CONTENTS

Chief-Editor Remarks………………………………………………………….…VII
Editors Remarks………………………………………………………………………XI
Contributors………………………………………………………………………….XIII

1. ASOKA WAS THE FIRST TO GLOBALISE DHAMMA: THE MOST

INNOCUOUS AND SUBLIME KIND OF GLOBALISATION………………………….01
Angraj CHAUDHARY
2. ANAGARIKA DHARMAPALA’S MOVEMENT IN BENGAL…………………….11
Hemendu Bikash CHOWDHURY
3. THE KNOWLEDGE PRODUCTION ON BUDDHIST NUNS IN SRI LANKA:
CHANGES AND CHALLENGES…………………………………………………………..23
Gihani DE SILVA
4. SONGDHAMMAKALYANI BHIKKHUNĪ ĀRĀMA: AN ECO-TEMPLE……….35
DHAMMANANDA
5. BUDDHISM AND POST-MODERNITY VIS-A-VIS AMBEDKARITE
BUDDHISM…………………………………………………………………………………43
Pradeep P. GOKHALE
6. THE EVOLUTION OF BUDDHISM INTO A GLOBAL RELIGION………………57
Michael HARRIS
7. GAṆAPATI IN THE BUDDHIST TRADITIONS OF TIBET AND
MONGOLIA............................................................................................71
Andrea LOSERIES
8. BUDDHIST PHILOSOPHY AND THE RUBAIYYAT OF OMAR KHAYYAM: A
COMPARATIVE STUDY…………………………………………………………….…..89
Md. SHAKEEL
9. HOSSŌ SECT OF JAPANESE BUDDHISM IN THE ERA OF
GLOBALISATION …………………………………………………………..……………..99
Animesh PRAKASH
10. UNDERSTANDING CAMBODIAN BUDDHISM………………………….….113
C. Upender RAO
11. BUDDHIST PERSPECTIVE ON SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT…….….121
K.T.S. SARAO
12. ANCIENT INDIA BUDDHIST LANDSCAPE AT NĀLANDĀ: GEOGRAPHICAL
CONSTITUENTS AND SOCIO-CULTURAL MILIEUS…………………………….139
Anand SINGH
13. B. R. AMBEDKAR’S ĀCĀRYASHIP AND HIS CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE
BUDDHIST SĀSANA…………………………………………………………………….153
Sanghasen SINGH
14. LIVING IN THE AGE OF GLOBALISATION WITH THE BUDDHIST
CONSCIOUSNESS: CHALLENGES AND PROSPECTS………………………….…163
Siddharth SINGH
15. MYANMAR-BODHGAYA LINKAGE: CLAY MOULDED TABLETS AND
RELATED ISSUES………………………………………………………………………..179
Suchandra GHOSH
16. BUDDHISM’ GLOBAL REACH…………………………………………………..189
Charles WILLEMEN

IV
 HOSSŌ SECT OF JAPANESE BUDDHISM IN THE ERA
OF GLOBALISATION
PRAKASH Animesh

Introduction

T
he term ‘globalisation’ connotes the increasing worldwide
integration of religious, cultural, economic, political and
social systems. It would not wrong to say that Buddhism is
really a diverse family of religious and philosophical
traditions which have developed over the past 2500 years in
many different cultures. Emerging originally in India, Buddhism
quickly spread throughout the Indian sub-continent, moved into
southeast Asia, then into Central Asia, on into China, Korea, and
Japan. Since Buddhism is global, the term ‘globlisation’ is significa-
nt here. It is evident from the entire history that wherever
Buddhism went it took the culture of that region and influenced a
lot by Buddhist thought. And, as a teaching of Buddha were
embraced by the people in very different culture and religious
settings, Buddhism itself changed in significant ways, resulting in
the enormous teachings and practices among contemporary
Buddhists. But, in spite of all the diversity all Buddhist trace their
belief and practices, in some sense, back to the awakening of
Gautama the Buddha under the Bodhi tree and to the teachings
that derive from his experience.
Our perception of the world, we perceive now, is filled in
two aspects: crisis and opportunity. Buddhist theory of interdepe-
ndence allows us to incorporate with any genuine tradition and
merged with another socio-cultural background across the globe.
There is a necessity for responsible studies of other religion. For
not only does religion continue to be prominent in our world but
the way in which people think about in practice religion are being
 Hossō sect of Japanese Buddhism in the era of Globalisation

transformed by globalisation. So, if we wish to understand the

current religious realities, it’s not enough to study and then
perpetuate somebody’s assumptions from the distant past. On
empirical level religious beliefs, practices and self-understandings
change over time. Thus, in considering contemporary religion, it’s
important not only to look at its past-history but also to examine
how it shapes today through encounter with current challenges.
What happens, for example, when a very ancient religion
encounter with modernisation and globalisation? Zen Buddhism,
in particular, is using it to illustrate how ancient religious
traditions take on fresh manifestations and adept to very different
and do context.
Religion is greater than any other local group and cannot
be confined to the cultural boundaries of any particular region.
They are religious traditions with universal pretentions and global
ambitions. Buddhism has been always a missionary religion
moving intentionally beyond its land of origin into very diverse
culture and societies. Buddha sent out his followers on missionary
journey to spread the dharma for the benefit and welfare of many.
The inception of Buddhism in Japan can be traced back to
sixth century1, which flourished in China and assimilated to Japan
via Korea. Assimilation of Buddhism became so accustomed for
transplantation, as it had already established its root from India to
China and from China to Korea. It happened not only due to
missionary activities and efforts of the King Paekche, who sent a
gilt-bronze Buddha image and the Buddhist scriptures but also due
to the Japanese mind of recognizing Buddhism. Japanese always
encouraged learning throughout the ages. However, the main
objective of the King Paekche was clearly political.

Nara Buddhism2
Wherever Buddhism goes, it adopts the culture of that
place. During the Nara period, Shintoism was the dominant
religion in the Japanese society. Emperor Genmei built the first

1
As per Nihonshoki list, it is 552 CE. However, this date has been discussed
and disputed among the scholars. I this concern, year 538 is more precise.
2
A form of Buddhism which belongs to Nara Period (710-784).

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 Animesh Prakash

permanent capital of Japan to a new city3 named as Heijōkyō

Nara), the Nara capital. It was a result of natural consequence of
the Taika Reforms (645-)4.
The Fujiwara (former Nakatomi) clan was very dominant
in Japanese politics, the Emperor and his Fujiwara consort
contributed much in promoting Buddhist thought. Resulting,
Buddhism became the “Guardian of the State”.
The establishment of Nara and a new form of religion,
which was the mixture of Buddhist thought and Chinese culture
expanded its roots and influenced a lot to the Japanese population.
Emperor Shomu (729-49) promoted Buddhism and initiated
various activities like building new temples, buildings, Buddha-
statue of bronze and wood and so on. The emperor placed the
world’s largest bronze statue of the Buddha Mahāvairocana in the
Todai-ji temple of Hossō sect in Nara. In addition, Japanese educa-
tional system began in Buddhist temples, for example Chinese
medicine, hospitals and asylums were introduced by Ganjin; civil
engineering was introduced by Dōshō and his disciple Gyogi, they
also built bridges and dams, irrigation systems, wells and
highways, etc. No Cremation system exists before; it was started
after the death of Dōshō. During this period, Japanese had not only
Cultural similarity with china but also had a good contact and that
took Japanese to it new height in developing Buddhistic thought
and culture.
These growing contacts with China, several sects of
Buddhism from T’ang China made their way to Japan. The Nara
emperors deeply reverenced the Buddhist teaching called “the
Sutra of Golden Light” (Suvarṇaprabhāsa Sūtra;) which advocated
the protection of the state by Buddhist faith.
This strong faith also gave rise of the position of Buddhist
Monks in Nara. Empress Shōtoku (718-770) wished to make Dōkyo
(700-772), a Hossō monk, emperor. This incident led to the

3
According to Shintoism, the place where death occurs is considered to
be impure, that was the reason they changed their capital.
4
A series of political and social innovations established by Emperor
Kotoku in 646, which followed the suppression Prince Naka noōe and
Nakatomi Kamatari.

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exclusion of women from imperial succession and the removal of

Buddhist monks from positions of political authority.
In the last phase of Nara period, Emperor Konin, who ruled
from 770 to 781 CE tried to reassert imperial discipline by
replacing forced military service with a system of regular forces,
thus creating the basis of the warrior class.

Scholastic Sects of Nara Buddhism

The credit of academic study of Buddhism in Japan goes to
the six sects of Nara Buddhism. Traditionally, it is believed that
they have been established between 747-751. They are as follows:
Kusha Sect5; Jōjitsu Sect6; Sanron Sect7; Hossō Sect; Kegon Sect8;
and Ritsu Sect9. Among them, Hossō, Kegon and Ritsu have survived
till date.
The Sanron and Jōjitsu sects are officially arrived in 625
and were followed by the Kusha, Hossō, Kegon and Ritsu. Among
the six sects, the Sanron, Hossō, Kegon and Ritsu attracted much
more members of the aristocracy than the Kusha and Jōjitsu sects.

5
Based upon the Sarvāstivādin treatise Abhidharmakośa, an ideal
forerunner of Vijñānavāda school. It was written by an Indian master
Vasubandu in the fifth century CE and translated into Chinese by
Paramartha between 563-567 and by Hsüan-tsang in betwwen 651-654.
6
Based upon the Satyasiddhi Śāstra, written by an Indian master
Harivarman in third century CE. This text criticizes the Sarvāstivādin
thought. Presently no Sanskrit version exist and we do not have any
record for its popularity in India.
7
This was the most influencial and dominant school of Early Nara period.
It is based on the Indian Mādhyamika thought of at least three masters,
namely, Pingala, Aryadeva and Nagarjuna. It also corresponds to Chinese
Sanlun schools of Buddhism. The school was brought to Japan by the
Korean monk Ekwan. It offers a way discover the true meaning of
Buddhism by means of the middle way of the two levels of truth.
8
It is based on the Buddha-avataṁsaka-mahāvaipulya-sūtra, one of the
profound and perfect elucidations of Mahāyāna thought. This text was
completed in third century CE by the effort of an unknown Indian
master.
9
This sect is devoted to the moral precepts of the Buddhist sangha. Each
school have their own form of Vinaya but Ritsu places all rules and
regulations before meditation and philosophy as a means of attaining
perfect awakening.

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 Animesh Prakash

It is true that the six sects of Nara Buddhism did not convert the
masses, nor even the aristocracy to a proper understanding of
Buddhism, but the Nara thought played an important role as a
foundation stone for the future Buddhist developments.
Buddhism was non-sectarian in nature in its first three
quarters of a century after its official inception to Japan.
Linguistically, the term shū refers to a group of adherents gathered
together to study one tradition, but practically it did not work in
Nara period. Likewise, the Indian Nalanda tradition, Japanese
temples of Nara period were not only restricted to study and
practice a single tradition but it was open for all Buddhist tradition
under the same roof. That is why; all six sects of Nara were housed
simultaneously at the Tōdaiji temple.
Even in the last quarter of century, when Japanese
sectarian movements were evolved, Japanese concept of shū had
never been denoted the type of doctrinal differences; they
function much closer to the medieval concept of religious order.

Hossō Sect
Indian Mahayana Buddhism has two wings: Yogācāra and
Mādhyāmika. Hossō as a noun refers to a name of a Japanese school
of Buddhism10, which belongs to the Indian Yogācāra (Vijñānavāda;)
system of thought. Hossō sect, which is the continuation of the
Chinese Fa-hsiang school 11 of Buddhism travelled to Japan via
China around the year 654 CE. The first patriarch of Fa-hsiang
school of Buddhism in China was the famous Chinese traveler
Hsüan-tsang, who studied under Śīlabhadra12 at Nalanda Univers-
ity in India. He brought several Indian Buddhist texts to China,
which he later translated13 into Chinese. Jōyuishikiron (Vijñaptimātr-
atasiddhi śāstra) can be regarded as the core text of this sect, which
is based upon several commentaries and the following six major
sutra-s: Daihōkō butsu kegongyo (Buddhavaṁsakanāma mahāvaipulya

10
it is the continuation of the Chinese Faxiang school of Buddhism
11
The She-lun sect (Samparigraha) is the predecessor of Fa-hsiang school.
12
Śilabhadra (529-645) and Dharmapāla (born mid-6th century) are
considered to be the other famous patriarchs of Vijñānavāda sects in
India.
13
He translated the Saṁdhinirmocana sutra, the Yogācārabhūmi Sāstra, and
the Mahāyānasaṁgraha.

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 Hossō sect of Japanese Buddhism in the era of Globalisation

sūtra); Gejin mikkyo (Saṁdhinirmocana sūtra); Daijō nyuryōgakyō

(Laṅkāvatāra sūtra); Daijō mitsugonkyō (Ghanavyūha sūtra); Nyorai
shutsugen kudokushōgonkyō; and Abidatsumakyō.
The transmission of Hossō teachings can be traced at least
on these four separate occasions (Prebish and Keown, 2009: 254): a)
Dōshō, travelled to China in 653 and studied under the guidance of
Hsüan-tsang, b) Chitsū and Chitatsü, who went to China in 658 also
studying under Hsüan-tsang and his disciple K’uei-chi; c) Chihō,
Chiran, and Chiy, who went to China in 703 studied under Chih-
chou; and d) Gembō, who went to China in 716 and studied under
Chih-chou.
Hosso split out into two: southern and northern. Dōshō’s
lineage, passed on through the monk Gyōgi (668- 749) and it
represents the Southern Temple, while Gembō’s lineage represents
the Northern Temple. There are various important temples, even
now, which represents the treasure- houses of Japanese religious
art belong to the Nara. For example, Horyū, Yakushi, and Kōfuku.
The roots of Yogacara14 school, which later took a form of
Fa-hsiang and Hosso school, was founded in India during
approximately the fourth century CE, by the quasi-historical
Maitreya and the two brothers Asanga and Vasubandhu 15 .
However, its major hypothesis and principle idea were already
disseminated around third century CE, which is evident from the
Samdhinirmocana sutra, the root text 16 of Yogacara Buddhism.

14
The literal meaning of Yogācāra (as an adjective) is ‘one whose practice
is Yoga’. It is said that Yogācārin are those who base themselves on the
Asaṅga's magnum opus, the Yogācārabhūmi­śāstra. Perheps, the name of
the school is influenced by this text only. According to Chinese tradition
this text is authored by Maitreya (-ātha) whereas Tibetan attributes this
to Asaṅga. It is very possible that the fundamental and the earliest
section “Mauli-Bhūmi” was by Maitrya (-ātha) and the other portion
“Viniścaya” by Asaṅga.
15
Vasubandhu also authored the text Abhidharmakośa, on which the
Japanese Kusha school stands. This was why, it is not so surprising that
the Kusha subsequently became an appendage of the Hossō sect, as they
do have considerable similarity in analysis of the dharma-s.
16
Saṃdhinirmocana sūtra is the earliest text to declare that all is mere-
cognition (vijñapti-mātra). Moreover, it propounds the threefold intrinsic
nature and threefold absence of intrinsic nature for the very first time. It

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Some of the unique features of this school, which defines

Buddhism in a new perspective, are ‘the third turning of the
dharma-wheel17’; ‘emphasizing mere cognition only’; ‘threefold
intrinsic nature’; and ‘the theory of eight consciousnesses’.
Literally, the term Hossō means the dharma characteristics,
which emphasizes investigation and realization of the true nature
of all phenomena. The philosophy of this school is commonly
known as Yuishiki (Vijñaptimātratā), which can be translated as
‘mere cognition only’ ‘consciousness only’ ‘mind only’ and so on.
According to it, it is the basis of the appearance of all phenomena
in this objective world and the subjective mind. Some scholars like
Chatterjee (1987) have tried to interpret as the metaphysical
idealism18 but Lusthaus (2007) claims it as misinterpretation. He
argued that, in the Yogācāra text, consciousness is not ultimate; it
is only conventionally real as it originates from moment to
moment depending on its determinants or causes and conditions,
but because this consciousness is the cause of the karma, which
they were seeking to be eliminated. Tagawa (2009) says that the
mind distorts reality and projects it as reality itself (cf. Choedron).
Early Yogacāra does not teach “idealism.” When we minutely see
this doctrine, we find that epistemologically consciousness does
not cognize anything outside itself. However, ontologically we can
say, no entities exist apart from the consciousness. According to
Hosso sect, all sentient beings do not possess the Buddha nature.
The beings that belong to the three yana-s, namely, śrāvakayāna,
pratyekabuddhayāna, and bodhisattvayāna, are only real since they
belong to the real world (Takakusu, 1998:93).

Three Turning of the Dharma Wheel

It is evident from the Buddhist literature that the Buddha
turned the wheel of the Dharma for three times. Since, the Buddha
taught the doctrine on the basis of the mental elevation of the

also claims the Buddha’s “threefold turning of the Dharma-wheel”.

17
In the first turning, the Buddha implicitly taught the four noble truths
to his immediate disciple (śrāvakas-s); in the second turning the Buddha
implicitly taught the concept of emptiness to the early Mahayanist; and
lastly in the third turning of the Dharma- wheel he taught the Yogācāra
teachings, which is ultimate.
18
Only mind is real, everything else is just a projection of mind.

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personality concerned, the first turning of the Dharma wheel

belongs to the immediate disciples (śrāvaka-s) of Śākyamunī,
where he implicitly taught the four noble truths; the second
turning the Buddha implicitly taught the concept of emptiness to
the early Mahayanist; and finally the Buddha taught the Yogācāra,
which is the ultimate doctrine in the third turning of the Dharma-
wheel. Yogācārin claims that it is the middle way which avoids the
two extremes, namely, belief of existence and the belief of non-
existence.

The Threefold Intrinsic Nature

Although the exposition of Śunyatāvāda school represents
a clear picture of Yogācāra views on emptiness and the middle
way, but the fundamental section of the Yogācārabhūmi criticizes
that all the doctrines of Śunyatāvāda lie within the scope of two
levels of truths, which is nothing new since it is already taught in
the Abhidharma and the Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra-s in terms of the
twofold intrinsic nature: the intrinsic nature of conceptualization
and the ineffable intrinsic nature. Later Yogācārin further develo-
ped the concept of trilakṣaṇa or trisvabhāva: parikalpita, paratantra
and pariniṣpanna, which constitute a doctrine of three levels of
truth. The Viniścaya-saṁgrahāṇī of Yogācārabhūmiśāstra claims that
contemplation of these three intrinsic nature (lakṣaṇa) is of utmost
importance in order to understand reality (tattvārtha). Trilakṣaṇa
can be seen as the elaboration of twofold intrinsic natures
proposed in the fundamental section of Yogācārabhūmi.
All the dharma (100) can be analyzed under the category of
these three intrinsic nature representing three levels of cognition
and three corresponding degree of reality.
The completely imagined/conceptualized intrinsic nature
(parikalpita): It is the unreal appearance of subject-object aspect
that conforms to manner of speech (vyavahāra) and its designation
is based on conventional expression (Nāma-saṁketa). The unenli-
ghtened, through their general understanding, understand pheno-
lmenal appearance as true which is unreal, non-existent and śunya.
The other-dependent intrinsic nature (paratantra): It
recognizes that phenomena exist conventionally and dependent of
their causes and conditions. Those phenomena are subject to
change and impermanent. It is relatively existent, not śunya.

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The fully accomplished intrinsic nature (pariniṣpanna): It is the

non-conceptual insight (nirvikalpa-jñāna); absence of subject and
object. It is defined as the tathatā, śunyatā, dharmatā and so on. of
the dharma. Pariniṣpanna is empty and independent of paratantra.
It is absolutely existent, not śunya.
These three natures are not only helpful in attaining the
perfect enlightenment but also for the enlightened one who wish
to come and communicate in the realm of daily life. This is one of
the special features of the Hossō school.

Eightfold Consciousness
The concept of eight consciousness is the innovation of Yogācāra.
They are, namely, 1-5. five sensory consciousness; 6. mental- cons-
ciousness (mano-viññāṇa); 7. ego-consciousness (kliṣṭa-manas); and
8. storehouse-consciousness (ālaya-vijñāna). The last consciousness
ālaya-vijñāna is said to be the source and base for all other seven
consciousness (called pravṛtti-vijñāna).
Mind19 is said to be the key of enlightenment, through the
power of mind, which is very hard to guard, one can eliminate the
notion of self (etaṁ mama; eso hamasmi; and eso me attā) and
accomplish the state of eternal bliss. That is why, it is said that in
Pāli Dhammapada: “mano pubbaṅgmā dhammā.”
Mano-viññāṇa, the intent mind, collects and integrate the
mental image produced by the five senses. Vasubandhu in
Triṁśikā 20 says that mano viññāṇa always manifests; on some
occasion only its function does not take place either contemporary
or forever. They are, namely, i) the stage of naiva saṁjñā

19
In early literature, at least we have three terms that connotes the
English word “mind”. However, ‘mind’ does not convey any of these Pāli
term adequately; it can be just understood in context. Roughly, the Pāli
term viññāṇa, mano, and citta can be confined by Yogācārin first six
consciousness, kliṣṭa-manas, and ālaya-viññāṇa respectively. It is true that
the concept of ālaya viññāṇa is not developed in Theravāda but to some
extent the term bhavaṅga-viññāṇa has some roots of it. In addition, I
quote from Pāli Dīgha Nikāya: ālayārāmā kho panāyaṁ pajā ālayaratā
ālayamuditā. Here, ālaya refers to the ‘five chords of sensual passion’ but
Yogācārin found this useful in justifying their theory.
20
Manoviññāṇasambhūtiḥ sarvadā asañjñikadṛṭe /
Samāpattidvayānmurchanādapi acittakāt //16//

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naivāsaṁjñā; ii) the stage of Saṁjñāvedayita nirodha; iii) torpor and

fainting; and iv) state of no- awareness (acittaka). They only
proceed through the mutual dependence (anyonyavaśād) and
imagination are born accordingly21.
Kliṣṭa-manas, the false mind, plays intellectual functioning
and create the false notion and ego. This ego-consciousness is a
subtle notion of 'I', 'mine', 'I-making', and the conceit 'I am'22.
Vasubandhu says, it is always associated with (samprayukta) the
four passions, namely, self-view, self-delusion, self-pride, and self-
love. These four impure passions are ethically neutral23. Due to the
attachment of these four passions, this consciousness is called
saṁkleśa Again, he says that it possesses all form of cognitions and
emotions, namely, sparśa, manaskāra, vedanā, saṁjñā, and cetanā. It
does not exist at the stage nirodha samāpatti of the arahats, and in
the supramundane path24.
Ālaya-vijñāna (also called ādānavijñāna, mūla-vijñāna,
sarvabījaka-vijñāna)25, the storehouse, the true mind, is a source
where all mental images, ideas, perceptions, residual forces
(vāsanā) of all past experiences are stored.
Discriminating and imaginating power of mind works
together with the image of our objective world.
Our consciousness, which coordinates with all mental
image and stores them, is called the storehouse consciousness.
This is also not an independent but also an existence of casual
combination of pure and impure. Pure portion of the ālaya purify
the defiled part and develop right understanding. Only the
Buddha’s mind can flash out the pure ideation. It is the ‘wisdom of
magnificent mirror’ that constitute the fourfold wisdom of the
Buddha.

21
---Yāti anyonyavaśādyena vikalpaḥ sa sa jāyate //18//
22
Ahaṁ, mameāti, ahaṁkāra, and asmimāna.
23
Kleśaiscaturbhiḥ sahitaṁ nivṛta avyākṛtai sadā/
ātmadṛṣṭi ātmamoha ātmamāna ātmasneha sañjñitai//6//
24
Yatrajastanmayiranyaiḥ sparśa-ādyaiścārhato na tat/
na nirodha samāpattau mārge lokuttare na ca//7//
25
The She-lun school gives a new name to ālaya-vijñāna as amala-vijñāna,
which is which is pure and taintless as tathatā. This new consciousness is
regarded as the ninth consciousness that the Parmartha claim.

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 Animesh Prakash

One gets the right understanding of the real truth (parin-

iṣpanna) based on the world of parikalpita and the paratantra. At this
stage, the ālayavijñāna becomes invisible and free from subject-
object duality. Hence called the stage of ultimate reality (apariṣṭh-
ita-nirvāṇa).
This is the basis of the subject-object duality, which exist
within the mind of a lay-person and the imagination of his
empirical world. But it does not mean that Yogācārin believe in
permanent self, in fact they assert that the ālaya-vijñāna itself is
interdependent. It should be noted that the imagination of his
empirical world, which is the product of past associations and
present conditions, does not exist. It exists but only an enlighten
person are capable to perceive with its true nature. Vasubandhu in
Trimśikā says, as a container of all seeds (sarvabījaka), it functions
from one life to another as a foundation (mūla) for all other seven
consciousness which is matured or ripen (paripāka) as its result
(vipāka)26. He compared it with the water on which the waves
arise27. He says, depending on causes and conditions, they (mano-
viññāṇa, manas, and ālaya-viññāṇa) arise either together or separat-
ely as the wave arise upon the water. The seed of ālaya-vijñāna
possesses six characteristics, they are: i) they do not exist eternally
but are created momentarily; ii) when the subject-object cognition
takes place, it make an interdependent relationship; iii) cognized
objects are consistent and do not change erratically; iv) they have
definite characteristics as wholesome, unwholesome and neutral;
v) it cannot function based on the seed alone, it needs various
causes; and vi) each seed produce its own respective fruit (Mastun-
aga,1974: 82-83). The manifestation of ālaya-vijñāna is a constantly
uninterrupted process and associated with contact attention,
sensation, ideation, and volition28. It is said that until reaching
arahat-phala, ālāya-vijñāna being the only vijñāna remained
functional in the absorption into the saṁjñā-vedayita-nirodha and
maintain the body alive in order to attain the fruit of arahatship.

26
---tatra ālayākhya vijñānam vipākaḥ sarvabījakaṁ//2//
27
---vijñānaṁ saha na vā taraṅgāṇām yathā jale//15//
28
---sadā sparśa manaskāra vit-sajñā cetanā avitaṁ//3//

109
 Hossō sect of Japanese Buddhism in the era of Globalisation

Impact of Nara Buddhism

Six sects of the Nara Buddhism represent their first
exposure to theology and systematized schools of Philosophy.
Although Kamakura period is said to be the golden age of Japanese
Buddhism but the foundation of Kamakura thought lies in the
philosophy of Nara Buddhism.
The great impact of Nara Buddhism upon Japanese society
caused various Buddhist institutions of China to be transferred to
Japan in the Nara period and the majority of the masses were
hardly aware of the new religion. In this concern, a question arises
for those who were ordained by the government- how many were
ordained and did they really understand the basic teachings of the
Buddha? But at that time, Buddhist leaders in Japan were so active
and they could easily sort out what was needed for the masses in
subsequent times. Thus, the effort of Nara Buddhist became the
foundation stone for future Japanese Buddhism.
Japanese thought and culture was influenced by the
Buddhist and they developed the following concepts: the idea of
vegetarianism, avoidance of hunting for pleasure and non-veg
food in order to became very close to the nature; the idea of impe-
rmanence (anicca); and the concept of emptiness. I quote: The
more I comprehend the emptiness of this world, the sadder I
become” (cf. Mastunaga 1974; Manyoshu 793).
Nara period the most crucial time of assimilation in
Japanese Buddhist History. Apart from Hosso, the other sect, too,
developed. The root of Zen, Early Pure Land Thought, and Tantric
Buddhism can be seen clearly.

Conclusion
Buddha’s words have been influential not only to Asian culture but
also to western culture especially in the field of meditation and
non-violence. Through its vibrant spiritual tradition, Buddhism,
has ennobled the lives of millions and open the doors of liberation
to all classes of society as its Universalist project by compreh-
ending the true nature of all phenomena with non-duality. What is
the most unique feature about the doctrine is its crystal clarity.
The teaching is open and lucid, simple but deep. It combines three
gradual steps, such as, morality, concentration and wisdom with
fidelity to the facts of day to day living experience.

110
 Animesh Prakash

As we know that, Kusha school and Hosso sect has conside-

rable similarities in defining the dharma, we can say, here, the
Hosso sect developed the theory of Kusha school ‘causation
through action-influence’ to ‘causation through mere cognition
only’. Japanese Hosso sect is still surviving and flourishing in this
global era because of the openness of the dharma. Its philosophical
elements can be practiced and realized through meditation, which
are common in Indian, Chinese, Korean, and Tibetan Buddhism
with other name or designation.

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