mediterranean and the Caucasus; winter savory (S. montana)
to southern Europe, Turkey, and North Africa. Both were
taken to northern Europe by the Romans and to America
PARTS USED
by early settlers.
Leaves and sprigs; flowers
for garnishes and salads.
Fresh sprigs
Winter savory leaves
can be harvested
year round.
102 PUNGENT AND SPICY HERBS
Indian mint, S. douglasii, is a pretty, trailing plant the common name used for any minty plant, whether
with small, heart shaped, toothed leaves and tiny, it be spearmint or one of the Satureja varieties.
white flowers. It has a rather synthetic, sweet smell Costa Rican or Jamaican mint bush, S. viminea, has
with notes of mint (a little like chewing gum) and a small, oval, glossy, light leaves and an agreeable, minty
minty, bitterish taste. Indian mint is native to western smell and flavour. Native to central America and the
and central America, and probably was given this Caribbean, it grows in the southern and western regions
name because it was used by Native Americans. In of the US. In Trinidad and Tobago it is used as a meat
California it is called yerba buena (the good herb) flavouring; it seems mostly to be used for tea elsewhere.
and in the past it was used to make a restorative tea:
use it sparingly. In Mexico yerba or hierba buena is
Thymbra S. thymbra
Also called thyme-leaved savory, this is a small,
woody perennial found in Sardinia, Crete, and the
Aegean islands, and on the western coast of Turkey.
Its scent is of thyme, mint, and savory, and the taste
has an agreeable bite. Leaves and flower tips are
used to flavour meat, game, and vegetable stews,
grilled meats, and in cures for olives.
PUNGENT AND SPICY HERBS • MICROMERIA Micromeria species 103
TASTING NOTES
Leaves, roots, and unripe
seeds all have the same aroma.
Coriander
Some people are addicted to Coriandrum sativum
its refreshing, lemony-ginger
aroma with notes of sage; others Native to the Mediterranean and western Asia, coriander
hate it and find it soapy and
disagreeable. The flavour is is now grown worldwide. It is both a herb and spice, and
delicate yet complex, with a
suggestion of pepper, mint, a fragrant staple in many cuisines. The fresh leaves are
and lemon. essential to Asian, Latin American, and Portuguese
cooking. Thai cooks also use the thin, spindly root.
In western cooking the fruit or seed is used
PARTS USED
as a spice; in the Middle East and India
Leaves and sprigs, roots.
both are common in the kitchen.
In North America coriander is often
called cilantro, or Chinese parsley.
BUYING / STORING
Fresh coriander is available
in pots or as a cut herb from Fresh sprigs
greengrocers and supermarkets; Coriander was called a “very stinking
bunches are sold with roots herbe” by Gerard, the 16th-century
intact in Southeast Asian shops, herbalist, and is known as the “fragrant
or you can grow your own. In a plant” by the Chinese. The herb’s aroma
plastic bag, it keeps for 3–4 days
continues to provoke both dislike and
in the refrigerator vegetable
enthusiasm today.
drawer. Frozen coriander keeps
its flavour fairly well; chop and
freeze in small pots or in ice-
cube trays covered with a little
water. Dried coriander is not
worthwhile and is never used
in Asian cuisines.
TASTING NOTES
Culantro has an intense aroma
with a fetid element, as its
Culantro
Latin name indicates. The taste Eryngium foetidum
is earthy, pungent, and quite
sharp – a concentrated version This tender biennial grows wild on many Caribbean islands
of coriander with a bitter note
at the finish. and is variously called shado beni (Trinidad), chadron benee
(Domenica), and recao (Puerto Rico). Also grown in southeast
Asia, it is ngo gai in Vietnam, and reaches Europe with names
PARTS USED like sawtooth herb, long or spiny coriander, Chinese parsley,
Fresh leaves. as well as its Spanish name culantro, which is most commonly
used in English-speaking countries.
BUYING / STORING
Plants are available at some Culinary uses
herb nurseries. Leaves, tied In its indigenous regions, culantro Mexican cooks use it in salsas. In
in bundles, sometimes with is consumed enthusiastically. It Asia it is often used to temper the
rootlets attached, are sold in
oriental shops. They keep for
flavours soups, stews and curries, smell of beef, which many people
3–4 days in the refrigerator. rice and noodle dishes, meat and find too pungent. For northern Thai
I have not come across culantro fish dishes. It is a key ingredient in cooks it is common in larp, a fiery
as a dried herb, but it freezes Trinidadian fish and meat marinades, dish of lightly cooked or raw beef
well. Remove the thick central and in Puerto Rican sofrito, a mixture served with sticky rice. In Vietnam
rib and purée the leaves with of garlic, onion, green pepper, chillies, young leaves are always in the
a little water or sunflower oil,
then freeze in ice-cube trays.
coriander, and culantro that forms the bowl of herbs put on the table to
basis of many of the island’s dishes. accompany the meal.
Fresh leaves
FLAVOUR PAIRINGS Leaves are leathery and
Combines well with chillies, toothed, sometimes spiny.
coriander, galangal, garlic, If so, remove spines or cook
makrut lime, lemon grass, thoroughly. Can be used
mint, parsley. instead of coriander, but
use less.
PUNGENT AND SPICY HERBS • RAU RAM Polygonum odoratum / Persicaria odoratum 107
Fresh leaves
Rau ram withstands cooking
better than coriander and will
GROW YOUR OWN
impart a subtle flavour to A bushy herb, rau ram grows
cooked dishes if added part wild on the banks and streams
way through the cooking. The in its native habitat. Unless there
leaves may also be used as a is a hard frost it will overwinter
in a sheltered spot outside. Rau
component of a salad platter.
ram grows best in partial shade
and rapidly becomes invasive in
rich, moist soil. In the tropics it
bears red or pink flowers. Keep
trimming the plant to encourage
new growth. It roots easily if
stems are left in a glass of water
for 2–3 days, after which it can
be planted out.
FLAVOUR PAIRINGS
Good with coconut milk, egg
dishes, fish and seafood, meat,
poultry, noodles, bean sprouts,
red and green peppers,
water chestnuts.
Combines well with chillies,
galangal, garlic, ginger, lemon
grass, salad herbs.
108 PUNGENT AND SPICY HERBS
TASTING NOTES
Rocket’s toothed leaves have a
warm, peppery smell that rises
Rocket
from the bed as soon as the Eruca vesicaria subsp. sativa
first leaf is picked. The taste is
pleasantly pungent. The small, Rocket is native to Asia and southern Europe and
white or yellow, edible flowers
have a faint orange aroma; they naturalized in North America, where it is known as
make an attractive garnish.
arugula. It was a popular herb in Europe until the 18th
century, when it virtually disappeared everywhere but in
Italy. After nearly two centuries of neglect it is having a
PARTS USED
well-deserved revival, and is currently one of the most
Leaves and flowers.
fashionable salad herbs in both Europe and North America.
Turkish rocket
Bunias orientalis
Turkish rocket grows wild in parts of Asia. It has a sharp and coarse
flavour, rather like horseradish, and a tinge of sulphur. Called rokka,
it can often be bought in large bunches from Turkish or Cypriot stores.
It is better cooked, for instance in a vegetable frittata, than used raw.
110 PUNGENT AND SPICY HERBS
TASTING NOTES
Watercress has little aroma;
sprigs and leaves are crisp
Watercress
and have a peppery, slighty Nasturtium officinale
bitterish taste.
Watercress is a hardy perennial native to Europe and
Asia, widely naturalized in North America, and has been
PARTS USED introduced also into the West Indies and South America.
Sprigs and leaves. Its use as a salad herb can be traced back to the Persians,
Greeks, and Romans. Its cultivation in northern Europe
started relatively late – Germany began growing it
BUYING / STORING
in the 16th century, and Britain had not started
Cress and nasturtium seeds
can be had from nurseries. In before 1800.
greengrocers and supermarkets
watercress is available all year
round, either sold separately or Culinary uses
in bags of mixed greens. Land
cress is occasionally available Watercress is used in an amazing American southwest watercress soup
from upmarket greengrocers. In variety of soups, made either with may be served with a red pepper rouille.
a plastic bag in the refrigerator stock, cream, or yogurt. Best known is The herb is also served with fish, often
drawer cresses will keep for 4–5 French potage au cresson, potato and with ginger; made into a sauce, much
days. Nasturtium flowers should
watercress soup, served hot or cold; like sorrel, it goes well with salmon. In
be used immediately. Seeds can
be harvested in autumn to sow Italians use cress in minestrone and China watercress is popular blanched,
the next year. other vegetable soups; the Chinese in chopped, and tossed in light sesame
egg-drop and wonton soups and in oil, or stir-fried with salt, sugar, and
Cantonese seafood broths. In the a little rice wine.
FLAVOUR PAIRINGS
Good with chicken,
cucumber, fish, onion,
oranges, potatoes, salmon.
Combines well with fennel,
ginger, parsley, other salad
herbs, sorrel.
PUNGENT AND SPICY HERBS • WATERCRESS Nasturtium officinale 111
Other cresses
There are many plants resembling or used like watercress but not necessarily
related to N. officinale. Nasturtium is the common name of a South American
genus cultivated widely for its vivid flowers. The transfer of the name came
about because the leaves taste similar to watercress, although few people
take advantage of nasturtiums in the kitchen.
TASTING NOTES
Wasabi has a fierce, burning
smell that makes the nose
Wasabi
prickle, and a bitingly sharp Eutrema wasabi
but fresh and cleansing taste.
Dried wasabi only develops its This herbaceous perennial grows primarily in cold mountain
penetrating aroma and flavour
when mixed with water and left streams in Japan; cultivation is now progressing well in
to steep for about 10 minutes.
California, New Zealand, and the UK. The name translates
as mountain hollyhock. In the West the plant is sometimes
called Japanese horseradish, a reference to its pungency
PARTS USED
and the fact that the gnarled and knobbly root, on average
Roots.
about 10–12cm (4–5in) long, is the edible part.
HARVESTING
Wasabi can only be cultivated
in cold, pure, running water;
commercial growing is usually
done in flooded terraces,
usually in partial shade. It
is very expensive to produce.
PUNGENT AND SPICY HERBS • WASABI Eutrema wasabi 113
Grated root
In Japan peeled wasabi root is grated finely
on an oroshigane, a flat grater tightly set
with thin spikes. Made of stainless steel,
tinned copper, or plastic, these can be
bought from Japanese shops.
Wasabi paste
Because wasabi is so expensive, harsher-
tasting horseradish mixed with mustard and green
colouring is frequently passed off as wasabi paste
or powder. Real paste costs more than twice the price
of fake wasabi paste and has a shorter “use by” date.
114 PUNGENT AND SPICY HERBS
TASTING NOTES
Horseradish root is very pungent
and mustard-like when just grated,
Horseradish
enough to make your eyes water Armoracia rusticana
and your nose run. The taste is
acrid, sharp, and hot. The leaves Horseradish is a hardy perennial native to eastern Europe
are also pungent when crushed;
the taste is sharp, but much and western Asia, where it still grows wild in the steppes of
milder than that of the root.
Russia and Ukraine. Its culinary use probably originated in
Russia and eastern Europe, spreading to central Europe in
the early Middle Ages, later to Scandinavia and western
PARTS USED
Europe. English settlers took it to North America, and
Fresh young leaves; fresh
or dried roots. cultivation was established by German and eastern
European immigrants around 1850. By about 1860
bottled horseradish was available as one of the
BUYING / STORING first convenience condiments.
Fresh roots can be hard to
find except before Passover –
horseradish is one of the five Fresh root
bitter herbs of the Seder. Fresh Slicing a long, thick, hairy, yellowish-brown
roots taken from the garden will horseradish root reveals white flesh.
keep for months in dry sand;
Grating releases its highly pungent volatile
bought ones remain good for
2–3 weeks in a plastic bag in the oil, but this dissipates very quickly and
refrigerator, even after being cut does not survive cooking.
and part-used. Grated horseradish
can be frozen. Dried roots can be
bought powdered or flaked.
Grated root
Sprinkle lemon juice on grated
horseradish to preserve its white
colour and pungency. Vinegar
is used to prevent browning
and loss of flavour in
commercial horseradish
condiments.
116 PUNGENT AND SPICY HERBS
TASTING NOTES
Not everyone likes epazote.
The aroma is described as that
Epazote
of turpentine or putty by those Chenopodium ambrosioides
who hate it, while it reminds
others of savory, mint, and citrus. Native to central and southern Mexico, epazote was an
I think of it as camphorous,
earthy, and minty. The taste essential ingredient of Mayan cuisine in the Yucatán and
is pungent and refreshing,
bitterish with lingering citrus
Guatemala. It is now widely cultivated and used in southern
notes and a curious, oddly Mexico, the northern countries of South America, and the
addictive rankness.
Caribbean islands. Its use is spreading in North America,
where it is often found as a weed along roadsides and in
PARTS USED towns; it is grown commercially in the south. It still has
Leaves, fresh or dried.
to make its mark in Europe, although it grows wild
there also.
FLAVOUR PAIRINGS
Essential to black bean dishes,
quesadillas (cheese-filled
tortillas), mole verde, salsas.
Good with chorizo, fish and
shellfish, lime, mushrooms, onion,
peppers, pork, pulses, rice,
squash, sweetcorn, tomatillos,
green vegetables.
Fresh leaves
The taste of epazote is too pungent for
Combines well with chilli, many people. Its name, deriving from
cloves, coriander leaf, cumin,
Nahuatl, an Aztec language still spoken Dried leaves
garlic, oregano.
around Mexico City, refers to a disagreeable Use dried leaves only
odour – epatl means skunk and tzotl sweat. when fresh are unavailable.
PUNGENT AND SPICY HERBS • MUGWORT Artemisia vulgaris 117
FLAVOUR PAIRINGS
Good with beans, duck, eel,
game, goose, onions, pork, rice.
Combines well with
garlic, pepper.
Dried leaves
In Germany mugwort is available
fresh and dried; elsewhere it is
necessary to grow your own, or
buy dried via the internet.
Preparing
herbs
STRIPPING, CHOPPING, AND POUNDING HERBS 119
Stripping leaves
When stripping herbs you may find that you are not able to go right to the top of the stalk because it is too
tender and will break. Such upper stalks are likely to be soft enough to chop with the leaves. Some herbs are
easier to strip from the top down, particularly those with large leaves.
▼
▼
Stripping tough stalks Stripping tender stalks
Hold the bottom of the stalk Strip fennel and dill from the
firmly in one hand, place the bottom of the stalk, pulling
thumb and first finger of the the leaf sprays upwards with
other hand on either side one hand. Take out any thick
of the stalk, and, using stalks that remain and strip
the thumb to guide, off the leaves.
pull upwards, stripping
the leaves onto a board.
Chopping leaves
Herbs are chopped according to the dish for which
they are needed. Finely chopped herbs integrate well
with other ingredients. They provide immediate flavour
because so much of their surface is exposed, allowing the
essential oils to blend into the food quickly, but they may
lose their flavour in cooking. Coarsely chopped herbs
keep their identity, flavour, and texture longer and survive
cooking better than finely chopped herbs, but are less
attractive in a smooth-textured dish.
▼
Using a mezzaluna
Some cooks prefer to use the curved mezzaluna for large
amounts of herbs. This implement is rocked backwards and
forwards to great effect. Herbs may also be chopped in the small
bowl of a food processor; use the pulse button and chop briefly.
Make sure the herbs are completely dry or they will turn out
unattractively paste-like. It is more difficult to obtain uniformly
chopped leaves in a processor.
120 PREPARING HERBS
Freezing herbs
Soft herbs that do not dry well can be frozen. Frozen herbs keep their fragrance for 3–4 months.
Use for soups, stews, braised dishes, and sauces.
▼
▼
Freezing chopped herbs Freezing puréed herbs
Wash and dry the herbs well, Alternatively purée each
chop, and freeze in small pots herb with a little oil in a
or in ice-cube trays with a little food processor and freeze
water or oil. Store the cubes in bags or plastic pots.
in plastic bags.
Drying herbs
Herbs hanging in a well-ventilated place will dry within a few days to a week. Those kept in a
steamy kitchen will not dry well. Avoid direct sunlight or too much heat because they will cause
the essential oils to evaporate.
2 Drying is complete
when the leaves feel
brittle. Large leaves or
small flowerbuds can be
rubbed between the palms
▲ Microwaving herbs of your hands to crumble
Scatter two handfuls of cleaned leaves and sprigs evenly on a them. Otherwise, strip the
leaves from the stalks.
double layer of kitchen paper and microwave at 100 per cent for
Store in airtight containers.
21⁄2 minutes. Bay leaves may need a little longer. Microwaving
preserves colour well. Store as right.
122 PREPARING HERBS
▲ Herb butter
Wrap in foil and refrigerate or put into a plastic sealable bag
and freeze.
Spices
126 INTRODUCING SPICES
Introducing
spices
I have long had a passion for spices and a fascination with their
origins and production, as well as their culinary possibilities. What
people eat in any particular region is, or was, largely determined by
what grew and was reared there. The style of cooking originally
depended on local conditions, such as the availability of fuels, but
what really differentiates the great cuisines of the world is the
spices they use and how they blend them.
Asafoetida
Produce of tropical Asia
Most of the important spice plants – cinnamon, cloves, galangal,
ginger, nutmeg, pepper – are native to the Asian tropics. They have
been used and traded for millennia, and much has been written
about the history of their trade – the fortunes and empires founded
on it, the brutal conquests, piracy, and greed; but our view of these
developments has always been a European one. We know about the
overland routes from China to Byzantium, we are aware of the role
Arab seafarers played in the introduction of spices to the Tigris-
Euphrates basin and later to the Mediterranean ports, and we have
read about the Portuguese, Dutch, and English monopolies. But we
know little about the equally important early Asian trade, dominated
at different times by the large merchant fleets, first of the Korean
kingdom of Silla (early 7th to mid-9th centuries), then of southern
China under the Sung dynasty (960–1276), and of Sri Lanka. We
Curry leaves
INTRODUCING SPICES 127
know even less of the much earlier Indian traders who, from 600 BCE,
established new Hindu or Buddhist states in Sri Lanka, Malaysia,
and some of the Indonesian islands, and supplied them with spices
from their homeland.
When Columbus “discovered” America the cultures of that
continent were already old and highly developed, and the spices of
the American tropics and subtropics – allspice, chillies, vanilla – had
played their part in those cultures for a very long time. Here
Europeans can indeed be said to have been of importance, for the
rapid spread of chillies throughout their colonies transformed the
diet of half the world.
many of their familiar spices with them. Not all the spread of spices has
been due to trade. Some resulted from the breaking of jealously guarded
monopolies; French botanists and explorers were particularly effective in
smuggling plants to new destinations, where plantations were established.
Migration has had a more lasting effect than trade on the spread
of spices. For example, ships from southern China carried ginger,
planted in troughs, as a necessity of life, and so it came to be
cultivated throughout the Pacific region. Immigrant communities,
whether established by colonial force or economic plight, brought
their own traditional ingredients and married them to local produce
– hence Cape Malay and Cajun cooking, the “rijsttafel” of Holland,
and the use of Colombo powder in the French West Indies.
Vanilla
Cured vanilla pods, containing tiny, sticky
seeds, flavour ice cream, cakes, and sweet The desire for authenticity
syrups. Vanilla also goes well with seafoods
and chicken. Today there is a growing awareness of and demand for authentic
regional foods. We have learned that there is no such thing as
Italian food because every Italian region has something different
to offer. We also know that what used to be the standard food in
Chinese restaurants is Cantonese, and that the cooking in Beijing,
Sichuan, and Hunan is quite different. The contrast between
northern and southern Indian cooking is attracting attention,
as is the difference between northern and southern Thai food.
Moroccan, Peruvian, and Ethiopian restaurants now exist in
most cities. What determines their individuality has much to
do with how they use herbs and spices.
It has been said that chemistry is like cooking, but now it
would be more accurate to say that cooking is becoming like
chemistry. Food companies are constantly formulating new
flavours and trying to synthesize others. They use electronic
noses and tongues and other sophisticated apparatus to produce
“aroma-fingerprints”. They “collect headspace” – that is, gather
aroma molecules from spices, herbs, and fruits or from finished
dishes for reproduction in a laboratory, eventually to be unleashed
Turmeric
Grated turmeric rhizome imparts a in ready-prepared foods. The results are certainly impressive, but
warm, earthy flavour to many Indian
many of the cultural, tactile, and nutritive values of the original
and Caribbean dishes, as well as
giving them their rich yellow colour. foods are lost.
INTRODUCING SPICES 129
Successfully making your own blend of spices gives a sense of achievement that nothing
squeezed out of a tube or poured from a bottle can equal. In countries where such blends are
used regularly there is no such thing as an immutably fixed recipe. Regional tradition, family
tastes, and individual preference determine the ingredients, and even fairly standard
mixtures will be adapted to the dish they are made for –masalas, bumbus, rempahs, and the
like are infinitely variable.
Grinding spices
Spices are best stored whole and ground only when
needed. Many spices start to lose their aroma within
hours of grinding.
TASTING NOTES
Sesame seeds are not very
aromatic but they have a
Sesame
mildly nutty, earthy odour. Sesamum orientale
This is more marked in the
taste, which develops even Sesame is one of the earliest recorded plants grown for
greater richness after dry-
roasting or grinding to a paste. its seeds. The Egyptians and Babylonians used ground
Black seeds have an earthier
taste than white and are not seeds in their breads, a practice that continues in the
usually ground. Middle East today. Excavations in eastern Turkey have
found evidence of oil being extracted from the seeds as
early as 900BCE. High in polyunsaturated fatty acids, the
PARTS USED
oil pressed from raw seeds is excellent for cooking and
Seeds, whole and as a paste,
and oil. is highly stable, with the advantage that it does not turn
rancid in hot climates.
HARVESTING
Plants are harvested before
the seed pods are fully ripe,
when they burst open. The
pods are dried and hulled,
usually mechanically.
NUTTY SPICES • SESAME Sesamum orientale 133
Oriental oil
Oriental oil is usually
added to dishes
Tahini just before serving.
In the Middle East pale Combined with
brown tahini is blended chillies, garlic, and
with garlic and lemon juice ginger, it is popular
to make a paste, used as in Sichuan cooking.
a basis for dressings for
vegetable and fish dishes,
and as the flavouring for
the chickpea dip, hummus.
134 NUTTY SPICES
TASTING NOTES
Nigella does not have a
strong aroma; when rubbed
Nigella
it is herbaceous, somewhat Nigella sativa
like a mild oregano. The taste
is nutty, earthy, peppery, rather Nigella is the botanical name of love-in-a-mist, the pretty
bitter, dry, and quite penetrating;
the texture is crunchy. garden plant with pale blue flowers and feathery foliage.
The species grown for its seed is a close but less decorative
relative, native to western Asia and southern Europe. India is
PARTS USED the largest producer of nigella (kalonji) and a large consumer.
Seeds. The small, black seeds are often misnamed and sold as black
onion seed.
BUYING / STORING
Buy whole seeds because they Culinary uses
keep better; ground seeds may Nigella is sprinkled on flatbreads, rolls, used in pilafs, kormas, and curries,
be adulterated. In an airtight and savoury pastries, alone or with and in pickles. In Iran it is a popular
container they will keep their
flavour for 2 years. Nigella is
sesame or cumin. Cooks in Bengal pickling spice used for fruit and
stocked by spice merchants combine it with mustard seeds, cumin, vegetables. It is good with roast
and by Indian and Middle fennel, and fenugreek in the local spice potatoes and other root vegetables.
Eastern shops. mixture, panch phoron, which gives a Ground with coriander and cumin
distinctive taste to pulses and vegetable it adds depth to a Middle Eastern
dishes. Elsewhere in India nigella is potato or mixed vegetable omelette.
HARVESTING
Nigella seeds are matt black, Whole seeds
small, and teardrop-shaped. Indian cooks usually dry-roast
Their surface is rough. The or fry the seeds to develop their
seed capsules are gathered flavour before sprinkling them
as they ripen but before they over vegetarian dishes and salads.
burst, then dried and lightly
crushed so that the seeds can
be removed easily.
FLAVOUR PAIRINGS
Essential to panch phoron.
Good with breads, pulses, rice,
green and root vegetables.
Combines well with allspice,
cardamom, cinnamon, coriander,
cumin, fennel, ginger, pepper,
savory, thyme, turmeric.
NUTTY SPICES • POPPY Papaver somniferum 135
TASTING NOTES
Poppy The aroma of dark seeds is lightly
nutty and sweet; the flavour is
Papaver somniferum stronger and somewhat almond-
like. White seeds are lighter and
more mellow in flavour. Both the
The opium poppy – Papaver somniferum means sleep-inducing aroma and flavour are enhanced
poppy – is a plant of great antiquity, native from the eastern by dry-roasting or baking. Poppy
seeds are rich in protein and oil.
Mediterranean to central Asia. It has been cultivated since
earliest times for opium, a narcotic latex that oozes from
the unripe seed pods if they are cut, and for its ripe seeds. PARTS USED
Neither the seeds nor the dried pods from which they are Seeds.
harvested have narcotic properties.
HARVESTING
Plants are harvested
mechanically when the seed
heads turn yellow-brown; the
capsules are cut off and dried.
FLAVOUR PAIRINGS
Good with aubergines, green
beans, breads and pastries,
cauliflower, courgettes, potatoes.
136 NUTTY SPICES
TASTING NOTES
Mahlab is sweetly perfumed and
floral with hints of almond and
Mahlab
cherry. It has a mouthwatering Prunus mahaleb
flavour that is nutty with a soft,
almond sweetness, but then This agreeable spice, little known outside the Middle East,
finishes with a bitter aftertaste.
comes from a sour cherry tree that grows wild throughout
the region and in southern Europe. The trees bear small,
PARTS USED thin-fleshed, black cherries, the kernels of which are used
The soft interior of the kernels. to flavour breads and pastries. Mahlab is used in Greece,
Cyprus, Turkey, and the neighbouring Arab countries,
from Syria to Saudi Arabia.
BUYING / STORING
Mahlab is best bought whole
because once ground it loses its Culinary uses
flavour quite quickly. Store in an Ground mahlab is primarily used five religious feast nights each year
airtight container. Middle Eastern in baking, especially in breads and when the mosques are illuminated.
and Greek shops or online spice
merchants are the best sources.
pastries for festive occasions. A It is also used to flavour sweetmeats.
piquant note of mahlab spices the Try adding a little to spiced or fruit
plaited Greek Easter bread, tsoureki; breads or to pastry to be used with
Armenian sweet rolls called chorek; fruit. Mahlab is best ground in a
HARVESTING Arab ma’amool, little pastries stuffed coffee grinder. If that proves difficult,
with nuts or dates baked by Lebanese add a little salt or sugar, according
The soft kernels are extracted
from the cherry stones and dried. Christians for their Easter celebrations; to the recipe, to help break down
They are small, oval, and beige and Turkish kandil rings, made for the the mahlab.
or light-tan coloured.
Whole kernels
Ground kernels Beige mahlab kernels are
FLAVOUR PAIRINGS Ground mahlab should creamy white inside; their
be pale cream in colour; texture is soft and chewy.
Good with almonds, apricots,
dates, pistachio nuts, rose if it is dark or turning
water, walnuts. yellow it is
too old.
Combines well with anise,
cinnamon, cloves, mastic,
nigella, nutmeg, poppy seed,
sesame.
NUTTY SPICES • WATTLE Acacia species 137
TASTING NOTES
Wattle Wattle seed has a rich, toasty
aroma that is faintly like coffee.
Acacia species The flavour has notes of coffee
and roasted hazelnuts, with
a hint of chocolate.
Several hundred acacia species are native to Australia,
but only a few have edible seeds. A. victoriae and A. aneura,
the latter locally called the mulga tree, are two of those most
PARTS USED
regularly harvested for wattle seed. When dried, roasted, and
Roasted, ground seeds.
ground the green, unripe seeds are transformed into a rich,
deep brown powder that resembles ground coffee. Wattle is
gaining popularity with food enthusiasts. BUYING / STORING
In Australia wattle seed is
sold by spice merchants and
Culinary uses good delicatessens. In the
Wattle seed yields its flavour when as mousses, ice creams, and northern hemisphere some
spice merchants stock it,
infused in a hot liquid. Do not allow cheesecakes, and in cream fillings
and it is available online. In an
the seed to boil or the flavour becomes for cakes. I have added it to a sweet airtight container it should
bitter. The liquid may be strained and bread dough quite successfully, and keep for up to 2 years.
used alone, or the ground seed can a sprinkling gives a good flavour to a
be left in for its texture. Wattle seed traditional bread and butter pudding.
is used to flavour desserts, especially Wattle liquid is sometimes drunk as
cream- or yogurt-based desserts such an alternative to coffee. HARVESTING
Wattle seed is quite expensive
because it is gathered from
Ground seeds the wild and its preparation
Highly nutritious wattle seed has long is extremely labour intensive.
provided food for indigenous Australians. Green seed pods are steamed
New interest in bush foods has created a open, the whole green seeds
demand that at present exceeds supply. are roasted with embers,
and once cooled and cleaned
of ash they are ground. The
preparation is still mostly
done in the bush by
Aboriginal women.
138 SWEET SPICES
TASTING NOTES
Cinnamon has a warm,
agreeably sweet, woody
Cinnamon
aroma that is delicate yet Cinnamomum verum / C. zelanicum
intense; the taste is fragrant
and warm with hints of clove True cinnamon is indigenous to Sri Lanka. Like cassia, it is
and citrus. The presence of
eugenol in the essential oil the bark of an evergreen tree of the laurel family. For 200
distinguishes cinnamon from
cassia, giving it the note years a highly profitable monopoly of the island’s cinnamon
of clove. was controlled first by the Portuguese, then the Dutch, and
finally by the English. By the late 18th century cinnamon
had been planted in Java, India, and the Seychelles and the
PARTS USED
monopoly could no longer be sustained.
Quills of dried bark,
ground cinnamon.
HARVESTING
The Sri Lankan cinnamon
gardens lie on the coastal
plains south of Colombo.
Seedlings grow in thick
clumps, with shoots about
the thickness of a thumb. In
the rainy season the shoots
are cut off at the base and
peeled. The harvesters work
with extraordinary dexterity
to cut the paper-thin pieces
of bark and then roll quills
up to 1m (3ft) long by hand.
The quills are then gently
dried in the shade.
SWEET SPICES • CINNAMON Cinnamomum verum / C. zelanicum 139
Ground bark
Ground cinnamon is immediately aromatic;
quills tend to hide their aromatic properties
until broken or cooked in a liquid.
140 SWEET SPICES
TASTING NOTES
Cassia shares the warm
woody aroma of cinnamon,
Cassia
but it is more intense because Cinnamomum cassia
it has a higher volatile oil. It
is sweetish with a distinct Cassia is the dried bark of a species of laurel tree native
pungency and an astringent
edge. Vietnamese cassia has to Assam and northern Burma. It is recorded in a Chinese
the highest volatile oil content
and the strongest flavour. herbal in 2700BCE and today most cassia is exported from
southern China and Vietnam. The finest quality comes
from northern Vietnam. Cassia and cinnamon are used
PARTS USED interchangeably in many countries. In the US cassia is
Dried bark and quills, ground sold as cinnamon or cassia-cinnamon, and is preferred
bark; dried unripe fruits, called
cassia buds; tejpat leaves. to true cinnamon because of its more pronounced
aroma and flavour.
Whole bark
The colour of the
HARVESTING smooth inner bark
Harvesting starts in the rainy is reddish-brown,
season when the bark can be the rough outside
stripped easily. As it dries it curls is grey-brown.
to make quills that are graded
according to their essential oil
content, length, and colour.
Quills are reddish-brown and
the layers are thicker than in
cinnamon quills. Cassia bark
is thicker and coarser than
cinnamon and the corky outer
layer is often left on when it is
sold in pieces.
Quills
Cassia bark is thick
and tough and its
quills are simple,
crude curls, whereas
the thinner, softer
bark of cinnamon is
rolled more tightly.
SWEET SPICES • CASSIA Cinnamomum cassia 141
Cassia is used in spice blends both used in long-cooked dishes and FLAVOUR PAIRINGS
for baking and sweet dishes. The removed before serving. However,
Essential to five spice powder.
pungency of cassia is better suited tejpat leaves are quite different from
Good with apples, plums,
than cinnamon to rich meats such bay aromatically and a clove or a small
prunes, meat and poultry,
as duck or pork, and it goes well piece of cassia make a better substitute pulses, root vegetables.
with pumpkin and squash, with sweet than bay, if you can’t find tejpat leaves. Combines well with cloves,
potatoes, and with lentils and beans. The leaves are extensively used in the cardamom, coriander seed,
Cassia buds are used in sweet pickles biryanis and kormas of northern India cumin, fennel, ginger, nutmeg
in the Far East, and they can be used, and in some garam masalas. and mace, Sichuan pepper,
whole, in place of cassia. They are Indonesian or Korintje cassia, star anise, turmeric.
particularly good in fruit compotes. C. burmannii, from Sumatra has a deep
Tejpat leaves are often called Indian colour and a pleasantly spicy flavour
bay leaves because both come from but lacks the depth of Vietnamese
species of laurel and because they are or Chinese cassia.
Buds
Cassia buds are a bit like
small cloves. The hard,
red-brown seed is just
visible in the wrinkled
grey-brown calyx. The
buds have a warm,
mellow aroma and the
flavour is musky, sweet,
and pungent, but less
concentrated than
that of the bark.
TASTING NOTES
Ripe seeds have a sweet, woody,
spicy fragrance with peppery and
Coriander
floral notes; the taste is sweet, Coriandrum sativum
mellow, and warm with a clear
hint of orange peel. A few plants serve cooks as both herb and spice, and of
these coriander is undoubtedly the most widely used in
both its forms. As a spice crop it is grown in eastern Europe,
PARTS USED
India, the US, and Central America as well as in its native
Dried fruits (seeds).
habitat of western Asia and the Mediterranean. In all of these
regions it is used extensively, sometimes in combination with
BUYING / STORING the green herb.
Coriander is widely available.
Buy whole seeds. They are easy Whole Moroccan seeds
to grind as needed, but their Spherical Moroccan seeds
aromatic properties diminish
are more commonly available Ground seeds
quickly after grinding. In some
than the oval Indian variety. Seeds are brittle and easy
Indian shops you may find a mix
of whole or ground spices called to grind; dry-roasting before
dhana-jeera, a blend of coriander grinding enhances the flavour.
and cumin seed that is popular
throughout the subcontinent.
HARVESTING
Seeds are harvested when they
change colour from green to
beige or light brown. Traditionally
plants are cut, left to wither for
2–3 days, then threshed and
dried in partial shade. If not fully
dry they may be put in full sun
before being sieved and packed.
In some regions the seeds are
dried artificially.
SWEET SPICES • CORIANDER Coriandrum sativum 143
Ground seeds
Indian coriander has
a sweeter flavour
than Moroccan.
144 SWEET SPICES
TASTING NOTES
The aroma of juniper is
pleasantly woody, bittersweet,
Juniper
and unmistakably like gin. The Juniperus communis
taste is clean and refreshing,
sweetish with a slight burning Juniper is a prickly, evergreen shrub or small tree that grows
effect, and has a hint of pine
and resin. throughout much of the northern hemisphere, especially on
chalky, hilly sites. It is a member of the large cypress family,
the only one with edible fruit. The berries were used by
PARTS USED enterprising Romans to adulterate pepper, and were burned
Berries, fresh or dried. in the Middle Ages (and well beyond) to clear the air of
pestilence. Juniper’s use as a flavouring for gin and other
spirits dates back at least to the 17th century.
BUYING / STORING
Juniper berries are always sold
whole and are usually dried. Whole berries
They are quite soft and bruise Berries growing in southerly latitudes
easily, so make sure those you have more flavour. If you come across
buy are whole and dry. They them in the wild, on holiday in Tuscany
will keep for several months perhaps, it is well worth picking them.
in an airtight jar.
Most of the berries on the market
come from eastern Europe.
HARVESTING
A juniper bush makes a
handsome garden plant all
year round. The purple-black,
smooth berries are about the
size of a small pea. They take
2–3 years to ripen, so green and
ripe berries occur on the same
plant. There is some cultivation
of juniper and also berries
are gathered in the wild – a
hazardous undertaking because
of the very sharp, spiky leaves.
Berries are picked when ripe, in
autumn. Freshly picked berries
have a green-blue bloom that
disappears during drying.
SWEET SPICES • JUNIPER Juniperus communis 145
TASTING NOTES
Only intensely fragrant roses
are used; the highly perfumed
Rose
damask rose, R. damascena, is Rosa species
the one preferred in the Balkans,
Turkey, and most of the Middle Western cooks seldom think of roses as a flavouring
East. In Morocco a musk-scented
rose is grown. Dried buds keep ingredient, but throughout the Arab world, Turkey, and
their perfume well.
Iran, and as far east as northern India, dried rosebuds or
petals and rosewater are consumed in a variety of ways.
Turkey and Bulgaria are the main producers of attar of roses
PARTS USED
(the essential oil) and rosewater, but roses are also grown
Buds, petals.
commercially in Iran and Morocco. The Japanese rose,
Rosa rugosa, is the rose grown in East Asia for culinary
BUYING / STORING and medicinal use. In China the rose petals are used to
Rosewater and rose oil are flavour tea and sometimes sugar.
available from Middle Eastern,
Indian, Iranian, and Turkish
shops, as is very sweet but well-
flavoured rose petal jam, which
may come from Bulgaria, Turkey,
or Pakistan. Some shops stock Dried rosebuds
dried rosebuds. Buds may be Buds and flowers are picked very
stored in an airtight container early in the morning to capture their
for up to a year. Grind as needed
fragrance before it is lost to the sun.
in an electric grinder.
HARVESTING
Rosebuds and petals are
harvested in early summer
and either dried or distilled
to make rose essence (attar
of roses), which may be
diluted to make rosewater.
SWEET SPICES • ROSE Rosa species 147
TASTING NOTES
Fresh vanilla pods have no aroma
or taste. After fermentation they
Vanilla
develop a rich, mellow, intensely Vanilla planifolia
perfumed aroma with hints of
liquorice or tobacco matched Vanilla is the fruit of a perennial, climbing orchid, native
by a delicate, sweetly fruity or
creamy flavour. There may also to Central America. It is not known when vanilla was
be hints of raisin or prune, or
smoky, spicy notes. first cured and used as a flavouring, but tribes ruled by
the Aztecs had fairly sophisticated methods of fermenting
the bean-like fruits to extract vanillin crystals. The Spanish
PARTS USED conquistadors drank chocolate flavoured with vanilla at
Cured pods. the court of Moctezuma. They took to it and shipped both
chocolate and vanilla back to Spain. They also gave the
fruit its name: vanilla is the diminutive of vaina, meaning
BUYING / STORING pod. Today vanilla is exported from Mexico, Réunion,
You are more likely to get Madagascar, Tahiti, and Indonesia.
good-quality pods from a spice
merchant than a supermarket.
Stored away from the light in
an airtight container, vanilla Whole dried pods
pods will keep for 2 years or Good vanilla pods are deep
more. When buying vanilla brown or black, long and
extract, look for bottles labelled narrow, somewhat wrinkled,
“natural vanilla extract”, with moist, waxy, supple, and
an indication of alcohol content, immediately fragrant.
usually about 35 per cent
by volume.
HARVESTING
Vanilla pods are picked when
they begin to turn yellow.
Further maturation is prevented
by plunging them into boiling
water, then they are sun dried
by day and sweated by night,
wrapped in blankets. The pods
shrivel and darken, and enzymes
cause a chemical change that
produces aromatic compounds,
notably vanillin. About 5kg
(10lb) of fresh pods yields
1kg (21⁄4lb) of cured vanilla.
Seeds
The tiny, sticky, black seeds
may be scraped from the pod
with the point of a knife.
SWEET SPICES • VANILLA Vanilla planifolia 149
Flavoured sugar
Rather than buy expensive packets
of vanilla sugar, caster sugar can
be flavoured by putting a fresh or
used pod in the jar.
Extract
Made by macerating pods in alcohol, vanilla extract
has a sweet aroma and a delicate taste. Avoid synthetic
vanilla, derived from pulp waste, which has a cloying
smell and a disagreeable, bitter aftertaste.
Vanilla is the second most expensive spice after saffron
because, like saffron, its production is very labour-intensive.
Pollination of the plants has to be done by hand, harvesting
the pods is difficult, and there is a lengthy curing process.
152 SWEET SPICES
TASTING NOTES
The aroma of akudjura suggests
baked caramel and chocolate.
Akudjura
The taste is of caramel, tamarillo, Solanum species
and tomato, with a bitterish,
lingering aftertaste that is Akudjura, S. centrale, is the name of an edible member
quite refreshing.
of a group of wild tomatoes, native to the deserts of
western and central Australia – the “bush” that gave
PARTS USED the fruit its popular name of bush tomato. Several plants
Dried fruit. in the group are poisonous. The edible ones have always
been gathered by the Aborigines for staple food stores,
but recently they have attracted wider attention as a
BUYING / STORING spice. Also collected is S. aviculare, which has larger
Bush tomatoes are sold whole – fruit, known as kangaroo apple.
these must be soaked for 20–30
minutes before use – and, more
frequently, ground to an orange-
brown powder, which is always Culinary uses
called akudjura. Akudjura can be used in place of sun- The powder goes into sweet biscuits,
dried tomato or sweet paprika. Those chutneys, dressings, relishes, and
who have become accustomed, even salsas. A mixture of akudjura, wattle,
addicted, to its special taste sprinkle and mountain pepper is used the same
HARVESTING
it on salads, soups, egg dishes, and way as Cajun blackening spice,
There is, as yet, no cultivation steamed vegetables. In Australia it is especially for fish; in other mixtures
of the bush tomato – what is used whole in casseroles and in an akudjura is used for barbecuing and
available has been gathered in
the wild. The yellow fruits are left interesting version of damper, the for marinading meat, especially the
to dry on the plant; they shrink to traditional bread-like “bush tucker”. very lean kangaroo meat.
grape size, turn chocolate brown,
and acquire a chewy texture
reminiscent of raisins – hence Whole fruit
their other name, desert raisins. Akudjura suits both sweet
Drying also reduces the level of and savoury dishes. It gives a
alkaloids, especially potentially distinct flavour to tomato-based
harmful solanine. sauces and to meat stews,
particularly goulash.
FLAVOUR PAIRINGS
Good with apple, cheese
dishes, fish, lean meats, onions,
peppers, potatoes.
Combines well with coriander
seed, lemon myrtle, mountain
pepper, thyme, wattle.
Crushed fruit
Akudjura may be orange-red
or brownish, depending on
rainfall in the growing season.
SWEET SPICES • PINK PEPPER Schinus terebinthifolius 153
FLAVOUR PAIRINGS
Good with fish, game, rich
and fatty meats, poultry.
Combines well with chervil,
fennel, galangal, makrut lime
leaves, lemon grass, mint,
parsley, black and green pepper.
154 SWEET SPICES
TASTING NOTES
The aroma of paprika tends
to be restrained and delicate;
Paprika
caramel notes, fruitiness, or Capsicum annuum species
smokiness characterize some
paprikas, while others have Capsicums are native to the Americas and were first planted
a nose-prickling, light heat.
Flavours vary from sweetly in Spain after the voyage of Columbus in 1492. It was the
smoky to rounded and full-
bodied, or gently pungent Spanish who first dried and ground the peppers to make
with bitter notes. pimentón, or paprika. Later seeds reached Turkey and were
planted there and throughout the Ottoman Empire. Ornamental
Turkish pepper was recorded in Hungary in 1604. A century
PARTS USED
later paprika was mentioned there as a spice used by peasants;
Dried fruits. There is no single
paprika pepper; it is made it was not until the 19th century that it was considered
from a number of different suitable for “sophisticated stomachs”.
red capsicums.
BUYING / STORING
Ground paprika
Hungarian paprika is somewhat Paprika may be sweet, bittersweet, or hot,
hotter than Spanish. Portuguese depending on whether it is produced from
and Moroccan paprika tend to Hungarian paprika
mild or lightly pungent peppers, and also Hungarian cooks usually have
resemble Spanish; that from
on the amount of ground seeds and veins different grades of paprika in the
the Balkan states is closer to
Hungarian. Paprika from the included in the powder. kitchen and select the one best
US is mild. All paprika should suited to the dish being prepared.
be kept in an airtight container
and away from light: otherwise
it will lose its vibrancy. Paprika
paste and paprika sauce are
also produced in Hungary
and the Balkan countries.
HARVESTING
Once dried, the peppers are
destalked, seeds and veins
are separated, then the wall
of the fruit and the seeds
are ground separately and
blended according to the
type of paprika being made.
For Spanish pimentón, the
peppers are dried over oak
fires for a smoky flavour.
SWEET SPICES • PAPRIKA Capsicum annuum species 155
TASTING NOTES
Tamarind has little smell, and
a sourish but also sweet and
Tamarind
fruity taste. The sour element Tamarindus indica
is due to tartaric acid. Different
locations give different levels Tamarind is obtained from the bean-like pods of the tamarind
of sourness in the pulp. Thai
tamarind has a more rounded, tree, native to eastern Africa, probably Madagascar, which
less tart taste than Vietnamese
or Indonesian tamarind. makes it the only important spice of African origin. The tall,
evergreen trees with their handsome crowns were already
growing in India in prehistoric times; the name comes from
PARTS USED Arabic thamar-i-hindi, fruit of India. Tamarind trees remain
Pulp of ripe pods; leaves. productive for up to 200 years. The spice has for long been
imported – principally from India – for the manufacture of
such condiments as Worcestershire sauce.
BUYING / STORING
From Indian shops and
spice merchants tamarind
Whole pods
In Vietnam and Thailand unripe pods are used
is available as a dried block,
with or without seeds, as a in tart soups and stews. In the regions where
thick, fairly dry paste, or as tamarind grows, especially Thailand and the
a more liquid, brown-black Philippines, young, feathery leaves and flowers
concentrate. Supermarkets are sometimes used in curries and chutneys.
usually have concentrate or
paste. In all processed forms
tamarind keeps almost
indefinitely. Occasionally
fresh leaves, slices of dried
pulp, and dried powdered
tamarind can be found.
HARVESTING
Tamarind trees produce clusters
of pale yellow flowers that turn
into long, rust-coloured pods.
The pods contain a dark brown,
sticky, and very fibrous pulp.
The pulp is extracted from the
brittle outer shell of the pod
and pressed into flat cakes;
these often include the shiny,
black seeds. Further processing
results in tamarind paste
and concentrate.
ACIDIC AND FRUITY SPICES • TAMARIND Tamarindus indica 157
TASTING NOTES
Sumac is only slightly aromatic;
the taste is pleasantly tart,
Sumac
fruity, and astringent. Rhus coriaria
Sumac is the fruit of a decorative, bushy shrub that
PARTS USED grows to a height of about 3m (10ft) and has light
Dried berries. grey or reddish stems. The shrub grows wild on
sparsely wooded uplands and high plateaux around
the Mediterranean in Anatolia (Turkey), elsewhere
BUYING / STORING in the Middle East, and in its native Iran.
Outside the growing regions
sumac is normally only available
as a coarse or fine powder. In Culinary uses
an airtight container this will
keep for several months. Sumac is an essential ingredient in dressings, in meat and vegetable
Whole berries can be kept Arab and, especially, in Lebanese dishes, and also to make a refreshing
for a year or more. cooking, where it is used as an drink. Sumac powder is rubbed onto
acidulant. Its taste is tingling and tart food before cooking: the Lebanese and
and it brings out the flavours of food Syrians use it on fish, the Iranians and
to which it is added, much as salt Georgians on kebabs, the Iraqis and
HARVESTING does. If the berries are used whole, Turks on vegetables. Sumac is often
In the autumn sumac leaves they are cracked and soaked in water sprinkled on flatbreads; it provides the
turn a beautiful red, and the for 20–30 minutes, then squeezed out tart element in the Lebanese bread
white flowers eventually well to extract all the juice, which is salad, fattoush, and is an essential part
develop into dense, conical used for marinades and salad of the spice and herb blend za’atar.
clusters of fruit – small, round,
russet-coloured berries. The
berries are picked just before Ground berries
they are fully ripe, dried in the
Berries vary in colour from brick red
sun, and crushed to a brick-red
to red-brown or maroon, depending
or red-brown powder.
on where they come from.
FLAVOUR PAIRINGS
Essential to fattoush, za’atar.
Good with aubergines, chicken,
chickpeas, fish and seafood,
lamb, lentils, raw onion, pine
nuts, walnuts, yogurt.
Combines well with allspice,
chilli, coriander, cumin, garlic,
mint, paprika, parsley, sesame,
pomegranate, thyme.
Za’atar
Ground sumac berries are
combined with sesame seeds
and crushed, dried thyme in
this Middle Eastern spice
mixture (recipe, p.283).
ACIDIC AND FRUITY SPICES • BARBERRY Berberis vulgaris 159
FLAVOUR PAIRINGS
Good with almonds, lamb,
pistachios, poultry,
rice, yogurt.
Combines well with bay,
cardamom, cinnamon,
coriander, cumin, dill,
parsley, saffron.
160 ACIDIC AND FRUITY SPICES
TASTING NOTES
The seeds are fleshy and taste
both sweet and acidic. Some
Pomegranate
fruits have a lovely balance, Punica granatum
while others can be decidedly
astringent. Indian pomegranates The pomegranate is a small, deciduous tree with
can have a slightly bitter
aftertaste. The juice varies in narrow, leathery leaves, brilliant, orange-red flowers,
colour from a light pink to a
deep red; it is sweet but with and large, beige to red-skinned fruits. Native from Iran
a refreshing sharpness. to the Himalayas, it has been cultivated since ancient
times all around the Mediterranean basin. Pomegranates
now grow throughout the drier parts of subtropical India
PARTS USED
and Southeast Asia, Indonesia, and China, as well as in
The seeds are used
fresh and dried. tropical Africa. The trees are very long-lived but their
vigour declines after only 15–20 years.
greatly from region to region. Arab have a hard crunch; they have a fruity, FLAVOUR PAIRINGS
and Indian molasses tend to be quite tangy flavour, much liked in northern
Good with avocado,
tart, even sour. Iran produces a sweeter India. They go into curries and chutneys, beetroot, cucumber, fish,
version, which is an essential ingredient into stuffings for bread and savoury lamb, pine nuts, poultry,
of muhammarah, a Middle Eastern pastries, and with braised vegetables. pulses, spinach, walnuts.
dip made with hot red peppers and In Punjabi cookery they flavour pulses. Combines well with allspice,
walnuts, and of fesenjan, a richly They give the food a more subtle cardamom, chilli, cinnamon,
flavoured Iranian duck or chicken sweet-sour taste than amchoor (p.163) cloves, coriander seed, cumin,
dish made with walnuts. There is also would, and are either soaked in water fenugreek, ginger, golpar,
rosebuds, turmeric.
a good Iranian winter soup based like tamarind or crushed and sprinkled
on pomegranate molasses. directly on to food.
Anardana (dried seeds), which look
like red-black raisins, are sticky but
Anardana
(Dried seeds)
Dried seeds are pleasantly
tart to smell and have a
sweet-sour taste.
Molasses
Pomegranate molasses may be sweet
or sweet-sour, the fruity sweetness
tempered by an attractive tartness. The
flavour is more concentrated than that
of grenadine syrup.
162 ACIDIC AND FRUITY SPICES
TASTING NOTES
Kokam has a slightly fruity,
balsamic smell; a sweet-sour,
Kokam
tannic, astringent taste, often Garcinia indica
with a salty edge; and a lingering,
sweetish aftertaste of dried fruit. Kokam is the fruit of a slender, graceful, evergreen tree
Its sourness comes from malic
and tartaric acid. The texture that is related to the mangosteen. It is native to India and
is surprisingly soft.
grows almost exclusively in the tropical rainforests along
a thin ribbon of the Malabar (Malwani) coast of India,
from Mumbai to Cochin. In its native region, which
PARTS USED
includes Maharashtra, Karnataka, and Kerala, it is used
Whole fruit or rind.
as an acidulant, much as tamarind is in other parts of
India. Fairly recently it has become popular in the US,
BUYING / STORING the Middle East, and Australia, but it still has to make
Dried rind can be bought its mark in Britain.
from Indian stores and spice
merchants; they may also have
kokam paste. In an airtight jar Culinary uses
both will keep for up to a year.
The deeper the skin colour, the Kokam is used as a souring agent, different combinations of grated
better the kokam. Kokam is milder than tamarind. Dried fruit or ginger, chopped onion, and chillies,
often labelled black mangosteen. rind are usually soaked in water, the cumin, or coriander – serves both
pulp softens and is pressed dry, and as an appetizer and a cooling
the liquid is used for cooking pulses accompaniment to fiery, coconut-
or vegetables. Kokam rinds are often based fish curries. In Kerala kokam
HARVESTING rubbed with salt to speed the drying; is known as “fish tamarind”.
Kokam is a smallish, round, when using them, check that the dish With coconut milk, and with or
sticky fruit, the size of a plum does not become too salty. without jaggery, kokam makes sol
but with an uneven surface. It Kokam saar – made by boiling kadhi, a fragrant, carmine-coloured
is dark purple when ripe. The pieces of kokam in water, straining beverage, that may be served with
fruit is dried whole or split –
which leaves the pulp full of
the liquid, and flavouring it with rice or taken as an appetizer.
the half dozen or more fairly
big seeds. Alternatively the rind
is removed, soaked in the pulp
liquid, and then dried in the sun.
Its local name is amsul, literally
sour rind. The rind is folded
into strips that have a
leathery appearance.
FLAVOUR PAIRINGS
Good with aubergines, beans,
fish and shellfish, lentils, okra,
plantain, potatoes, squash.
Combines well with chilli,
cardamom, coconut milk,
coriander, cumin, fenugreek,
garlic, ginger, mustard seed,
turmeric.
ACIDIC AND FRUITY SPICES • AMCHOOR Mangifera indica 163
HARVESTING
Unripe, green mangoes are
taken as windfalls or picked
from the many semi-wild trees.
They are peeled, sliced thin, and
sun dried. Sometimes a little
turmeric is dusted over the slices
to prevent insect damage. Dried
slices are marketed whole, but
most of the crop is pulverized to
Amchoor powder make amchoor powder.
This lumpy powder is easily
crushed and provides acidity
without adding moisture.
FLAVOUR PAIRINGS
Essential to chat masala.
Good with aubergines,okra,
cauliflower, potatoes, pulses.
Combines well with chilli,
cloves, coriander, cumin,
ginger, mint.
164 CITRUS SPICES
TASTING NOTES
The flavour of lemon grass
is refreshingly tart, clean,
Lemon grass
and citrus-like with peppery Cymbopogon citratus
notes. Freeze-dried lemon
grass keeps its aroma quite A showy, tropical grass with fibrous, sharp-edged
well, but air dried lemon
grass loses its volatile oils; leaves, lemon grass soon forms into large, dense clumps.
grated lemon rind gives
more flavour than dried It flourishes in temperate climates if it is overwintered
lemon grass. indoors. The bulbous base imparts an elusive aromatic and
lemon fragrance to the cooking of Southeast Asia. Previously
hard to find outside that region, fresh lemon grass is now
PARTS USED
widely available, thanks to the increased appreciation
The lower part of the
stem, white and tinged of Thai, Malay, Vietnamese, and Indonesian food. It is
with pale green. cultivated in Australia, Brazil, Mexico, West Africa,
and in Florida and California.
BUYING / STORING
Whole fresh stalks
Lemon grass can be found in Lemon grass contains citral, the
greengrocers and supermarkets. flavour component of lemon
Buy firm stalks; they should not rind. It gives the plant a
be wrinkled or dry. Fresh lemon
subtle but sustained
grass will keep for 2–3 weeks in
the refrigerator if wrapped in lemon fragrance.
plastic. It also freezes well for up
to 6 months. Freeze-dried lemon
grass is quite fragrant and has
a long shelf life in an airtight
container. Dried lemon grass
and lemon grass purée are
available, but they lack flavour.
HARVESTING
Most gardens in Singapore,
Thailand, and Vietnam have
a patch of lemon grass from
which the cook can pluck a stalk
or two. Commercial harvesting
is done every 3–4 months. The
leaves are removed before
lemon grass is sold.
CITRUS SPICES • LEMON GRASS Cymbopogon citratus 165
TASTING NOTES
Leaves have an explosive
fragrance, cleanly floral and
Makrut lime
citrus – not quite lemon, not Citrus hystrix
quite lime. Their aroma and
flavour are assertive and The rind and leaves of the makrut lime have long imparted
lingering, yet delicate. The
rind of the fruit is slightly a clean, citrus flavour to the dishes of Southeast Asia.
bitter with a strong citrus
note. Dried leaves and dried Cambodia, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, and Thailand
rind lack the intense aroma all have fish and chicken dishes, soups, and spice pastes
of fresh.
with their instantly recognizable aroma and flavour. Makrut
lime is now also grown in Florida, California, and Australia.
PARTS USED The original English name kaffir lime may be offensive in
Leaves and rind, some cultures, and the Thai name makrut lime is increasingly
preferably fresh. used instead.
HARVESTING
Makrut limes grow on a
shrubby evergreen tree. Leaves
and fruit are picked and sold
fresh or dried.
TASTING NOTES
The aroma of greater galangal is
mildly gingery and camphorous;
Galangal
the taste has a lemony sourness Alpinia species
with a flavour resembling ginger
and cardamom mixed. Lesser There are two main types of galangal: greater galangal,
galangal is more pungent, with
a hint of eucalyptus; its taste is A. galanga, is native to Java; lesser galangal, A. officinarum,
piquant, suggesting a mix of
pepper and ginger. is native to the coastal regions of southern China. Greater
galangal indeed grows taller than lesser and has larger
rhizomes. Both are cultivated extensively throughout
PARTS USED Southeast Asia, Indonesia, and India. The popularity of
Rhizome. lesser galangal has long declined in favour of greater
galangal, which continues to be used in the kitchen,
principally in Southeast Asia. The English name
BUYING / STORING stems from Arabic, khalanjan.
Fresh galangal can be bought
from oriental shops and some
supermarkets. It will keep for
2 weeks and can be frozen.
Greater galangal A. galanga
Dried slices and powdered Whole rhizomes of greater galangal are large and
galangal are more widely knobbly, light orange-brown outside, and marked
available. Powdered galangal with darker rings. Young shoots have a pink hue. Sliced rhizome
will keep for 2 months; slices The flesh is fibrous and buff-
keep their flavour for at least coloured. Unless very young,
a year. Galangal in brine can the rhizomes are tougher and
be substituted for fresh; rinse
woodier than those of ginger.
it thoroughly before use.
Greater galangal may be
found in oriental shops under
its local names: it is called kha
in Thailand, lengkuas in Malaysia,
and laos in Indonesia. Lesser
galangal rhizomes are smaller
than greater galangal, reddish-
brown outside and pale
red inside.
HARVESTING
The rhizomes are lifted,
cleaned, and processed
much like those of turmeric
or ginger.
CITRUS SPICES • GALANGAL Alpinia species 169
Ground rhizome
Tan-coloured lesser
galangal powder is
ginger-like and sharp;
greater galangal is
sandy-beige, with
a sour aroma and a
milder ginger flavour.
170 CITRUS SPICES
Fingerroot
Boesenbergia pandurata/Kaempferia pandurata
Also called Chinese keys, fingerroot grows throughout lemony taste, and lingering warmth. Best used fresh,
Southeast Asia. It is a small plant, up to 50cm (20in) high, it is eaten in salads, soups, fish curries, and stir-fries.
with an underground rhizome and slender storage roots. Also used in Thai curry pastes and Cambodian kroeung
It is used in cooking in Thailand, Vietnam, Cambodia, and spice pastes. If you use dried, soak for 30 minutes. The
Indonesia; elsewhere it tends to be used as a medicinal herb. Thai name is krachai, the Cambodian k’cheay, and the
The rhizome has a crisp texture, a sweet aroma, a refreshing, Indonesian temu kunci.
CITRUS SPICES • LEMON MYRTLE Backhousia citriodora 171
FLAVOUR PAIRINGS
Good with chicken, fish and
seafood, most fruit, pork, rice.
Combines well with akudjura,
aniseed, basil, chillies, fennel,
galangal, ginger, mountain
pepper, parsley, pepper,
thyme, yogurt.
172 CITRUS SPICES
TASTING NOTES
Yuzu juice is aromatic and
sharply citrusy; the peel has
Citrus
an attractive, delicate aroma. Citrus species
Crushed and ground dried
limes have a sour smell backed Citrus fruits are universal providers of tartness in the
by a dried-fruit sweetness;
whole limes are less aromatic. kitchen. The Japanese use the peel of a small citron, called
Orange peels have a clear,
orange scent; the flavours yuzu; the Chinese favour dried orange or tangerine peel; in
are tart or bitter, depending the Gulf States and Iran dried limes are preferred; in Tunisia
on the variety.
bitter orange peel and fruit are used for pickling liquids. In
the West cooks use juice and fresh zest for their acidity, and
PARTS USED candied peel in desserts and cakes. In the Caribbean islands
Fresh and dried peel; juice. and Mexico it would be unthinkable to cook without limes.
Preserved lemons
BUYING / STORING The chopped peel of salted lemons
preserved in their juice is used to flavour
Fresh yuzu is seldom available Moroccan tagines; it combines particularly
outside Japan, but dried peel well with green olives in a renowned
and bottled yuzu juice are now
chicken dish. The salty juice is good in
sold in supermarkets. Oriental
salad dressings.
shops stock dried tangerine
peel; Middle Eastern and
Iranian shops have dried bitter
orange peel, all forms of dried
limes, and Moroccan preserved
lemons. In North America
commercial mojos and sour
orange marinades are sold in
Latin American shops, but it
is easy to prepare your own.
Stored in airtight containers,
dried or candied peel and
fruits will keep indefinitely.
HARVESTING
Yuzus are only in season for
a brief period from November
to January; bitter oranges come
into the shops in January and
February, and there is now
an early autumn crop from
Chile. Other citrus fruits and
dried peels are available all
year round.
CITRUS SPICES • CITRUS Citrus species 173
Culinary uses
Slivers of fresh yuzu peel, or dried, rich dishes of braised pork or duck. vegetables – leeks, spring onions,
crumbled peel, add fragrance to It combines well with Sichuan spinach – in their lime-scented
Japanese soups, simmered dishes peppercorns and star anise, with dishes. In some parts of Iran
(nabemono), and aromatic yuzu-miso dark soy sauce and rice wine. bitter oranges are customary;
condiments. Yubeshi, a traditional In the Gulf States small, dried the juice and rind are added to
sweet, is made by steaming the shells limes, often called Oman limes, or stews. These flavourings are
of yuzus filled with glutinous rice, dried lime powder are used in fish, particularly good with duck,
soy sauce, and sweet syrup. They poultry, and lamb stews and pilafs. chicken, and rabbit.
are dried and sliced to serve. Yuzu Gulf dishes call for a lot of spicing, The mojos of the Caribbean and
juice is now used in salsas and and dried limes marry well with South America are made with lime,
dressings and to flavour chocolate cardamom, cloves, allspice, pepper, lemon, grapefruit, or bitter orange
in the West. ginger, cinnamon, and coriander. juice to which garlic, spices, fruits,
Dried tangerine peel is used To the north, in Iran they are used and fresh herbs are added. They are
mostly in the cooking of Sichuan and in the same way to flavour stews, used as marinades, dips, and salad
Hunan. It is soaked in warm water especially lamb stews, but the dressings, or as refreshing sauces
for 15 minutes, then chopped finely Iranians prefer herbs – coriander, to accompany vegetables, fish, and
for stir-fried dishes or used whole in dill, parsley, fenugreek – and green grilled or roasted meats.
TASTING NOTES
The aroma is fennel- and
anise-like – star anise and
Star anise
aniseed both contain essential Illicium verum
oil with anethole. Star anise
has liquorice notes and an Certainly the prettiest spice, star anise is native to southern
assertive warmth. The flavour
is pungent and sweet with a China and Vietnam, where it has a long history of medicinal
mildly numbing effect, and
the aftertaste is fresh and culinary use. It was known in Europe in the 17th century,
and agreeable. and old recipes indicate that it was used to flavour syrups,
cordials, and preserves. Today western cooks use it as a
flavouring for fish and seafood, in syrups for poaching
PARTS USED
figs and pears, and to spice tropical fruits.
Whole star anise, or pieces;
ground powder.
Whole pods and seeds
Used whole, star anise makes a decorative
addition to a dish. The star anise seed pod
BUYING / STORING is in the shape of an irregular, eight-pointed
Star anise is best bought whole star. Up to 3cm (11⁄4in) across, complete pods
or in pieces. It will last for a year are tough and red-brown or rust coloured.
if kept out of bright light in an
airtight container. Buy ground
spice in small quantities; it should
last for up to 2–3 months if kept
as the whole spice.
HARVESTING
Star anise is the fruit of a
Chinese evergreen magnolia
tree, which now also grows
in India, Japan, and the
Philippines. The tree grows
to about 8m (26ft) and has
small yellow-green flowers.
It fruits in its sixth year and
continues to bear fruit for
up to a century. The fruits
are picked before ripening
and sun dried, which hardens
and darkens the carpels and
develops the aromatic
compounds.
Carpels
Each carpel is canoe-
shaped and slightly
open, revealing a
lustrous, brittle, brown
seed. The carpels are
more aromatic than
the seeds.
LIQUORICE OR ANISE SPICES • STAR ANISE Illicium verum 175
Broken pods
The dried pods are easily broken
into pieces when only a little is
needed. Star anise is potent, so
use it sparingly.
Ground pods
For the best flavour, the pods
and seeds should be ground
in a mortar or electric grinder
and used immediately.
176 LIQUORICE OR ANISE SPICES
TASTING NOTES
The aroma and taste of the
seeds are sweet, liquorice-like,
Anise
warm, and fruity, but Indian Pimpinella anisum
anise can have a hint of
bitterness. The leaves have This delicate plant, native to the Middle East and eastern
the same fragrant, sweet,
liquorice notes, with mild Mediterranean, is related botanically to caraway, cumin, dill,
peppery undertones. The
seeds are more subtly and fennel. It is now widely established throughout Europe,
flavoured than fennel Asia, and North America. Its earliest use was medicinal, but
or star anise.
the Romans introduced it as a flavouring in food, especially
in cakes served at the end of a meal to aid digestion. The
PARTS USED plant, called anise or aniseed, is cultivated for its seeds,
Seeds, leaves. but young leaves are also used as a herb.
Culinary uses
BUYING / STORING In Europe, anise seed is mostly used In the Middle East and India, anise
Anise can be grown from seed to flavour cakes, breads, cookies, and is mostly used in breads and savoury
and plants are available from sweet fruit dishes. It flavours some rye foods. In India dry-roast seeds
some herb nurseries. As a spice breads, Scandinavian pork stews, and enhance the aroma of vegetable and
seeds are best bought whole;
root vegetable dishes. The Portuguese fish curries and, fried in hot oil, they
check that there is no more
than a minimum of stalks and add a handful of anise seed to the water garnish lentils. Anise is also valued
husks. In an airtight container when boiling chestnuts to impart a for its digestive properties; along
anise will retain its flavour delicate fragrance. Figs and anise have with other spices it is offered in the
for at least 2 years. a natural affinity; in Catalonia, cakes traditional paan at the end of the meal.
are made of chopped, dried figs and In Morocco and Tunisia, anise flavours
almonds flavoured with anise, and in breads; in Lebanon, it goes into fritters
Italy, a fig and dried fruit “salami” and spiced custards.
HARVESTING is flavoured with anise and anisette.
Just before the fruit ripens, Around the Mediterranean, anise often
plants are pulled up and left to flavours fish stews, and its essential
dry. They are threshed and the oil is in demand to flavour aperitifs
seeds spread on trays in partial
and liqueurs such as ouzo, pastis,
shade to dry further. To dry
anise you have grown yourself, and anisette.
put the seed heads in paper
bags and hang them in a
well-ventilated place. Whole seeds
Seeds vary in colour from
pale brown to grey-green
with lighter coloured
FLAVOUR PAIRINGS ridges.
Good with apples, chestnuts,
figs, fish and seafood, nuts,
pumpkin, root vegetables.
Combines well with ajowan,
allspice, cardamom, cinnamon,
cloves, cumin, fennel, garlic,
nigella, nutmeg, pepper,
star anise.
LIQUORICE OR ANISE SPICES • LIQUORICE Glycyrrhiza species 177
FLAVOUR PAIRINGS
Combines well with cassia,
cloves, coriander seed, fennel,
ginger, Sichuan pepper,
star anise.
178 WARM AND EARTHY SPICES
TASTING NOTES
The smell of saffron is
unmistakable: rich, pungent,
Saffron
musky, floral, honeyed, and Crocus sativus
tenacious. The taste is delicate
yet penetrating, warm, earthy, Saffron consists of the dried stigmas of the saffron crocus,
musky, bitter, and lingering.
The aromatic properties vary or roses as they are called. Native to the Mediterranean
slightly depending on the
saffron’s place of origin. and western Asia, it was used by the ancient civilizations
of the region as a dye and to flavour food and wine. Spain
is the main producer; at harvest time on the plain of La
PARTS USED Mancha, a heady, sensual aroma explodes around you as
Stigmas. the stigmas are toasted. It takes about 80,000 roses to yield
2.5kg (51⁄2lb) of stigmas, which produce 500g (1lb 2oz) of
saffron after toasting. No wonder it is the most expensive
BUYING / STORING spice in the world.
Buy dried stamens (known as
filaments or threads); ground
saffron is easily adulterated. Whole threads
Threads keep their flavour for The best quality saffron is deep red; this is called coupe for
2–3 years if stored in an airtight Spanish and Kashmiri saffron, sargol for Iranian. A proportion
container in a cool, dark place. of thicker, yellow threads from the style of the flower is included
Buy saffron only from a reliable
in the next grade, Mancha if Spanish or Kashmiri, poshal or Iranian poshal
source; in tourist markets
around the world turmeric, kayam if Iranian. Good quality saffron is also produced in This saffron has deep
marigold petals, and safflower Greece and Italy. Lesser grades tend to have a brownish red, wiry threads with
are passed off as saffron. None colour and stubby, rather scruffy threads. a few yellow styles.
has saffron’s penetrating aroma,
so smell before buying. If you
use saffron regularly, buy it
in larger quantities from a
spice merchant.
HARVESTING
The violet-coloured crocus
flowers in autumn. The flowers
are picked at dawn and the
three red stigmas are plucked
from each one. Small quantities
are toasted on a drum sieve
over a low fire. Dried stamens
are deep red to orange-red,
wiry, and brittle.
Kashmiri coupe
This saffron has a rich,
burgundy colour. The
threads are very long,
firm, and smooth.
WARM AND EARTHY SPICES • SAFFRON Crocus sativus 179
Ground threads
Spanish mancha
Ground saffron is
Spanish Mancha saffron is
easily adulterated
more orange-red in colour
with cheaper and
with yellow styles.
inferior spices.
Saffron is the costliest spice on earth, 10 times as dear
as vanilla, because its production still depends on intensive
manual labour. The fragile stigmas of about 80,000 crocus
flowers are needed to produce just 500g (1lb 2oz) of the spice.
182 WARM AND EARTHY SPICES
TASTING NOTES
The aroma of cardamom is
strong but mellow, fruity, and
Cardamom
penetrating. The taste is lemony Elettaria cardamomum
and flowery, with a note of
camphor or eucalyptus due to Cardamom is the fruit of a large, perennial bush that
cineole in the essential oil; it
is pungent and smoky, with grows wild in the rainforests of the Western Ghats
a warm, bittersweet note,
yet is also clean and fresh. (also known as the Cardamon Hills) in southern India;
a closely related variety grows in Sri Lanka. Both are
now cultivated in their regions of origin and in Tanzania,
PARTS USED Vietnam, and Papua New Guinea; Guatemala has become
Dried seeds. the main exporter. Cardamom has been used in India for
some 2,000 years. It reached Europe along the caravan
routes, and the Vikings took it from Constantinople to
BUYING / STORING Scandinavia, where it is still very popular.
Pods will keep for a year or more
in an airtight jar but will slowly
fade in both colour and aroma. Whole pods
Exposed to air the seeds quickly Cardamom is best bought as whole
lose their volatile oils; grinding pods, which should be plump and
speeds up the loss. Ground
green. White pods are bleached
cardamom is easy to adulterate
green ones; less well flavoured,
and in any case usually includes
the hulls, so it is better to grind their production is declining.
your own when needed.
HARVESTING
Fruits ripen from September
to December and are harvested
at intervals while about three
quarters ripe, otherwise they
split open. They are dried in
the sun for 3–4 days, or more
quickly in drying sheds. Dried
pods are hard; the best are
green to green-amber. Green
pods from Kerala traditionally
set the standards of quality
and price, but Guatemalan
cardamom is nearly as good.
Seeds
Inside each oval seed pod, triangular
in section, are 15–20 tiny, dark brown
or black, sticky seeds. Stickiness is
the best indication of freshness.
WARM AND EARTHY SPICES • CARDAMOM Elettaria cardamomum 183
TASTING NOTES
The seeds have a tarry smell and
a taste of pine with an astringent,
Black cardamom
smoky, earthy note. They are Amomum and Aframomum species
used to give depth to masalas
and tandoori-style spice mixtures. The larger seeds of several species of Amomum and
Aframomum are widely used in the regions where they
are grown, and sometimes they are sold, ground, as cheap
PARTS USED
substitutes for green cardamom. In colour they are various
Dried seeds.
shades of brown and their taste is usually more camphorous
than that of green cardamom. The most important is Greater
BUYING / STORING Indian or Nepal cardamom, Amomum subulatum, native
Buy pods that are whole, not to the eastern Himalayas. This particular variety, usually
broken, and store in an airtight referred to as black cardamom, is never used as a substitute
container. Many of the species
are readily available online. for green cardamom and has a distinct and separate role
Greater Indian is sold in Indian in Indian cooking.
shops; some Chinese shops
stock Chinese cardamom.
Whole pods Ground seeds
Black cardamom has ribbed, often Seeds quickly lose
hairy, fruits that become deep their volatile oil when
HARVESTING
red when ripe. ground, so grind only
Harvesting takes place when needed.
from August to November,
somewhat earlier than that
of green cardamom (p.182),
and drying is always done
in sheds. The resulting colour
is a very dark brown.
Seeds
Seeds are sticky, but once
removed from the pod they
soon dry out.
WARM AND EARTHY SPICES • BLACK CARDAMOM Amomum and Aframomum species 185
OTHER CARDAMOMS
Bengal cardamom, A. aromaticum, Cambodian cardamom, A. krevanh,
is very similar to the Greater Indian from the Krevanh hills of Thailand and
and used in the same way. Cambodia, is also traded extensively
within Southeast Asia.
Chinese cardamom, A. globosum,
is round, quite large, and dark brown. Ethiopian cardamom, Afr. korarima,
The flavour is astringent and cooling, has a dull, slightly smoky aroma and
leaving a numbing sensation in a rather coarse flavour.
the mouth. Mostly used medicinally, Grains of paradise, A. melegueta,
it also combines well with star anise are a different spice (p.219).
in stir-fries.
Javanese winged cardamom,
A. kepulaga, is much used in
Southeast Asia.
Standard garam masala
This is a basic blend of black cardamom,
coriander seeds, black peppercorns, cloves,
cinnamon, and tejpat leaves (recipe, p.275).
186 WARM AND EARTHY SPICES
TASTING NOTES
The smell of cumin is strong
and heavy, spicy-sweet, with
Cumin
acrid but warm depth. The Cuminum cyminum
flavour is rich, slightly bitter,
sharp, earthy, and warm, Cumin is the seed of a small, herbaceous umbellifer, native to
with a persistent pungency.
Use sparingly. just one locality, the Nile valley of Egypt, but long cultivated
in most hot regions – the eastern Mediterranean, North
Africa, India, China, and the Americas. It was used in
PARTS USED medicines in Egypt and Minoan Crete at least 4,000 years
Dried seeds (fruits). ago. The Romans used it the way we use pepper. During the
Middle Ages cumin was popular in Europe, but gradually
caraway took its place. Spanish explorers took it to Latin
BUYING / STORING
America, where it is has become a very popular spice.
Cumin seeds are widely
available, either whole or
ground. Black cumin can be
bought online or from Indian
Whole seeds
Cumin seeds are oval, brownish-green in colour,
shops, as can dhana-jeera, a
blend of cumin and coriander about 5mm (1⁄4in) long. They look like caraway
seeds. Seeds will keep their but are straighter and show a characteristic
pungency in an airtight jar pattern of longitudinal ridges.
for several months, but
ground cumin has a very
short shelf life.
HARVESTING
Cumin stalks are cut when
the plants begin to wither and
the seeds turn brown; they are
threshed and the seeds dried in
the sun. In many countries the
harvest is still done manually.
Ground seeds
For the best
flavour, only grind
seeds as needed.
WARM AND EARTHY SPICES • CUMIN Cuminum cyminum 187
TASTING NOTES
Caraway has a pungent aroma
that, like the flavour, is warm
Caraway
and bittersweet, sharply spicy, Carum carvi
with a note of dried orange peel
and a slight but lingering hint Caraway is a hardy umbellifer native to Asia and northern
of anise.
and central Europe. It is cultivated as a biennial, not only
in its regions of origin but also in Morocco, the US, and
PARTS USED Canada. The Romans used it with vegetables and fish;
Dried seeds (fruits). medieval cooks as a flavouring for soups and bean or
cabbage dishes. In 17th-century England it was popular
in bread, cakes, and baked fruit; coated with sugar the
BUYING / STORING seeds made comfits. Nowadays, Holland and Germany
Caraway seeds can be bought are the major producers. The essential oil flavours spirits
ground, but is often used whole
and is best bought that way: such as aquavit and Kümmel.
the seed will keep for at least
6 months in an airtight jar. The
seed is easy to grind or pound
when needed, but once ground
it will lose strength quite quickly.
Whole seeds
The fruit splits into two curved seeds
with tapered ends; the hard, brown
HARVESTING shell has five lighter-coloured ridges.
TASTING NOTES
Nutmeg and mace have a similar
rich, fresh, and warm aroma.
Nutmeg
Nutmeg smells sweet but is more Myristica fragrans
camphorous and pine-like than
mace. The taste of both is warm This spreading, evergreen tree, native to the Banda islands
and highly aromatic, but nutmeg
has hints of clove and a deeper, of Indonesia, often called the Spice Islands, produces fruit
bittersweet, woody flavour.
that yields two distinct spices, nutmeg and mace (p.194).
In the 6th century both spices formed part of the caravan
trade to Alexandria; they were probably taken to Europe by
PARTS USED
the crusaders. Their early use, in China, India, Arabia, and
Kernel of the seed.
Europe alike, was medicinal. When the Portuguese started
trading direct from the islands, nutmeg gained importance
BUYING / STORING as a spice, and by the 18th century a real craze for it
Nutmeg is best bought whole. developed in England.
In airtight containers it keeps
almost indefinitely and is easily
ground or grated as required. Whole seeds
Once ground, nutmeg loses its Nutmeg seeds may be bought intact,
flavour rather quickly. Banda with the kernel still inside its hard
and Penang nutmeg and mace shell, and the lacy aril still clinging
are considered superior to the
to the shell.
West Indian ones.
HARVESTING
The yellowish, apricot-like fruits
are gathered when ripe and
the outer skin, white flesh, and
mace are stripped off. The seeds,
covered by a hard brown-black
shell, are dried on trays for
6–8 weeks, until the kernel, the
nutmeg, rattles in its shell. The
shells are then cracked open and
the smooth, brown nutmegs are
removed and graded by size. The
yield of nutmeg is about 10 times
that of mace, which makes the
latter comparatively costly.
Whole nutmegs
The hard, outer shells are
stripped from the kernels
and discarded.
WARM AND EARTHY SPICES • NUTMEG Myristica fragrans 191
Grated nutmeg
Nutmeg kernels are best kept whole and
only grated when needed. Some graters
(below) have a lidded compartment in
which the kernels may be stored.
Nutmeg and Mace grow together in the same fruit; mace is
the bright red aril that shows first when the fruit splits open.
Both spices are big business in several parts of the world, yet
processing them from the pods is still done largely by hand.
194 WARM AND EARTHY SPICES
TASTING NOTES
Mace has nutmeg’s rich, fresh,
and warm aroma, but the smell
Mace
is stronger and shows a lively, Myristica fragrans
floral character with notes of
pepper and clove. The taste of Inside the apricot-like fruit of Myristica fragrans lies
mace is warm, aromatic, delicate,
and subtle with some lemony a hard seed, the kernel of which is the spice nutmeg
sweetness, yet it finishes with
a potent bitterness. (p.190). Around this seed is a lacy covering or aril; this
is the second spice, mace. Both nutmeg and mace became
important commodities in a trade started by the Portuguese
PARTS USED in the 16th century, developed by the Dutch, and taken over
Aril surrounding the seed. by the English when they captured the Spice Islands in 1796.
Planting began in Penang, Sri Lanka, Sumatra, and the
West Indies, where Grenada now produces almost a
BUYING / STORING third of the world’s crop.
Ground mace is more commonly
available than whole pieces (the
pieces are called blades), but the Mace and nutmeg
latter are worth seeking out. They Produced by the same tree,
keep almost indefinitely in an these spices are similar in taste.
airtight container and can be Mace is preferred when the
ground in a coffee grinder.
dish requires a lighter
flavouring.
HARVESTING Blades
The ripe fruit of nutmeg trees Mace blades are brittle, yet
is collected and the outer skin they exude oil when pressed
and white flesh removed to with the fingernails.
reveal the seed. The thin,
leathery, lacy, bright scarlet
aril, the mace, that covers the
seed is removed, pressed flat,
and dried for a few hours only.
Mace from Grenada is stored
in the dark for about 4 months,
during which time it turns a
deep orange-yellow; Indonesian
mace remains orange-red.
Ground blades
Ground mace keeps its
flavour reasonably well,
longer than some other
ground spices.
WARM AND EARTHY SPICES • MACE Myristica fragrans 195
TASTING NOTES
Fresh turmeric is crunchy, has
gingery, citrus aromas, and an
Turmeric
agreeably earthy flavour with Curcuma longa
citrus overtones. Dried turmeric
has a complex, rich, woody A member of the ginger family, turmeric is a robust perennial,
aroma with floral, citrus, and
ginger notes. The taste is slightly native to southern Asia and appreciated there since antiquity
bitter and sour, moderately
pungent, warm, and musky. as a flavouring, a dye, and a medicine. It is one of the cheapest
spices, yet throughout the region it is valued on ritual and
ceremonial occasions, whether to colour rice for an Indonesian
PARTS USED wedding or to dye the skin of cows (as I once saw during
Fresh and dried rhizomes. the Sankali festival in Mysore). India is the main producer
of turmeric and more than 90 per cent of the crop is used
domestically. Other producers include China, Haiti, Indonesia,
BUYING / STORING Jamaica, Malaysia, Pakistan, Peru, Sri Lanka, and Vietnam.
Fresh turmeric is available from
oriental shops. Store it in a cool,
dry place or in the refrigerator Whole fresh rhizome Sliced fresh rhizome
vegetable drawer for up to 2 Fresh turmeric should be firm and Add pared, sliced turmeric to pickles
weeks; it also freezes well. Dried plump. The rhizomes are used and relishes; it has a wonderful colour
turmeric keeps for 2 years or sliced, chopped, or grated. and taste, and is also a preservative.
more in an airtight container.
Alleppey and Madras are the
best Indian grades of ground
turmeric. Alleppey has the
higher percentage of essential oil
and curcumin (yellow colouring
matter), giving it a darker colour
and more intense flavour. Stored
in an airtight container, it retains
its flavour for up to a year.
HARVESTING
Rhizomes are lifted and sold
fresh, or boiled to stop further
maturation and then sun dried
for 10–15 days. When dry and
hard, turmeric is polished,
graded, and usually ground.
It loses three quarters of its
weight during processing.
WARM AND EARTHY SPICES • TURMERIC Curcuma longa 197
TASTING NOTES
Fresh zedoary has a pleasant,
musky taste somewhat similar
Zedoary
to young ginger, clean and crisp Curcuma species
with a hint of bitterness. The
taste is sometimes described Native to subtropical wet forest zones of Southeast Asia
as resembling that of green
mango, and one of the Indian and Indonesia, zedoary was brought to Europe in the 6th
names reflects this: amb halad
means mango turmeric. century, when it was used as a source for medicines and
perfume. During the Middle Ages it became popular in the
kitchen alongside its close relation, galangal; its culinary
PARTS USED use is now largely restricted to Southeast Asia. Increased
Fresh or dried rhizome; young European interest in the food of that region has led to the
shoots, flower buds, and leaves.
availability of fresh zedoary, but the dried spice remains
almost unknown. In Indonesia it goes by the misleading
name of kencur, which is also used for aromatic ginger,
BUYING / STORING
Kaempferia galanga.
Fresh zedoary is available from
oriental shops, often as “white
turmeric”. It has a thin, brown
skin and lemon-coloured, crisp Fresh rhizome
flesh. It keeps in the refrigerator C. zerumbet is increasingly available in fresh form.
for 2 weeks. Dried zedoary slices Combine with other fresh spices or use as a crisp
can also be bought in oriental garnish. The brown skin is removed before use.
shops. The spice is often available
ground; the powder is usually
coloured reddish-brown artificially.
HARVESTING
The fleshy, yellow rhizomes take
2 years to reach full development.
Then they are lifted and sold fresh,
or boiled or steamed, cut into
slices, and dried. Dried slices
are greyish-brown, hard, and
have a rough, somewhat
hairy texture.
WARM AND EARTHY SPICES • ZEDOARY Curcuma species 199
TASTING NOTES
When bruised, fresh leaves are
intensely aromatic, giving off a
Curry leaves
musky, spicy odour with a citrus Murraya koenigii
note. The taste is warm and
pleasant, lemony and faintly Curry leaves come from a small, deciduous tree that grows
bitter. Dried leaves have virtually
no flavour – doubling the amount wild in the foothills of the Himalayas, in many parts of India,
asked for in a recipe has very
little effect on the taste. northern Thailand, and Sri Lanka. The tree has been cultivated
in southern India for centuries, mostly on a small scale in
private gardens for use in the kitchen, but more recently,
PARTS USED also on a commercial scale. Plantations have recently been
Leaves. established in northern Australia.
BUYING / STORING
Fresh curry leaves can be bought
in Indian and other Asian stores,
where they may be labelled
meetha neem or kari (or kadhi)
patta. They are best stored in an
airtight plastic bag in the freezer
but even in the refrigerator will
keep for a week or more. Dried
leaves can be had from the same
sources, but don’t bother.
HARVESTING
Although the tree is deciduous,
leaves are available for picking
most of the year in the tropics.
From the farms of Tamil Nadu
and Andhra Pradesh the stalks
are shipped fresh, to be sold in
small bundles. Vacuum drying
is the best way to retain the
fresh colour and preserve
at least some of the aroma.
FLAVOUR PAIRINGS
Good with fish, lamb, lentils,
rice, seafood, most vegetables.
Combines well with chillies,
cardamom, coconut, coriander
leaf, cumin, fenugreek seed,
garlic, mustard seed, pepper, Fresh leaves
turmeric. The slender stalks may have
as many as 20 small, bright
green leaves.
WARM AND EARTHY SPICES • CURRY LEAVES Murraya koenigii 201
Culinary uses
Curry leaves are stripped from These mixtures are darker in added at the end, for instance
the stalks just before they are added appearance and taste than the as the basic bagaar or tadka that
to the dish. They are used extensively Indian ones: the ingredients are goes over most lentil dishes.
in the cooking of south India. From more highly toasted and include Chopped or crushed leaves are
domestic gardens they go straight spices native to the island, such as used in chutneys (notably coconut
into the vegetarian dishes of Gujarat. cinnamon and cardamom. Indian chutney), relishes, and marinades
They are essential to sambhar, and emigrants took curry leaves to for seafood. Whole leaves are
used in long-simmered meat stews Fiji, while others made them an added to pickles.
and in the fish curries of Kerala and important ingredient in South Westerners are just beginning to
those of Chennai (Madras), the only African Tamil cooking. appreciate the delicate, spicy flavour
region of India where curry leaves Quickly shallow-fried in ghee or the leaves impart to curries without
are a standard ingredient in curry oil with mustard seeds, asafoetida, the heat often also associated with
spice mixes. Elsewhere they are or onion, curry leaves may be those dishes. Beginners may want
usually added to curry dishes only used as a flavouring at the start of to use whole sprigs and remove
for the last five minutes of cooking. cooking, before other ingredients them before serving, but cooked
Sri Lankan curry mixtures also are added. More often the same spice leaves are quite soft and the taste
routinely include curry leaves. combination is used as a tempering, soon becomes pleasantly addictive.
TASTING NOTES
The seeds have a faint flowery
or peppermint scent, and a
Annatto
delicate, earthy, slightly peppery Bixa orellana
taste with a hint of bitterness.
They impart an agreeably earthy Annatto is the orange-red seed of a small evergreen tree
taste to food if used in quantities
much larger than those required of the same name, native to tropical South America. In
for colouring only.
pre-Columbian times the seeds were already widely used
as a colourant for food, fabrics, and body paint; in the
western world annatto (or achiote, its name in the Nahuatl
PARTS USED
language of Mexico) is still used as such in butter, cheese,
Dried seeds.
smoked fish, and in cosmetics. Brazil and the Philippines
are the main producers, but it grows throughout Central
BUYING / STORING America, the Caribbean, and in parts of Asia.
Annatto is available as seeds,
whole or ground, from West
Indian stores and spice
merchants. Seeds should be
a healthy rust-red; avoid dull, Ground seeds Whole dried seeds
brownish ones. Seeds and Dried annatto seeds are Whole seeds are mostly used as a
powder should be kept in very hard and are most colourant. Soak 1⁄2 tsp in 1 tbsp boiling
an airtight jar out of the light. easily ground in an water for 1 hour, or until the water is a
Seeds should last at least 3 years. electric grinder. deep orange colour.
Annatto/achiote paste can be
bought online.
HARVESTING
The large, rose-like flowers
develop into prickly, orange-red
pods at the end of the branches;
each contains about 50 brick-red,
angular seeds. When ripe, the
pods are harvested, split open,
and macerated in water. The
pulp embedding the seeds is
pressed into cakes for processing
into dyes; the seeds are dried
as a spice.
WARM AND EARTHY SPICES • ANNATTO Bixa orellana 203
Recado rojo
Red annatto paste is indispensable to
the cooking of Mexico’s Yucatán peninsula.
Annatto seeds are combined with black
peppercorns, cloves, cumin, coriander seed,
dried oregano, garlic, and bitter orange juice
or wine vinegar. Small red chillies may be
added (recipe, p.288).
204 BITTER OR ASTRINGENT SPICES
TASTING NOTES
The taste of pickled capers
(once the vinegar or salt is
Capers
rinsed off) is piquant, fresh, Capparis species
salty, and somewhat lemony.
The pungency in its flavour The caper bush is a small shrub that grows wild all around
derives mainly from a mustard
oil, glycoside, not unlike the Mediterranean, as far south as the Sahara and as far
those found in horseradish
and wasabi. east as northern Iran, although it may have originated in dry
regions of western and central Asia. Capers are successfully
cultivated in many countries with a similar climate. In really
PARTS USED hot countries the wild variety is likely to be C. spinosa, which
Unopened flower buds; has, as the name suggests, spines; the cultivated caper is
unripe fruits.
usually C. inermis, without spines. In northern India the
variety used is C. decidua.
BUYING / STORING
Capers from southern France Capers
are graded from nonpareilles Capers are commonly pickled in vinegar
to capottes, according to size – or dry salted. Their quality depends on
the smaller ones being the best.
their place of origin, the preserving
Other important producers are
method, and on their size.
Italy, notably the tiny island of
Pantelleria, Cyprus, Malta, Spain,
and California. Pickled capers
keep for a long time provided
they are kept covered by the
pickling liquid, which should
not be renewed or added to,
least of all with vinegar.
New York chefs are
experimenting with pickling
ramp seeds in the same way
as capers. Ramps are wild leeks,
Allium tricoccum, similar to
ramsons (wild garlic) see p.76.
HARVESTING
Caper buds are picked by hand
when they are the right size,
wilted for a day or two, graded
to size, then put in vinegar or dry
salted. The intensely flavoured
capers from Pantelleria and Sicily
are always dry salted. Salting
preserves taste and texture
better than pickling does.
BITTER OR ASTRINGENT SPICES • CAPERS Capparis species 205
Caper berries
Caper berries are the small, semi-mature
fruit of Capparis species. They are usually
preserved in vinegar and their taste is Leaves and shoots
similar, if less intense, to that of capers. Lightly pickled leaves and
shoots are available in jars.
The leaves and immature buds
have a pleasant caper flavour,
but the thicker stalks can be
spiny and are best discarded.
206 BITTER OR ASTRINGENT SPICES
TASTING NOTES
Fresh leaves are grassy
and mildly pungent with
Fenugreek
astringent tones. Dried leaves Trigonella foenum-graecum
have a fragrant note of hay. The
aroma of the raw seeds can be Native to western Asia and southeastern Europe, fenugreek
identified as the overriding smell
of some curry powders. Their has a long history of use as a flavouring and medicine. The
taste is celery- or lovage-like
and bitter; the texture is floury. Latin name Trigonella refers to the triangular shape of the
seeds. Blue fenugreek grows in the Alps and the Caucasus; in
Switzerland dried leaves are ground to a green powder, in
PARTS USED Georgia seeds are used as a spice.
Fresh and dried leaves; seeds.
Culinary uses
A good source of protein, minerals, the local dosai breads. In Egypt and
BUYING / STORING and vitamins, fenugreek is widely Ethiopia, fenugreek also flavours breads,
Iranian and Indian shops sell used by vegetarians in India. They and it is a constituent of Ethiopian
fresh leaves; use within 2–3 days make extensive use of fresh fenugreek berbere spice mixture. In Turkey and
and keep in the refrigerator. Dried (methi) leaves as a vegetable, cooked Armenia, ground fenugreek is
leaves should be green with no
with potatoes, spinach, or rice. The combined with chilli and garlic and
yellowing; store in an airtight
container. Seeds are available leaves are also chopped and added rubbed onto pastirma, the excellent
from the same sources and from to the dough for naans and chapattis. dried beef of the region.
spice merchants; they will keep Dried leaves are used to flavour sauces Dress fenugreek sprouts, tomatoes,
their flavour for a year if stored and gravies. Fresh or dried leaves are and olives with vinaigrette for a salad.
in an airtight jar. Roast and grind essential to the classic Iranian herb
seeds as needed. Look out for
fenugreek sprouts.
and lamb stew, ghormeh sabzi. Whole seeds
Seeds are used in Indian pickles Brief dry-roasting or frying mellows the
and chutney, in the southern spice flavour of the seeds and gives them a nutty,
blend sambhar powder, and in panch maple-syrup taste. Prolonged heat intensifies
HARVESTING phoron from Bengal. They are much bitterness. Use immediately after roasting.
used in dals and fish curries in the Seeds should be soaked for several hours if
Fenugreek can be grown in rich they are to be used in a paste.
south, and ground with flour to make
soil in full sun. Gather both leaves
and seeds. The white or yellow
flowers develop into narrow
beaked seed pods. Harvest
when ripe and dry the seeds.
FLAVOUR PAIRINGS
Essential to sambhar powder,
panch phoron, berbere, hilbeh.
Good with fish curries, most
vegetables, lamb, potatoes,
pulses, rice, tomatoes.
Combines well with cloves
cardamom, cinnamon, cumin,
coriander, fennel seed, garlic,
dried limes, nigella, pepper,
turmeric.
BITTER OR ASTRINGENT SPICES • AJOWAN Trachyspermum ammi 207
of synthetic thymol.
BUYING / STORING
Culinary uses Ajowan can be bought from
Ajowan should be used judiciously: root vegetables and in some curry Indian shops, where it may also
too much will make a dish taste mixes. It is very popular in the be called ajwain or carom. The
seeds will keep indefinitely in an
bitter. Cooking mellows the flavour vegetarian cuisine of Gujarat, where
airtight jar. Bruise them before
to resemble that of thyme or oregano, it is used in batters for bhajias and use to release their flavour; they
but stronger and with a peppery note. pakoras, and with chilli peppers and are easily ground in a mortar.
Ajowan has a natural affinity with coriander to flavour the crêpes called
starchy foods, and in southwestern pudlas. In northern India, ajowan is
Asia is used in breads (paratha) and fried in ghee with other spices before
fried snacks (especially those made being added to a dish. Probably its HARVESTING
with chickpea flour). Cooked with best-known use in the West is in the Ajowan stalks are cut in May or
dried beans it helps relieve flatulence. flavouring of a crunchy snack called June, when the seeds are ripe;
It is also used to flavour pickles and Bombay mix. they are dried, then threshed.
TASTING NOTES
Mastic has a light, pine aroma;
the taste is pleasantly mineral-
Mastic
like, lightly bitter, and very Prunus mahaleb
mouth-cleansing.
Mastic is a resin produced by cutting the bark of one variety
of lentisk tree native to the Greek island of Chios. The tree
PARTS USED has many veins, rich in mastic, just beneath the bark of the
Tears of dried resin. Mastic is trunk. The pieces of resin, some oval, some oblong, are called
powdered before use so that
it blends evenly into a dish. tears. They are semi-transparent, with a light, golden colour.
Mastic has a brittle texture, but when chewed it takes on the
consistency of chewing gum.
BUYING / STORING
Mastic is expensive and is sold
in small quantities, but you need Culinary uses
only a small amount at a time. Mastic’s main use is in baking, flower water, mastic is used to flavour
It is available from Greek and desserts, and sweetmeats. Greeks milk puddings, dried fruit, and nut
Middle Eastern shops and spice
merchants. Store in a cool place.
use mastic to flavour festive breads, fillings for pastries, Turkish delight,
especially the Easter bread tsoureki, and preserves. It gives a pleasant,
and Cypriots in their Easter cheese chewy texture to ice creams. Mastic
pastries, flaounes. Most of the crop soup, mastic stew, and a mastic
HARVESTING is exported to Turkey and the Arab sweetmeat are made in Izmir, the
states. With sugar and rose or orange Turkish port city in sight of Chios.
The slow-growing evergreen
trees start to produce mastic
when 5–6 years old, and continue
producing for another 50–60 Mastic tears
years. Mastic is harvested from Used as a breath-freshener
July to October; the gnarled and digestive aid, mastic was
trunks are cut diagonally and the original chewing gum.
the sticky resin oozes out; some
collects on the trunk, some falls
to the ground. In contact with
the air the resin hardens into
tears, which are collected,
washed, then cleaned by
hand and laid out to dry.
FLAVOUR PAIRINGS
Good with almonds, apricots,
fresh cheese, dates, milk desserts,
pistachio nuts, rosewater and
orange flowerwater, walnuts.
Combines well with allspice,
cardamom, cinnamon, cloves,
mahlab, nigella, poppy seed,
sesame.
BITTER OR ASTRINGENT SPICES • SAFFLOWER Carthamus tinctorius 209
Dried petals
Safflowers are the globe-shaped
flowers of a tall, upright plant GROW YOUR OWN
with prickly edged, oval leaves.
When growing the flowers Flowers are gathered in summer
are deep red with yellow tips;
and sun dried, then crushed.
when dried they are yellow
to bright orange to brick-
red in colour.
FLAVOUR PAIRINGS
Good with fish, rice,
root vegetables.
Combines well with chilli,
coriander leaf, cumin, garlic,
paprika, parsley.
210 PUNGENT SPICES
TASTING NOTES
Black pepper has a fine, fruity,
pungent fragrance with warm,
Pepper
woody, and lemony notes. The Piper nigrum
taste is hot and biting with a
clean, penetrating aftertaste. The history of the spice trade is essentially about the quest
White pepper is less aromatic,
and can smell musty, but it for pepper. Peppercorns and long pepper from India’s Malabar
has a sharp pungency with
a sweetish afternote. coast reached Europe at least 3,000 years ago; trade routes
were fiercely protected, empires were built and destroyed
because of it. In 408CE the Goths demanded pepper as part of
PARTS USED their tribute when they laid siege to Rome; later, pepper was
Immature and ripe fruits. traded ounce for ounce for gold and used as currency
to pay rents, dowries, and taxes. In volume and value pepper
remains the most important spice. India, Indonesia, Brazil,
BUYING / STORING Malaysia, and Vietnam are the main producers.
Sun drying is preferable for
peppercorns; if dried at high
temperatures in artificial heat Whole peppercorns
some of the volatile oils are lost. Large, uniform, dark brown to black,
Black and white pepper rapidly peppercorns command the highest Ground pepper Crushed pepper
lose their aroma and flavour price. Aroma and flavour are more Ground white Crushed peppercorns
when ground, so it is best to
important than pungency. The best pepper is more can be pressed into steaks
buy whole berries and grind
in a pepper mill or crush in a white pepper is considered to be attractive in creamy to be grilled, and release
mortar, as needed. In airtight Muntok from Indonesia. sauces than black. their flavours in marinades.
containers peppercorns will
keep for a year.
HARVESTING
To produce black pepper,
immature green berries are
picked, briefly fermented,
and then dried. During
drying the pepper shrivels,
becomes wrinkled, and
turns black or dark brown.
For white peppercorns,
berries are picked when
yellowish-red and almost
ripe, then soaked to soften
and loosen the outer skin.
Once this is removed they
are rinsed and sun dried.
PUNGENT SPICES • PEPPER Piper nigrum 211
Pepper has different characteristics in different places The essential oil and piperine content varies according
of origin and is therefore classified according to where to the origins of the pepper. The best-quality pepper is
it is grown. Broadly speaking, the flavour of pepper is from the Wyanad district on India’s Malabar coast; it has
determined by its essential oil content, while its content a fruity aroma and a clean bite. Tellicherry is the grade
of the alkaloid piperine accounts for its bite. Black pepper with the largest berries. Indonesian lampong pepper has
has both aroma and pungency. White pepper contains more piperine and less essential oil, so it is more pungent
less essential oil than black because the oil is present in than aromatic; the berries are smaller and grey-black in
the hull and is removed in cleaning; that also explains colour. Sarawak pepper from Malaysia has a milder
why white pepper, although pungent, has little aroma. aroma than Indonesian berries, but is hot and biting.
Over time the strength of the flavour compounds in the Brazilian pepper has a low piperine content and is rather
essential oil diminishes. bland. Vietnamese is light in colour and mild.
Red peppercorns
Red or pink peppercorns are fully ripe fruits,
usually available preserved in brine or vinegar.
They have a soft outer shell with a delicate,
almost sweet, fruity taste. The inner core
provides a moderate, lingering heat.
Green peppercorns
Green pepper has a light aroma, and an agreeable,
fresh pungency; it is not overpoweringly hot. Green
peppercorns are preserved by freeze-drying or
dehydration, or packed in brine or vinegar. Keep
fresh green and red pepper berries in the refrigerator.
Pepper growing peacefully on its vine gives no hint of the
fierce warfare and empire-building that have marked its past.
As the condiment that invariably accompanies salt in the West,
pepper remains the most important spice in volume and value.
214 PUNGENT SPICES
FLAVOUR PAIRINGS
Combines well with bay,
cardamom, cinnamon,
curry leaf, rosemary,
sage, thyme, turmeric.
216 PUNGENT SPICES
TASTING NOTES
For aromas and flavours, see
individual captions.
Aromatic leaves
Various species
The aromatic leaves of a variety of trees are used as
PARTS USED
flavourings in many parts of the world. They are often
Fresh and dried leaves.
described, somewhat misleadingly, as being rather like
bay leaves. The way they are used may be similar, but their
BUYING / STORING
aromatic properties are very different. Included here are a
few that are little known, but which are slowly becoming
Most dried aromatic leaves are
available by mail order and via available outside their region of origin.
the internet. Dried leaves hold
their flavour quite well, but if
you can get fresh leaves it is
worth freezing them between
Hoja santa Piper auritum
sheets of plastic film. Fresh This relative of P. nigrum grows in
and dried hoja santa leaves Central America and Texas. Fresh
are available in Latin shops leaves have a lightly pungent,
in the US; fresh lá lót leaves in musky aroma and flavour, with
Southeast Asian shops. Dried
a hint of mint and anise; dried
salam leaves are available in
leaves have a warm, anise-
Holland from Indonesian shops;
dried avocado leaves in Latin fennel aroma with a
shops in the US. citrus note.
HARVESTING
Avocado trees are sold in some
US nurseries; salam trees can
be bought in Holland. Aromatic
leaves can be picked at any time
from the tree and used fresh.
Leaves are also laid out in the
shade to dry before being Lá lót Piper sarmentosum
packed for sale. The lightly spicy leaves of this
pepper are used in Thailand
(where it is called chaa phluu)
and Vietnam (where it is lá
lót). These large, glossy,
round to heart-shaped
leaves are sometimes
mistaken for betel pepper
leaves (P. betle), which are
chewed in India as a
digestive aid.
PUNGENT SPICES • AROMATIC LEAVES Various species 217
Culinary uses
Large, soft, heart-shaped hoja santa similar to that of hoja santa. The aroma and flavour develops
leaves feature in Mexican cooking, The Thais wrap morsels of food – with cooking. Salam leaf combines
particularly in the states of Veracruz roasted coconut, peanuts, young well with other Southeast Asian
and Oaxaca. They are used to wrap ginger, shallots, chillies, and cubes aromatics: chillies, garlic, galangal,
fish or chicken to be steamed or of lime or other fruits – in lá lót ginger, lemon grass, tamarind, and
baked; to line or layer casseroles of leaves and serve them as a snack. In coconut milk, as well as pepper,
fish or chicken; and as a flavouring Vietnam the leaves are used to wrap cinnamon, cloves, and nutmeg.
for tamales. They are also used with spring rolls and small pieces of beef Avocado leaves are used, fresh and
other herbs in green mole sauces. to be grilled, and are added to soups. dried, in some regions of Mexico to
The leaves combine well with chillies, Salam leaves are used fresh in flavour tamales, stews, or barbecued
garlic, Mexican mint marigold, and soup-like mixed vegetable dishes, meats, or as wrappers. The leaves are
paprika. Avocado leaves make a in stir-fried vegetables, or with beef, usually toasted lightly and used whole
differently flavoured substitute as braised chicken, or duck, and in Bali or ground.
a wrapping, or use chopped fennel with roast or barbecued pork. Dried
leaves in tamales to achieve a flavour leaves are less fragrant than fresh.
TASTING NOTES
All parts of the tree are aromatic.
The leaves have a warm, woody
Mountain pepper
aroma with a citrus note; the Tasmannia lanceolata
taste is similar. Fresh berries
initially taste of sweet fruit; a Mountain pepper comes from a genus of small trees,
camphor turpentine note soon
follows, with an intensely native to the uplands of Tasmania, Victoria, and New South
pungent bite that leaves a
numb sensation in the mouth. Wales; it is unrelated to the pepper vine, Piper nigrum. Early
colonists soon discovered that ground berries could be used
as a condiment; in 1811 the colonial historian Daniel Mann
PARTS USED noted that this “spice tree possesses a more pungent quality
Fresh and dried leaves; fresh than pepper”.
and dried berries.
Culinary uses
When substituting mountain pepper cooked meat stew or bean dish;
BUYING / STORING
for true pepper, use half the amount of prolonged cooking dissipates their
In Australia fresh and dried ground leaf as you would true pepper, sharpness and pungency. The berries
whole leaves and berries are and even less if you are using the may also go into a classic French
available; fresh berries will keep
for several weeks in a sealed berries. It combines well with other sauce poivrade, which is good with
plastic bag in the refrigerator. Australian spices, such as wattle beef and rich, well-flavoured game,
Berries are more potent than (p.137) and lemon myrtle (p.171). A in particular hare or venison. The
leaves, and both are stronger rub of pepper leaf, lemon myrtle, and leaves and berries of a related tree,
than true pepper, so use with thyme is good for lamb and for local T. stipitata, are sold as Dorrigo pepper,
caution. Elsewhere dried, ground meats such as kangaroo. Use a few named for the Dorrigo mountains
leaf is most commonly found.
Buy both leaf and berries in berries crushed or whole in a long- where it grows.
small quantities since they are
used sparingly and the flavour
diminishes once they are Fresh leaves
ground, even when stored Mountain pepper leaves have
in an airtight container. a lingering heat and a kick that
recalls Sichuan pepper (p.220)
rather than black pepper. Dried
leaves are stronger than fresh.
HARVESTING
Leaves may be used fresh, or
dried flat in the same way as bay
leaves. Ripe berries are dried or
preserved in brine.
TASTING NOTES
Sichuan pepper is very
fragrant, woody, somewhat
Sichuan pepper and
pungent, with notes of citrus
peel. Sansho is tangy and quite
sharp. Both have a numbing
sansho
or tingling effect in the mouth. Zanthoxylum simulans and Z. piperitum
Sansho leaves, called kinome
and used as a garnish in Japan,
have a minty-basil aroma. These two spices, one traditional to the cooking of Sichuan
province in China, the other to Japan, are the dried fruits of
prickly ash trees. Also called flower pepper, Japanese pepper,
PARTS USED and formerly fagara (the prickly ashes are no longer classified
Dried berries; fresh leaves. in the genus Fagara), the spice should not be confused with
black and white peppercorns harvested from the Piper
nigrum vine.
BUYING / STORING
Sichuan pepper is sold whole
or ground by oriental shops
Whole and split berries
and spice merchants. Sansho Remove the bitter seeds from whole
is usually available as a coarse berries. Split berries are sold with the
powder from the same sources. seeds removed, but check the packet
Split berries will keep their and discard any seeds you find.
fragrance longer than the
powder; store in an airtight
container. The season for
kinome is short and the leaves
are not easily found outside
Japan. If you do find the leaves,
they keep for a few days in a Ground berries
plastic bag in the refrigerator. Berries are dry-roasted
alone or with salt, then
ground and used as
a condiment.
HARVESTING
The reddish-brown berries are
sun dried, then split open and
the rather bitter, black seeds
are usually discarded. Kinome
leaves are gathered and used
fresh in spring.
PUNGENT SPICES • SICHUAN PEPPER AND SANSHO Zanthoxylum simulans and Z. piperitum 221
TASTING NOTES
Fresh ginger has a rich and
warm aroma with a refreshing,
Fresh ginger
woody note and sweet, citrus Zingiber officinale
undertones. The flavour is hot,
tangy, and has a bite. Rhizomes Ginger is a rhizome, an underground stem of a lush
harvested young are milder
and less fibrous than those plant that is somewhat like a small bamboo. It has been
harvested later in the season.
an important spice for more than 3,000 years. Cultivated in
the southern provinces of China and in India, it was a staple
in the diet of Confucius, and Sanskrit literature records its
PARTS USED
pungent spiciness in Indian cookery. In Asia ginger is most
Fresh rhizomes.
commonly used fresh, except in masalas and other dry spice
mixtures. Most recently ginger has begun to be cultivated
BUYING / STORING in Queensland in northern Australia.
Fresh ginger rhizomes should
be hard, unwrinkled, plump,
and heavy. They keep well in
the vegetable drawer of the
refrigerator for a week to 10
days. Ginger is also available Whole fresh rhizome
chopped and preserved in an Fresh ginger has a pale tan skin
acid medium, and frozen as stretched tautly around the yellow
a paste. Ginger in syrup and flesh, which should be crisp and
crystallized ginger will keep not fibrous.
for up to 2 years in a cool, dry
place. Pickled ginger keeps
for 6 months.
HARVESTING
Ginger rhizomes are dug up
2–5 months after planting,
while still tender. When they
are to be used fresh, they are
washed, dried for a few days,
and then stored. Ginger to be
preserved or crystallized is
peeled, cut into pieces, soaked
in brine for some days, then in
water. It is boiled in water, then
in syrup, and either left in syrup
or dried and dusted with sugar.
Fresh juice
Fresh ginger rhizomes are
easily grated to produce an
aromatic juice for use in
sauces and dressings.
224 PUNGENT SPICES
Pickled shoots
Sometimes garishly coloured,
sometimes a delicate pink,
hajikami shoga is made with
the tender, young shoots of
the ginger plant.
Shredded rhizome
Pungent beni-shoga is
preserved first in salt, then
vinegar. This vivid red pickle
offers a sharp contrast in
colour and taste when
served with seafood.
Sliced rhizome
Familiar to sushi
lovers, gari is finely
sliced ginger rhizome
that is pickled in
sweet vinegar.
PUNGENT SPICES • FRESH GINGER Zingiber officinale 225
Preserved ginger New Zealand for export. It is available pickled, and
Ginger in syrup and crystallized ginger may be eaten fresh when in season, from oriental shops.
as sweetmeats on their own or used as flavourings for Ginger flower
sweet sauces, ice cream, cakes, and tarts. China and Also called torch ginger, the showy flowers of a wild
Australia are the main producers and both kinds are ginger, Nicolaia elatior, are used in Thailand and Malaysia.
widely available. Buds and young shoots are eaten raw with nam prik, sliced
Mioga ginger into salads, shredded over laksa soups, or used to add a
The Japanese and Koreans share an enthusiasm for the mild pungency to fish curries. The buds are difficult to
mildly flavoured young shoots and buds of mioga ginger, find outside Asia.
Z. mioga. They are sliced and used to flavour soups, tofu, Aromatic ginger, see p.170.
salads, vinegared dishes, and pickles to accompany grilled
foods. This cold-tolerant ginger is now being grown in
Crystallized ginger
To make this lightly
pungent sweetmeat, knobs
of young ginger are cooked
in a thick syrup, air dried,
and rolled in sugar.
226 PUNGENT SPICES
TASTING NOTES
Whole, dried ginger is less
aromatic than fresh (p.222), but
Dried ginger
once bruised or powdered it is Zingiber officinale
warm and peppery with light,
lemony notes. The taste is fiery, Middle Eastern and European dishes developed using dried
pungent, and penetrating.
ginger rather than fresh because it was in the dried form
that ginger arrived via the caravan routes. The Assyrians
PARTS USED and Babylonians used it in cooking, as did the Egyptians,
Dried rhizomes. Greeks, and Romans. Ginger was in use as a table condiment
throughout Europe by the 9th century; such was the demand
by the 16th century that the Spanish and Portuguese were
BUYING / STORING planting it in their new tropical territories.
Dried ginger can be bought as
pieces of rhizome, slices, and
powder. Quality is important in
buying dried ginger; the best Ground dried rhizome
is pungent and lemony; poor- Ground ginger is essential to many
quality ginger is sharp and breads, cakes, and pastries. Dried
biting with a fibrous texture. ginger has a different taste to fresh,
Rhizomes are hard to grind; and the one should not be substituted
they can be rasped on a fine for the other.
grater, but it is easier to buy
a small amount ready ground.
Stored in an airtight container, Dried rhizome pieces
good-quality rhizomes will keep
Dried, pale beige rhizomes release
their flavour for 2 years or more.
a warm aroma when bruised.
Whole pieces are most used in
pickling spices.
HARVESTING
Ginger to be dried is harvested
9–10 months after planting,
when it is fully mature, more
pungent, and more fibrous. The
rhizomes are dried in the sun.
For the best quality, the skin is
scraped off first; other grades
may be left unpeeled or boiled
before peeling and drying.
Ginger may also be bleached.
PUNGENT SPICES • DRIED GINGER Zingiber officinale 227
Quatre épices
This classic French blend is used in the preparation
of pork and other meats. The four spices are black
peppercorns, cloves, dried ginger, and nutmeg
(recipe, p.285).
228 PUNGENT SPICES
TASTING NOTES
Allspice has a pleasantly warm,
fragrant aroma. The name
Allspice
reflects the pungent taste, which Pimenta dioica
resembles a peppery compound
of cloves, cinnamon, and nutmeg Allspice is native to the West Indies and tropical Central
or mace. Most of the flavour is in
the shell rather than in the seeds America. Columbus found it growing in the Caribbean
it contains.
islands and thought he had found the pepper he was looking
for, hence allspice’s Spanish name pimienta (pepper), which
was anglicized as pimento. That name was later altered to
PARTS USED
Jamaica pepper because most of the crop, and certainly the
Dried berries.
best quality, came and still comes from that island. Allspice
is the only important spice that still comes almost exclusively
BUYING / STORING from its region of origin – which also makes it the only one
Allspice can be bought whole grown almost exclusively in the New World.
or ground. Whole berries,
which look like large, brown
peppercorns, are infinitely
preferable; they crush easily
if you need just a little allspice, Whole dried berries
and they keep in an airtight jar Jamaican allspice has the highest level
almost indefinitely. of the essential oil that determines the
taste. One of the main components of
the oil is eugenol, which is also
the principal flavouring
HARVESTING element of cloves.
TASTING NOTES
The aroma of cloves is assertive
and warm, with notes of pepper
Cloves
and camphor. The taste is fruity Syzyium aromaticum
but also sharp, hot, and bitter;
it leaves a numbing sensation The clove tree is a small, tropical evergreen with fragrant
in the mouth. As in allspice,
eugenol in the essential oil leaves. Its crimson flowers seldom develop, as unopened
is mainly responsible for the
characteristic taste. flower buds constitute the spice. Native to the Moluccas,
volcanic islands now part of Indonesia, cloves reached
Europe overland through Alexandria in Roman times. The
PARTS USED Spice Islands were conquered by the Portuguese and then
Dried flower buds. the Dutch, who harshly defended their monopoly until, in
1772, a French official smuggled seedlings to Ile-de-France
(Mauritius). These days Zanzibar, Madagascar, and Pemba
BUYING / STORING in Tanzania are the main exporters; Indonesia uses nearly
Whole cloves vary greatly in size all its vast production itself.
and appearance, but should be
clean and intact. Good cloves
exude a small amount of oil if Ground cloves
pressed with a fingernail. They
Whole cloves
Good-quality cloves have Ground cloves contribute
will keep for a year in an airtight
reddish-brown stems and their assertive warmth
jar. They are hard and must be
ground in an electric grinder. a lighter crown. They are to most masalas and
Ground cloves should be dark rough to the touch and curry powders, to five
brown; lighter, gritty powders should snap cleanly. spice powder, berbere,
are likely to be mostly made and baharat.
from flower stems, which
contain less of the volatile oil.
The powder loses its strength
quite quickly.
HARVESTING
Clove buds appear in small
clusters, twice a year, from July
to September and November to
January. They are picked before
flowering, when they are mature
but only just turning pink at the
base. Drying in the sun on woven
mats they lose most of their
weight and turn reddish to
dark brown.
PUNGENT SPICES • CLOVES Syzyium aromaticum 231
TASTING NOTES
Powdered asafoetida has
a strong, unpleasant smell,
Asafoetida
reminiscent of pickled garlic Ferula species
and as pervasive as that of
truffles. The taste is bitter, Asafoetida is a dried, resinous gum obtained from
musky, and acrid – nasty
when sampled alone but three species of Ferula, giant fennel, a tall, fetid-smelling,
becoming pleasantly onion-
like when the spice is briefly perennial umbellifer native to the dry regions of Iran and
fried in hot oil. Afghanistan, where it is also cultivated. Imported from
Persia and Armenia it was much appreciated in Roman
cooking when silphium from Cyrenaica was no longer
PARTS USED
obtainable. It came to India via the Moghul empire and
Dried resin from the stems
and rhizomes or taproots. has remained a popular spice there, although it is only
cultivated in the north, in Kashmir.
BUYING / STORING
In India asafoetida is sold in
a wide range of qualities; the
lighter, water-soluble hing is
preferred to dark, oil-soluble
hingra. In the West buy it
in solid or powdered form.
In an airtight tin (which also
contains the smell), solid
asafoetida keeps for several Whole tears and lumps
years while the powdered Asafoetida is available either as
form lasts for about a year. “tears”, small individual pieces, or
“lumps” consisting of tears processed
into a uniform mass. Solid asafoetida
has little smell, but crushing releases
HARVESTING
the sulphur compounds in the
Just before the flowering, volatile oil responsible for
the stalks of plants, which are the odour.
at least 4 years old, are cut and
earth scraped away to expose
the large taproots, which are
also cut. A milky latex exudes;
this hardens and darkens to a
reddish-brown on exposure to
the air. Care is taken to shield
this process from sunlight,
which would spoil the juice. The
gum is collected and more cuts
are made until the root dries up,
usually after about 3 months.
PUNGENT SPICES • ASAFOETIDA Ferula species 235
Crushed tears
Solid asafoetida is prepared for use by grinding it in
a mortar with an absorbent powder such as rice flour.
Only a small piece is needed for an individual dish.
Ground tears
Asafoetida is most widely
available as a powder, mixed
with a starch or gum arabic
to keep it from lumping.
Brown powder is coarse
and strong; yellow
powder (which owes
its colour mostly to
added turmeric) is
more mellow.
236 PUNGENT SPICES
TASTING NOTES
Whole mustard seed has virtually
no aroma. When ground it smells
Mustard
pungent, and cooking releases Brassica species
an acrid, earthy aroma. When
chewed, black seeds have a Black mustard, B. nigra, and white or yellow, B. alba/
forceful flavour; brown ones
are slightly bitter, then hot and Sinapsis alba, are native to southern Europe and western
aromatic; the larger white seeds
have an initial sickly sweetness. Asia; brown, B. juncea, to India. White mustard, of mustard
and cress, has long been naturalized in Europe and North
America. The Romans, who made prepared mustard,
PARTS USED introduced the plant to England. In medieval Europe mustard
Dried seeds. was the one spice ordinary people could afford. The French
started to add other ingredients in the 18th century, while the
English refined the powder by removing the husks before
BUYING / STORING grinding the kernels.
White and brown mustard
seed is widely available. Black is
hard to find; brown can be used Whole seeds White seeds
instead but is less potent. Ground Mustard’s pungent taste is determined Sandy-yellow European seeds
white mustard is relatively coarse by an enzyme, myrosinase, which is are larger than the oriental
as it contains the husk. Mustard activated by water. variety used in Japan.
powder is the finely sieved flour
of seed kernels; its bright colour
is due to added turmeric. All
forms keep well provided they
are kept scrupulously dry.
Black seeds
Black seeds are larger
HARVESTING than brown and are oblong
rather than round. Their
Mustard is harvested by cutting heat affects the nose and
the stalks when the seeds are
eyes as well as the mouth.
fully developed but not quite
ripe, to avoid the pods bursting
open and spilling their contents.
Black mustard is particularly
prone to this, which is why it has
largely been replaced by brown
in commercial production. The
stalks are dried, then threshed.
PUNGENT SPICES • MUSTARD Brassica species 237
Mustard oil
Mustard oil is easier
to digest after brief
exposure to a very
high temperature.
Brown seeds
Brown seeds have a
long-lasting pungency,
almost as intense as
that of black seeds.
238 PUNGENT SPICES
PREPARED MUSTARDS
To prepare blended mustards, the seeds are soaked in French mustards, milder than the English, are made in
water to activate the enzyme myrosinase; once the required three forms. Bordeaux is brown, although made from
heat has been achieved the enzyme’s activity is stopped. white seed, and contains sugar and herbs, usually
The resulting flavour is determined largely by the acidic tarragon. Dijon, from brown (but husked) mustard seed, is
liquid used – vinegar gives a mild tang, wine or verjuice paler and stronger, made with white wine or verjuice and
a more spicy pungency, beer a real heat. Water gives the fewer additives. Meaux is quite hot, made from crushed
sharpest, hottest taste but will not stop the enzyme’s and ground grains, a step towards the many wholegrain
activity and therefore does not make a stable mustard. mustards, some of them made even more fiery by the
Prepared mustards are best kept at room temperature addition of green peppercorns or chillies.
even when opened; they will keep for 2–3 months, but In Germany, Bavarian mustard is of the Bordeaux type,
they may dry out a little and will steadily lose their flavour. but Düsseldorf mustard is a pungent version of Dijon.
Meaux mustard
The town of Meaux has produced
mustard since the 17th century. Usually
sold in stoneware jars, this grainy mustard
has a bite followed by a mouth-filling Bordeaux mustard
roundness. An excellent table mustard. In Bordeaux mustard some
of the hulls are left in the
mixture, giving a darker
appearance. It is mildly
spicy with a hint of
sweetness, and is good
with sausages and in
cheese dishes.
Dijon mustard
Dijon mustard has an
appellation contrôlée;
the name refers to a style
of mustard that is pale,
smooth, and clean tasting.
The classic mustard for
sauces and salad
dressings, it is highly
prized throughout
the world.
PUNGENT SPICES • MUSTARD Brassica species 239
Zwolle, in Holland, makes a mustard flavoured with dill beef, ham, and other cold meats. The various kinds
that would be great with gravad lax. Mild and runny are equally good in many cold sauces, from vinaigrette
American mustard is made from white mustard, with to mayonnaise, as dressings for green or other salads,
rather too much turmeric. The aromatic, mild Savora vegetable dishes, and plain cooked or smoked fish.
mustard was developed in England around 1900 and is Added towards the end of the cooking process
popular throughout South America. English mustard they will spice up a wide variety of casseroles, such
powder is made up with cold water, then left for about as rabbit with mustard sauce. They also go well with
10 minutes to develop its clean and pungent taste. Once many cheese dishes. Sweet mustards, made with
made up it will not keep. honey or brown sugar, make good glazes for chicken,
Prepared mustards are mainly used as a condiment with ham, or pork, and can be a piquant addition to some
oxtail or other meat casseroles, or a tracklement with roast fruit salads.
English mustard
English mustard powder is a mixture
American mustard of finely ground brown and white seeds,
Mild, sweet American mustard rice or wheat flour, and spices. Fiery and
has devoted followers among hot slightly acidic, it is good with roast beef
dog fanciers, but the turmeric and oxtail stew.
that colours it bright yellow
can also make the
taste dusty.
TASTING NOTES
Chillies range in taste from
mild and tingling to explosively
Chillies
hot. The fruits of C. frutescens Capsicum species
are generally hotter than those
of C. annuum, and those of Native to Central and South America and the Caribbean
C. chinense are hottest of all.
Large, fleshy varieties tend islands, chillies have been cultivated there for thousands
to be milder than small, thin-
skinned ones. of years. Columbus took plants back to Spain; the Spaniards
named them pimiento (pepper) because of their pungency, and
capsicum fruits are still called sweet peppers, cayenne peppers,
PARTS USED and so on, even though they are not related to the pepper vine.
Fresh and dried fruits. Immature Today chillies are the biggest spice crop; hundreds of different
chillies are green; they ripen to
yellow, orange, red, brown, or varieties are grown in all tropical regions and eaten daily by
purple, and may be used fresh about a quarter of the world population.
or dried.
HARVESTING
Most chillies are grown as
annuals. Green chillies are
picked 3 months after planting;
varieties normally used ripe are
left longer on the plant. Chillies
may be dried, in the sun
or artificially.
PUNGENT SPICES • CHILLIES Capiscum species 241
Ground chilli
Ground chilli is made
from hot, dried, red
chillies. Heat rather
than flavour is often
the characteristic of these
products, 5–9/10 on the heat
scale, depending on the variety.
Chilli flakes
Produced from mild to moderately hot Chilli threads
chillies, 2–5/10, these are often used as a Red chillies are an essential Korean
table condiment in Hungary, Turkey, and ingredient. Very fine chilli threads
the Middle East. Hotter chilli flakes are are used as a garnish.
used as a condiment in Korea and Japan.
242 PUNGENT SPICES
Chilli products
Ground chilli, chilli pastes, sauces, and oils are produced worldwide. Good-quality
ground chilli smells fruity, earthy, and pungent and contains traces of natural oils
that will stain the fingers slightly. A light orange colour indicates the inclusion of
a high proportion of seeds, which makes for a sharper taste. Thin, pungent sauces
are labeled salsa picante or hot pepper sauce; thick sauces, based on tomatoes,
onions, garlic and herbs, may be mild or hot and may be sweetened. Indonesian
sambals and Thai chilli jam are among the hottest. Chilli pastes are widely used in
South America. The Chinese use soy sauce, black beans, ginger, and garlic to create
medium to hot sauces. Korean gochu-jang is a sticky condiment made with chillies,
soy bean paste, and rice flour.
Chilli oil
Seasoning oil made with dried red chillies is Chilli powder
available commercially, but it is easy to make This blend of ground chilli, cumin, dried
your own; fill one third of a bottle with dried oregano, paprika, and garlic powder is
chillies, top up with sunflower oil, close used to flavour chili con carne and other
tightly, and leave for 1 month. In Sichuan southwest US dishes. 1–3/10
crushed chillies are added to very hot
oil, left to cool for several hours, then
strained to produce a bright red oil,
used in many cold sauces and on its
own as a dip.
Cayenne powder
The most common powdered chilli, cayenne,
is intensely pungent and made from small,
ripe chillies, grown worldwide. The flavour
is tart, slightly smoky, and pungent. 8/10
PUNGENT SPICES • CHILLIES Capsicum species 243
Mexico
In Mexico fresh and dried versions of a chilli often have different names.
Specific chillies are required for specific dishes; using the wrong one can
significantly alter the balance of flavours. Large, fleshy poblanos are used
as a vegetable, often stuffed; jalapeños and serranos in salsas, stuffings,
and pickles; dried anchos and pasillas are often ground to thicken a sauce.
When used fresh, green chillies tend to be preferred and they are often
charred and peeled before being used.
OTHER CHILLIES
Mulato (C. annuum) is similar to puréed, de arból chillies are used in black. It has an astringent yet rich
ancho, but chocolate brown; the taste stews and as a table sauce. 8/10 flavour with herby notes that are
is full-bodied, sweeter than ancho, complex and long-lasting. Toasted
Poblano (C. annuum) is dark green
with notes of dried cherries, and mild and ground it is used in table sauces
and shiny, with a ridge around the
to medium-hot. Mostly toasted and or in cooked sauces for fish. 6–7/10
base of the stem. The chilli is
ground for sauces. 3–5/10 Güero (C. annuum) is pale yellow,
triangular and tapering, with thick
De arból (C. annuum) is seldom flesh. Roasted and peeled, poblanos smooth, long, and pointed, with thin
found fresh; it remains bright red are stuffed or fried. They pair well flesh. The taste is lightly floral, mild to
when dried. Slender, curved, pointed, with corn and tomatoes, and have medium-hot. Güeros are used fresh in
with thin flesh and a smooth skin, a rich flavour. 3–4/10 salsas and moles. 4–5/10
this chilli is searingly hot and has a Pasilla (C. annuum) is the dried
somewhat tannic flavour. Soaked and chilaca, slender, wrinkled, and almost
Latin America
Called ají, chillies are much used in the Andean countries as a flavouring
and as a condiment; a bowl of uchu llajawa – a salsa of chillies and quillquiña
(Porophyllum ruderale) – is always on the table. Many varieties have only local
names; some are mild, others hot or bitter, and some dried chillies have rich
flavours of raisin and prune. Chillies are also important in the cooking of
Bahia in Brazil; elsewhere chilli pastes and bottled sauces are more common.
Asia
Asian chillies are even harder to pinpoint by name than Latin American ones.
They are usually distinguished by types: large red and green ones, which are
roasted and used in dips and sauces in Southeast Asia; medium-sized, shiny-
skinned chillies, moderately hot, used in Indonesian and Malay cooking; and
more pungent varieties for Thai and Indian curries. Japanese santakas and
hontakas resemble cayennes.
Europe
A few chillies are specific to Europe, and many more are imported or are now
grown here as enthusiasm for chillies has spread. Hungary, Spain, and Portugal are
the countries where local chillies are most used, and they are usually only mildly hot.
OTHER CHILLIES
Cherry (C. annuum) is orange to Peri peri (C. chinense) is Piment d’Espelette (C. annuum) from
deep red when fresh, mahogany when the Portuguese name for small the Basque country has an appellation
dried. This chilli has thick flesh and chillies. It crops up in those parts contrôlée. Bright red, wide-shouldered,
lots of seeds. It has a fruity flavour of the world colonized by the and tapering, it is sweetly fruity and
and ranges from mild to medium-hot. Portuguese. In Africa it is used mildly piquant. Available dried, whole,
Often sold pickled. 1–5/10 for the jindungo chilli, similar or as a powder, and also as a purée or
to the bird chilli. 9/10 coulis. 3/10
Bruising spices
Soft-textured fresh spices such as lemon grass, ginger, galangal, aromatic ginger, and zedoary (white turmeric)
are often bruised before cooking to release their flavours, then added whole for later removal.
Extracting juice
from ginger
Many Asian dishes call for the pure flavour of
ginger juice, which can be quickly extracted
from a fresh root.
1 Peel as
much fresh
rhizome or root
2 Using a
sharp knife,
slice the root
as you need, thinly across
cutting off the grain into
any woody a series of
or dry bits. fine discs.
3 Stack the
discs, press
down firmly,
4 Line up the
slivers and
cut them across
and shred them to chop. To
into fine slivers. chop more
finely, mound
up the pieces
and chop as
herbs (p.119).
▼
Dry roasting in an oven
Dry roasting a large quantity of spices may
be easier in an oven preheated to 250ºC
(500ºF/Gas 9). Spread the spices on a tray
and leave in the oven until they darken and
are aromatic, shaking and stirring from
time to time. Cool before grinding.
Frying spices
Prepare all the ingredients of a dish before frying its spices. Some spices are fried for only
a few seconds, others for up to a minute. All will darken, and some, such as cardamom pods,
will puff up. Remove the pan from the heat to add more ingredients, and stir quickly to
prevent them burning in the oil.
▼
Using a pestle Using a rolling pin
and mortar Put the spice in a plastic
Choose a mortar that is deep, bag, spread out the seeds
sturdy, and roughly textured, on a hard surface, then
for many spices are very hard crush firmly with a
and it needs considerable rolling pin.
force to grind them by hand.
Using an electric
coffee grinder
Most spices can be ground
in an electric coffee grinder
kept specially for the purpose,
although a few, such as
anardana (see p.161), are
too sticky.
3 Carefully peel
off the skin and
rinse. Dry the chillies
on kitchen paper.
Freezing chillies
Fresh chillies can be frozen after roasting. There is no need to peel them because the skin will
come off when the chillies have thawed.
▼
Freezing unroasted chillies
Blanch unroasted chillies with stalk
intact for 3 minutes, then drain in
a colander. Cool completely, place
in a polythene bag, and freeze.
CAUTION
• If you are not used to handling
chillies or have any cuts or a
sensitive skin, wear thin rubber
or plastic gloves to protect
against the capsaicin.
• Remember that the seeds and veins
are the hottest part of chillies. Avoid
rubbing your eyes – if you do, wash
them at once with cold water.
• When you have finished handling
chillies, use soapy water and
thoroughly wash your hands, as well
as the work surface and any utensils.
• If your hands do suffer chilli burn,
put them in a bowl of cold water or
light vegetable oil.
• If you burn your mouth from eating
too much chilli, a drink of water will
make it worse. Instead, chew a piece
of bread or try yogurt or milk.
1 Cut off and remove the
stalks and slice each of
the chillies in half.
2 Cut out the veins and scrape
out all the seeds, then rinse.
258 PREPARING SPICES
▼
Shaking out seeds
Wipe the chillies clean,
then either tear them apart
or break off the stalks and
shake out the seeds.
Using a griddle
Place cleaned dried chillies
onto a preheated griddle
or heavy frying pan for
1–2 minutes, turning
so that they don’t burn.
Alternatively, toast them
for 2–3 minutes in an
oven preheated to
250ºC (500ºF/Gas 9).
PREPARING DRIED CHILLIES 259
Using an
electric grinder
Dried chillies can be ground
to a fine consistency in an
electric coffee grinder. Better
results are obtained when
the dried chillies have first
been toasted.
260 SALT
Salt
Sodium chloride
Salt is a mineral, primarily composed of sodium chloride (NaCl), and is found
in most parts of the world. It is the main mineral constituent (78%) of the world’s
oceans, and is also found in crystalline form known as rock salt. It is essential to
animal life, yet we call it common salt and tend to take it for granted without
much thought to its production or its history.
EARLY HISTORY
Some of the earliest salt works recorded date back 6000 rich by taxing traders. It led to private fortunes being
years ago to the Chinese province of Shanxi, where wars amassed, and also to government riches, for salt was
were fought over control of the saltwater Lake Yuncheng. usually a state monopoly and salt taxes were levied (not
The water evaporated in summer, leaving deposits of salt unlike oil in the 20th century). At times the Roman army
crystals to be harvested. Conflicts between producing was paid in salt, which is the origin of the word “salary”.
states and consumers were common throughout history; it Salt has been viewed as a gift from the gods, myths and
was a high-value commodity, salt routes were established superstitions abound; it was among the offerings found in
across the classical world, cities on these routes became Egyptian tombs; in Vietnam, salt, water, and rice are also
offerings for life in the next world, and in the countryside effect as a wall in the ageing room of a Sydney butcher,
are symbols of survival when faced with typhoons, floods, to help with the ageing process. Wieliczka in Poland was
and poor harvests. In the Christian and Jewish religions one of the oldest and biggest mines in Europe, and is
salt signifies longevity and permanence. Bread and salt now a museum. Towns in mining regions are often
were the offerings given to a new household, bread the named for their salt connections: Halle in Germany,
symbol of food and salt its preservation. Hallstatt and Salzburg in Austria, Salt Lake City in the
USA and Middlewich, Northwich and other -wich
SOURCES OF SALT towns in Cheshire.
The sea is one source of salt; salt lakes like Yuncheng
USES OF SALT
in China, Uyuni in Bolivia, and the lakes of the Rocky
Mountains in the USA are others, but the main deposits From earliest times salt has preserved both bodies and
are underground rock salt. Germany, for example, is food. The Egyptians used salt in preserving mummies,
estimated to have some 100,000km³ of salt underground. in central Asia and in South America bodies have been
Sea and lake salts are produced by controlled preserved in salty desert soils.
evaporation to ensure the product is virtually pure: Thousands of years ago when people moved from
symmetrical, small crystals indicate pure salt. Rock a diet based on hunting and fishing and started
salt is mined all over the world; the largest mines are rearing animals and cultivating crops, they needed
at Goderich in Canada and Khewra in Pakistan. Sold as salt for themselves and their animals because there
Himalayan salt, in recent years, this has become very is more salt in animal tissue than in plant tissues. Early
popular. Rock salt has even been used to impressive Mediterranean civilizations used salt in their diet, some
like the Romans ate very salty food. They also used salt place in the East Asian diet, and salt is seldom found
to preserve fish, olives, and other vegetables. They salted as a condiment on the table. Salted and dried fish are
fresh vegetables to remove bitterness and gave us the found throughout the region, as are fermented sauces
word “salad”. Meats and cheeses were salted to preserve and pastes based on fish or seafood, and spices or
food for winter. soybeans soaked in brine: nam pla and kapi in Thailand,
The Romans also made garum and liquamen, sauces teuk trey and prahok in Cambodia, nuoc mam and
made by layering fish scraps and salt weighted down tuong ot in Vietnam, blachan and trassi in Indonesia
in earthenware jars. In earlier times, in China and Japan, and Malaysia.
fish and vegetables were fermented, using salt and Salt as a condiment and a preserving agent has been
allowing fermentation to take place to produce lactic acid part of life since the Neolithic era, adding taste and
which acts as a preservative. Pickles still have an important flavour to foods and ensuring our survival. Almost every
part of the human body contains salt, which, with water, Table salt, which has anti-caking agents added to make
is necessary to the nourishment of cells. Sodium allows it free-flowing, is best avoided. Kosher salt has a larger
the body to move oxygen around, transmit nerve pulses, grain size than other salts due to the way it is processed.
and move muscles; chloride is needed for digestion and It derives its name from its use in the koshering process
respiration. The body loses salt constantly through bodily for meat; the salt itself is not kosher.
functions and it has to be replaced. That said however, Herbs and spices have a useful role in adding flavour
only a small amount is needed; excess can lead to high to food without using salt. Fresh herbs are good in pasta
blood pressure and kidney failure. Today we are in danger dishes, with vegetables, fish, meat and rice. Marinating
of abusing salt. Five to six grams a day is sufficient to meat and fish adds flavour (see pp.302–03), chilli, garlic,
remain healthy; but many people consume far more, and ginger pep up stir-fries, and sauces and dips (see
often in processed foods. pp.289–301) add zest to just about any food.
Herb mixtures
Dried or fresh herbs can be used in many combinations. The composition of even the
classic mixtures is usually determined by the kind of dish they are to go with – a guiding
principle, whether in European bouquets garnis, Iranian blends, or Latin American blends
in which spices are often included with the herbs. If the balance of a mixture is not quite
to your taste, change the proportions so that you have a mix you like.
FOR BEEF
Bay, parsley, thyme, and a piece of leek
Oregano, bay, garlic, and a strip of orange peel
Gremolata
Thyme, savory, marjoram, and a small piece of hyssop Prepare a persillade (above) but include the grated
rind of half an unwaxed lemon. The classic garnish
FOR PORK
for Milanese osso buco, gremolata is also good
Sage, celery, parsley, and thyme
with grilled or baked fish, lentil and bean soups,
Lovage, rosemary, and savory
Orange thyme, tarragon, and bay and salads. It is also sprinkled over or stirred
into meat and poultry stews.
Blackcurrant sage
BLENDING HERBS AND SPICES • HERB MIXTURES 267
Crumble or grind the herbs and store in an airtight jar 1 tsp ground cumin
for 2–3 months. 2 tsp ground black pepper
100ml (31⁄2fl oz) bitter orange juice or lime juice
Blend everything in a food processor and keep in a
non-reactive jar in the refrigerator for 4–5 days. Use
Farcellets as seasoning (p.269).
Farcellet is the Catalan word for a little bundle,
and these little bundles, tightly bound in bay leaves,
contain sprigs of dried savory, oregano, and thyme.
Use to flavour long-cooked dishes of meat, poultry, Winter herbs
or vegetables. Remove before serving. This is a simple blend Richard Olney used regularly,
as I found when helping him prepare his winter
supplies. Coarsely crumble or grind roughly equal
amounts of dried thyme, oregano, and winter
Chilean aliño savory, and store. Marjoram can replace oregano.
Aliño means seasoning or dressing and is used
throughout South America for herb and spice
mixtures, either to rub onto meat, poultry, or fish,
or to flavour soups and casseroles. In every market Herbed pepper
you can buy bundles or little packets of aliño. This Only use dried herbs and vary them if you wish.
version comes from Three Generations of Chilean The blend is good with root vegetables, as a
Cuisine by Mirtha Umaña-Murray. stuffing for chicken, and in winter soups.
1 tbsp dried thyme 1 tbsp dried rosemary
1 tbsp dried rosemary 1 tbsp dried winter savory
1 tbsp dried oregano 1 tbsp dried thyme
1 tbsp dried sage 1 tbsp dried marjoram
1 tbsp dried mint 1 tbsp ground black pepper
1 tbsp dried lemon balm 1 tbsp ground mace
1 tbsp dried marjoram Crush or grind all the herbs finely. Sieve Rosemary
1 tbsp dried tarragon and combine with the pepper and mace.
Store in an airtight jar for 2–3 months. A clove
Mix and crush the herbs and store in an airtight container
of crushed garlic and a little grated lemon peel
or in a plastic bag in the freezer.
can be used with the herbed pepper to good effect.
268 BLENDING HERBS AND SPICES
Crumble or grind the herbs and combine with the fennel 1 tsp ground marigold petals
seed, cumin, and coriander. Store in an airtight container 1 tsp dried mint
or in a plastic bag in the freezer. Use as a rub for meats to
1 tsp dried dill
be grilled or roasted, or add to long-cooked dishes of meat,
poultry, or vegetables. 1 tsp dried summer savory
1
⁄2 tsp fennel seeds
1
⁄2 tsp ground cinnamon
large pinch of ground cloves
Green masala Pound or grind all the ingredients to a
This Indian masala is excellent with fish or chicken. powder. Store in an airtight container or in
a plastic bag in the freezer for 2–3 months.
60g (2oz) fresh ginger Use the mixture in a marinade for or rubbed
2 garlic cloves onto meats to be grilled, and in vegetable
dishes, soups, and stews.
4–6 fresh green chillies
Savory
large handful of coriander leaves and young stems
1
⁄2 tsp salt
Peel and chop the ginger and garlic; remove the seeds from the
chillies and slice the flesh. Put all the ingredients into a food Svanuri marili
processor and blend to a paste with a little water. The mixture
This piquant flavouring, sometimes called Svaneti
will keep for up to 2 weeks in a tightly closed container in the
refrigerator, or it can be frozen for up to 3 months. A simpler salt comes from the Svaneti mountain region of
masala can be made without the coriander, if you prefer. Georgia. Blue fenugreek, somewhat milder than the
fenugreek that is widely available, grows up in the
Caucasus and is used in this salt and garlic based
blend. If you can’t find it use ordinary fenugreek.
Adjika
1 tsp ground coriander
This chilli and herb-based paste is popular in
1 tsp ground fenugreek
Georgia and the neighbouring countries.
½ tsp ground chilli
2 fresh red chillies, deseeded 3 garlic cloves, crushed
5 garlic cloves, crushed 2 tbsp sea salt
handful of chopped parsley Mix the spices into the garlic and stir in the salt. Use to
handful of chopped dill season vegetables and salads or combine with olive oil
to serve as a dip.
3 tbsp chopped walnuts
salt
3–4 tbsp olive oil
Put all the ingredients except the oil into a blender and
pulse until you have a rough paste. Add the olive oil, little
by little, until it is smooth. Add to meat and poultry dishes
or slow-cooked beans.
BLENDING HERBS AND SPICES • HERB MIXTURES 269
Seasoning
Seasoning is a paste used for flavouring meat, poultry, and fish in the English-speaking
Caribbean islands. Ingredients and recipes vary from island to island and cook to cook, but
they commonly include fresh herbs: parsley, mint, thyme, celery, oregano, coriander, culantro,
chives, green onions, and garlic. Spices used include ginger, cloves, cinnamon, allspice, curry
powder, paprika, pepper, and chillies, along with other flavourings such as Worcestershire
sauce, bitter orange juice, lime juice, vinegar, and oil.
Seasoning is most often used as a marinade, but it can also be used in sauces or stirred into
a stew. To use as a marinade, rub the seasoning onto food and leave for 1–2 hours for small
fish and seafood, up to 3–4 hours for large, whole fish, pieces of chicken, or meat, and up
to 12 hours for large pieces of meat or a whole chicken.
6–8 spring onions, coarsely chopped 3–6 scotch bonnet chillies, deseeded and
coarsely chopped
4 garlic cloves, crushed
4–6 spring onions, coarsely chopped
handful of parsley leaves and small stems
3 shallots, quartered
1 tbsp thyme leaves
3 garlic cloves, crushed
small bunch of chives
small piece of fresh ginger, coarsely chopped
1 scotch bonnet chilli, deseeded and coarsely chopped
3 tbsp fresh thyme leaves
4 tbsp lime juice
1 tbsp ground allspice
Combine all the ingredients in a food processor and blend
to a paste. Taste, add more lime juice if necessary, and salt 2 tsp ground black pepper
if you wish. Refrigerate in a non-reactive jar for 4–5 days. 1 tsp ground cinnamon
1
⁄2 tsp grated nutmeg
1
⁄2 tsp ground cloves
6–8 spring onions, coarsely chopped Combine all the ingredients in a food processor and
blend. If necessary, add a little water or more oil.
1 small onion, coarsely chopped
Store, refrigerated, for up to 6 weeks.
3 garlic cloves, crushed
1 bunch culantro or coriander leaves, coarsely chopped
small handful of mint leaves
small piece of fresh ginger, coarsely chopped
1 green chilli
good grinding of black pepper
4 tbsp lime juice
Blend all the ingredients to a paste in a food processor.
Taste and add more lime juice as necessary. Salt may also
be added. Store as Bajan seasoning (above).
Nutmeg
270 BLENDING HERBS AND SPICES
Spice mixtures
The art of blending spices has been practised for centuries in many parts of the world.
In much of China, Japan, the Indian subcontinent, the Middle East, Africa (especially
East and North Africa), the Caribbean islands, and Latin America these mixtures are
an important element in distinguishing regional cuisines. If the balance of a mixture
is not quite to your taste change the proportions so that you have a mix you like.
Japan
In Japanese cooking emphasis is placed on bringing out the pure flavours of the food itself.
A number of aromatic ingredients – soy products, seaweeds, dashi, dried bonito – are used,
but few spices. Wasabi, sansho, chilli, mustard, ginger, and sesame are used in moderation.
China Thailand
Chinese cooks use single spices and five spice The success of Thai cooking depends on the complex
powder for a more complex flavour, and a rich combination of flavours in a curry paste, sauce,
blend of mixed spices with soy sauce and sugar soup, or dip. The skilful blending of herbs, spices,
to flavour the broth for slow-cooking pork or beef. and other flavourings, such as fish sauce, dried
shrimps, and shrimp paste, gives zest to vegetables,
fish, meat, and poultry. Curry pastes differ from
Chinese spiced salt region to region and from house to house; they
Spiced salt is widely used with barbecued or are usually prepared when needed and not stored,
grilled meat and poultry. It is usually served but these pastes will keep for about 2 weeks in a
in small dishes and sprinkled onto the food closed jar in the refrigerator, or can be frozen in
as it is about to be eaten. small pots if you prefer to make larger amounts.
6 star anise
1 tbsp Sichuan pepper
1 tbsp fennel seeds
2 tsp cloves
2 tsp ground cassia or cinnamon
Grind all the spices together to a powder.
Sieve and store in an airtight container
or in a plastic bag in the freezer.
Sichuan pepper
BLENDING HERBS AND SPICES • SPICE MIXTURES 273
Chillies
Cumin seeds
274 BLENDING HERBS AND SPICES
Cambodia
Cambodian food is as intensely spiced as that of its neighbours; market stalls are piled high with
chillies, garlic, ginger, galangal, coconuts, herbs, fish pastes (prahok), and sauces. Cambodian fish
sauce also includes ground peanuts, an ingredient not used elsewhere. Many dishes are based on
herb pastes called kroeung. These are made with seven or eight basic ingredients, which may be
added to depending on the dish to be made. Pastes may be predominantly red (from chillies),
yellow (from turmeric), or green (from lemon grass).
Lemon grass
Turmeric
BLENDING HERBS AND SPICES • SPICE MIXTURES 275
Combine all the spices and store in an airtight container Grind the spices and combine with the ginger juice. Add a
Use to flavour hot oil before other ingredients are added, little water if the mixture is too dry. Rub into the fish and
or to spice ghee (clarified butter) that is poured over dal leave to marinate for up to 1 hour before cooking.
before serving.
BLENDING HERBS AND SPICES • SPICE MIXTURES 277
Indonesia
These spice pastes are used throughout Indonesia; they vary from island to island and
vary according to traditional regional cooking styles. There are generic bumbus used
throughout the country based on colour - white, yellow, red, and orange.
Fenugreek seeds
282 BLENDING HERBS AND SPICES
Tabil
Taklia Tabil means coriander, and it is also the name
This mixture of garlic and coriander is used to of a spice blend found only in Tunisia, as far as
flavour soups and stews just before they are served. I can discover.
Popular throughout the Arab world, it is widely
3 tbsp coriander seeds
used in Egypt with melokhia, a dish that is virtually
the national soup. 1 tbsp caraway seeds
1 tsp ground cumin
3 garlic cloves 2 garlic cloves, peeled and crushed
salt 2 tsp chilli flakes
2 tbsp sunflower oil
Pound or grind all the ingredients together coarsely, then
1 tbsp ground coriander dry in the sun if you live in a hot place, or dry in a low
1
⁄2 tsp cayenne oven, 130ºC (250ºF/Gas 1⁄2), for 30–45 minutes. When quite
dry and cooled, grind to a fine powder.
Crush the garlic with a little salt and fry in the oil until Tabil is used for stews, sautéed and stuffed vegetables,
golden. Stir in the coriander and cayenne, mix to a paste and beef dishes. Store in an airtight container or in a plastic
and fry, stirring, for 2 minutes. Use at once. bag in the freezer for 1–2 months.
284 BLENDING HERBS AND SPICES
Africa
On the Horn of Africa and down the east coast, people have always looked eastwards for
their flavourings. In West Africa chillies tend to dominate, together with local herbs and
spices; in South Africa, Indian and Malay communities have influenced the cooking, with
curries, sambals, and blatjangs.
Cardamom
BLENDING HERBS AND SPICES • SPICE MIXTURES 285
Europe
Early European food for the rich was spiced predominantly with pepper, cinnamon, cloves, and
ginger, sweetened with honey, or later with sugar, and moistened with vinegar. By the 16th century
the sweet element had diminished, and when, in the 17th and 18th centuries, spices became more
widely available they were used less ostentatiously. Cookery books of the 19th century began to
record curry powders (from recipes sent home by colonial administrators) and mixtures that were
often called kitchen pepper. Today few European spice blends are still in use, although Europeans
consume quantities of spiced foods from other parts of the world.
Grind the peppercorns and cloves finely, combine with ¼ tsp cloves
the nutmeg and ginger and store in an airtight container Grind all the spices in an electric
or in a plastic bag in the freezer for 1–2 months. grinder – it may be easier if you crush
Cinnamon sometimes replaces ginger, and I have also the nutmeg first with a rolling pin.
come across mixtures that use allspice instead of cloves, Store the powder in an airtight
and mace instead of nutmeg. container or in a plastic bag in
the freezer for 3–4 months.
Juniper berries
286 BLENDING HERBS AND SPICES
The Americas
Many culinary influences can be traced in the Americas. In the US and Canada, English and
French spice blends once predominated in the north, but now Mexican, Caribbean, and African
ideas are widely popular. The Caribbean islands show a variety of colonial traditions (Spanish,
French, and English) as well as immigrant influences – notably African, Indian, Sri Lankan, and
Chinese – in the development of their cuisines. Mexico has maintained strong pre-Columbian food
styles. Much of South America shows some vestiges of Spanish or Portuguese culinary traditions,
combined with Indian food patterns in the Andes and with African traditions in Brazil.
Ají paste
Ají pastes are popular throughout the Andean countries and vary widely in flavour and
heat depending on the chilli. Rocoto, mirasol, or amarillo would be used in the Andes, if
you can’t get these use chilaca or Spanish guindilla. This potent paste is from Bolivia,
where it is used as the base flavouring for stews and thick soups. Fresh herbs – coriander
or quillquiña, basil, oregano – are usually added just before the dish is served.
60g (2oz) dried chillies, deseeded Dry roast the chillies for 1–2 minutes and soak in 5–6 tbsp
4 garlic cloves hot water for 30 minutes (p.259). Drain and tear into pieces.
1
Crush the garlic with the salt.
⁄2 tsp salt
Blend all the ingredients in the water to a smooth
3 tbsp sunflower or olive oil paste. Store for up to 2 weeks in the refrigerator
under a layer of oil.
Chillies
BLENDING HERBS AND SPICES • SPICE MIXTURES 287
Dry roast the whole spices and leave to cool. Grind them Crush the garlic and combine all the ingredients in a food
finely and combine with the turmeric and, if you wish, processor and blend to a paste. Store in the refrigerator;
some ground chilli. the flavours will develop if kept for a day before using,
Pound together with the garlic and onion, or blend in a and the mixture will keep for several weeks.
processor to a smooth paste. If necessary, add a little water, The recado is used to rub on steaks for grilling or frying,
tamarind water, or lemon juice. Store in the refrigerator for but even more commonly in chicken and other dishes
3–4 days. preserved in escabeche (a lightly spiced pickle).
Dried oregano
BLENDING HERBS AND SPICES • SAUCES AND CONDIMENTS 289
VARIATION
Basil Coriander pesto
Replace the basil by coriander leaves and the pine nuts
by walnuts.
Parsley pesto
Parsley and lemon sauce Replace basil by parsley and use either pine nuts
1 tbsp Dijon mustard or blanched almonds.
juice of 1 lemon Rocket pesto
150ml (5fl oz) extra virgin olive oil Replace basil by rocket and use walnuts or pine nuts.
salt and freshly ground black pepper
90g (3oz) parsley, finely chopped
2 shallots, finely chopped
Whisk the mustard into the lemon juice, add the oil, season,
and stir in the parsley and shallots. Serve with grilled fish,
seafood, or chicken.
Rocket
290 BLENDING HERBS AND SPICES
Mint
Sorrel sauce
Sorrel sauce can be made quickly to accompany
fish and eggs. A thick version is also good with
Horseradish and apple sauce lamb chops.
This Austrian sauce (Apfelkren) makes a change 200g (7oz) sorrel leaves
from the standard horseradish cream. It goes well 15g (1⁄2oz) butter
with beef, with smoked meats and sausages, and
about 100ml (31⁄2fl oz) crème fraîche or
with smoked eel and trout. For a milder sauce, double cream
use more cream or add a few fresh breadcrumbs
salt and freshly ground black pepper
to the mixture.
Remove any thick stalks from the sorrel and cook the leaves
2 tbsp lemon juice gently in the butter. They will wilt quickly. Stir in the cream
a little at a time; sorrel is acidic, so it is important to balance
60g (2oz) grated horseradish
the sorrel and the cream. Taste and find the balance that
1 large cooking apple suits you. Season with a little salt and pepper.
salt and caster sugar to taste
100ml (31⁄2fl oz) double cream
Stir 1 tbsp lemon juice into the horseradish so that
it doesn’t discolour. Peel, core, and grate the apple and
stir it into the horseradish with the remaining lemon juice.
Season with a little salt and sugar and leave to stand for
15 minutes. Whisk the cream lightly and fold it into the
horseradish mixture.
BLENDING HERBS AND SPICES • SAUCES AND CONDIMENTS 291
1 medium ripe tomato, peeled, deseeded, Put the wine, vinegar, shallots, tarragon sprigs, and a good
and chopped grinding of pepper into a small, heavy pan over low heat.
2 tbsp white wine vinegar
Simmer, uncovered, until the liquid has reduced to 2–3 tbsp.
Strain through a fine sieve, pressing the shallots and tarragon
salt and freshly ground black pepper well to extract maximum flavour. Return the liquid to the pan.
Break open the chillies, remove the seeds, and soak the Melt the butter gently in another pan and set aside. When it
flesh in hot water for 30 minutes. has cooled to lukewarm, pour off the clear liquid to use
Dry roast the almonds and then the hazelnuts. Rub the later, and discard the white residue.
skins from the hazelnuts in a cloth. Set the pan with the wine and vinegar infusion over
Heat 2 tbsp oil and fry 2 of the whole garlic cloves until very low heat and whisk in the egg yolks and a little salt.
lightly coloured. Remove the garlic and fry the slice of Add the melted butter, a tbsp or so at a time, whisking
bread in the same oil. Remove when lightly browned. continuously. Wait until each spoonful is absorbed before
Put the drained chillies, all the garlic, bread, nuts, roasted adding more butter. Remove the pan from the heat before
pepper, and tomato purée into a food processor or blender. adding the final spoonful; it will be hot enough to go on
When you have a smooth sauce transfer it to a bowl and cooking the sauce. Stir in the tarragon and check that the
stir in the tomato, the remaining oil, and the vinegar. Taste seasoning is to taste.
and season. If the sauce is too thick add a little more olive The sauce can be kept warm for a short time in a bowl
oil or vinegar, or a little water. The sauce will keep for 2–3 placed over a pan of hot, but not boiling, water.
days, covered, in the refrigerator.
VARIATION
Sauce paloise
Replace the tarragon with mint and serve the sauce
with poached fish, grilled chicken, or lamb.
Ñora chillies
Bowles’ mint
292 BLENDING HERBS AND SPICES
Chillies Coriander
BLENDING HERBS AND SPICES • SAUCES AND CONDIMENTS 293
VARIATIONS
Peel and finely chop a small piece of fresh ginger
and add to the sauce.
Mint dipping sauce Replace the fish sauce by soy sauce and reduce the
This Vietnamese sauce is good with spring rolls sugar to 1 tbsp.
and with grilled prawns combined with vegetables
and herbs from the herb platter (p.270) and
wrapped in a lettuce leaf.
Black peppermint
BLENDING HERBS AND SPICES • SAUCES AND CONDIMENTS 295
Lime leaves
296 BLENDING HERBS AND SPICES
Ginger juice
BLENDING HERBS AND SPICES • SAUCES AND CONDIMENTS 297
Remove the seeds from the chillies and slice finely. 4 serrano chillies,
deseeded and chopped
Dissolve the salt in the lime juice, pack the chillies
into a jar, and pour over the lime juice. It is best after 2 garlic cloves, crushed
2–3 days, but will keep for up to 1 month. Serve with 1 small onion, chopped
fish or grilled vegetables.
10 cos lettuce leaves, torn
3 tbsp chopped coriander
leaves from 3 sprigs fresh epazote, or 1 tbsp dried
Ajilimójili 1
⁄4 tsp ground cumin
This Puerto Rican sauce is made with mild 2 tbsp sunflower oil
chillies called ají dulce. It is served with tostones 250ml (9fl oz) chicken stock
(fried green plantains), but also goes well with Dry roast the pumpkin seeds, stirring to prevent burning.
fried or grilled fish or meat. This version is from Cool, then grind. Blend the tomatillos – if they are fresh,
The Complete Book of Caribbean Cooking by first remove the husks and chop the flesh – with the
Elisabeth Lambert Ortiz. vegetables, herbs, and spices. Heat the oil in a pan and
cook the sauce, stirring constantly, over high heat so
3 fresh red chillies that it thickens – about 5 minutes. Set aside.
Stir the pumpkin seeds into the stock and add to the sauce.
3 sweet red peppers
Very gently heat it, avoiding boiling or it will lose its colour.
4 peppercorns Let it barely simmer for 15 minutes, stirring regularly.
4 garlic cloves, crushed
2 tsp salt
150ml (5fl oz) lime juice
150ml (5fl oz) olive oil
Salsa fresca
Remove the seeds and veins from the chillies and peppers
This is the standard salsa found throughout Mexico.
and chop them roughly. Reduce them to a coarse purée in
a processor with the peppercorns, garlic, and salt. 4 tomatoes, peeled, deseeded, and chopped
Add the lime juice and olive oil and whizz until smooth. 1 red onion, finely chopped
Store in the refrigerator in a closed jar for 3–4 weeks. 4 jalapeño chillies, deseeded and sliced in thin rings
5 tbsp chopped coriander leaves
5 tbsp lime juice or sherry vinegar
salt
Combine all the ingredients and leave to stand at least
30 minutes before using.
Jalapeño chillies
298 BLENDING HERBS AND SPICES
Paprika Oregano
300 BLENDING HERBS AND SPICES
Marinades
Marinades tenderize and enhance flavour, and they also preserve food. They are useful
in preparing fish, meat, and poultry to be grilled, roasted, or fried. Mix the ingredients
in a container that will not react with acid (glass or ceramic, for example). Immerse
the food in the marinade, turning it periodically. Keep in the refrigerator, but bring
to room temperature before cooking. Marinate fish for 1–2 hours, shellfish for up to
1 hour; allow 3–4 hours for pieces of meat or chicken; large pieces of meat or a whole
chicken can be left overnight. A marinade can be used to baste food while it is cooking,
but never keep it for re-use. Some of the other mixtures can also be used as marinades
– see Cuban adobo and Chilean aliño (p.267), Seasoning (p.269), Masala for fish (p.276),
and the Barbecue and Cajun mixtures (p.287).
Yogurt marinade
Use for lamb or chicken. Bay leaves
4 tbsp chopped coriander – root, leaf, and stalk 3 tsp dried thyme
Dry adobo
Dry rubs of this kind are common in the Spanish-
speaking Caribbean islands. Mediterranean marinade
2 tbsp cumin seeds Use for lamb, chicken, or pork. You could substitute
1 tbsp herbes de Provence (p.267) for the sprigs of
4 tbsp coarse sea salt
herbs, and 1 tsp Italian spice mixture (p.285) could
1 tbsp fennel seeds
be used instead of the black pepper.
1
⁄2 tbsp black peppercorns
2 tbsp chilli flakes 1 garlic clove, crushed
1 tbsp dried oregano 2–3 sprigs thyme or lemon thyme
Dry roast the cumin until lightly coloured. Cool, and 3–4 sprigs lavender or rosemary
grind with the salt, fennel, and peppercorns, then 1 tsp crushed black peppercorns
combine with the chilli and oregano.
juice of 2 oranges
Lightly coat meat or poultry to be grilled with the
mixture. The adobo will keep in an airtight jar for juice of 1 lemon
3–4 months.
Lemon-scented thyme
304 COOKING WITH HERBS AND SPICES
2cm (1in) piece of fresh root ginger, chopped 1–2 red chillies, deseeded and cut in slivers
1 kg (21⁄4lb) pumpkin, peeled, deseeded, and cubed 100g (31⁄2oz) lean pork, cut in slivers
Fennel
COOKING WITH HERBS AND SPICES • SOUPS, SMALL PLATES, AND SALADS 305
Mustard seeds
Molasses
306 COOKING WITH HERBS AND SPICES
SERVES 3–4
2 large aubergines, peeled and sliced VARIATIONS
about 1cm (1⁄2in) thick
For the topping:
2–3 tbsp olive oil Combine 3 tbsp pomegranate molasses with 1 tbsp red
100g (31⁄2oz) ricotta cheese wine vinegar, ¼ tsp ground chilli and 80g (3oz) finely
2 tbsp chopped mint
chopped walnuts.
3 tbsp dry-roasted pine nuts Chop coriander leaves, green chilli, and fresh ginger
into thick natural yogurt.
salt and freshly ground black pepper
Mix grilled red pepper with chopped anchovy,
Brush the aubergine slices with oil and grill on a barbecue or
parsley, and black olives.
a griddle plate, about 4 minutes on each side, until soft and
lightly browned. Crumble the ricotta and mix it with most of
the mint and pine nuts. Season well. Put a spoonful on each
aubergine slice and scatter over the remaining mint and nuts.
Lahmacun
Lahmacun (pronounced lah-ma-joon) is a popular snack in Turkey. Lahmacun are flat breads
baked with a topping, somewhat in the style of a pizza. Toppings vary according to season and
to suit what is in the house. Tomatoes and red peppers make one popular mixture, another uses
lamb, walnuts, and pomegranate molasses, a third uses meat, walnuts, and green olives. Parsley
and red pepper flakes are common to all.
MAKES 10 PIECES To make the dough, dissolve the salt in about 300ml (10fl oz)
warm water. Put the flour into a large bowl, stir in the yeast
FOR THE DOUGH
and sugar, make a well in the centre, and pour in the water.
500g (1lb 2oz) strong white bread flour, plus extra for dusting Stir well to mix all together, add the olive oil, and use your
7g (1⁄4oz) instant yeast hands to turn the dough into a ball. Leave the dough in a
1 tsp sugar bowl, covered, for 10–15 minutes. Then, place it on a lightly
floured surface and knead until it loses its stickiness and is
½ tsp salt smooth and elastic. Rinse out the bowl and put the dough
1 tbsp olive oil back in it, cover with cling film or a cloth, and leave for 1
hour, until it has doubled in size.
FOR THE TOPPING For the topping, chop the lamb if it is coarsely minced.
250g (9oz) minced lamb Heat the oil in a small frying pan and lightly fry the onion
1 tbsp olive oil for a few minutes, add the garlic, and continue to fry
until they are soft and lightly coloured. Set aside. Chop
1 onion, finely chopped
the parsley, turn all the topping ingredients into a large
2 garlic cloves, finely chopped bowl and mix well. It should almost have a coarse
1 large bunch flat-leaf parsley, big stalks removed paste-like consistency.
Heat the oven to 220°C (425°F/Gas 7). Lightly dust a
2 large plum tomatoes, peeled, deseeded, and diced
work surface with flour, punch down the dough and form
1 tbsp tomato paste it into a long roll. Cut it into 10 equal pieces. Roll each
1 tsp pepper paste (optional) one out as thinly as possible into an oval, and spread the
topping evenly over the top, including the edges. Transfer
1 tsp salt
the Lahmacun to a couple of baking trays and bake in the
1 tsp red pepper flakes oven for 6–8 minutes. Serve warm sprinkled with sumac
sumac and a bowl of thick yogurt and a salad, if you wish.
308 COOKING WITH HERBS AND SPICES
SERVES 4
FOR 2 AS A LIGHT DISH OR FOR 4 WITH OTHER DISHES
2 pomegranates
250g (9oz) white crab meat, shredded and
all bits of shell removed 125g (41⁄2oz) green olives, pitted and coarsely chopped
2 tbsp pickled ginger, drained and shredded bunch of coriander leaves, chopped
zest of ½ lime 2–3 shallots, chopped
juice of ½–1 lime 125g (41⁄2oz) walnuts, coarsely chopped
1 avocado 4 tsp lemon juice
a handful of rocket leaves or watercress sprigs 3 tbsp olive oil
1
extra virgin olive oil ⁄2 tsp red pepper flakes
ground sansho (p.220) salt
Marinate the crab with the ginger, lime zest, and most of Cut the pomegranate round the middle, hold each piece
the juice for 30 minutes. Slice the avocado and brush it with upside down in your open hand and tap the skin with a
the remaining juice to prevent it discolouring. Make a bed wooden spoon so that the seeds drop into a bowl. Discard
of rocket or watercress, arrange the avocado slices on one any pith and strain the juices into a cup and set aside. Add
side, and the crab and ginger on the other. Pour a little the olives, coriander, shallots, and walnuts to the bowl.
olive oil over and sprinkle with sansho. Make a piquant dressing with the remaining ingredients
and add the pomegranate juice. Pour this over the salad,
toss, and serve with bread. If you have any left over, it will
keep for a day or two in the refrigerator.
SERVES 4–6
2 kg (41⁄2lb) ripe tomatoes While the tomatoes are cooking put the peppers and garlic
6 tbsp olive oil under the grill, turning until the skins of the peppers are
blackened on all sides and the garlic skins are crisp. The
salt and freshly ground black pepper garlic will be ready before the peppers. Leave the garlic to
1 tsp paprika cool, then squeeze it between your fingers and the cooked
5–6 red peppers puree will pop out. Stir it into the tomatoes. Place the
peppers in a plastic bag and leave to cool.
5–6 garlic cloves, unpeeled Peel the peppers, discard the seeds and white ribs,
1 preserved lemon (p.172) and dice the flesh. Add the peppers, lemon, and parsley
4 tbsp chopped parsley to the pan and put this back over very low heat for
10–15 minutes, stirring
Heat the grill. Peel, deseed, and chop the tomatoes and frequently to prevent
cook them gently in the olive oil with salt, pepper, and sticking. Leave to
paprika. Keep the heat low, stir from time to time, and cool before serving.
cook until all the water has evaporated and you have
a thick sauce that begins to fry in the oil. This can take
up to 30 minutes if the tomatoes are watery. Remove
from the heat. Thai chillies
COOKING WITH HERBS AND SPICES • SOUPS, SMALL PLATES, AND SALADS 309
SERVES 4
6 large ripe figs
a handful of walnuts
250–300g (9–10oz) young goat’s cheese
a handful or two of small salad leaves (optional)
salt and freshly ground black pepper
1 tbsp balsamic vinegar
2–3 tbsp extra virgin olive oil
young mint and basil leaves
Cut the figs in four or in six pieces. Break or chop the
walnuts into largish pieces. Cut or crumble the goat
cheese into pieces. If you are using the salad leaves spread
Fattoush them on a platter; if not arrange the figs straight onto the
The essential ingredients in this Lebanese salad are platter and arrange the walnuts and cheese around them.
sumac, fresh herbs, and bread. Use watercress or Season lightly with salt and pepper, drizzle the vinegar
and olive oil over, and scatter over the mint and basil leaves.
more mint and parsley if you haven’t got purslane.
SERVES 6
1 pitta bread
1 cucumber
Spinach with sesame
3 tomatoes, cut in chunks dressing
handful of radishes, cut in half This fresh-tasting Japanese salad is quick to make.
6 spring onions, sliced
SERVES 2–4
a few lettuce leaves, torn if large
500g (1lb 2oz) spinach
large handful flat-leaf parsley, coarsely chopped
2 tbsp sesame seeds
large handful mint, coarsely chopped
2 tsp mirin (or caster sugar)
sprigs and leaves from a small bunch of purslane
2 tsp rice vinegar
1 tbsp sumac
2–3 tbsp soy sauce
salt and freshly ground black pepper
Remove any large stalks from the spinach, wash and transfer
6 tbsp lemon juice
the leaves to a large pan with the water from washing still
6 tbsp olive oil clinging to them. Cook, stirring until all are wilted, then
Split open the pitta bread and toast with the open side rinse under cold water to stop the cooking. Squeeze to
to the grill until lightly golden and crisp. Break it into remove all the water then chop coarsely.
small pieces. Heat a heavy frying pan and dry roast the sesame seeds
Cut the cucumber into four lengthways, and then into until just starting to brown. Crush with a pestle and mortar
pieces. Put all the vegetables and herbs into a bowl and until quite finely ground, though it’s all right to have a few
scatter the bread over the top. larger bits. Don’t be tempted to grind in a processor because
Whisk the sumac, salt, and pepper into the lemon juice, the seeds might become paste-like. Turn the sesame into a
then whisk in the oil. Pour the dressing over the salad, serving bowl, add the mirin, rice vinegar, and soy sauce,
toss, and serve at once or the bread may get soggy. stirring well to make a dressing. Toss the spinach in the
dressing and serve at room temperature or chilled.
310 COOKING WITH HERBS AND SPICES
Fish
Salt and pepper squid Ceviche
Cleaned baby squid are widely available at Ceviche, the national dish of Peru, dates back
fishmongers and fish counters in supermarkets. some 2000 years to the Moche tribe who lived
Boxes of frozen squid are on sale too, but fresh on the coast of northern Peru. They preserved
taste better. Cucumber sambal (p.300) makes fish by marinating it in the juice of the tumbo,
a good dipping sauce. a long fruit related to passionfruit.
Ceviche evolved after the arrival of the Spaniards
SERVES 2 who brought new ingredients, including citrus
400g (14oz) baby squid, cleaned fruits, and their juice replaced tumbo juice. All
½ tsp Sichuan pepper coastal Andean countries have their version of
1 tsp sea salt
ceviche. Peruvian ceviche is made with a marinade
called leche de tigre, or tiger’s milk. It is traditionally
freshly ground black pepper
served with cobs of Peruvian choclo (white corn)
4 tbsp potato flour
and sweet potato.
sunflower oil, for deep-frying
2 spring onions, finely sliced SERVES 4
1 red chilli, deseeded and finely sliced FOR THE TIGER’S MILK
Remove the tentacles from the squid, cut in short lengths small handful of coriander leaves, chopped
if necessary, and set aside. Cut along one side of the squid’s 1–2 chillies, deseeded and sliced, or 2 tsp chilli paste
body to open it out and score the inside in a diamond
pattern, making sure not to cut all the way through the FOR THE FISH
flesh. Cut the squid into smaller pieces, diamond shapes 600g (1lb 5oz) very fresh firm fish fillets such as bream,
look best. Dry the squid on kitchen paper. sea bass, or John Dory
Heat a small frying pan and toast the Sichuan pepper for 1 avocado, diced
a minute or so, until the aroma rises. Tip into a mortar, add
2 corn cobs, cooked and cut in half (optional)
the salt, and crush to a powder or use a spice grinder. Stir
in a few grindings of black pepper. Put the potato flour into 1 sweet potato, baked and sliced (optional)
a wide bowl and stir in the salt and pepper mixture. Combine all the ingredients for the tiger’s milk
Pour oil into a wok or wide pan, enough to cover the in a large non-metallic bowl. Dice the fish and
squid, and heat it to 170°C (350°F) or until a small piece of add it to the marinade. Refrigerate and leave
bread browns rapidly, when added. for 10 minutes.
Dip the squid in the seasoned flour until evenly coated. Add the avocado pieces to the fish, mix together
Fry, in batches if necessary, until golden-brown. Stir gently gently, and serve with the corn and sweet potato if
or they might stick to the sides or bottom. Lift them out you wish.
with tongs or a slotted spoon onto kitchen paper.
Drain all but a tablespoon of oil from the wok. Add the
spring onions, chilli, and garlic, and fry. Put in the squid and
toss all together. Stir in the soy sauce and a little lime juice.
Turn the squid onto a serving plate, and serve with a few
coriander sprigs and wedges of lime.
Mirasol
COOKING WITH HERBS AND SPICES • FISH 311
SERVES 4
1 sea bass, about 1–1.5kg (21⁄4lb–3lb 3oz) For a fish weighing less than 1kg (21⁄4lb) bake
1.5kg (3lb 3oz) coarse sea salt for 20 minutes. Remove from the oven, break
and carefully lift off the salt crust, and
3–4 makrut lime leaves (optional) then remove the skin. Lift off the
2–3 stems lemon grass (optional) top fillets, take out the backbone
and remove the lower fillets.
Heat the oven to 220°C (425°F/Gas 7). Have the fish gutted
Serve with olive oil, lemon
and trimmed but not scaled. The scales are necessary to
quarters, and black pepper
ensure that the salt doesn’t penetrate the skin too much.
or with salsa verde (p.289).
Put an even layer of salt, about 1cm (1⁄2in) thick, in a baking
dish just big enough to hold the fish. Place the fish on it.
Cover the fish entirely with salt until you have a mound
of salt and no sign of the fish. Bake for 25 minutes for a fish
weighing 1kg (21⁄4lb), 35 minutes for one weighing 1.5kg Lemon grass
(3lb 3oz), and 40 minutes for one weighing 2kg (41⁄2lb).
COOKING WITH HERBS AND SPICES • FISH 313
Meat
Lamb korma
In this Moghul dish the lamb is cooked in a spiced yogurt sauce thickened with poppy
seeds and almonds.
SERVES 6–8
450ml (15fl oz) thick yogurt
small piece ginger, chopped
4 green chillies, deseeded and chopped
4 garlic cloves, chopped
2 tbsp blanched almonds
2 tbsp poppy seeds
small piece cinnamon
3 blades mace
1
⁄2 tsp cumin or black cumin seeds
4 cloves
seeds of 4 brown cardamoms
10 black peppercorns
3 tbsp sunflower oil or ghee
1 large onion, sliced
1 kg (21⁄4lb) lean lamb, cubed
1
⁄4 tsp powdered saffron soaked in 1 tbsp water
salt
3 tbsp chopped coriander leaves
Set a fine strainer over a bowl and strain the yogurt in it almonds and spices, and fry for 2–3 minutes more. Add the
for 1 hour. Discard the whey in the bowl. Blend the ginger, meat and stir well to coat it with the spices. Add the yogurt
chillies, garlic, and 3 tbsp water to a paste. Grind together and saffron, season with salt, and cover the pan.
the almonds and all the spices. Simmer over very low heat for 11⁄2–2 hours, until the lamb
Heat the oil or ghee in a large, heavy pan and fry the is tender. Stir frequently to make sure it is not sticking; if
onion until golden. Stir in the ginger paste and the ground necessary, add a little water. Garnish with the coriander.
SERVES 2
2–3 tbsp dukka (p.282) Heat the oven to 220°C (425°F/Gas 7). Rub the lamb with
1 rack of lamb olive oil and press 2–3 tbsp dukka into the fat side. Roast
for 20 minutes if you like your lamb rare or a few minutes
olive oil longer for medium rare. Serve with Spiced lentils (p.319)
and Glazed carrots with marjoram (p.320).
COOKING WITH HERBS AND SPICES • MEAT 315
Cumin seeds
Fennel
316 COOKING WITH HERBS AND SPICES
Pork belly is quick and easy to prepare and then 8 shallots, chopped
is left in a low oven to cook for several hours. The 4 garlic cloves, crushed
refreshing bittersweet taste of juniper marries well 5 red chillies, deseeded and sliced
with pork; most often used in pâtés and terrines, its small piece of fresh galangal, chopped
sharpness also cuts through the fat of pork belly.
1 litre (13⁄4 pints) coconut milk
sea salt and freshly ground black pepper 1 salam leaf or a spray of curry leaves
1
1 kg (2 ⁄4lb) pork belly, rind scored 2 tbsp ground coriander
2 tsp juniper berries, crushed 1 stalk lemon grass, bottom third only, crushed
small handful of thyme sprigs 1 tsp tamarind concentrate, soaked in warm water
Rub a handful of salt over the rind and leave the meat First prepare the spice paste: blend the shallots, garlic,
in the refrigerator for up to 2 hours. Heat the oven to chillies, and galangal to a smooth paste with 2–3 tbsp
150°C (300°F/Gas 2) and put in a small roasting tin. Let coconut milk. Turn it into a wok, add the beef, and stir
it heat through for a few minutes. well to coat it with the mixture.
Gently rinse the salt off the pork and dry with kitchen Add the remaining spices and the rest of the coconut
paper. Take out the tin, put in the tomatoes, and season milk. Stir well, bring to the boil, then simmer uncovered
them with salt and pepper. Scatter the garlic, juniper over gentle heat for about 11⁄2 hours, until most of the
berries, myrtle or bay leaves, and thyme over and between liquid has evaporated and the meat is tender.
them. Put the pork on top, skin side up. Return the pan to When the oil from the coconut starts to separate out, stir
the oven and cook slowly for 3–31⁄2 hours. constantly until it is absorbed by the meat. Stir in the sugar
Heat an overhead grill, take the pork from the oven, and tamarind and remove the pan from the heat.
and put it under the grill for 5–6 minutes to crisp the skin. Rendang has little liquid and is served with rice. Like most
Cover the pork with a piece of foil or a lid and leave to stews it improves if made a day in advance and reheated.
rest for 10 minutes. Lift out the pork to carve. Scoop up
the tomatoes and garlic, leaving behind the fat in the pan.
Serve the pork with the garlic and tomato “sauce” and
boiled or mashed potatoes.
COOKING WITH HERBS AND SPICES • MEAT 317
3 garlic cloves, finely chopped Cut the chicken into 5cm (2in) cubes. Whisk the yogurt and
stir in the masala and the oil. Marinate the chicken in the
1 heaped tbsp berbere (p.284) or wat spices (p.285)
yogurt for at least 2 hours. When you are ready to cook,
400g can tomatoes, chopped heat the oven to 220°C (425°F/Gas 7) or heat the grill or
salt barbecue. Thread the chicken pieces onto skewers and put
the skewers on an oiled grill rack, standing in its tray if they
Lightly score each piece of chicken with a sharp knife to
are to be cooked indoors.
allow the flavours of the sauce to penetrate. Heat the butter
Bake the chicken for about 12 minutes or grill for
in a large, heavy-based pan and fry the onions until golden.
about 10 minutes, turning the skewers once. Allow 10–12
Add the garlic and fry for a minute or two longer. Add the
minutes for barbecuing; the skewers should be turned at
spice mix and stir it into the onions, then add the tomatoes.
regular intervals. Serve with lemon wedges and chopped
Cover and simmer for 15 minutes until you have a thick
coriander or mint. Coriander chutney (p.301) goes well
sauce. Put in the chicken pieces, bring back to a simmer; add
with chicken tikka.
a little water if necessary. Cover and cook for 40–45 minutes,
until the chicken is tender. Taste and season, if needed.
318 COOKING WITH HERBS AND SPICES
Fresh garlic
Chives
COOKING WITH HERBS AND SPICES • VEGETABLES 319
Vegetables
Peas in saffron cream Spiced lentils
The dish is best made with newly podded peas, SERVES 4
but if you can’t get them frozen petits pois could 250g (9oz) Puy lentils
be used. 2 bay leaves
2.25kg (5lb) peas, about 600g (1lb 5oz) shelled seeds of 2 cardamom pods, crushed
10 saffron threads, crushed 4 tbsp double cream or extra virgin olive oil
150ml (5fl oz) double cream 1 garlic clove, crushed with a little salt
1
⁄2 tsp flour 1 tbsp chopped mint
1 tbsp chopped dill or chives 1 tbsp chopped basil, preferably Thai or anise basil
Bring the butter and 100ml (31⁄2fl oz) water to the Put the lentils into a large saucepan with the bay leaves,
boil. Add the peas and sugar, season, and simmer, spices, and whole onion. Add 900ml (11⁄2 pints) water, bring
covered, over a low heat for 8–10 minutes, until the to the boil, then simmer, partly covered, until the lentils are
peas are nearly tender. If there are more than a few tender, about 20 minutes. Add salt to taste in the last
spoonfuls of liquid in the pan, leave uncovered for 5 minutes of cooking.
the moisture to evaporate. Drain thoroughly and discard the
Blend the saffron with 1 tbsp warm water and stir bay leaves and onion. Heat the
it into the cream with the flour. Pour the cream mixture cream or olive oil, stir in the
over the peas, and, as soon as it comes to the boil, stir garlic, and pour over the lentils,
in the dill or chives and serve. turning to coat them well. Stir in
the herbs, and serve.
Dried bay
SERVES 4
2 tbsp white miso paste Blend together the miso and sesame pastes with the
2 tbsp oriental sesame paste ginger and mirin. Add the dashi, a little at a time, to
thin the mixture to a thick cream.
a small piece of ginger, chopped very finely
Blanch the beans in boiling water for 1 minute if using
1 tbsp mirin thin green beans, or for 2 minutes for flat helda beans.
2–3 tbsp dashi Drain, refresh under cold water, and leave to cool. Cut
them on the diagonal into 2 cm (3⁄4in) lengths. Toss the
350g (12oz) young green beans or helda beans
beans in the sauce, scatter over the sesame seeds, and
2 tsp sesame seeds, toasted serve at room temperature.
320 COOKING WITH HERBS AND SPICES
4 tbsp olive oil Peel and grate the beetroot (wear gloves if you don’t want
your hands dyed red). Heat the oil, tip in the beetroot, and
300ml (10fl oz) vegetable stock
fry, stirring and tossing for 5–6 minutes. Put the beetroot
salt and freshly ground black pepper into a warmed serving dish and sprinkle over the balsamic
1 tbsp chopped chives vinegar. Stir in most of the dill, keeping a little aside to
garnish the top. This can be served warm or as a salad.
Trim the fennel tops and bottoms and peel the outer
leaves. Put them into a heavy-based saucepan, side by
side, with the garlic and star anise. Pour over the olive
oil and stock, or equal quantity of water, if preferred.
Season with salt and pepper. Squash purée
Cover and bring to the boil, then reduce the heat and
braise slowly for 30–40 minutes, turning the fennel once.
The hard-skinned squashes – acorn, butternut,
It is ready when it can be pierced with a knife, but don’t kabocha – make wonderful light purées in varying
overcook it – fennel tastes better with a slight bite. Remove shades of gold. They respond well to spicing – ginger,
the fennel from the pan and cut in half. Spoon over a little cardamom, cinnamon, mace, or clove are all suitable –
of the cooking liquid and sprinkle over the chives. and to a dose of alcohol.
SERVES 2
1 small–medium squash
Glazed carrots with salt and freshly ground black pepper
marjoram 1
⁄4–1⁄2 tsp ground spice
60–80g (2–3oz) butter
SERVES 4
150–200ml (5–7fl oz) crème fraîche
500g (1lb 2oz) carrots, thinly sliced
2 tbsp rum or whisky (optional)
salt and freshly ground black pepper
60g (2oz) butter Heat the oven to 190°C (375°F/Gas 5). Cut the squash in half
and remove the seeds. Bake in the oven for 30–45 minutes,
2 tsp chopped marjoram depending on the size and variety. Scoop the flesh out of the
juice and grated zest of 1⁄2 unwaxed orange skins and purée with salt and pepper, the spice of your
choice, and enough butter and cream to make a smooth
Cook the carrots in boiling, salted water until just tender,
purée. Stir in the rum or whisky if you are using it. The purée
about 4–5 minutes, then drain. Melt the butter, toss the
will keep warm, covered, in a low oven for 10–15 minutes.
carrots in it, adding pepper, marjoram, orange juice,
and zest. Cook for 1–2 minutes, then serve.
Sweet
marjoram
COOKING WITH HERBS AND SPICES • PASTA, NOODLES, AND GRAINS 321
Liquorice basil
322 COOKING WITH HERBS AND SPICES
300g (10oz) fresh or dried egg noodles 2 tbsp sunflower oil or clarified butter
1
1 ⁄2 tbsp sesame oil 1 large onion, chopped
2 small chillies, deseeded and chopped (or more to taste) 1 tsp cumin seeds
1–2 pak choi or other Chinese greens, leaves separated 1 tsp salt
and sliced if large 1–2 tbsp sunflower oil or melted butter (optional)
1 red pepper, cut in strips Measure the rice, wash it in cold water, drain, and rinse
100g (31⁄2oz) mangetout or snow peas until the water runs clear; soak it in cold water for 30
minutes or so.
80g (3oz) bean sprouts
Heat the oil in a heavy-based saucepan and fry the onion
2–3 tbsp soy sauce until golden. Bruise the cardamoms lightly and break the
5–6 spring onions, white part and a little green, cinnamon in three. Add all the spices to the onion and fry
cut in slivers gently for about 30 seconds, until the spices are slightly
large handful of coriander leaves and small stalks, chopped
puffed and have darkened a little.
Drain the rice and add it to the pan. Fry for 2–3 minutes,
Rinse fresh noodles in warm water and then boil in a stirring, until the rice becomes translucent. Add 11⁄4
large pan of unsalted, boiling water. They will be done measures of boiling water for every 1 measure of rice.
in 1–4 minutes, depending on their thickness. If you use Season with salt and bring back to the boil. Reduce the heat
dried noodles they will take 4–10 minutes. Taste before to very low, cover the pan, and simmer for 15 minutes. The
the recommended cooking time is reached; do not water will be absorbed and the surface of the rice will be
overcook. Drain, then rinse, and drain again to get rid covered with tiny steam holes. If you wish, add the oil or
of starch. butter to the rice now.
If you need to set them aside for some time, place them Fold a kitchen towel, put it over the pan, put on the lid,
in a bowl and toss with 1 tbsp sesame oil. To reheat, dip and fold up the corners of the towel over the top. Leave the
them briefly into a pan of boiling water or pour boiling pan on the heat for 5 minutes longer, then turn off the heat
water over them in a colander. and leave to steam undisturbed
Heat a large wok, add the sunflower oil, swirl around to for a further 5–10 minutes.
coat the sides, and then add the garlic, ginger, and chillies. Turn the rice out onto a
Stir-fry quickly, making sure the flavourings don’t burn. warmed serving dish
Add the carrots, toss and stir for 1–2 minutes, then put in with a wooden fork,
the pak choi. Stir for another minute or two then, add the fluffing the rice as
pepper and mangetout, continue to stir and then put in the you do so.
bean sprouts. Stir in the remaining sesame oil and soy
sauce and then the noodles, tossing and stirring so that
they mix in with the vegetables. Serve in bowls topped
with the spring onion and coriander.
Cloves
324 COOKING WITH HERBS AND SPICES
SERVES 4
500g (1lb 2oz) basmati rice Put half the butter or oil and 3 tbsp water into a non-stick
salt pan if you have one large enough for the rice; otherwise
rinse the pan the rice was cooked in and use that. When the
100g (31⁄2oz) butter, or 6 tbsp sunflower oil butter has melted or the oil is hot, put in a layer of rice, then
80g (3oz) dill, finely chopped a third of the mixed herbs. Repeat this layering, making
80g (3oz) parsley, finely chopped each layer a bit narrower than the one before so that you
have a cone-shaped mound in the pan. Finish with a layer of
80g (3oz) coriander, finely chopped
rice. With the handle of a wooden spoon, poke two or three
80g (3oz) chives, finely chopped holes through the cone down to the bottom of the pan to
Put the rice into a large saucepan, pour over cold water, allow steam to escape. Pour over the rest of the butter or oil.
swirl around, then drain and rinse until the water runs Cover the pan with a folded kitchen towel and the lid, flip
clear. Return the rice to the pan and soak for at least 2 the ends of the towel up over the lid to keep them away
hours in salted water; the longer it soaks, the better. from the heat. Cook on high heat for 3–4 minutes, until the
Drain the rice, then add 1 tbsp salt to 2.5 litres (41⁄2 pints) rice is steaming, then turn the heat very low and steam for
of water, bring to the boil, and put in the rice, stirring to 30 minutes. The cloth absorbs excess steam and the rice
ensure it does not stick. Boil the rice, uncovered, for 2–3 grains will be separate. The rice will keep hot for a further
minutes and test to see whether it is almost tender. It should 20–30 minutes, provided the cloth and lid are left in place.
be soft on the outside but still retain a firm core. Drain and To serve, turn the rice into a warmed serving dish with a
rinse the rice in lukewarm water. wooden fork. Lift out the crust with a spatula and put it
around the rice.
Arroz al horno
This Spanish dish of rice and chick peas is baked in the oven. Spanish rice is medium grain, but
if you can’t get Spanish use an Italian rice rather than a long grain rice. The chick peas are cooked
in advance (or use canned), then the casserole takes only 30 minutes or so to prepare and cook.
It has a whole head of garlic in the centre which flavours the rice beautifully and is mellow to eat.
SERVES 4–6
1 head garlic After 2–3 minutes, add the tomatoes and potatoes. Sauté
80ml (21⁄2fl oz) olive oil for a few minutes more, season with paprika and salt, and
add the chickpeas. Heat the stock. Tip the rice into the dish
3 tomatoes, peeled and chopped
and stir well to mix, then pour over the stock. Make sure
2 potatoes, thinly sliced the garlic is in the centre. Bring to the boil and simmer for
1 tsp smoked paprika 2–3 minutes, then transfer the dish to the oven and cook for
about 20 minutes. Check that the rice is done and remove
salt
the dish from the oven. Separate the cloves of garlic and
120g (4oz) chickpeas, cooked serve them with the rice.
750ml (11⁄4 pints) vegetable or chicken stock
VARIATIONS
400g (14oz) rice In some places, small pieces of blood sausage or chorizo are
Heat the oven to 200°C (400°F/Gas 6). Remove any loose added, sometimes raisins plumped in warm water, elsewhere
outer skin from the garlic but keep the head intact. Wipe it haricot beans replace the chick peas. Arroz al horno can be
clean. Heat the oil in an ovenproof casserole – in Spain interpreted in different ways, but keep the same proportions
it would be an earthenware casserole – and sauté the garlic. of rice and chickpeas or beans, and keep the head of garlic.
COOKING WITH HERBS AND SPICES • PASTA, NOODLES, AND GRAINS 325
Vanilla
COOKING WITH HERBS AND SPICES • CAKES AND DESSERTS 327
Speculaas
Speculaas are Dutch biscuits which can either be
thin and crunchy or more shortbread-like. They are
traditional for the Feast of St Nicolas on 5th
December. The biscuits may be stamped with an
image or figure on one side, or may have been
shaped in a traditional wooden mould cut as
St Nicolas, or a Dutch symbol such as a windmill.
The traditional spices for speculaas are cinnamon,
nutmeg, allspice, cloves, and cardamom. Ginger is
sometimes included. This recipe makes the thicker,
shortbread-style biscuits.
Bowles’ mint 68, 291 Massaman curry paste 273 powder 242
brandy: juniper and wine marinade 303 Nepal 184 products 242–43
Brassica spp. 236–39 Saudi baharat 280 removing seeds and veins 257, 258
Brazilian pepper 211 South African curry powder 284 roasting 256
bread 307 speculaas 327 threads 241
broad beans 321, 325 spiced lentils 319 toasting 258
broccoli: noodles with beef and Sri Lankan curry powder 278 whole 240
broccoli 322 Syrian baharat 280 Chimayo chilli powder 246
buckler leaf 56 Turkish baharat 281 chimichurri 299
bumbus 165, 278, 295 Yemeni hawaij 281 Chinese cardamom 185
bunching onions 77 Yemeni hilbeh 281 Chinese chives 79, 79
Bunias orientalis 109 Yemeni zhug 282 Chinese ginger 227
Bunium persicum 187 Caribbean adobo 303 Chinese greens: stir-fried vegetables
Burma Cookbook, The 300 Caribbean chicken Colombo 318 with egg noodles 323
bush tomato 152 Caribbean chillies 246, 246 Chinese keys 170
butters, herb 123 Caribbean sauce 297 Chinese parsley 104, 106
Caribbean spice blends 286 Chinese spice mix 272
C Carmack, R and Polkinghorne, M 300 chipotle 245
cabbages: couscous with seven carom 207 chives 15, 78–79, 78–79, 318, 318,
vegetables 325 carrots 320, 323, 325 319, 320, 324
Cajun seasoning 287 Carthamus tinctorius 209 chocolate mint 69
cakes 326 Carum curvi 188–89 chorek 136
calamint 70, 70 cascabel 245 chubritsa 270
Calamintha spp. 70 cashew nuts: artichoke, broad bean, and chutneys 300–01
Calendula officinalis 28–29 quinoa salad 325 Cichorium intybus 85
Cambodian cardamom 185 cassia 140–41, 140–41, 272, 281 cider vinegar 288, 294, 295, 296
Cambodian spice mixes: kroeung 274 Catalan Romesco sauce 291 cilantro 104
Canary Islands: green mojo sauce 292 catmint 71 Cinnamomum 138–41
candlenuts 278, 295, 322 catnip 71, 71 cinnamon 138–39, 138–39
capers 204–05, 204–05, 289, 290, 306 cayenne powder 242, 283, 287, 306 citral 164, 171
Capitulaire de Villes 90 cekur 170 citrus 172–73, 172–73
Capparis spp. 204–05 celery 80–81, 80–81, 302 Citrus spp. 166–67, 172–73
capsaicin 241, 257 celery salt 262 clary sage 95
Capsicum spp. 154–55, 240–49 ceviche 310 claytonia 21, 21
caraway 188–89, 188–89, 281, 283, chaa phluu 216 Claytonia perfoliata 21
292, 292 chadron benee 106 cloves 230–33, 230–33, 323, 327
caraway thyme 98 channa dal: sambhar powder 277 coconut: Bombay masala 275
cardamom 182–83, 182–83, 277, 279, 284 Charlemagne 90 Colombian curry 287
Aleppo blend 282 chat masala 163, 276 Complete Book of Caribbean Cooking,
aromatic garam masala 276 chayote: Caribbean chicken Colombo 318 The 297
basic baharat 280 cheese see specific types conehead thyme 99
Bengal 185 Chenopodium ambrosioides 116 coriander (herb) 104–05, 104–05, 106
bizar a’shuwa 279 chermoula 155, 312 coriander (spice) 142–43, 142–43
black 184–85, 184–85 cherry chillies 249 Coriandrum sativum 104, 142–43
berbere 284 chervil 58–59, 58–59, 290 corn cobs: ceviche 310
garam masala 275 Cheshire rock salt 260 corn mint 69
Bombay masala 275 chickpeas 324, 325 Cornish smoked salt 263
Cambodian 185 chicken 302, 317–18, 321 Costa Rican mint bush 102
Chinese 185 chicory 85, 85 coupe 178, 178
Ethiopian 185 chiffonade 120 courgettes: couscous with seven
Greater Indian 184 chilaca 244, 286 vegetables 325
ice cream 326 Chilean aliño 267 couscous with seven
Iranian baharat 280 chillies 240–49, 240–49, 273, 285, vegetables 325
Javanese winged 185 292, 301 creeping thyme 98
lamb korma 314 dried 241, 258–59 Creole cooking 287
Malabar pilaf 323 flakes 241 cresses 110–11
Malay curry powder 278 freezing 257 Cretan dittany 88
330 INDEX
spiced pumpkin soup 304 marjoram 86–89, 86–89, 287, 320, 320 Moroccan mint 68, 270
lemon myrtle 171, 171 marzipan and poppy seed cake 326 Moroccan preserved lemons 293
lemon-scented thyme 99 masala, green 268 Moroccan spice blend 282, 283
lemon thyme 97, 303, 303 masalas 268, 275–76, 288, 313 Moroccan spice paste 312
lemon verbena 52, 52 masalchi 275 mountain balm 70
lemons 172, 172, 293, 311 massalé 277, 313 mountain hollyhock 112
lentils, Puy: spiced 319 Massaman curry paste 273 mountain mint 69
Lepidium sativum 111 mastic 208, 208 mountain pepper 218, 218
lettuce, 297, 309 matsutake no dobinmushi 25 mountain spinach 26
lettuce basil 33 meat 302, 302–03, 314–19 moutarde au cassis 239
Levisticum spp. 82–83 meatballs: pomegranate and herb mugwort 117, 117
lily, resurrection 170 soup 305 mulato 245
lime 172, 173, 173 Meaux mustard 238, 238 mulga tree 137
see also makrut lime Mediterranean herb and spice blend 268 Muntok pepper 210
lime basil 35, 325 Mediterranean marinade 303 Murraya koenigii 200–01
lime leaves 295 Melegueta pepper 219 Murray River salt 263
lime powder: advieh 279 Melissa officinalis 50 mushrooms: hot and sour soup 304
Limnophilia aromatica 55 melokhia 283 mussels with lemon grass and ginger 313
linguine with herbs 321 Mentha spp. 66–69 mustard 236–39, 236–39, 277, 305
Lippia spp. 52, 89 Mexican chillies 244–45 mustard oil 237
Liptauer cheese 205 Mexican giant hyssop 57 Myanmar chutney 300
liquamen 262 Mexican marinade 303 Myristica fragrans 190–95
liquorice 177, 177 Mexican mint marigold 28–29 myrosinase 236, 238
liquorice basil 35, 321 Mexican oregano 89 Myrrhis odorata 27
liquorice mint 57 Mexican sauces 297, 298 myrtle 38, 38, 171
lovage 82–83, 82–83 Mexican spice blends 286, 288 Myrtus communis 38
Mexican tarragon 29
M mezzaluna 119, 119 N
macademias: bumbu bali 278 micromeria 103, 103 nabemono 25, 173, 296
mace 190, 194–95, 194–95, 286 Micromeria spp. 103 Nagelkaas 231
aromatic garam masala 276 microwaving herbs 121 nam pla 262
English spice mixes 286 microwaving spices 254 nam prik 293
lamb korma 314 Middle East spice mixes 279–83 nam prik pad 293
Malay curry paste 278 mignonette pepper 214, 214 nasturtium 111
Massaman curry paste 273 Miller, Philip 16 Nasturtium officinale 110
pickling spice 286 Millon, Marc and Kim 296 Nepal cardamom 184
Tandoori masala 276 miner’s lettuce 21 Nepali mint chutney 300
Madras curry powder 277 mint 66–69, 66–69, 290, 300 Nepeta cataria 71
mahlab 136, 136 mint bush 102 nepitella 70
Mahonia spp. 159 mioga ginger 225 New Mexican chillies 246, 246
Maibowle 46 mirasol chilli 247, 310 ngo gai 106
makrut lime 166–67, 166–67 mirin 296, 309, 319 ngo om 55
Malabar pilaf 323 miso paste: green beans with a miso Nicolaia elatior 225
malagueta chilli 247 and sesame sauce 319 nigella 134, 134, 296
Malay curry paste 278 mitmita 285 Nigella sativa 134
Malay curry powder 278 mitrasol chilli 286 noodles 322, 323
Malaysian laksa 322 mitsuba 25, 25 Ñora chillies 249, 291
Malaysian rendang 316 mixed herbs: ravigote sauce 290 nori flakes: seven spice powder 271
Maldon sea salt 260 mixed spice 229, 229, 320 North African harissa 292
ma’amool 136 mizuna 237 North American wild garlic 76
Mancha 178, 179 Moche tribe 310 nuoc mam 262
mangetout: stir-fried vegetables with mojo sauces 73, 173, 292, 298 nutmeg 190–95, 190–95, 277, 277, 280
egg noodles 323 molasses, pomegranate 161, 305
Mangifera indica 163 mole verde 116, 217, 297 O
mangoes 163, 298, 300 Monarda fistulosa var. menthifolia 89 Ocimum spp.30–35
marigold 28–29, 28–29 Monarda spp. 48–49 Oenanthe spp.80
marinades 302–03, 310, 311 monkfish: Seychelles fish curry 313 oils, herb 122
INDEX 333
rocket 108–09, 108–9, 289, 289, 308 Schinus terebinthifolius 153 spearmint 67
Rocky Mountain lakes 261 Scotch bonnet 246 speculaas 327
rocotillo chilli 247 Scots lovage 83 spice mixes
rocoto chilli 247, 286 screwpine 47 for baking 229
rolling pin for crushing 255 sea bass 311, 312 in meat dishes 231
Rosa spp. 146–47 seasoning 269 for rubbing into meat 214, 218, 229
rose 146–47, 146–47, 279, 283, 303, 321 seaweed salt 262 see also specific mixes, e.g. ras el
rose geranium 41 serrano 244, 244, 297 hanout
rosemary 15, 90–91, 90–91, 302, 303 sesame oil: ginger and lime spice pastes 255
Rosmarinus officinalis 90–91 marinade 302 spiced salt 262
rozsa paprika 155 sesame paste: green beans with spices (general)
rum 320, 326 a miso and sesame sauce 319 bruising 251
Rumex spp. 56 sesame seed 132–33, 132–33, 271 crushing 255
Bombay masala 275 dry roasting 253–54
S condiment 271 frying 254
sabzi âshe 270 coriander chutney 301 grating 252
sabzi ghormeh 270 dukka 282 grinding 255
sabzi polo 270 green beans with a miso making pastes 255
safflower 209, 209 and sesame sauce 319 microwaving 254
saffron 178–81, 178–81, 280 jon dip 295 mixes 271–88
false 209 Kochujang red pepper sauce 296 shredding 252
lamb korma 314 noodles with beef and broccoli 322 slicing 252
peas in saffron cream 319 seven spice powder 271 spinach: with sesame dressing 309
Saudi baharat 280 spinach with sesame dressing 309 split peas 277, 305
Turkish 209 za’atar 283 see also channa dal/urad dal/toor dal
Yemeni hawaij 281 Sesamum orientale 132–33 spring onions 77
sage 92–95, 92–95, 287, 315 seven spice powder 133, 221, 271, 279 squash purée 320
salad burnet 23, 23 Seychelles fish curry 313 squid: salt and pepper squid 310
salads 308–09, 325 shado beni 106 Sri Lankan curry powder 201, 278
salam 217, 217 shahi jeera 187 star anise 174–75, 174–75, 272, 311, 320
salmon cured with gin, juniper, and Sharena Sol 270 steak 266, 288, 316, 317, 322
elderflower 311 sherry 302, 311 stews 270, 279
salsas 289, 297, 299 sherry vinegar: salsa fresca 297 stuffings 31
salt 260–63, 260–63 shichimi togarashi 271 sugar flavourings 41, 43, 149
salt and pepper squid 310 shrimp paste 262, 293 sumac 158, 158, 282, 283, 309
Salvia spp. 92–95 shrimps 293 summer savory 100–01
sambals 243, 295, 300, 301 see also prawns Svaneti salt 268
sambhar 201, 206, 235, 277 shukta 135 Svanuri marili 268
Sanguisorba minor 23 Sichuan pepper 220, 220–21, 272, 310 sweet chilli sauce 294
sansho 220–01 Sicilian marjoram 88 sweet cicely 27, 27
sansho pepper 271, 308 Sinapsis alba 236 sweet potato 310, 318
santaka 248 smallage 80–81 Syrian baharat 280
Sarawak pepper 211 Smyrnium olusatrum 83 Syrian oregano 89
sargol 178 snapper 312, 313 syrups: geranium leaf 41
sassafras 53, 53 snow peas: stir-fried vegetables Syzyium aromaticum 230–33
Sassafras albidum 53 with egg noodles 323
sassoun 306 sodium chloride 260–63 T
Satureja spp. 100–02 sofrito 106, 155, 267 Tabasco chilli 246
sauces 73, 115, 116, 217, 218, 243, sol kadhi 162 tabil 189, 189, 283
289–301, 319 Solanum spp. 152 tadka 201
Saudi baharat 280 sorrel 56, 56, 290 Tagetes spp. 28–29
Savora mustard 239 soups 270, 304–06 tahini 133
savory 100–02, 100–02, 306 South American spice blends 286 tailed pepper 215
sawtooth herb 106 Spanish arroz al horno 324 taklia 283
scallions 77 Spanish guindilla 286 tamales 203, 217
shichimi togarashi 221 Spanish paprika 155 tamarind 156–57, 156–57
INDEX 335
Acknowledgments
About the author
Jill Norman is a respected author and editor with a wide been painstaking and constructive in their editing; Toni Kay and
knowledge and appreciation of foods from many parts of Sara Robin have produced a handsome and imaginative design;
the world. In the 1970s she created the food and wine list for and Dave King has produced lively and informative photographs
Penguin Books. This led to travels in pursuit of food and drink, of all the herbs and spices. My thanks go to all of them.
and a passion to discover the origins of herbs and spices and
how they are used. She is acknowledged internationally as an Publisher’s acknowledgments
authority on herbs and spices. The Complete Book of Spices Updated edition 2015: Dorling Kindersley would like to
won awards in the UK and the US, and the first edition of thank Michele Clarke for the index; Dorothy Kikon, Seetha
Herbs and Spices was honoured by the German Academy Natesh, Arani Sinha, and Neha Samuel for proofreading.
of Gastronomy. All of her books have been widely translated.
Jill was Elizabeth David’s publisher and is now literary trustee First edition 2002: Dorling Kindersley would like to thank
of the David estate. Marghie Gianni and Jo Gray for design assistance; Sarah
Duncan for picture research; Jo Harris for research and
Author’s acknowledgments styling; Nancy Campbell for research and sourcing items for
photography; Jim Arbury for his splendid Hamburg parsley;
Updated edition 2015: For the second edition, publisher
Patty Penzey of The Spice House; Debbie Yakeley at Richters
Mary-Clare Jerram was once again instrumental in orchestrating
in Ontario; and all those who helped us in Florida, making it
a splendid team. Dawn Henderson, Peggy Vance, and Christine
possible to photograph many fresh herbs and chillies when
Keilty at DK London and Janashree Singha, Ivy Roy, Navidita
they were unobtainable in the UK – Linda Cunningham in
Thapa, and Alicia Ingty at DK Delhi have been constructive,
Jacksonville and Maggie at Maggie’s Herb Farm, Della and
helpful, and patient throughout and worked to difficult deadlines.
Tim Baldwin at Palm Valley Peppers, and Paul Figura.
My warmest thanks go to them all.
First edition 2002: Thanks first to my husband, Paul Breman, Picture acknowledgments
who helped with research, and encouraged me constantly
The publisher would like to thank the following for their kind
throughout the writing of the book. He also compiled the index.
permission to reproduce the photographs:
Many friends generously provided information or samples
from their own part of the world or their own area of expertise; a=above; b=below; c=centre; l=left; r=right; t=top;
thanks go to Lynda Brown, Vic Cherikoff, Nevin Halıcı, Ian Anthony Blake Photo Library: Sue Atkinson 75br;
Hemphill, Richard Hosking, Philip Iddison, Aglaia Kremezi, Martin Brigdale 193r; Graham Kirk 212; Andrew Pini 75 bl.
Myung Sook Lee, Maricel Presilla, Diny Schouten, Maria José
Jacques Boulay: 151br, 180–181.
Sevilla, Margaret Shaida, David Thompson, Yong Suk
Willendrup, Paula Wolfert, and Sami Zubaida. Corbis: Jonathan Blair 44bl; Chris Bland 45tl; Michael Busselle
William Penzey of The Spice House in Milwaukee generously 75tr; Dean Conger 192b, 193bl; Ric Ergenbright 180bl; Owen
provided a wealth of spices and information; Dr P.S.S. Thampi Franken 74b, 151tr, 232tl, 233tl, 233tr; Michael Freeman 150–
of the Spices Board of India provided useful contacts in Kerala; 151b; Lindsay Hebberd 232–233; Chris Hellier 45tr, 150bl; Dave
Summa Navaratnam and N.M. Wickramasinghe helped on G Houser 212cl; Earl & Nazima Kowall 181tl; Gail Mooney
cinnamon production; Patricia Raymond of Aust & Hachmann 213tl; Caroline Penn 181tr; Kevin Schafer 150t.
gave help on vanilla; the Hungarian Trade Office and Foods Flowerphotos: Barbara Gray 192tl.
from Spain on paprika and pimentón; Sarah Wain of West
Garden Picture Library: David Cavagnaro 74–75;
Dean Gardens took me through their impressive collection of
Brigitte Thomas 151tl; Michel Viard 213tr, 213br, 232tr.
chillies; Kevin Bateman of MSK provided samples of Kashmiri
saffron and bourbon vanilla; Chris Seagon of Laurel Herb Oxford Scientific Films: Deni Bown 193tl; Alain Christof
Farm provided herbs; Jason Stemm sent me statistics from 44–45; Bob Gibbons 213bl; TC Nature 233br.
the American Spice Trade Association, and A.C. Whitely of
All other images © Dorling Kindersley
the Royal Horticultural Society and Dr Mark Nesbitt of the
Royal Botanic Gardens at Kew helped me to identify golpar. The Dorling Kindersley picture library contains over 2.5 million
At Dorling Kindersley publisher Mary-Clare Jerram, art images, including travel photography, food, and drink. For
director Carole Ash, and their team conceived an exciting more information, visit www.dkimages.com
and ambitious book; Gillian Roberts has been an exemplary
managing editor; Frank Ritter and Hugh Thompson have