CHAPTER 2

Fats and Oils

Intended Learning Outcomes

By the end of this topic/chapter, you must be able to:
1. Describe and classify structure and composition of fats and oils
2. Demonstrate the properties if fats and oils in food preparation
3. Explain the possible phenomenon regarding properties of fats and oils
4. Suggest principles in safe and quality frying procedures
5. Describe behaviors of fats in emulsion systems
6. Familiarize fat replacers and its significant roles in human consumption

The distinction between fat and oils is often arbitrary. Both are glycerol esters of
wide variety of fatty acids. Oils are generally liquid at ambient conditions while fats are
solid. Chemically both are called lipids and have the same generic constituents.

Structure and Composition of Fats

The components of food fats and oils are usually triglycerides, trace amounts of
mono and diglycerides, trace or no free fatty acid, some fat-soluble vitamins, some or no
minerals and sometimes also pigments.

Triglycerides

Triglycerides are glycerol esters of fatty acids wherein all 3 carbons in the glycerol
backbone are attached to a fatty acid. Fatty acid may be saturated or not. The degree of
unsaturation has other nutritional and culinary implications as indicated earlier. Degree of
unsaturation affects physical properties especially melting point. Fat/oil molecules can
differ from each other with respect to kind and length of fatty acid chains, degree of
unsaturation, the position of the attached fatty acids, the glycerol backbone and other
factors.

Diglycerides and Monoglycerides

When only one of the 3 carbons of the glycerol molecule is esterified with a fatty
acid, a monoglyceride is produced; when 2 of the 3 carbons are esterified, we have a
diglyceride.

Phospholipids

As the name implies phospholipids are a combination of a lipid and a phosphatase

group. Lecithin is the most abundant phospholipid of cell membranes.
Vitamins and Minerals

The fat soluble vitamins are vitamin A, D, E, and K. Pigments such as carotenes
and chlorophyll may also be present in oils, such as olive oil. Highly active oils or refined
oils however have no more pigments at all because of bleaching.

Physical Structure

The physical structure or chemical configuration of fats and oils determine its
properties and reactions. Solid fat is composed of crystal structure of straight chain fatty
acids suspended in oil.

Kinds of Fats and Oils Used in Food Preparation

Classification by Source

Fats and oils may be classified according to plants/animal sources:

Animal Fats:

1. Butter, which is derived from milk.

2. Lard, rendered from fatty tissues of pork.
3. Beef tallow, rendered from fatty tissues of beef
4. Fish oils, derived from fatty tissues of fish
5. Fish liver oils, derived from fish liver

Plant Sources:

1. Oilseeds – are the major sources of oil from plants.

2. Olive oil – is the oil obtained by pressing the ripened olives.
3. Cottonseed oil – is usually winterized. Winterization is the process which
subjects the oil to low temperature where higher melting point glycerides are
crystallized then filtered off.
4. Soybean oil – is the major edible oil in the USA.
5. Corn oil – is obtained from the germ of the corn endosperm.
6. Canola oil – is obtained from genetically modified rapeseed.
7. Vegetable shortening – shortening is made by hydrogenation of refined oil.
8. Margarine – was developed as a substitute for the more expensive butter.
9. Coconut Oil – the bulk of coconut oil commercially available is extracted from
dried coconut meat called copra.
10. Virgin Coconut Oil – is produced without the use of chemicals such as those
used during the refining process. It is derived directly from the coconut milk.
 11. Palm Oil and Palm Kernel Oil – Palm kernel oil is a seed oil and has fatty acid
composition similar to coconut oil. Palm oil is extracted from the fruit and
constitutes equal amounts of saturated and unsaturated fatty acids.

Classification by Culinary Use

1. Frying oil
2. Shortening
3. Spread
4. Salad dressing
5. Topping
6. Flavoring
7. Nutritional supplement

Snack Food Industry

The snack food industry and the fast food industries are the major industrial users
of frying oils. Frying temperatures ranges from 170-190° C.

Blanching Medium

Fats and oils are also used as a blanching medium. Oil blanching is an industrial
process and is better known as first fry. The food is quickly fried to cook but not brown
the surface or make it crisp. This is done in the manufacture of French fries, banana chips,
and sweet potato chips.

Low Temperature Frying

This is still a variation of frying which is done at very low (below 100° C)
temperatures. This is also known as oil poaching. More practical use of low temperature
frying is the preparation of the chicharon.

Shortening

One of the most important functions of fat is to tenderized baked products that
otherwise would be a tough mass firmly held by gluten.

Emulsion Structure

In emulsion structure, oil can either be the dispersing medium as in margarine or

the dispersed phase as in cake batter.
Texture Effect

Fat affects the smoothness of crystalline candies and frozen desserts (ice cream)
by retarding crystallization in starch thickened mixtures. Fat affect the gelatinization
process. Fat also contributes to the juiciness in meat and the foam structure of whipped
cream.

Spray or Greasing

Fats and oils are used to prevent food from sticking to the pan. This is a standard
process in baking.

Flavor Effect

Fat is an efficient flavor carrier. Note how efficiently it picks up even undesirable
odors and volatile flavors in storage.

Fat as Sources of Ingredient/Supplement

Fat/oil is a raw material from mono- and diglycerides, which are emulsifiers. It is
also a source of fatty acids used in food supplements.

Culinary Functions

Fats and oils when ingested are slow in leaving the stomach and hence contribute
to the satiety value of food. One tends to feel fuller with fatty foods.
In food systems fats and oils carry flavors that make eating a pleasurable
experience. They also act as lubricants and provide a unique creamy mouthfeel to food.
Bread is easier to swallow when buttered. In baked products fats provide
tenderness. The fat coats the flour particles creating a flaky tender texture. The flakiness
of a piece of pie crust is not possible without fat. It is necessary to baste with an oily
mixture or to cover with fat or bacon to avoid stringiness and dryness.

Properties of Fats and Oils: melting, smoke, flash and fire points

Melting Point

Melting point is the temperature at which a solid fat is changed to liquid. This
property is unique for each type of fat/oil. The melting point ranges depends upon the
solid fat index (SFI) which in turn is determined by various factors such as: chain length,
degree of saturation of component fatty acids, configuration at double bonds (trans or
cis) of unsaturated fatty acids and number of molecular species.
Smoke Point

Smoke point is the temperature at which fat deterioration is sufficient to produce

bluish smoke. Smoke points are much higher than the boiling point of water.

Flash Point

The smoke point of an oil correlates with its level of refinement. Many cooking oils have
smoke points above standard home cooking temperatures:

• Pan frying (sauté) on stove top heat: 120 °C (248 °F)

• Deep frying: 160–180 °C (320–356 °F)
• Oven baking: Average of 180 °C (356 °F)
Smoke point decreases at different pace in different oils.
Considerably above the temperature of the smoke point is the flash point, the
point at which the vapors from the oil can ignite in air, given an ignition source.

Fire Point

Fire Point is the temperature at which frying oil will sustain combustion. It ranges
between 340 and 360 °C for different fats.

Principles of Frying

Frying temperatures are generally 170 to 195 °C. This permits rapid cooking,
surface drying, and browning reactions resulting in the distinctive color and flavor of fried
food.

Changes in Fat During Heating

There are 4 ways by which oils decompose. All of these cause lowering of the
smoke point.
1. Pyrolysis (thermal breakdown) – heating the oil causes molecular breakdown with
or without contact with food.
2. Oxidation – the combination of heat and oxygen at the surface causes molecular
breakdown at the point of unsaturation and ultimately development of rancidity.
3. Hydrolysis – the water reacts with oil and splits the ester bridge between fatty acid
and glycerol.
4. Reaction with food residue – residue from the food being friend reacts with fat and
contributes to deterioration.
Emulsion Systems: Mayonnaise, Salad Dressings and Cream Puffs

In emulsion structure, oil can either be the dispersing medium as in margarine or

the dispersed phase as in cake batter.

Mayonnaise

By legal definition established by the FDA Act, mayonnaise is the emulsified semi-
solid food prepared from edible vegetable oi, vinegar and/or lemon juice or citric acid, egg
yolk, or whole egg and one or more optional ingredients such as salt, mustard, paprika,
a sweetening agent, and monosodium glutamate. It must have egg which acts as the
emulsifying agent, causing a permanent emulsion.

Béarnaise and Hollandaise

They are both emulsified butter sauces. Instead of using oil, butter is used. Egg yolk is
also the emulsifying agent. Hollandaise is flavored with lemon juice while béarnaise is
flavored with vinegar, shallot, and tarragon.

Cream Puffs

The foundation of the perfect cream puff is light, airy pâte à choux, which is made
with eggs, flour, and butter. Once the cream puffs are shaped and baked, they're filled
with a rich homemade pastry cream.

Fat Replacers

The need for fat substitutes was triggered by the demand for low calorie replacers
to combat obesity. The fat replacers currently available are categorized into 3 types: fat-
based, protein-based, and carbohydrate-based.

Fat-based Substitutes

1. Sucrose fatty acid polyesters (SPE’s) are mixtures of compounds called esters
made by combining sucrose esters and fatty acids, the most common example of
which is Olestraᵀᴹ. Because of its large molecular size, Olestra is not absorbed or
metabolized by the body, thus it contributes no calories to the diet. Olestra is used
as a frying medium.

2. Sucrose fatty acid esters (SFE’s) are similar to SPE’s however, their molecular
size is smaller. As a result, they are partially or fully absorbed thus providing up to
9 calories per gram to the diet, same as provided by conventional fats. SFE’s are
used as emulsifiers and stabilizers.
Protein-based Fat Replacers

These materials are derived from a variety pf protein sources including eggs, milk,
whey, soy, and wheat gluten. They are used in frozen dairy desserts, cheese, baked
goods, sauces, and salad dressings providing only 1 to 4 calories per gram depending on
the water level incorporated to them.

Carbohydrate-based Fat Replacers

A number of carbohydrates including gums, starches, pectins, and cellulose have

been used for many years as thickening agents to add bulk, moisture and textural stability
to a wide variety of foods including puddings, sauces, soups, baker goods, salad
dressings, and frozen desserts.
 EXERCISE #2:
Fats and Oils

Instruction: Write the answer of the following into a separate bond paper.

1. What are invisible fats? Give examples.

2. Make a table of at least 10 fat and oils products and their culinary function and
sources.

Fat and Oil Products Culinary Function Sources

Chapter 2 Summary

1. The components of food fats and oils are usually triglycerides, trace amounts of
mono and diglycerides, trace or no free fatty acid, some fat-soluble vitamins, some
or no minerals and sometimes also pigments.
2. Fats and oils may be classified according to plants/animal sources:
3. The properties of fat are the melting point, smoke point, fire point, and flash point.
4. Frying temperatures are generally 170 to 195 °C. This permits rapid cooking,
surface drying, and browning reactions resulting in the distinctive color and flavor
of fried food.
5. The need for fat substitutes was triggered by the demand for low calorie replacers
to combat obesity. The fat replacers currently available are categorized into 3
types: fat-based, protein-based, and carbohydrate-based.

Chapter 2 References

1. Babayan, V.K. 1989 Sense and Nonsense About Fat in the Diet. Food
Technology. 43 (1): 40-91.
2. Chavez, L.L., De Leon, S.Y., & Claudio, V. S., (2006). Basic Foods for Filipinos
4th Edition, Manila: Merriam & Webster Bookstore, INC.
3. Boickish, Michael (1998). Fats and oils handbook. Champaign, IL: AOCS Press.
pp. 95–96. ISBN 978-0-935315-82-0.
4. Classic Cream Puffs, Retrieved from
https://www.marthastewart.com/1113097/classic-cream-puffs
5. Fire Point. Retrieved from https://www.encyclopedia.com/education/dictionaries-
thesauruses-pictures-and-press-releases/fire-point
6. Enig, M. 1999. Coconut in Support of Good Health – 21st Century. 36th Meeting
of the APCC.
7. ISEO. 1999. Food Fats and Oils, 8th Edition. Washington, DC: Institute of
Shortening and Edible Fats.
8. Gray, S (June 2015). "Cooking with extra virgin olive oil" (PDF). ACNEM
Journal. 34 (2): 8–12.
9. Monoj K. Gupta, Kathleen Warner, Pamela J. White (2004). Frying technology
and Practices. AOCS Press, Champaign, Illinois.
10. Morgan, D.A. (1942). "Smoke, fire, and flash points of cottonseed, peanut, and
other vegetable oils". Oil & Soap. 19 (11): 193–198. doi:10.1007/BF02545481.