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Humor: An Essential Communication Tool in Therapy

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74 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MENTAL HEALTH

International Journal of Mental Health, Vol. 32, No. 3, Fall 2003, pp. 74–90.
© 2004 M.E. Sharpe, Inc. All rights reserved.
ISSN 0020–7411/2004 $9.50 + 0.00.

SOPHIA F. DZIEGIELEWSKI,
GEORGE A. JACINTO, ANGELA LAUDADIO,
AND LOLOMA LEGG-RODRIGUEZ

Humor
An Essential Communication Tool
in Therapy

ABSTRACT: This article is an exploratory analysis of the use of

humor as an essential communication tool. Consistently, the au-
thors found information that upheld humor as a positive tool to be
implemented in building and enhancing communication. This ar-
ticle specifically looks at humor in education and therapy, and
with groups or teams. In education, humor appears to be a viable
way to enhance student learning and to advance the student’s
knowledge base. Within therapy, humor can be utilized to break a
client’s resistance, reduce tension, generate catharsis, and increase
trust in the client/therapist relationship. Within groups and/or

Sophia F. Dziegielewski, Ph.D., LCSW, is a professor and George A. Jacinto,

LCSW, is an instructor in the School of Social Work at the University of Central
Florida; Angela Laudadio, MSW and Loloma Legg-Rodriguez, MSW, are affili-
ated with the School of Social Work at the University of Central Florida.
Special thanks to Anita Norton, MSW, whose original study on laughter and
team progress provided the impetus for this article.
Please address all correspondence regarding this article to Dr. Sophia F.
Dziegielewski, School of Social Work, University of Central Florida, P.O. Box
163358, Orlando, FL 32816; tel.: (407) 823-5621; fax: (407) 823-5697; e-mail:
[email protected].

74
 FALL 2003 75

teams, the effects of humor can assist in increasing cohesion and

goal attainment. Furthermore, humor can be beneficial in the form
of laughter when aimed at the goal or task. This analysis discusses
the effects of stress on increasing episodes of laughter, and finds
that to discourage the use of laughter may actually reduce task group
performance. Overall, in all the aforementioned areas, humor is an
important component that needs further research. Suggestions are
made for future research along with recommendations for how and
when to best utilize humor as part of the intervention process.

Humor is one of the most effective forms of communication that

humans employ, yet it is overlooked. Humor is such an essential
ingredient in communication that it has been referred to as a lubri-
cant for social life [1]. Unfortunately, however, humor is generally
not fully recognized as a critical tool for use in the professional
setting. In fact, there is little research to support the use of humor
as an essential component of interpersonal relationships. This pau-
city of supportive evidence can be related to subjective and varied
perceptions of humor as an intervention.
Most people agree that humor plays a role in nearly every situa-
tion in which people interact. In many formal settings, humor espe-
cially when it is in the form of laughter, is viewed as unprofessional.
For some researchers this stigma has squelched attempts to include
it in formal research. To date, the effects of humor have been cited
in areas such as education [2, 3], psychotherapy [4, 5, 6], training in
leadership [7], and the medical properties of combating stressful
illnesses such as cancer, hypertension, and stroke ([8, 9]. Humorous
laughter is also cited in music, literature, and theater, and often helps
the artist to point to incongruities in society [9]. Furthermore, the
bible refers to humor as a medicine to guide an individual to health
(Proverbs 17:22). In our society, attempts have been made to utilize
and understand laughter as a tension reducer that assists with group
cohesion and goal attainment [10]. For example, during formal train-
ing on HIV/AIDS, instructors are encouraged to use humor when-
ever possible. According to these trainers, the use of humor in the
counseling arena can be one of the “most effective icebreakers, it
76 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MENTAL HEALTH

can be utilized as a bonding tool, and it can relieve the immense

tension from the ever so serious situation that the client faces”
[11: 43]. Therefore, humor can be utilized to allow people to let
down their guard and learn to relax.
This article will examine some of the existing literature and
studies citing humor as a potential tool. To exemplify the use of
humor in training situations, the existing literature on education,
psychotherapy, and group processes will be explored. Like Ziv’s
[7] and Franzini’s [2] studies, this article will exemplify how humor
can serve as a stress reducer. It is postulated that if humor is intro-
duced as a therapeutic tool for developing increased coping skills, it
can also serve to help increase the effectiveness of therapeutic, edu-
cational, and team-building interventions.

Understanding the use of humorous laughter

Humorous laughter is an ageless phenomenon that scientists have

always had difficulty understanding. These complexities include the
cognitive, physiological, philosophical, and psychological aspects
of humor. Freud [12] explained humor-laden behavior as a way for
an individual to openly deal with social taboos such as sexuality
and aggression. Ziv [7] contended that humor is often used as a
self-defense mechanism to ward off anxiety related to avoiding
ones own shortcomings.
Although it is difficult to define the concept of humor, two essen-
tial characteristics are usually present—laughter and smiling [9].
Humor allows for socialization and communication within many
interactions and is often defined along two dimensions, the appre-
ciation of humor and the creation of humor. For instance, if a person
is pointed out as having a good sense of humor, it usually means that
the person has one or both of these qualities [7]. All individuals
have the potential to laugh freely, although some may suppress this
depending on their capacity for openness and creativity [13]. Others
may not have developed an appreciation of humor because of their
personal background. When clients are unable to appreciate hu-
mor in life it may be because they are grieving due to a loss, are
 FALL 2003 77

chronically depressed, unable to comprehend the humor, or gener-

ally unable to “let go” and relax because of a desire to monitor and
control their emotions. The absence of humor has been defined as
a by-product of various life circumstances and categorized accord-
ing to different therapeutic modalities [14].

The use of humor in education

In an educational setting, the use of humor is a strategy that educa-

tors can use in facilitating and enhancing the learning process.
Although from elementary school through high school, research
shows that humor is used less often in the classroom, many teachers
and higher education facilitators (college and university instructors)
believe humor can be instrumental in stimulating interest and fur-
thering students’ interactions within the classroom setting. In el-
ementary school, humor is considered a naturally occurring element
in classes. Unfortunately, in high school it is often considered taboo
as educators focus on the serious business of preparing students for
college or work. Jerry King, a former teacher and National Educa-
tion Association member stated, “We’re missing the whole point,
laughter does not prohibit learning, it’s enhancing it” (as cited in
[15: 19]). Humor can be used as a tool to engage students’ minds. In
education the use of humor creates an atmosphere that allows for
openness, spontaneity, and a unique perspective on learning and
teaching [16]. Hill [3] believes that humor encourages:
a. a positive learning environment;
b. retention of the lesson;
c. the promotion of physical well-being;
d. a form of protest that is socially accepted; and
e. coping mechanisms within the team and the individual.
In addition, humor can be used to motivate students and profes-
sionals to learn about a subject and raise curiosity, and thought-
provoking material presented in an entertaining way can contribute
to the desire to learn [17].
In educating the child within the home, which is one of the
largest learning forums of a child’s life, humor can be a parent’s
78 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MENTAL HEALTH

friend. Taffel [18] prescribed humor and laughter as a key element

to increasing a child’s self-esteem. Furthermore, he saw the use of
humor in the household as a means of relief and as a means to
teach a child not to take him/herself so seriously.
In the classroom, humor can facilitate attention and learning. For
example, when a student is not attentive, limitations in retention
and skill acquisition can result [19]. According to Berlyne, humor is
a stimulus for retaining attention and releasing tension. For example,
upon hearing a joke the listener’s arousal level continuously rises to
a higher level of discomfort until the punch line is given, making
sense of the incongruities presented in the joke, and thereby releas-
ing the tension (Berlyne [1972], as cited in [20]). Therefore, laugh-
ter can boost a bored, inattentive listener, facilitating higher learning
performance and memory retention [21]. Additionally, according to
Fuhler, Farris, and Walther [22], students who have been exposed to
humorous materials and have been given the tools to express them-
selves, will feel more at ease and share with others the positive
message that everyone can find humor and hope in everyday life.

Humor in therapy

Humor is a multifaceted concept that is receiving increasing at-

tention in the health care setting. For the most part, therapeutic
humor is any kind of positive interaction that will maintain, en-
hance, or improve physical and/or emotional well-being [23].
Granick [24] explains that many therapists regard humor as a valu-
able productive vehicle that has enabled clients to progress effec-
tively in dealing with personal, social, and emotional problems.
Humor, creativity, emotion, and mental health are all linked as
part of living a full and productive life [25]. According to Saper
[26], therapeutic humor can be used in an educative and corrective
sense that assists in promoting cognitive-emotional equilibrium.
The use of humor can allow the therapist to draw attention to be-
haviors while affirming the essential worth of the client. In therapy,
humor can also allow the couple to become aware “of all human
frailties and frustrations and smile upon them” [4: 236].
 FALL 2003 79

Maslow [27], Rogers [28], and Kush [29] have each conceded
that humor is one attribute revealed by a fully functioning person. It
is a sign of a healthy psyche that a person is able to laugh at un-
eventful occurrences throughout their lives and move forward. Freud
[12] stressed that there is a distinct connection between humor and
a client’s healthy adjustment; and according to Falk and Hill [30]
and Prerost [31], many theorists, regardless of theoretical orienta-
tion, find humor useful. Specifically, Sands states that “humorous
content can give clients permission to relax and express tabooed
emotions in a socially acceptable way, rendering counselors less
formidable” [32: 40]. Falk and Hill [30], similarly to Haig [33],
state that counselor “humor can be constructive in forming and
furthering the therapeutic alliance . . . breaking through resistive
defenses . . . aiding in catharsis, but also can enable clients to avoid
conflicted areas” [30: 40]. Finally, humor can also be used as a cop-
ing mechanism to avoid conflict, allowing people to remain safe
until they are ready to deal with the painful events in life.
In the therapeutic environment, humor can promote a compe-
tent therapeutic relationship, improve self-esteem, stimulate creative
thinking, and broaden perspectives. Therapists can helpa client to
convert upsetting experiences into comical situations in order to
regulate unsatisfactory responses. Granick [24] describes a ses-
sion in which a client was tense and irritated with himself because
he lost his temper with his children. At the moment the client
expressed his anger, Granick utilized a prop to elicit humor, and
thus reduced the client’s tension. This anecdote illustrates one
feature of humor in the therapeutic process: it allows the client to
experience an upsetting situation as comical and benign. Humor
can help reorient perceptions, attitudes, and behaviors, which can
lead to more balanced interactions. Freud [12] pioneered research
on the systematic exploration of the nature of humor and laughter
and how it is integrated in the human personality. In Wit and Its
Relation to the Unconscious, he observed that jokes and comical
expressions enable individuals to defend against anxieties, fear,
anger, and other disturbing emotions. Freud presented humor as
liberating and capable of providing comfort in relieving the pain
80 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MENTAL HEALTH

of misfortune, thereby allowing the client to deal with situations

in a mature, intelligent, and constructive fashion. He viewed hu-
mor as a tool to facilitate social relationships in that it allows for
mutual feelings of pleasure while reducing anxiety.
Furthermore, humor can be integrated in the therapeutic pro-
cess as a method of enhancing catharsis. Humorous comments can
motivate a client to share his or her most inner thoughts, feelings,
and conflicts. It also provides an opportunity to stimulate new ways
of perceiving and understanding attitudes, behaviors, and situa-
tions [34]. This broadening of perceptions allows for the opportu-
nity to change. Because the stimulation of laughter has been
associated with the relief of both tension and depressed feelings,
clients have the capacity to revise their approaches to problem
solving under less pressure. Humor can be used as a vehicle to
stimulate meaningful insights, such as words of wisdom, through
recollections of past events or similar situations. Writers have re-
ported that humor has helped individuals survive emotional and
physical suffering, imprisonment, illnesses, and loss [24].
According to Solomon [35], humor allows people to gain con-
trol by redefining situations as less threatening. Furthermore, em-
barrassing situations can be viewed as less serious and thus under
control. Regardless of whether a person is able to change or con-
trol an event, when the event can be redefined with the use of
humor, a sense of control develops [36]. This suggests that indi-
viduals who use humor to cope with life stressors do so as a func-
tion of their ability to see the value of self-efficacy and self-control.
Extensive research has been done on the concept of perceived con-
trol and its relationship to physical and psychological conditions.
The results of these studies indicate that people more often than
not experience positive outcomes from perceiving that they have
control over what affects them and they experience negative out-
comes, such as depression, when they perceive a lack of control.
Martin and Lefcourt [37] and Solomon [35] note that perceived
control is associated with better emotional well-being, better meth-
ods of coping with stress, better health and physiological outcomes,
and improved performance.
 FALL 2003 81

Research indicates that humor has also been utilized as a diag-

nostic aid in a variety of mental health conditions. Goldin and Bordan
[14] compiled literature reporting that humor has been used to pre-
dict patient adjustment after hospitalization; to measure the extent
of a client’s depression; and even to assess schizophrenic patients’
difficulties in socialization. To facilitate practice measurement,
Martin and Lefcourt [37] developed the Coping Humor Scale as
well as a Situational Humor Response Questionnaire, thus provid-
ing tools that allow for an in-depth assessment of client humor. In
addition to the aforementioned systematic measurement invento-
ries, Mahrer and Gervaise [38] have suggested four ways that client
appreciation of humor can be utilized in diagnosing therapeutic
progress:
a. Strong laughter may indicate a desirable shift in self concept.
b. Strong laughter may be an expression of a valued or optimal
state characterized by energy, openness, and awareness.
c. Strong laughter may be an expression of a positive counseling
relationship in that it leads to warmth, acceptance, intimacy, and a
reduction in emotional distance.
d. Strong laughter can be seen as an index of client change, in that
it reflects heightened experiencing, strong-feeling expression, emo-
tional flooding or catharsis. [38: 39]
Additionally, humor has been found to be diagnostically sig-
nificant in understanding the natural development of adaptive
mechanisms in children. Buckman [39] and Ziv [7], in exploring
the developmental progression of humor, noted a correlation be-
tween humor and a child’s regulation of response to environmen-
tal threats. They discovered that humor is a comforting experience
to children and it allows them to share humor with adults as a way
of receiving comfort for fears. Therefore, in clinical settings, humor
can be used to assess a child’s capacity to identify his/her reality
and to define the stage of psychological or social development.
The ability to understand humor symbolizes a child’s transition to
more complex cognitions, and, once recognized, humor can assist
in healing such serious conditions as cancer, cerebral palsy, con-
genital orthopedic problems, and burns [8].
82 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MENTAL HEALTH

Humor has a liberating effect on people, provides comfort, and

helps to relieve the pain of misfortunes, thereby enabling them to
deal with situations in a mature, intelligent, and constructive fash-
ion. One value of humor is that it strengthens the rapport between
the client and the therapist, a component of the counselor’s assess-
ment of the client’s degree of pathology. It can also offer the client a
less painful perspective of a painful experience. As Abel notes: “Hu-
mor affords an opportunity for exploring cognitive alternatives in
response to stressful encounters and perhaps for reducing the nega-
tive affective consequences of a real or perceived threat” [40: 267].
Finally, the therapist may be able to add to a client’s social reper-
toire and thus provide a method of controlling stress [14]. One must
note, however, that the crucial element is timing: to be most effec-
tive, humor must fit the situation just right.

Incorporating humor in the therapeutic

environment

As with any of the communication skills learned throughout de-

velopment, humor needs to be used in moderation. In the Hand-
book of Humor, Buckman illustrated thirteen considerations for
the therapeutic use of humor:
1. There must be a therapeutic relationship before using humor in
the therapy.
2. Humor transcends and disarms the client’s unconscious resis-
tances enabling the therapeutic exploration of painful and conflicted
issues.
3. To be effective, humor, as any interoperation, must be timely.
4. By utilizing all the healthy defense mechanisms, humor be-
comes the highest level and healthiest functioning defense mechanism.
5. Humor joins the client and the therapist in accomplishing the
painful work of therapy.
6. Bypassing superego censorship, humor enhances ego function-
ing to manage and explore unconscious material.
7. Incongruity and surprise makes humor enjoyable executing its
interpretive work.
 FALL 2003 83

8. When therapists use humor, it allows the client to become bet-

ter aware of what might otherwise have been unconscious or beyond
awareness.
9. The therapist’s use of humor addresses transferential and counter-
transferential issues.
10. Humor enables regression in the service of the ego.
11. The therapist-client relationship determines the type, timing,
and use of humor employed.
12. Thoughtful spontaneity is always the determinant for the thera-
peutic use of humor.
13. Humor = pain + distance. [39: 155]

Humor and therapy in combination do not appear to be suitable

in treating individuals who have lower mental functioning. When
individuals take emotional disturbances too seriously, humor does
not evoke pleasant feelings and can result in obsessions and anxi-
ety [34]. Additionally, Freiheit, Overholser, and Lehnert note that
“adolescents who are depressed may have an impaired ability to
appreciate the humor in situations” [41: 33]. These clients may
perceive the therapist’s jokes or humorous comments as unsym-
pathetic, which can possibly endanger the therapeutic relationship.
This makes it critical to determine when is the best time to incor-
porate humor. The helping professional must judge when the time
is appropriate for utilizing humor [42]. According to Gladding [34],
humor in counseling is improper when:
a. The counselor uses it to avoid dealing with client anxieties.
b. A client views it as irrelevant to his or her reasons for being in
counseling.
c. It is experienced as a put-down.
d. It is inappropriately timed. [cited in 14: 411]

Humor creatively involves “the ability to perceive relationships

between people, objects, or ideas in an incongruous way, as well
as the ability to communicate this perception to others” [7: 111].
One must reiterate that timing, client perception, and therapeutic
relationships are all essential elements to determining when to use
humor within the counseling arena [43].
84 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MENTAL HEALTH

Humor in groups or teams

Before describing the application of humor within the group set-

ting, it is important to differentiate groups from teams. A group is
identified as a collection of figures or individuals for some pur-
pose over a period of time [44]. According to O’Neil et al. [44],
groups may be composed of members with differentiated func-
tions that are voluntary in nature or assigned. Furthermore, mem-
bers may be either passive or active in the functions they perform.
Teams, on the other hand, are formed for a specific purpose and
have well-defined time frames. Good teamwork requires that each
member think in terms of the team’s best interest. Teams must
practice to improve their performance and members must grow to
count on one another, and this builds a sense of trust among the
members. In the pre-forming stage, members discover the reputa-
tion of the group. In the forming stage, members discover the
acceptable behaviors that are associated with the task, and humor
may be used to release tension as well as to adapt in order to assimi-
late into the group [7]. Furthermore, incidences of humor can be
utilized to break the ice or gain control of issues and emotions. Hu-
morous laughter can also be used to release tension or lay the foun-
dation for building future perspectives. Team leaders can address
emotions such as built up anger or tension by introducing humor.
This allows more time for problem solving and gives participants
an increased sense of control over a problem rather than vice versa.
There are some disadvantages of using humor in stressful discus-
sions. It can cause distrust between members, including suspicions
about the initiator’s dedication or motivation. Another disastrous
effect is that the organizer may simply not be successful in using
laughter, which can upset the team or group’s previous balance.
It has been theorized that humor is important in releasing or less-
ening tensions and conflicts within the group setting. In addition,
for a group to be strong and productive, it must have cohesion [7].
Shared laughter and pleasure can increase the group’s well-being,
thus enhancing productivity. Therefore, the use of humor can build
and maintain teamwork in “stress-laden milieus” [45: 19].
 FALL 2003 85

Basically, the use of humor as evidenced by laughter in the group

setting can have both short-term and long-term benefits in the area
of stress management [45]. Laughter can serve to release tension
and allows members to behave impulsively without breaking soci-
etal taboos [9]. This openness may allow for creative problem solv-
ing while encouraging team building. Humor helps to release
tension and gives the participant a feeling of belonging. Further-
more, the use of humor in the form of private jokes or “inside
jokes” can serve as a defense against the infiltration of strangers
into a group [19]. These jokes create a shared experience that al-
lows the group to remain superior over the newcomer.
Team building is considered an essential form of group devel-
opment. Teams have become prevalent because they are more pro-
ductive than an individual working alone on an important project
[46, 47]. Teams also allow for more diversity in the use of outside
materials and skills. Recently, there has been increased research
in the area of team performance, and many variables involved in
the team process have been highlighted [19, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50].
Some of these variables include team communication, workload,
and stress, and how important these are in accomplishing goals.
Some factors that can interfere and degrade performance include
the illness of a member and time and situational crises. In addition
to the factors mentioned above, humor should be involved in the
research of teams and goal accomplishment.
Finally, humor can help to maintain norms within team build-
ing. To maintain team balance, laughter can be used as a form of
punishment. Humor can be used to ridicule, reject, or make a scape-
goat of an individual within the group. This form of humor can be
very damaging to the victim [10], while allowing a hierarchy to
develop. For example, in military teams, this type of humorous
ridicule can serve as a means to facilitate survival of the entire
group [51]. Another negative type of humor known as gallows
humor can also be used to evaluate a new team member’s sense of
humor. Some call gallows humor “dark,” or humor that is consid-
ered an exaggeration of the situation facing the group. Gallows
humor may be seen in strained laughter that occurs in high stress
86 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MENTAL HEALTH

settings such as emergency rooms or police locker rooms. This

laughter is rather cynical and demonstrates a coping mechanism
that is used when there is “no reasonable hope for improvement in
the conditions” that the group or individual is facing [45: 38].
Humor is also used as a defense mechanism to relieve stress.
Team efforts can encourage laughter to increase interaction and
lead to more successful coping mechanisms. Laughter through in-
teraction, although not fully understood, can affect and change per-
formance during the life of the team [19]. Therefore, the use of humor
in the group or team setting can facilitate team development and
processes, and, as in other types of therapy, humor is often used by
team members as a coping mechanism to handle stress.

Conclusion

Evidence of the positive consequences of appreciating and produc-

ing humor has led to the creation of a growing number of work-
shops and courses on how to develop or improve a sense of humor
[2]. As mentioned earlier, humor is a key component in training
programs, including programs for counseling HIV/AIDS clients [11]
and for counseling children, where the healing powers of humor
have been demonstrated [8]. In their Participants’ Guide: Client-
Centered Counseling, Testing, Partner Counseling and Referral Ser-
vices, humor is listed as one of ten basic counseling skills that are
used within the counseling session. While using humor with a criti-
cal disease such as HIV/AIDs may seem questionable, Dremburg
and Walker, based on their years of counseling experience, believe
it is valuable, and they readily identify humor as “a significant tool
to lighten the conversation, as a tool to stress a point or build rap-
port” [11: 13]. They go on to state in the training manual:
It is okay to interject humor during a counseling session, but it must be
done appropriately and with sensitivity to the client. Every client is
different, and not every client will appreciate a humorous moment
during the counseling session . . . try to be spontaneous and not appear
to be repeating a memorized script . . . don’t repeat the use of humor
 FALL 2003 87

just because one client accepted it . . . the next person may not receive
it the same way. [11: 13]
In summary, humor, like any other communication tool, should
be utilized to create a nonthreatening environment, facilitate com-
munication, and ensure the development of a trusting, relationship
between client and therapist, or among any persons involved [24].
Humor is an important coping skill for dealing with life stresses.
In the classroom setting, affording students an opportunity to
release tension through nonthreatening humor may open their
minds to more complicated subjects. Within the therapy session,
humor can be utilized to decrease tension and build rapport. Within
teams humor is utilized to increase teambuilding and bonding
among members. After all, as Kush notes, humor adds a “colorful
dimension to our personality . . . and . . . is a desirable characteris-
tic of a healthy personality” [29: 22]. Overall, of the tools that can
benefit interpersonal communication, humor seems to be one of
the most overlooked.
In the future, more research is needed to determine when as
well as how to best encourage the use of humor not only in the
therapy setting but also in any realm of life where stress may be-
come overwhelming or tensions are high [2, 52]. Humor is clearly
a factor to be considered in diminishing the effects of stress with
performance, and more research is needed to determine the level
at which stress actually degrades or improves performance. Laugh-
ter has been cited as a form of communication, but little is known
about exactly how much humorous communication is necessary
for a group to be productive.
As stated by Strean [53], research in the area of laughter as a
form of humor is still in its infancy. Laughter research is a re-
minder that not all science concerns arcane or narrow problems.
We should resist neglecting or trivializing the commonplace.
There are rewards for approaching nature with a naive curiosity
and attempting to see the familiar in new ways. As with any of
the other communication tools available to us, humor’s positive
or negative effect upon treatment, education, and in-groups or
88 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MENTAL HEALTH

teams will be relative to the context in which it is used.

There is an evident need for researchers to do trials utilizing
humor as a central component. Falk and Hill stated in their brief
study concerning counselor interventions and client laughter: “Theo-
rists across various theoretical orientations believe that humor is
potentially useful” [30: 40]. Some suggestions for research in this
area include the use of self-report questionnaires, observation of the
use of humor and of laughter responses following humor. Although
self-report has its limitations, it can provide further evidence on how
humor, stress relief, therapy, and general communication are inter-
twined. Finally, research on humor would benefit not only thera-
peutic professions but also countless others, and in this way can
exert a significant positive effect on society as a whole.

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