T.E - I (English) - N Scheme

THERMAL
ENGINEERING - I
(N–SCHEME)
N. IYANARAPPAN, M.E., M.I.S.T.E.
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THERMAL ENGINEERING – I
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without prior agreement and written permission of the publisher.
First Edition : November 2003

Revised Edition : October 2008
Revised Edition : November 2016
Revised Edition : September 2021
Price : 218.00 For Contact :

99446 50380
Publisher : 96266 26747
KAL PATHIPPAGAM
Vellore – 632 011
Type setting :
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Preface
This book on THERMAL ENGINEERING – I has

been written to cover the latest revised syllabus for the
Polytechnic college students of III Semester Mechanical
Engineering.
While preparing this book, special care has been taken

for solving the problems and presenting them neatly. Almost
all the problems which are asked in the previous board
examinations are solved in this book. I assure that the review
questions and number of problems for practice added at the
end of each chapter will be more helpful to the students while
preparing for the examination.
I acknowledge my gratitude with thanks to

M/s KAL Pathippagam for their kind encouragement to
bring out this book in time. The author would be very glad and
thankful to receive any comments and constructive
suggestions for the improvement of this book.
N. Iyanarappan
([email protected])
All the best...

THERMAL ENGINEERING - I
Detailed Syllabus
Unit – I : BASICS OF THERMODYNAMICS AND

THERMODYNAMIC PROCESSES OF PERFECT GASES
Introduction – definitions and units of mass, weight,
volume, density, work – power – energy – types – specific weight,
specific gravity and specific volume – pressure – units of pressure
–temperature – absolute temperature – S.T.P and N.T.P conditions
– heat – specific heat capacity at constant volume and at constant
pressure – law of conservation of energy – thermodynamic system
– types – thermodynamic equilibrium – properties of systems –
intensive and extensive properties – State of System – process –
cycle – point and path functions – zeroth, first and second laws of
thermodynamics – Description of basic concepts only.
Perfect gases – laws of perfect gases – Boyle’s, Charles’,
Joule’s, Regnault’s and Avogadro’s laws – General Gas Equation-
characteristic gas equation – relation between specific heats and
gas constant – universal gas constant.
Thermodynamic Processes – Change in Internal Energy –

enthalpy – change in enthalpy – entropy – change in entropy –
general equations for change in entropy – Description only.
Constant volume, constant pressure, isothermal, isentropic
(reversible adiabatic) – Description and problems – polytropic
(derivation only), hyperbolic (derivation only) – P-V and T-S
diagrams, work done, change in internal energy, heat transfer,
change in enthalpy, change in entropy for various processes – Free
expansion and throttling processes.
Unit – II : THERMODYNAMIC AIR CYCLES AND HEAT

TRANSFER
Air cycles – air standard efficiency – reversible and
irreversible processes – assumptions in deriving air standard
efficiency – Carnot cycle – Otto cycle – Joule cycle – Diesel cycle –
comparison of Otto cycle and Diesel cycle – Comparison of ideal and
actual p-V diagrams of Otto and Diesel cycles – problems .
Modes of heat transfer – heat transfer by conduction –
Fourier’s Law – heat transfer by convection – heat exchanger –
Parallel flow and Counter flow – LMTD – forced convection –
natural convection – heat transfer by radiation – Description only.
Steady flow system – control volume – steady flow energy
equation – assumptions – Engineering applications of steady flow
energy equation – non flow energy equation – Description only.
Unit – III : INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

Classifications of I.C Engines – components of I.C Engines
and functions – material and method of manufacturing – four
stroke cycle petrol and diesel engines – two stroke cycle petrol and
diesel engines – comparison of four stroke and two stroke engines
– Comparison of petrol and diesel engines – valve timing diagram
for four stroke petrol and diesel engines – port timing diagram for
two stroke petrol and diesel engines. Layout of fuel supply system
in petrol engines – A.C. mechanical fuel pump – simple carburetor
– layout of fuel supply system in diesel engine – single acting fuel
feed pump – CAV fuel injection pump – fuel injectors – types of
nozzles – fuel filters – Ignition systems – battery coil ignition
systems – magneto ignition system – MPFI and CRDI System.
Governing of I.C. engines – quantity and quality governing

– cooling systems – air cooling – water cooling – Lubrication system
– properties of lubricants – types of lubrication systems – high
pressure lubrication system – oil pump (Gear & Rotor Pumps) and
oil filters.
Unit – IV : FUELS & COMBUSTION OF FUELS AND

PERFORMANCE OF I.C ENGINES
Classifications of fuels – merits and demerits –
requirements of a good fuel – combustion equations –
stoichiometric air required for complete combustion of fuels –
excess air – products of combustion – analysis of exhaust gases –
Exhaust gas analyser – calorific value of fuels – higher and lower
calorific values – Dulong’s formula – determination of calorific
value – Bomb and Junker’s calorimeter – Description only.
Testing – thermodynamic and commercial tests –
indicated power – brake power – friction power – efficiencies of I.C.
engines – indicated thermal, brake thermal, mechanical and
relative efficiencies – Specific fuel consumption – problems – Morse
test – procedure – heat balance sheet – procedure and problems.
Unit – V : REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING

Refrigeration – refrigerators and heat pumps – types and
applications of refrigeration Systems – refrigerating effect – unit
of Refrigeration – C.O.P. – actual C.O.P.– Air Refrigeration System
– reversed Carnot cycle – C.O.P of refrigerator, heat pump and
heat engines – Bell-Coleman cycle – Vapour compression
refrigeration system – vapour absorption system – Comparison –
refrigerants – properties – Description only.
Psychrometry – psychometric properties – dry air – moist
air – water vapour – saturated air – dry bulb temperature – wet
bulb temperature – wet bulb depression – dew point temperature
– dew point depression – humidity – specific and relative humidity
– psychrometric chart – psychrometric processes – sensible heating
and cooling – By-pass Factor – humidification – dehumidification
– Mixing of air stream.
Air conditioning – classification and applications of air

conditioning system – room air conditioning – central air
conditioning – comparison – comfort and industrial air
conditioning – factors to be considered in air conditioning – loads
encountered in air conditioning systems – Description only.
Contents
Unit – I Page Nos.
Chapter 1. Basics of thermodynamics 1.1 – 1.25
Chapter 2. Thermodynamic processes of
perfect gases 2.1 – 2.25
Solved Problems P2.1 – P2.20
Unit – II
Chapter 3. Thermodynamic air cycles 3.1 – 3.22
Chapter 4. Heat transfer 4.1 – 4.15
Chapter 5. Steady flow energy equations 5.1 – 5.7
Unit – III
Chapter 6. Internal Combustion Engines 6.1 – 6.58
Unit – IV
Chapter 7. Fuels and Combustion of fuels 7.1 – 7.22
Chapter 8. Performance of I.C Engines 8.1 – 8.13
Unit – V
Chapter 9. Refrigeration 9.1 – 9.16
Chapter 10. Psychrometry and Air-conditioning 10.1 – 10.21
 1 & 2 Marks Questions and Answers
 Board Examination Question Papers
Unit – I
Chapter 1. BASICS OF THERMODYNAMICS
1.1 Introduction
Thermodynamics is a field of science, which deals with the
energies possessed by gases and vapours. It also includes the
conversion of these energies into heat and mechanical work, and
their relationship with properties of the system. A machine which
converts heat energy into mechanical work is known as heat
engine.
1.2 Definitions and Units

a) Mass (m) : Mass is the amount of matter contained in a
given body. Mass does not change from place to place. It is
expressed by the symbol 'm'. In SI system, the unit of mass is 'kg'.
b) Weight (W) : Weight is the amount of force acting on

the mass of a body due to gravitational acceleration. Since the
gravitational pull varies with the distance of the body from the
centre of the earth, therefore weight of the body will also vary with
its position on the earth's surface. It is expressed by the symbol 'W'.
In SI system, the unit weight is N (newton) or kN.
c) Force (F): According to Newton's second law of motion,

the applied force is proportional to mass and acceleration. Force is
expressed by the symbol 'F'. In SI system, the unit of force is
N (newton) or kN.
Mathematically, Force, F ∝ ma or F = kma
Where, k is a constant of proportionality
For the sake of convenience, the unit of force adopted is such

that it produces a unit acceleration to a body of unit mass i.e. k=1
∴ F = ma = mass × accelerati on
,
Unit – I  1.1
d) Density (ρ) : The density of a substance is defined as
the mass per unit volume of the substance. It is expressed by the
symbol 'ρ'. In SI system, the unit of density is ' kg/m3 '
mass m
Density, ρ = = ( kg / m3 )
volume V
Density is also known as mass density or specific mass.
Density of water is 1000 kg/m3 .
e) Specific weight (w) : Specific weight of a substance is

defined as the weight per unit volume of the substance. It is
expressed by the symbol w. In SI system, the unit of specific weight
is N/ m 3
weight W mg
Specific weight, w = = = (N/ m 3 )
volume V V
Specific weight of water is 9810 N/ m 3 .
f) Specific volume (v) : Specific volume of a substance is

defined as the volume occupied by unit mass of the substance. It is
the reciprocal of density. It is expressed by the symbol v. In SI
system, the unit of specific volume is m 3 /kg.
volume V
Specific volume, v = = ( m 3 /kg)
mass m
g) Specific gravity (s) : Specific gravity of a substance is

defined as the ratio of the density (or specific weight) of that
substance to the density (or specific weight) of a standard
substance. For liquids, water is taken as standard substance .
Specific gravity is expressed by the symbol 's'. Since it is the ratio
of two same quantity, it has no units.
Specific gravity,
density (or specific weight) of the given substance
s=
density (or specific weight) of the standard substance
,
Unit – I  1.2
1.3 Pressure
The pressure is defined as the normal force per unit area.
Pressure is expressed by the symbol 'p'.
Force F
Pressure, p = = (N/ m 2 )
Area A
Unit of pressure : The unit of pressure depends upon the

units of force and area. In SI system, the practical unit of pressure
is N/ m 2 , N/m m 2 , kN/ m 2 , bar, Pascal (pa), etc.
1 Pa = 1 N/ m 2 ; 1 Mpa = 1 × 106 N/ m 2 .
1 bar = 1 × 105 N/ m 2
Gauge pressure Vacuum pressure
Absolute Atmospheric
pressure Atmospheric pressure Absolute
pressure pressure
Fig.1.1 Pressure relationship

Atmospheric pressure (patm) : It is the pressure exerted
by the air on the earth's surface. The value of atmospheric pressure
at Mean Sea Level is 1.03125 bar or 760 mm height of mercury in
a barometer.
Atmospheric pressure, patm = 1.01325 bar
= 1.01325 × 105 N/ m 2
= 101.325 kN/ m 2
= 760 mm of Hg
=10.34 m of water
Absolute pressure (pabs) : The actual pressure in any

system is known as absolute pressure.
Gauge pressure (pg) : It is the pressure recorded by the

pressure gauge. All the pressure gauges read the difference
between the actual pressure and the atmospheric pressure.
Absolute pressure = Atmospheric pressure + Gauge pressure
Pabs = patm + pg
,
Unit – I  1.3
Vacuum pressure (pg) : The pressure which is below the
atmospheric pressure is known as vacuum pressure or negative
pressure. Vacuum gauges are used to record this pressure. In this
case,
Absolute pressure = Atmospheric pressure – Vacuum pressure
1.4 Temperature
Temperature is a thermodynamic property, which
determines the degree of hotness or the level of heat intensity of a
body. It may also be defined as a measure of velocity of fluid
particles. The Temperature of a body is measured by an instrument
known as thermometer. The commonly used scales for measuring
the temperature of a body are :
1. Celsius or centigrade scale
2. Fahrenheit scale
Celsius or centigrade scale : This scale was first used by
Celsius in 1742. In this scale, the freezing point of water is taken
as zero and the boiling point of water is taken as 100 o C . The space
between these two points has divided into 100 equal divisions and
each division represents one degree Celsius.
Fahrenheit scale : In this scale, the freezing point of water

is taken as 32oF and the boiling point of water is taken as 212oF. The
space between these two points has divided into 180 equal divisions
and each division represents one degree Fahrenheit.
The relationship between Celsius scale and Fahrenheit

5
scale is given by ; C = ( F − 32)
9
1.5 Absolute temperature

The zero readings of Celsius and Fahrenheit scales are
chosen arbitrarily for the purpose of simplicity. But, whenever the
value of temperature is used in equations relating to fundamental
laws, true zero or absolute zero temperature should be used.
Absolute zero temperature is the temperature below which the
temperature of any substance cannot fall.
,
Unit – I  1.4
The absolute zero temperature is taken as –273 o C in the
case of Celsius scale. The temperature measured from this zero
temperature is called absolute temperature. In Celsius scale, the
absolute temperature is called degree Kelvin (K). In SI units,
degrees Kelvin is not written as o K but only K. ∴ K = oC + 273
Note : For thermodynamics calculations, all the temperature

values must be converted into Kelvin (K) before substitution in the
formula. For example, if the temperature is given as 100 o C , then
the absolute temperature = 100 + 273 = 373 K
1.6 Standard Temperature and Pressure (S.T.P)

The conditions of temperature and pressure of any gas
under standard atmospheric conditions are termed as Standard
Temperature and Pressure (S.T.P). S.T.P Values are,
Standard temperature = 15 o C = 288K
Standard pressure = 760 mm of Hg = 101.325 kN/ m 2 .
1.7 Normal Temperature and Pressure (N.T.P)

The conditions of temperature and pressure of any gas
under normal atmospheric conditions are termed as Normal
Temperature and Pressure (N.T.P). N.T.P Values are,
Normal temperature = 0 o C = 273K
Normal pressure = 760 mm of Hg = 101.325 kN/ m 2 .
1.8 Heat
The heat is defined as the energy transferred across the
boundary of a system due to the temperature difference between
the system and the surroundings. It is represented by the symbol
Q. In SI system, the unit of heat is joule (J) or kilo-joule (kJ).
If m kg of substance is heated from an initial temperature

T1 to a final temperature T2 , then the heat transfer is given by,
Q = m.C .(T2 − T1 )
where, C = specific heat of the substance (J/kg.K)
• If Q is positive, heat is supplied to the system (heating process)
• If Q is negative, heat is rejected from the system ( Cooling process)
,
Unit – I  1.5
1.9 Specific heat capacity (C)
The specific heat capacity of a substance is defined as the
quantity of heat transfer required to raise or lower the temperature
of the unit mass of the substance through one degree. It is
represented by the symbol C. In SI system, its unit is given as
J/kg.K or kJ/kg.K.
Specific heat capacity at constant volume (Cv): It is

defined as the quantity of heat transfer required to raise or lower
the temperature of the unit mass of the substance through one
degree when the volume remains constant. It is represented by the
symbol Cv. When a gas is heated or cooled at constant volume, the
heat transfer is given by,
Q = m.Cv.(T2 − T1 ) kJ
where, Q = Heat transferred (kJ)
m = Mass of the gas (kg)
Cv = Specific heat capacity at constant volume
T1 = Initial temperature of the gas (K)
T2 = Final temperature of the gas (K)
Specific heat capacity at constant pressure (Cp): It is

defined as the quantity of heat transfer required to raise or lower
the temperature of the unit mass of the substance through one
degree when the pressure remains constant. It is represented by
the symbol Cp. When a gas is heated or cooled at constant volume,
the heat transfer is given by,
Q = m.C p .(T2 − T1 ) kJ
where, Cp = Specific heat capacity at constant pressure
Note : C p is always greater than Cv . When a gas is heated at

constant pressure, the volume of the gas increases. Thus work is
done by the gas by expanding. Hence heating in constant pressure
gives a higher value for the specific heat than heating in a constant
volume.
,
Unit – I  1.6
Adiabatic index (γ): The ratio of the two specific heat
capacities remains constant and is called as adiabatic index. It is
represented by the symbol γ.
Cp
Adiabatic index, γ =
Cv
For air: C p =1.005 kJ/kg.K; Cv = 0.718 kJ/kg.K; γ=1.4.
1.10 Work
Work is defined as the product of force (F) and the distance
moved (x) in the direction of force. It is represented by the symbol
W. In SI system, the unit of work is N-m or joule (J).
Work done by the gas
p1 1
Pressure
p2 2
V1 dV V2
Volume
Fig.1.2 Work done by the gas
Consider a piston and cylinder arrangement filled with a gas

as shown in the fig. Let the gas expands from state 1 to state 2.
Let, p – Intensity of pressure of the gas on the piston (N/ m 2 )

A – Area of cross section of the piston ( m 2 )
Force on the piston, F = p. A

Consider a small distance dx moved by the piston. Then
the work done by the gas is given by,
dW = Force × distance = p.A.dx
dW = p.dV ( A.dx = dV ; Change in volume)
,
Unit – I  1.7
Total work done during the process 1 to 2 is given by,
2 2

1
dW =  p.dV
1
2
W1 − 2 =  p.dV
1
(N - m)
Hence, for any process, the mechanical work done is given by,
2
W=  p.dV
1
(N - m or J)
• If W is positive, work is done by the system (gas) and the

process is called expansion process
• If W is negative, work is done on the system (gas) and the
process is called compression process.
1.11 Power
Power may be defined as the rate of doing work or work
done per unit time. It is represented by the symbol P. In SI system,
the unit of power is Watts (W).
1 W = 1 J/s = 1 N-m/s
1 kN-m/s = 1kJ/s = 1 kW
1 kW-s = 1 kJ; 1 kW-hr = 3600 kJ.
1.12 Thermodynamic system, boundary and surroundings
System : The thermodynamic system may be defined as a
definite area or a space where some thermodynamic process is
taking place.
Surroundings : Anything outside the boundaries which

affects the behaviour of the system is known as surroundings.
Boundaries : The system and the surroundings are

separated by the system boundary. The system boundary may be
real or imaginary.
1.13 Types of thermodynamic systems

Thermodynamic systems may be classified as follows:
1. Closed system 2. Open system and 3. Isolated system
,
Unit – I  1.8
1. Closed system
A closed system permits the transfer of heat and work
across its boundaries; but it does not permit the transfer of mass.
The mass of the working substance in a closed system remains
constant. The system boundary is determined by the space
occupied by the working substance.
Example :
Weight
Piston
System (Gas) Cylinder
Surroundings
System boundary
Fig.1.3 Closed thermodynamic system
The piston and cylinder arrangement shown in the figure
is an example of closed system. The gas in the cylinder is
considered as system. If the heat is supplied to the cylinder, the
temperature of the gas will increase and the piston will move.
As the piston moves, the boundary of the system moves. In

other words, the heat and work energy crosses the boundary of the
system during this process, but there is no addition or loss of the
original mass of the working substance.
2. Open system
Heat
H.P Air in H.P Air out
System (Air Compressor) Work Motor
System boundary
Fig.1.4 Open thermodynamic system
,
Unit – I  1.9
In this system, the mass of the working substance crosses
the boundary of the system. Heat and work may also cross the
boundary. The mass within the system may not be constant during
the process. An open system may be called as control volume.
Example :
The compressor unit shown in the figure is an example of
open system. In this system, the low pressure air enters the
compressor and leaves the high pressure air. Thus the mass of
working substance crosses the boundary of the system. The work
crosses the boundary of the system through the driving shaft and
the heat is transferred across the boundary from the cylinder walls.
3. Isolated system
A system which is not influenced by the surroundings is
called an isolated system. In an isolated system, there is no mass,
heat or work transfer takes place. This is an imaginary system.
Example : An open system with an universe as its

surrounding is an example of an isolated system.
1.14 State of a system

The state of a system is the condition of the system at any
particular moment which can be identified by the statement of its
properties. The number of properties required to describe a system
depends upon the nature of the system.
p1 1
Pressure
p2 2
V1 Volume V2
System Cylinder
(Gas)
p1, V1, T1 Piston
1 2
Fig.1.5 State of a system
,
Unit – I  1.10
Consider a system (gas) enclosed in a cylinder and piston
arrangement as shown in the figure. Let the equilibrium state of
the piston at position 1 is represented by its properties p1 , V1 , and
T1 . When the system expands, the piston moves towards right and
occupies the final position 2. The final equilibrium state is
represented by the properties p2 , V2 , and T2 . The pressure-
volume (p-V) diagram indicating the initial and final states is also
shown in the figure.
1.15 Properties of a system

The quantities, which identify the state of a system, are
called properties. The thermodynamic properties of a system may
be classified as
a) Extensive properties b) Intensive properties.
a) Extensive properties : The properties of system, whose
value for the entire system is equal to the sum of their values for
the individual parts of the system, are called extensive properties.
These are dependent on the mass of the system.
Example : Total volume, total energy, total mass, etc.
b) Intensive properties : The properties which are

independent on mass of the system. These properties remain same
in all individual parts of the system.
Example : Temperature, pressure, specific volume, etc.
1.16 Thermodynamic process
Thermodynamic process is a path of change in state of a system
from one equilibrium state to another equilibrium state. The
different thermodynamic processes are:
• Constant volume process
• Constant pressure process
• Constant temperature process
• Isentropic or reversible adiabatic process
• Polytropic process
• Hyperbolic process
• Free expansion process
• Throttling process
,
Unit – I  1.11
1.17 Thermodynamic cycle or cyclic process
1 2 3 2 3
B
Pressure
Pressure
Pressure
A
2
1 4 1 4
Volume Volume Volume
(a) Cyclic process (b) Closed cycle (c) Open cycle
Fig.1.6 Cyclic process
When a process or processes are performed on a system in
such a way that the final state is identical with the initial state,
then it is said to be thermodynamic cycle of cyclic process.
In fig.(a), 1-A-1 and 2-B-1 are processes whereas 1-A-2-B-1

is a thermodynamic cycle or cyclic process
Thermodynamic cycle may be classified as

(a) Closed cycle and (b) Open cycle
(a) Closed cycle : In a closed cycle system, the working
substance is recirculated again and again in the system. Fig.(b)
represents the closed cycle system gas turbine plant.
(b) Open cycle : In an open cycle system, the working

substance is exhausted to atmosphere after expansion. Fig.(c)
represents an open cycle gas turbine plant.
1.18 Point function and path functions
p1 1
c
b
Pressure
p2 2
V1 Volume V2
Fig.1.7 Point and path functions
,
Unit – I  1.12
Point function : A function, whose value is independent
of the path followed by the system, is known as point function. The
values depend only on the initial and final state of the system.
Thermodynamic properties are point functions, since for a given
state, there is a definite value for each property.
Example : Pressure, temperature, volume, etc.
Path function : A function, whose value depends on the

path followed by the system, is known as path function.
Example : Work done, heat transfer, etc.
Consider a system undergoing a change of state from state

1 to state 2.
Let, p1 , V1 = Pressure and volume of system at state 1
p2 , V2 = Pressure and volume of system at state 2
Change in pressure, dp = p2 − p1
Change in volume, dV = V2 − V1
The change of state from 1 to 2 may be carried out through
a number of paths such as 1-a-2, 1-b-2, 1-c-2, etc. It can be noticed
that the change in pressure or change in volume is the same
irrespective of the path followed by the system. Therefore, these
properties are point functions.
Work done during the process 1-a-2 = Area 1-a-2- V2 - V1 -1
Work done during the process 1-b-2 = Area 1-b-2- V2 - V1 -1
Work done during the process 1-c-2 = Area 1-c-2- V2 - V1 -1
Thus the work done during a process depends on the paths
followed by the system. So, it is a path function.
1.19 Energy
The energy is defined as the capacity to do work. A system
possesses the following two types of energies:
a) Stored energy b) Transit energy (or energy in transition)
a) Stored energy : it is the energy possessed by a system within

its boundaries. The potential energy, kinetic energy and internal
energy are the example of stored energy.
,
Unit – I  1.13
Potential energy : it is the energy possessed by a system
by virtue of its position above the ground level
Potential energy, PE = mgz

where, m = mass of the system
g = Acceleration due to gravity
z = Height of the system above the ground level
Kinetic energy : It is the energy possessed by a system, by

virtue of its mass and velocity of motion.
1
Kinetic energy, KE = mv
2
2
where, v = Velocity of the system.
Internal energy : It is the energy possessed by a body or

a system due to its molecular arrangement and motion of the
molecules. It is generally represented by U.
b) Transit energy or energy in transition : It is the energy

possessed by a system which is capable of crossing boundaries. The
heat, work and electrical energy are the examples of transit energy.
1.20 Law of conservation of energy

It states that, energy can neither be created nor destroyed,
but it can be transferred from one form to another form i.e. the total
energy in any system remains constant.
In thermodynamics, it states that, the total heat

transferred in a system must be equal to the sum of the external
work done and the change in internal energy.
Heat transfer = Work done + Change in internal energy

Q = W + ∆U
1.21 Thermodynamic equilibrium

A system is said to be in equilibrium, if it does not tend to
undergo any change of state on its own accord. Any further
change must be produced only by external means.
,
Unit – I  1.14
A system is said to be in thermodynamic equilibrium, if it
satisfies the following three requirements of equilibrium.
Mechanical equilibrium : A system is said to be in

mechanical equilibrium, when there is no unbalanced forces acting
on any part of the system.
Thermal equilibrium : A system is said to be in

mechanical equilibrium, when there is no temperature difference
between the parts of the system or between the system and
surroundings.
Chemical equilibrium : A system is said to be in

mechanical equilibrium, when there is no chemical reaction within
the system.
1.22 Zeroth law of thermodynamics

It states that, when two systems are each in thermal
equilibrium with a third system, then the two systems are also in
thermal equilibrium with one another. This law provides the basis
of temperature measurement.
B C
Fig.1.8 Zeroth law of thermodynamics
As shown in the figure, systems B and C are in thermal

equilibrium with a third system A. Now, the systems B and C are
also in thermal equilibrium with each other.
1.23 First law of thermodynamics

It states that, when a system undergoes a thermodynamic
cycle, then the net heat supplied to the system is equal to the net
work done by the system.
Mathematically,  dQ =  dW (or)  dQ −  dW = 0
[  − cyclic integrals, represents the sum for a complet cycle]
,
Unit – I  1.15
Consider a system undergoes a change of state from state
1 to state 2. This law when applied to this process,
U1 + Q = U2 + W
Q = W + U2 − U1 = W + ∆U
where, Q = Heat transferred
W = Work done
∆U = Change in internal energy
1.24 Correlation of First law of thermodynamics

1. Perpetual Motion Machine (PMM) of the first kind is impossible
A perpetual motion machine (PMM) of the first kind is an
imaginary machine which delivers work continuously without any
heat input. In this case,
Q = 0; ∴ W must be equal to zero.
But PMM of the first kind delivers work continuously

which is impossible. It creates energy without any input and thus
violates the first law of thermodynamics. Hence a perpetual motion
machine of the first kind is impossible.
2. If a closed system is isolated from its surroundings, there

is no change in internal energy of the system.
For the isolated system, Q = 0 and W = 0
By first law of thermodynamics, Q = W + ∆U
0 = 0 + ∆U
∆U = 0 i.e. U 2 = U 1
1.28 Second law of thermodynamics

The second law of thermodynamics may be defined in many
ways. The two common statements are Kelvin-Planck statement
and Clausius statement.
Kelvin-Planck statement
(i) It is impossible to construct a heat engine working on cyclic
process, whose only purpose is to convert all the heat energy
supplied to it into an equal amount of work
(or)
,
Unit – I  1.16
(ii) No heat engine which is working on cyclic process can convert
more than a small fraction of the heat energy supplied to it into
useful work. A large part of it is necessarily rejected as heat.
Explanation :
Source
T1
Source
Qs
Qs
W = Qs - QR Heat
T1 > T2 engine
W = Qs Heat
engine QR
Sink
T2
(a) Impossible heat engine (b) Possible heat engine
by second law by second law
Fig.1.9 Kelvin-Planck statement
Figure shows a heat engine working on a cyclic process. It
receives heat (Qs ) from a heat source and delivers work (W) equal to
heat received. By second law of thermodynamics, all the heat received
cannot be converted into useful work and a part of heat received is to
be rejected to a low temperature reservoir (sink). Hence a heat engine
should have two heat reservoirs at different temperatures for
converting continuously heat energy into useful work.
Clausius statement
(i) Heat can flow from a hot body to a cold body without any
assistance. But heat cannot flow from a cold body to a hot
body without any external work.
(or)
(ii) It is impossible to construct a machine working on a cyclic
process whose only purpose is to transfer heat from a cold
body to a hot body.
Explanation :
Consider a heat source at higher temperature T1 and a heat
sink at a lower temperature T2 . By Clausius statement heat cannot
flow from the sink to heat source without any external work.
,
Unit – I  1.17
Source Source
T1 T1
Q Q1=W+Q2
Heat W=Q1-Q2 Heat

pump pump
T1 > T2 T1 > T2
Q Q2
Sink Sink
T2 T2
(a) Impossible system (b) Possible system
Fig.1.10 Clausius statement
But heat can flow from sink to the source with the help of
an external work through a device such as heat pump.
1.29 Combination of Kelvin-Planck and Clausius statement

Consider a system consisting of a heat engine and heat pump
working in the same temperature range as shown in the figure.
Heat source Heat source
T1 T1
T1 > T2
Q2 Q1 T1 > T2 Q2 Q1
Heat Heat W=Q1-Q2 Heat Heat

pump engine pump engine
Q2 Q2 Q2 Q2
Heat sink
T2
Fig.1.11 Equivalence of Kelvin-Planck and Clausius statement
The heat engine receives heat Q1 from the source and rejects
heat Q2 to the heat sink and develops a net work W. The net work
done is given by, W = Q1 − Q2 . This follows Kelvin-Planck statement.
The heat pump transfers heat Q2 from the low

temperature sink to high temperature source without any work
input. This violates the Clausius statement.
,
Unit – I  1.18
The heat engine and the heat pump can be combined by
eliminating the sink. The heat rejected by the engine (Q2 ) is taken
by the pump. The equivalent system is shown in fig.(b). This
system acts an engine transferring heat from only one reservoir
and converting it into equivalent amount of work. This violates
Kelvin-Planck statement.
Hence violation of Clausius statement also violates Kelvin-

Planck statement.
Consider another system as shown in fig.(a). The heat

engine receives a heat of Q1 from the source and converts in into
equivalent amount of work W. This violates Kelvin-Planck
statement.
Heat pump transfers a heat of Q2 from the sink and

supplies a heat of Q2 + W to the source. It receives a work of W
from the heat engine. It is not contrary to Clausius statement.
An equivalent system for this is shown fig. (b). This system

transfers heat Q2 from the sink at the lower temperature to the
source at higher temperature without the aid of external work.
This violates the Clausius statement.
From the above examples, we can understand that both

Kelvin-Planck and Clausius statement of second law or
thermodynamics are same. Violation of one statement will violates
the other statement.
1.30 Perpetual Motion Machine (PMM) of the second kind

A perpetual motion machine (PMM) of the second kind
receives heat continuously from a single reservoir and converts it
into equivalent amount of work. Thus it gives 100% efficiency. This
violates the second law of thermodynamics. Hence a PMM of the
second kind is impossible to construct.
,
Unit – I  1.19
1.31 Perfect gases
A perfect gas may be defined as a state of substance, whose
evaporation from its liquid state is complete, and strictly obey gas
laws under all conditions of temperature and pressures. In actual
practice, there is no gas which strictly obeys the gas laws over the
entire range of temperature and pressure. But the real gases which
are ordinarily difficult to liquefy, such as oxygen, nitrogen,
hydrogen and air may be considered as perfect gases within certain
temperature and pressure limits.
1.32 Laws of perfect gases

The behaviour of perfect gas is governed by the following
gas laws:
• Boyle's law
• Charles’s law
• Joule's law
• Regnault's law
• Avagadro's law
a) Boyle's law
Boyle's law states that, the absolute pressure of a given
mass of a perfect gas is inversely proportional to its volume, when
the temperature remains constant.
1
Mathematically, p ∝ or pV = Constant
V
i.e. p1V1 = p2V2 = C
where, p1 = Original pressure of the gas (N/ m 2 )
V1 = Original volume of the gas ( m 3 )
p2 = Final pressure of the gas after change of state (N/ m 2 )
V2 = Final volume of the gas after change of state ( m 3 )
T1 = T2 = T = Constant temperature of the gas
b) Charles’s law
Charles’s law states that, the volume of a given mass of
perfect gas is directly proportional to its absolute temperature,
when the pressure remains constant.
,
Unit – I  1.20
V
Mathematically, V ∝ T (or) = Constant
T
V1 V2
i.e. = =C
T1 T2
c) Gay-Lussac law
Gay-Lussac law states that, the absolute pressure of a
given mass of perfect gas is directly proportional to its absolute
temperature, when the volume of the gas remains constant.
p
Mathematically, p ∝ T (or) = Constant
T
p p
i.e. 1 = 2 = C
T1 T2
d) Joule's law
Joule's law states that, the change of internal energy of a
perfect gas is directly proportional to the change in temperature.
Mathematically, dE ∝ dT (or) dE = m.C.dT = m.C(T2 − T1 )
where, m = Mass of the gas
C = A constant of proportionality, known as specific heat.
e) Regnault's law
Regnault's law states that, the two specific heats C p and
Cv of a perfect gas do not change with the change in temperature,
i.e. C p and Cv of a gas always remain constant.
f) Avagadro's law
It states that, equal volumes of all gases, at the same
temperature and pressure, contain equal number of molecules.
Mathematically, M .v = Constant
where, M = Molecular weight of the gas
v = Specific volume of the gas.
M.v is known as molar volume and it is represented as Vmole .

The molar volume of any gas at N.T.P [ o C and 1.01325 bar] is
given by Vmole = 22.4 m3 / kg.mole
,
Unit – I  1.21
1.32 General gas equation
The general gas equation can be obtained by combining
Boyle's law and Charles’s law.
1 1
According to Boyle's law, p ∝ (or) V ∝ ……. (1)
V p
According to Charles’s law, V ∝ T ……. (2)
1 T
Combining (1) and (2) V ∝ and T (or) V ∝
p p
i.e. pV ∝ T (or) pV = CT
The more useful form of general gas equation is
p1V1 pV
= 2 2 = Constant
T1 T2
1.33 Characteristic equation of gas

It is the modified form of general gas equation. If the volume
(V) in the general gas equation is replaced by specific volume (v),
then the constant C is represented by another constant R.
Thus the general gas equation becomes, pv = RT
where, R = Characteristic gas constant or gas constant.
For any mass m kg of gas, the characteristic equation becomes,

p. V = RT Q v = V 
m  m 
pV = mRT
m
p= RT
V
p = ρRT Q m = ρ
 V 
The unit of gas constant R may be obtained as follows:
pV N m 2 × m
3
N-m
R= = = = J/kg.K
mT kg × K kg × K
In SI units, the value of R for air = 287 J/kg.K = 0.287 kJ/kg.K
1.34 Universal gas constant (Rmole)

The product of molecular weight (M) and the characteristic
gas constant (R) is same for all gases. This constant is known as
universal gas constant. It is expressed as Rmole or Ru.
,
Unit – I  1.22
M. R = Rmole = Ru
By characteristic gas equation, p.v = R.T (v = specific volume)
Multiplying both sides by M (Molecular weight),
p.M.v = M. R.T
p.Vmole = Rmole .T [Q M.v = Vmole ; M.R = Rmole) ]

The above equation is known as universal gas equation.
The value of Rmole is same for all gases since Vmole is same for all
gases at any given pressure and temperature.
p.Vmole
Rmole =
T
At N.T.P conditions,
101.325 × 22.4
Rmole = = 8.314 kJ/kg.mole.K
273
∴ Rmole = Ru = 8314 J/kg.mole.K
1.35 Relationship between C p and Cv

Consider a gas heated at constant pressure.
Let, p1 , V1 , T1 = Initial pressure, volume and temperature of the
gas respectively.
p2 , V2 , T2 = Final pressure, volume and temperature of the
gas respectively.
C p = Specific heat of the gas at constant pressure
Cv = Specific heat of the gas at constant volume
m = mass of the gas
By first law of thermodynamics,
Q = W + ∆U ….. (1)
Q = mC p (T2 − T1 ) ….. (2)
W = p.dV = p(V2 − V1 ) = p2V2 − p1V1 = mR(T2 − T1 ) ….. (3)
∆U = mCv (T2 − T1 ) ….. (4)
Substitute (2), (3) and (4) in (1)
mC p (T2 − T1 ) = mR(T2 − T1 ) + mCv (T2 − T1 )
Dividing throughout by m(T2 − T1 )
C p = R + Cv
,
Unit – I  1.23
or C p − Cv = R
Dividing throughout by Cv ,
Cp R
−1 =
Cv Cv
R
γ −1 =
Cv
R
or Cv =
γ −1
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Explain the relationship between absolute pressure,

atmospheric pressure and gauge pressure.
2. What is absolute zero of temperature.
3. Define specific heat capacity of gas.
4. Why specific heat of air at constant pressure is greater than
specific heat at constant volume?
5. Define the terms: system, boundary and surroundings.
6. State and explain the three types of thermodynamic systems.
7. What are intensive and extensive properties? Give examples.
8. Distinguish between point function and path function.
9. Explain the various forms of energies of a system.
10. State and explain the law of conservation energy.
11. State and explain the zeroth law of thermodynamics.
12. State the first law of thermodynamics and explain the same.
13. Explain the correlations of first law of thermodynamics.
14. State and explain the second law of thermodynamics.
15. Explain the Kelvin-Planck statement of the second law of
thermodynamics.
,
Unit – I  1.24
16. Explain the Clausius statement of the second law of
thermodynamics.
17. Explain perpetual motion of the second kind is not possible.
18. State and explain the laws of perfect gas.
19. Derive the characteristic equation of perfect gas.
20. Derive the relationship C p − Cv = R .
21. What is universal gas constant? Explain its relationship with

characteristic gas constant.
POINTS TO REMEMBER
1. Absolute pressure = Atm. Pressure ± Gauge pressure
2. Absolute temperature = Temperature in o C + 273
3. Heat transfer, Q = mC(T2 − T1 )
Cp
4. Ratio of specific heats, γ =
Cv
2
5. Work done, W =  p.dV
1
6. By first law of thermodynamics, Q = W + ∆U
7. Boyle's law  p.V = C
V
8. Charles’s law  =C
T
p
9. Gay-Lussac's law  = C
T
pV pV
10. General gas equation  1 1 = 2 2 = C
T1 T2
11. Characteristic gas equation  p.V = m. R.T ; p = ρRT
12. Molar volume, Vmole = M.v
13. Universal gas equation  p.Vmole = Rmole.T
R
14. C p − Cv = R; Cv =
γ −1
,
Unit – I  1.25
Unit – I
Chapter 2. THERMODYNAMIC PROCESSES
OF PERFECT GASES
2.1 Introduction
When a system changes its state from one equilibrium
state to another equilibrium state, then the path of successive
states through which the system is passed, is known as
thermodynamic process. If the process is assumed to take place
sufficiently slow so that the properties in the intermediate states
are in equilibrium state, then the process is called quasi−static or
reversible process. If the process takes place in a such a manner
that the properties at the intermediate state are not in equilibrium
state, then the process is said to be non−equilibrium or irreversibel
process.
The different thermodynamic processes include the

following:
1. Constant volume (Iso−choric) process
2. Constant pressure (Iso−baric) process
3. Constant temperature (Iso−thermal) process
4. Hyperbolic process
5. Reversible adiabatic (Isentropic) process
6. Polytropic process
7. Free expansion process
8. Throttling process
The following notations are used in this chapter.

p1 = Initial pressure of the gas (N/ m 2 )
V1 = Initial volume of the gas ( m 3 )
T1 = Initial temperature of the gas (K)
H1 = Initial enthalpy of the gas (kJ)
U1 = Initial internal energy of th egas (kJ)
S1 = Initial entropy of the gas (kJ/kg)
p2 = Final pressure of the gas (N/ m 2 )
V2 = Final volume of the gas ( m 3 )
,
Unit – I  2.1
T2 = Final temperature of the gas (K)
H2 = Final enthalpy of the gas (kJ)
U 2 = Final internal energy of th egas (kJ)
S2 = Final entropy of the gas (kJ/kg)
C p = Specific heat at constant pressure (kJ/kg.K)
Cv = Specific heat at constant volume (kJ/kg.K)
γ = Ratio of specific heats
2.2 Change in internal energy during a process ( ∆U )
p2 2
Pressure
V=C
p1 1
V1=V2
Volume
Fig.2.1 Constant volume heating
Consider a system (gas) as shown in figure, which is to be

heated at constant volume from state 1 to state 2.
p1 , V1 , T1 = Initial pressure, volume and temperature of the
gas respectively before heating.
p2 , V2 , T2 = Final pressure, volume and temperature of the
gas respectively after heating.
2
W=  p.dV = 0 [`Q There is no change in volume , i.e. dV= 0]
1
∴ Q = 0 + ∆U = m.Cv .(T2 − T1 )
(or) ∆U = m.Cv .(T2 − T1 ) …………. (1)
2
Mathematically, change in internal energy, ∆U = m.Cv .  dT
1
For unit mass, ∆ u = Cv .(T2 − T1 ) = Cv . dT

The equation (1) can be used for all the processes of a
perfect gas between the temperature range T1 to T2 .
,
Unit – I  2.2
2.3 Enthalpy
Enthalpy is the sum of the internal energy and the product
of pressure and volume (p.V). It is represented by the symbol H.
Mathematically, enthalpy, H = U + p.V
Since ( U + p.V ) is made up of properties, enthalpy (H) is
also a property. For unit mass, specific enthalpy, h = u + p.v
where, u = specific internal energy
v = specific volume
2.4 Change in enthalpy during a process ( ∆H )
p1=p2 1 p=C 2
Pressure
V1 V2
Volume
Fig.2.2 Constant pressure heating
Consider a system (gas) as shown in figure, which is to be
heated at constant pressure from state 1 to state 2.
p1 , V1 , =Initial pressure, volume and temperature of the gas
T respectively before heating.
1
p2 , V2 , =Final pressure, volume and temperature of the gas respectively
T2 after heating.
By first law of thermodynamics, Q = W + ∆U …..(1)
2 2
W=  p.dV = p dV [`Q p =
1 1
constant]
W = p.[V ]12 = p.(V2 − V1 ) = p2 .V2 − p1 .V1 ….. (2)

∆ U = U 2 − U1 ….. (3)
Substituting (2) and (3) in (1)
Q = W + ∆U = p2 .V2 − p1 .V1 + U2 − U1
Q = (U2 + p2 .V2 ) − (U1 + p1 .V1 )
Q = H2 − H1 = ∆H = Change in enthalpy
∴ ∆H = Q = m.C p (T2 − T1 ) ….. (4)
The equation (4) can be used for all the processes of a
perfect gas between the temperature range T1 to T2 .
,
Unit – I  2.3
2.5 Entropy (S)
Entropy is defined as a function of quantity of heat with
respect to temperature. Entropy of a substance increases when heat
is supplied to it and decreases when heat is rejected from it. Entropy
is a form of unavailable energy. It is represented by the symbol S.
2.6 Change in entropy ( dS )
In a reversible process, the increase or decrease of entropy,
when multiplied by the absolute temperature gives the heat
absorbed by the working substance.
Mathematically, dQ = T . dS
T2 2
Temperaturre (T)
T1 1
S1 dS S2
Entropy (S)
Fig.2.3 T−S diagram
Consider a gas which is heated from state 1 to state 2.
There is a change in entropy of the gas. If we consider a small
amount of heat addition dQ to the gas at an absolute temperature
T, then change in entropy is given by,
dQ
dS =
T
This heating process can be plotted on a graph, by taking
entropy in x−axis and absolute temperature in y−axis. This graph is
known as temperature − entropy (T−S) diagram. The area under the
curve in T−S diagram gives the heat transfer during the process.
As shown in the figure, consider an elemental strip of width ‘dS’.

Area of elemental strip = Heat transfer through the strip
dQ
T .dS = dQ (or) dS =
T
Change in entropy during the process 1−2 is given by,
2 2
dQ
 dS =
1
1 T
,
Unit – I  2.4
Expression for change in entropy
(a) In terms of volume and absolute temperature
By first law of thermodynamics, dQ = dW + dU
dW = p.dV + m.Cv .dT
Dividing throughout by T,
dQ p dT
= dV + m.Cv ….. (1)
T T T
dQ p m. R
We know that, = dS ; = [Q p.V = m. R.T ]
T T V
Substituting these values in (1)
dV dT
dS = m. R + m.Cv .
V T
Integrating,
2 2 2
dV dT

1
dS = m. R. 
1
V
+ m.Cv . 
T
1
[S ]12 = m. R.[ln V ]12 + m.Cv .[ln V ]12
S2 − S1 = m. R.(ln V2 − ln V1 ) + m.Cv (ln T2 − ln T1 )
Change in entropy,
V  T 
∆S = dS = m. R. ln 2  + m.Cv . ln 2  ….. (2)
 1
V  T1 
(b) In terms of pressure and absolute temperature
p .V p .V
By characteristics gas equation, 1 1 = 2 2
T1 T2
V p T
∴ 2 = 1. 2 ….. (3)
V1 p2 T1
Substituting (3) in (2), Change in entropy,
p T  T 
dS = m. R. ln 1 . 2  + m.Cv . ln 2 
 p2 T1   T1 
p  T  T 
= m. R. ln 1  + m. R. ln 2  + m.Cv . ln 2 
p
 2 T
 1  T1 
p  T  T 
= m. R. ln 1  + m.(C p − Cv ). ln 2  + m.Cv . ln 2 
 p2   T1   T1 
,
Unit – I  2.5
p  T  T  T 
= m. R. ln 1  + m.C p . ln 2  − m.Cv . ln 2  + m.Cv . ln 2 
 p2   T1   T1   T1 
p  T 
dS = m. R. ln 1  + m.C p . ln 2  ….. (4)
p
 2  T1 
(c) In terms pressure and volume
p1 .V1 p2 .V2
By characteristics gas equation, =
T1 T2
T2 p V
∴ = 2. 2 ….. (5)
T1 p1 V1
Substituting (5) in (2), Change in entropy,
V  p V 
dS = m. R. ln 2  + m.Cv . ln 2 . 2 
V
 1  p1 V1 
V  p  V 
= m.(C p − Cv ). ln 2  + m.Cv . ln 2  + m.Cv . ln 2 
 V1   p1   V1 
V  V  p  V 
= m.C p . ln 2  − m.Cv . ln 2  + m.Cv . ln 2  + m.Cv . ln 2 
 V1   V1   p1   V1 
V  p 
dS = m.C p . ln 2  + m.Cv . ln 2  ….. (6)
 1
V  p1 
2.7 Constant volume (iso−choric) process [V=Constant]
In this process, the gas is heated in a fiexe closed container
so as to keep the volume constant. The heat supplied during this
process is used to increase the pressure and temperature of the gas.
All the heat supplied is stored in the gas as internal energy.
(a) p−V and T−S diagrams
p2 2
2
Temperaturre (T)
Pressure
V=C
p1 1 1 Q
V1=V2 S1 S2
Volume Entropy (S)
(a) P-V diagram (b) T-S diagram

Fig.2.4 Constant volume heating
,
Unit – I  2.6
The constant volume process is represented by a vertical
straight line in the p−V diagram. It is represented as a curve in the
T−S diagram.
(b) Work done (W)

Workdone during the process is given by,
2
W=  p.dV
1
But, dV = 0 [ Q There is no change in voluem]
∴W = 0
(c) Change in internal energy ( ∆U )
The change in internal energy during the process is given by,
2

∆U = m.Cv . dT = m.Cv (T2 − T1 )
1
∴ ∆U = m.Cv .(T2 − T1 )
(d) Heat transferred (Q)

Q = W + ∆U = 0 + ∆U [ Q W = 0 ]
∴ Q = m.Cv .(T2 − T1 )
(e) Change in enthalpy ( ∆H )

The change in enthalpy during the process is given by,
2

∆H = m.C p . dT = m.C p (T2 − T1 )
1
∴ ∆H = m.C p .(T2 − T1 )
(f) Relation between p,V and T

p1 .V1 p2 .V2
T1 T2
p1 p
But, V1 = V2 ; ∴ = 2
T1 T2
(g) Change in entropy (dS)
The change in entropy during the process is given by,
V  T 
dS = m. R. ln 2  + m.Cv . ln 2 
 V1   T1 
,
Unit – I  2.7
V2V 
But V2 = V1 ; ∴ = 1;
ln 2  = ln(1) = 0
V1 V1 
T  p   T2 p2 
∴ dS = m.Cv . ln 2  = m.Cv . ln 2   T = p 
Q 
 T1   p1   1 1 
2.8 Constant pressure (Iso−baric) process [p = Constant]

When a gas is heated at constant pressure, its volume
increases and thus work is done.
(a) p−V and T−S diagram

2
Temperaturre (T)
1 p1=p2 2
Pressure
1 Q
W
V1 V2 S1 S2
Volume Entropy (S)
Fig.2.5 Constant pressure heating
The constant pressure process is represented by a

horizontal line in the p−V diagram. It is represented by a curve in
the T−S diagram.
(b) Work done (W)

2
W=  p.dV = p.[V ] ;
2
1 W = p.(V2 − V1 )
1
or, W = p2 V2 − p1V1 = m. R.(T2 − T1 )

2

∆U = m.Cv . dT = m.Cv (T2 − T1 )
1
∴ ∆U = m.Cv .(T2 − T1 )
,
Unit – I  2.8
Q = m.C p.(T2 − T1 )
Also, by first law of thermodynamics,
Q = W + ∆U
∴ Q = p.(V2 − V1 ) + m.Cv .(T2 − T1 )

2

∆H = m.C p . dT = m.C p (T2 − T1 )
1
∴ ∆H = m.C p .(T2 − T1 )
p1 .V1 p2 .V2
T1 T2
V1 V2
But, p1 = p2 ; ∴ =
T1 T2
p  T 
dS = m. R. ln 1  + m.C p. ln 2 
 p2   T1 
p1 p 
But p1 = p2 ; ∴ = 1; ln 1  = ln(1) = 0
p2  p2 
T  V   T2 V2 
∴ dS = m.C p . ln 2  = m.C p . ln 2   T =V 
Q 
 1
T  V1   1 1 
2.9 Constant temperature (Iso−thermal) process [T = Constant]

Isothermal process is a very slow process so that the
temperature is kept constant during the process.

The constant pressure process is represented by an
hyperbolic curve in the p−V diagram. It is represented by a
horizontal line in the T−S diagram.
(b) Work done (W)

2
Workdone during the process is given by, W =  p.dV
1
,
Unit – I  2.9
p2 1
pV=C
Temperaturre (T)
1 T1=T2 2
Pressure
p1 W 2
Q
V1 V2 S1 S2
Volume Entropy (S)
(a) p-V diagram (b) T-S diagram

Fig.2.6 Constant temperature heating
C
For a constant temperature process, p.V = C (or) p =
V
Substitute the value of p in the integral,
2 2
C dV
W=  .dV = C = C[ln V ]12

V V
1 1
V 
W = C.(ln V2 − ln V1 ) = C. ln 2 
 V1 
But, p1 .V1 = p2 .V2 = C
V  V 
∴ W = p1V1 . ln 2  or, W = m. R.T1 . ln 2  ( Q p1 .V1 = m. R.T1 )
 V1   V1 

2

∆U = m.Cv . dT = m.Cv (T2 − T1 )
1
But, T1 = T2 ; ∴ ∆U = 0 (or) U 2 = U 1 .
There is no change in internal energy.

Q = W + ∆U =W + 0 ( Q ∆U = 0)
V  V 
∴ Q = W = p1 .V1 . ln 2  = m. R.T1 . ln 2 
 V1   V2 
,
Unit – I  2.10
2

∆H = m.C p . dT = m.C p (T2 − T1 )
1
But, T1 = T2 ; ∴ ∆H = 0 (or) H 2 = H1 .
There is no change in enthalpy.

p1 .V1 p2 .V2
T1 T2
p1 V2
But, T1 = T2 ; ∴ p1 .V1 = p2 .V2 or =
p2 V1

V  T 
dS = m. R. ln 2  + m.Cv . ln 2 
 V1   T1 
T2 T 
But T2 = T1 ; ∴ = 1; ln 2  = ln(1) = 0
T1  T1 
V  p   V2 p1 
∴ dS = m. R. ln 2  = m. R. ln 1   V = p 
Q 
 1
V  p2   1 2
2.10 Hyperbolic process [ p.V = Constant]

Hyperbolic process is identical with isothermal process. For
hyperbolic process, p.V = C .
Work done, heat transfer, change in internal energy, change

in enthalpy and change in entropy of this process are similar to that
of isothermal process.
2.11 Reversible adiabatic (Isentropic) process [ p.V γ = Constant]

During the adiabatic process, there is no heat transfer
taking place between the system and surroundings. Consider a gas
inside a cylinder made of insulated walls. This gas may be
compressed or expanded with the help of a piston without heat
transfer. Adiabatic process is a very rapid process such that no heat
is transferred during the process.
,
Unit – I  2.11
Reversible adiabatic process is known as isentropic
process. Generally, adiabatic process is considered as isentropic
unless it is specified as irreversible.

p2 1 T2 1
γ
pV =C
Temperaturre (T)
No heat
transfer
Pressure
p1 W 2 T1 2
V1 V2 S1 = S2
Volume Entropy (S)
Fig.2.7 Adiabatic process
The reversible adiabatic process is represented by a curve

in the p−V diagram. It is represented by a vertical line in the T−S
diagram.
(b) Work done (W)

2
Workdone during the process is given by, W =  p.dV
1
C
For a adiabatic process, p.V γ = C (or) p =
Vγ
2 2 2
C dV
W= V
1
γ
.dV = C V
1
γ 
= C V − γ.dV
1
2 − γ +1
V − γ+1
  V2 − V1 − γ +1 
W = C  = C 
 − γ + 1 1  − γ +1 
C.V2 − γ +1 − C.V1− γ +1
W=
− γ+ 1
p .V .V − γ +1 − p1 .V1 γ .V1 − γ +1
γ
W = 2. 2 2 ( Q p1 .V1 γ = p2 .V2 γ = C )
− γ +1
,
Unit – I  2.12
p2 .V2 γ − γ +1 − p1 .V1 γ − γ +1 p2 .V2 − p1 .V1
W= =
− γ +1 − γ +1
p1 .V1 − p2 .V2 m. R.(T1 − T2)
or, W = =
γ −1 γ −1
( Q p1 .V1 = m. R.T1 & p2 .V2 = m. R.T2 )
R
But, = Cv ∴ W = m.Cv (T1 − T2 )
γ −1
(c) Heat transferred (Q)

During adiabatic process, no heat transfer takes place.
∴Q=0
(d) Change in internal energy ( ∆U )

2

∆U = m.Cv . dT = m.Cv (T2 − T1 )
1
Also, By first law of thermodynamics,
0 = W + ∆U ∴ ∆U = −W
Hence, change in internal energy is numerically equal to

work done during adiabatic process.

2

∆H = m.C p . dT = m.C p (T2 − T1 )
1
i) Relation between pressure and volume
In adiabitc process, p1V1 γ = p2V2 γ
1
γ
p1  V2  V2  p1  γ
=  (or) = 
p2  V1  V1  p2 
ii) Relation between temperature and volume

In adiabitc process, pV γ = C ….. (1)
p.V
From gas equation, =C ….. (2)
T
,
Unit – I  2.13
Dividing equation (1) by (2)
p.V γ V γ .T
= C (or) =C
 p.V  V
 
 T 
V γ −1 .T = C ….. (3)
Applying the initial and final conditions,
V1 γ −1 .T1 = V2 γ −1 = C
γ −1 γ −1
T2  V1  T1  V2 
or, =  (or) = 
T1  V2  T2  V1 
V2
= r = adiabatic expansion ratio (during expansion)
V1
V1
= r = adiabatic compression ratio (during compression)
V2
High temperature
= (r ) γ −
1
In adiabatic process,
Low temperature
iii) Relation between temperature and pressure

In adiabitc process, pV γ = C ….. (1)
p.V
From gas equation, =C
T
pγ .V γ
Raising both sides to the power γ , = C ….. (2)
Tγ
Dividing equation (2) by (1),
p γ .V γ pγ pγ −1
=C; =C
= C (or)
γ
T . p.V γ
T .p γ
Tγ
γ −1 γ
p1 γ −1 p2 γ −1 p  T 
= (or)  1  =  1 
T1 γ T2 γ  p2   T2 
γ γ −1
 p   T  γ −1  T1   p1  γ
∴  1= 1 (or)  = 
 p2   T2   T2   p2 
γ γ −1
 p   T  γ −1  T2   p2  γ
∴  2= 2 (or)  = 
 p1   T1   T1   p1 
,
Unit – I  2.14
dQ
dS = = 0 ( Q dQ = 0 )
T
∴ dS = 0 (or) S1 = S 2
2.12 Comparison of isothermal and adiabatic processes
Isothermal process Adiabatic process

1. It follow the law p.V = C It follows the law p.V γ = C
2. In this process, temperature In this process, entropy

remains constant remains constant.
3. It is a very slow process so that It is a very rapid process so
to maintain a constant that no heat transfer takes
temperature. place.
4. There is no change in internal There is a change in internal
during the process. energy during the process.
5. There is a heat transfer during There is no heat transfer
the process. during the process.
6. There is no change in enthalpy There is a change in
during th eprocess. enthalpy during the process.
2.13 Polytropic process [ p.V n = C ]

n=0 (Constant pressure)
(Constatn volume)
n=1(Constant tem.)
n=1.2 (Polytropic)
Pressure
n=γ
(Adiabatic)
n=
Volume
Fig.2.8 Polytropic process
,
Unit – I  2.15
The polytropic process follows the law p.V n = C ∞ , where
‘n’ is a constant. All the processes are special cases of polytropic
process having different values of ‘n’. ∞
• When n=0, p.V 0 = C ; or p = C . It is called constant
pressure process.
• When n = ∝ , p.V ∝ = C ; or V = C . It is called constant
volume process.
• When n =1, p.V = C . It is called constant temperature process.
• When n = γ , p.V γ = C . It is called adiabatic process
• When n=n, p.V n = C . It is called polytropic process.

p2 1 2
n
pV =C
Temperaturre (T)
Pressure
p1 W 2 1 Q
V1 V2 S1 S2
Volume Entropy (S)
Fig.2.9 p−V and T−S Polytropic process
(b) Work done (W)

2
W=  p.dV
1
C
For a adiabatic process, p.V n = C (or) p =
Vn
2 2 2
C dV
W= V
1
n
.dV = C V
1
n 
= C V − n .dV
1
2
 V − n +1   V2 − n +1 − V1− n +1 
W = C  = C 
 − n + 1 1  − n+1 
,
Unit – I  2.16
C.V2 − n +1 − C.V1− n +1
W=
−n+1
p2. .V2 n .V2 − n +1 − p1 .V1nV1− n +1
W= ( Q p1 .V1 n = p2 .V2 n = C )
− n +1
p2 .V2 n − n +1 − p1.V1n − n +1 p2 .V2 − p1 .V1
W= =
− n+1 − n +1
p1 .V1 − p2 .V2 m. R.(T1 − T2 )
or, W = =
n −1 n −1

2

∆U = m.Cv . dT = m.Cv (T2 − T1 )
1
By first law of thermodynamics, Q = W + ∆U ….. (1)
p .V − p2 .V2
W = 1 1 ….. (2)
n −1
m. R.(T2 − T1 )  R 
∆U = m.Cv (T2 − T1 ) = Q Cv = 
γ −1  γ − 1 
p .V − p1 .V1
∆U = 2 2 ….. (3)
γ −1
Substituting (2) and (3) in (1)
p .V − p2 .V2 p2 .V2 − p1 .V1
Q= 1 1 +
n −1 γ −1
p .V − p2 .V2 p1 .V1 − p2 .V2
Q= 1 1 −
n −1 γ −1
 1 1 
Q = ( p1 .V1 − p2 .V2 ). − 
n − 1 γ − 1
 γ − 1 − (n − 1) 
Q = ( p1 .V1 − p2 .V2 ). 
 (n − 1)( γ − 1) 
( p1 .V1 − p2 .V2 )  γ − n 
Q=  ( γ − 1) 
n −1
 γ−n   p1 .V1 − p2 .V2 

Q = W Q W = 
 ( γ − 1)   n −1 
,
Unit – I  2.17
2

∆H = m.C p . dT = m.C p (T2 − T1 )
1

i) Relation between pressure and volume
In polytropic process, p1V1 n = p2V2 n
1
n
p1  V2  V2  p1  n
=  (or) = 
p2  V1  V1  p2 
ii) Relation between temperature and volume
In polytropic process, pV n = C ….. (1)
p.V
From gas equation, =C ….. (2)
T
Dividing equation (1) by (2)
p.V n V n .T
= C (or) =C
 p.V  V
 
 T 
V n −1 .T = C ….. (3)
V1 n −1 .T1 = V2 n −1 = C
n −1 n −1
T2  V1  T1  V2 
or, =  (or) = 
T1  V2  T2  V1 
iii) Relation between temperature and pressure

In polytropic process, pV n = C ….. (1)
p.V
From gas equation, =C
T
pn .V n
Raising both sides to the power n, = C ….. (2)
Tn
Dividing equation (2) by (1),
pn .V n pn pn −1
=C; = C (or) =C
T n . p.V n T n. p Tn
,
Unit – I  2.18
n −1 n
p1n −1 p2 n −1 p  T 
= (or)  1  =  1 
T1n T2 n  p2   T2 
n n −1
 p   T  n −1  T1   p1  n
∴  1= 1 (or)  = 
 p2   T2   T2   p2 
n n −1
 p   T  n −1  T2   p2  n
∴  2= 2 (or)  = 
 p1   T1   T1   p1 

The change in entropy during this process is given by,
V  T 
∆S = dS = m. R. ln 2  + m.Cv . ln 2  (or)
 V1   T1 
p  T 
dS = m. R. ln 1  + m.C p. ln 2  (or)
p
 2  T1 
V  p 
dS = m.C p . ln 2  + m.Cv . ln 2 
 1
V  p1 
2.14 Free expansion process
Free expansion of gas occurs, when it expands suddenly
into a vacuum space through a large orifice. During this process,
there is no change in temperature.
Consider two chambers A and B separated by a partition

C. Both the chambers are well insulated so that no heat transfer
takes place. The chamber A contains a gas and the chamber is
completely vacuum. If the partition C is removed, the gas expands
freely and occupies the full volume of the chambers A and B.
Insulated wall
Partition (C)
A B
Fig.2.10 Free expansion process
,
Unit – I  2.19
During this process, there is no expansion of boundary.
Hence no work is done i.e. W=0. Since the chmabers are well
insulated, there is no heat transfer takes place i.e. Q = 0.

0 = 0 + ∆U
∴ ∆U = 0 i.e. U 2 − U 1 = 0 ; (or) U 2 = U 1
There is no change in internal energy.
2.15 Throttling process

Insulated wall
Orifice
High Low
pressure pressure
p1 V1 U1 p2 V2 U2
Fig.2.11 Throttling process
When a gas or vapour expands and flows throug a small

passage (like small orifice, partially opened valve, etc.), the process
is called throttling. During throttling process, no heat transfer
takes place and no work is done. Hence there is no change in
internal energy. W = 0 ; Q = 0 ; ∆U = 0 .
2.16 To prove adiabatic process follows the law p.V γ = C

In an adiabatic process, Q = 0.
∴ W + ∆U = 0
or, ∆U = −W
m.Cv .dT = − p.dV ….. (1)
By gas equation, p.V = m. R.T
Differentiating, p.dV + V .dp = m. R.dT = m.(C p − Cv ).dT ….. (2)
Dividing (2) by (1)
m.(C p − Cv ).dT p.dV + V .dp
=
m.Cv .dT − p.dV
,
Unit – I  2.20
C p − Cv V .dp
= −1 −
Cv p.dV
dp V  Cp 
γ − 1 = −1 − . Q 
 C = γ
p dV  v 
dp V
γ=− .
p dV
dV dp
γ =−
V p
dp dV
+γ =0
p V
Integrating both sides,
dp dV
 p
+γ  V
=0
ln p + γ ln V = Constant
ln p.V γ = Constant
p.V γ = eConstant = Constant
∴ p.V γ = C
2.17 To find the value of ‘ γ ’ or ‘n’.

By adiabatic process, p1 .V1 γ = p2 .V2 γ
Taking logrithms on both sides,
log 10 p1 + γ. log 10 V1 = log 10 p2 + γ. log 10 V2
γ. log10 V1 − γ. log10 V2 = log 10 p2 − log10 p1

p 
γ(log10 V1 − log10 V2 ) = log10  2 
 p1 
p 
log 10  2 
γ=  p1 
V 
log 10  1 
 V2 
p 
log 10  2 
Similarly, for a polytropic process, n =  p1 
V 
log 10  1 
 V2 
,
Unit – I  2.21
2.18 Polytropic specific heat, C n
p .V − p2 .V2 m. R.(T1 − T2 )
W = 1 1 =
n −1 n −1
∆U = m.Cv (T2 − T1 )
m. R.(T1 − T2)
∴Q = + m.Cv (T2 − T1 )
n −1
m. R.(T1 − T2)
Q = − m.Cv (T1 − T2 )
n −1
 R 
Q = m. − Cv .(T1 − T2 )
n −1 
From the above equation, the specific heat during
polytropic process is given by,
R
Cn = − Cv
n −1
R ( c p − Cv )
Polytropic specific heat, Cn = − Cv = − Cv
n −1 n −1
C p − Cv (n − 1) C p − Cv − n.Cv + Cv
Cn = =
n −1 n −1
 Cp 
Cv  − n 
C p − n.Cv C
 v  = Cv (γ − 1)
Cn = ; Cn =
n −1 n −1 n −1
 γ −n
Polytropic specific heat, Cn = Cv  
 n −1 
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. List out the various thermodynamic processes.

2. Explain the term entropy.
3. Derive the general expressions for the change in entropy
during a process.
4. Draw the p−V and T−S diagram for (a) constant volume and
(b) constant pressure process.
5. Derive the expression for work done during isothermal process.
6. Derive the expression for the amount of heat supplied during
an isothermal expansion.
,
Unit – I  2.22
7. What is meant by adiabatic process? Sketch the adiabatic
process on p−V and T−S diagram.
8. Derive an expression for the work done during adiabatic
process.
9. Explain the differences between isothermal and adiabatic
process.
10. Derive an expression for the ratio of temperature in terms of
ratio of compression when a gas follows adiabatic process.
11. Prove that an adiabatic process follows the law p.V γ = C .
12. Derive an expression for work done during a polytropic process.
13. Derive the expression for the heat supplied and change in
internal energy while a gas is expanding according to the law
p.V n = C
14. Derive an expression for polytropic specific heat.
POINTS TO REMEMBER
1. ln( A) = log e ( A) = 2.3 log10 ( A)
2. For air: C p = 1.005 kJ/kg.K, Cv = 0.718 kJ/kg.K, γ = 1.4
log10  2 
p
3. For adiabatic process, γ =  p1 
log10  1 
V
 V2 
p 
log10  2 
4. For polytropic process, n =  p1 
V 
log 10  1 
 V2 
 γ −n
5. Polytropic specific heat, Cn = Cv  
 n −1
,
Unit – I  2.23
Change in
Chane in internal Change in
Sl Work done Heat transfer entropy p, V,T
Process energy enthalpy
No. W (kJ) Q (kJ) dS = ∆U relations
∆U (kJ) ∆H (kJ)
(kJ/kg)
1. Constant Zero m.C v .(T2 − T1 ) m.C v .(T2 − T1 ) m.C p .(T2 − T1 ) p  p1 p
= 2
volume m.C v . ln 2 
T1 T2
V=C  p1 
(or)
T 
m.C v . ln 2 
 T1 
2. Constant p.(V2 − V1 ) m.C v .(T2 − T1 ) m.C p .(T2 − T1 ) m.C p .(T2 − T1 ) V  V1 V

pressure m.C p . ln 2  = 2
(or)  T1 T2
p=C  V1 
m. R.(T2 − T1 )
(or)
T 
m.C p . ln 2 

 T1 
3. Constant V  Zero V  Zero V  p1 .V1

temperature p1 V1 . ln 2  
 p1 .V1 . ln 2  m. R. ln 2  = p 2 .V2
(or) isothermal  V1   V1   V1 
T=C; (or) (or) (or)
p.V = C and V  V  p 
 m. R. ln 1 
Hyperbolic
m. R.T1 . ln 2 
m. R.T1 . ln 2  
 V1   V2   p2 
Unit – I  2.24
,
Chane in Change in Change in
Sl. Work done Heat transfer p, V,T
Process internal energy enthalpy entropy
No. W (kJ) Q (kJ) relations
∆U (kJ) ∆H (kJ) dS = ∆S (kJ/kg)
γ
4. Reversible p1 .V1 − p2 .V2 m.C v .(T2 − T1 ) Zero m.C p .(T2 − T1 ) Zero p1  V2 
adiabatic = 
(or)
γ −1 p2  V1 
(or) γ −1
Isentropic T2  V1 
γ
pV = C m . R.(T1 − T2 ) = 
T1  V2 
γ −1
γ −1
(or)  T2   p2  γ
m.C v .(T2 − T1 )  = 
T  p 
 1   1
n
5. Polytropic p1 .V1 − p2 .V2 m.C v .(T2 − T1 )  γ − n  m.C p .(T2 − T1 ) V  T  p1  V2 
process Q = W  m. R. ln 2  + m.C v . ln 2 
 = 
n −1  V1 
T 
 1 
pV n = C  (γ − 1)  p2  V1 
(or) n −1
(or)
m. R.(T1 − T2 ) T2  V1 
 p1  T  = 

n −1 m. R. ln  + m.C p . ln 2 
T  T1  V2 
(or)  p2   1 n −1
n
m.C v .(T2 − T1 ) (or)  T2   p2 
 = 
p  T  p 
 V2 
m.C p . ln  + m.C v . ln 2   1   1
V  p 
 1  1
6. Free Zero Zero Zero Zero Zero −

expansion
7. Throttling Zero Zero Zero Zero Zero −
process
Unit – I  2.25
,
SOLVED PROBLEMS
Example 2.1
A mass of 2.25 kg of nitrogen occupying 1.5 m3 is heated
from 25 o C to 200 o C at constant volume. Calculate the initial and
final pressures of the gas. Molecular weight of nitrogen is 28.
Universal gas constant is 8314 J/kg.mole.K
Given data
Mass of nitrogen, m = 2.25 kg
Initial volume, V1 = 1.5 m 3
Initial temperature, t1 = 25 o C ; T1 = 25 + 273 = 298 K
Final temperature, t2 = 200 o C ; T2 = 200 + 273 = 473 K
Constant volume heating: V2 = V1 =1.5 m 3
Molecular weight, M = 28
Universal gas constant, Ru = 8314 J/kg.mole.K
= 8.314 kJ/kg.mole.K
To find
1. Initial pressure, p1 2. Final pressure, p2
Solution
Ru 8.314
Gas constant, R = = = 0.29693 kJ/kg.K
M 28
By gas equation, p1 .V1 = m. R.T1 ; p2 .V2 = m. R.T2
m. R.T1 2.25 × 0.29693 × 298
∴ Initial pressure, p1 = =
V1 1.5
= 132.728 kN/ m 2
m. R.T2 2.25 × 0.29693 × 473

Final pressure, p2 = =
V2 1.5
= 210.672 kN/ m 2
Result
1. Initial pressure, p1 =132.728 kN/ m 2
2. Final pressure, p2 = 210.672 kN/ m 2
Unit – I  P2.1
Example 2.2
0.5 m3 of air at 35 o C and 5 bar is heated at constant
volume until the final temperature is 185 o C . Find the final
pressure, work done and heat transferred. Take C p =1kJ/kg.K
and Cv =0.71kJ/kg.K
Given data
Constant volume heating, V2 = V1 =0.5 m 3
Initial pressure, p1 = 5 bar = 5 × 10 5 N/ m 2
C p = 1.00 kJ/kg.K
Cv = 0.71 kJ/kg.K
To find
1. Final pressure, p2 2. Work done, W 3. Heat transfer, Q
Solution
1. To find the final pressure
p1 p2
For a constant volume process, =
T1 T2
p1 .T2 5 × 10 5 × 458
p2 = = = 743506 N/ m 2 = 7.435 bar
T1 308
2. To find the work done

In a constant volume process, work done, W = 0 ( Q dV = 0 )
3. To find the heat transferred, Q

R = C p − Cv = 1 − 0.71 = 0.29 kJ/kg.K = 290 J/kg.K
By gas equation, p1 .V1 = m. R.T1
p1 .V1 5 × 10 5 × 0.5
m= = = 2.7989 kg.
R.T1 290 × 308
Heat transferred, Q = m.Cv (T2 − T1 )

= 2.7989 × 710 × (458 − 308)
= 298082.85 J =298.083 kJ
Unit – I  P2.2
Result
1. Final pressure, p2 = 7.435 bar
2. Work done, W = 0
3. Heat transfer, Q = 298.083 kJ
Example 2.3
5 kg of a gas was heated from a temperature of 100 o C at
constant volume till its pressure become three times its original
pressure. For this process, calculate (1) the heat transfer, (2) change
in internal energy, (3) change in enthalpy and (4) change in entropy.
Assume C p =1.00 kJ/kg.K and Cv =0.71kJ/kg.K
Given data
Mass of gas, m = 5 kg
Constant volume heating, V2 = V1
Final pressure, p2 = 3 × original pressure = 3 p1
C p = 1.00 kJ/kg.K
Cv = 0.71 kJ/kg.K
To find
1. Heat transfer, Q 2. Change in internal energy, ∆U
3. Change in enthalpy, ∆H 4. Change in entropy, ∆S
Solution
1. To find the heat transfer, Q
Heat transfer, Q = m.Cv (T2 − T1 )
p1 p2
T1 T2
p 3p
Final temperature, T2 = 2 × T1 = 1 × 373 = 3 × 373 = 1119 K
p1 p1
∴ Q = 5 × 0.71 × (1119 − 373) =2648.3 kJ
2. To find the change in internal energy, ∆U
We know that, Q = W + ∆U
or, ∆U = Q = 2648.3 kJ [ Q W = 0 ]
3. To find the change in enthalpy, ∆H
∆H = m.C p (T2 − T1 ) = 5×1×(1119−373) = 3730 kJ.
Unit – I  P2.3
4. To find change in entropy, ∆S
T   1119 
∆S = m.C v . ln 2  = 5 × 0.71 × ln  = 3.9 kJ/K
 T1   373 
Results
2. Change in internal energy, ∆U = 2648.3 kJ
3. Change in enthalpy, ∆H =3730 kJ
4. Change in entropy, ∆S =3.9 kJ/KN−m
Example 2.4
0.35 m3 of air at 22 o C and under atmospheric pressure is
heated under constant volume to a temperature of 100 o C . Determine
(1) mass of air, (2) the final pressure, (3) the heat transfer, (4) the
change in internal energy, (5) the work done, (6) the change in
enthalpy and (7) the change in entropy. Assume C p = 1kJ/kg.K and
Cv = 0.71kJ/kg.K
Given data
Initial pressure, p1 = Atm. Pressure = 101.325 kN/ m 2
Constant volume heating, V2 = V1 =0.35 m 3
C p = 1 kJ/kg.K
Cv = 0.71 kJ/kg.K
To find
1. Mass of air, m 2. Final pressure, p2
3. Heat transfer, Q 4. Change in internal energy, ∆U
5. Work done 6. Change in enthalpy, ∆H
7. Change in entropy, ∆S
Solution
1. Mass of air, m
R = C p − Cv = 1 − 0.71 = 0.29 kJ/kg.K
Unit – I  P2.4
p1 .V1 101.325 × 0.35
m= = = 0.41454 kg.
R.T1 0.29 × 295
2. Final pressure, p2
p1 p2
T1 T2
p1 .T2 101.325 × 373
∴ p2 = = = 128.116 kN/ m 2
T1 295
3. Heat transfer, Q
Q = m.Cv (T2 − T1 ) = 0.41454 × 0.71 × (373 − 295) = 22.957 kJ
4. Change in internal energy, ∆U

∆U = m.Cv (T2 − T1 ) =22.957 kJ
5. Work done, W
During the constant volume process, no work is done. ∴W= 0
6. Change in enthalpy, ∆H
∆H = m.Cv (T2 − T1 ) =0.41454 × 1 × (373 − 295) = 32.334 kJ/K
7. Change in entropy, ∆S
T   373 
∆S = m.Cv . ln 2  = 0.41454 × 0.71 × ln  =0.069 kJ/K
T
 1  295 
Result
1. Mass of air, m = 0.41454 kg
2. Final pressure, p2 =128.116 kN/ m 2
5. Work done, W = 0
6. Change in enthalpy, ∆H = 32.334 kJ
7. Change in entropy, ∆S = 0.069 kJ/K
Example 2.5
A gas having a volume of 0.28 m3 at a pressure of
700 kN/ m 2 is expanded at constant pressure until its volume
becomes 1.68 m3 . Determine the work done by the gas.
Unit – I  P2.5
Given data
Initial pressure, p1 = 700 kN/ m 2
Final volume, V2 = 1.68 m 3
To find
Work done, W
Solution
For a constant pressure process,
Work done, W = p.(V2 − V1 ) = 700 (168 − 0.28) = 980 kJ
Result
Work done, W =980 kJ.
Example 2.6
A gas whose pressure, volume and temperature are 5 bar,
0.23 m3 and 185 o C respectively has its state changed at constant
pressure until its temperature becomes 70 o C . Determine (1) the
work done, (2) the change in internal energy and (3) the heat
transferred during the process. R=290 J/kg.K; C p =1.005 kJ/kg.K
Given data
Initial pressure, p1 = 5 bar = 500 kN/ m 2
Final volume, V2 = V1 = 0.28 m 3
To find
1. Work done, W 2. Change in internal energy, ∆U
3. Heat transferred, Q
Solution
Specific heat , Cv = C p − R = 1.005 − 0.29 = 0.715 kJ/kg.K
p .V 500 × 0.23
m= 1 1 = = 0.8658 kg.
R.T1 0.29 × 458
Unit – I  P2.6
1. Work done, W = p.(V2 − V1 ) = m. R.(T2 − T1 )
= 0.8658 × 0.29 × (343 − 458) = −28.8744 kN−m
The negative sign indicates that work is done on the system.
2. Change in internal energy, ∆U = m.Cv .(T2 − T1 )

∆U = 0.8658 × 0.715 × ( 343 − 458) = − 71.19 kJ
The negative sign indicates that there is loss of internal energy.
3. Heat transferred, Q = W + ∆U
Q = −28.8744 − 71.19 = − 100.0644 kJ
The negative sign indicates that heat is rejected from the gas.
Result
1. Work done on the gas, W = 28.874 kN−m
2. Change in internal energy, ∆U = −71.19 kJ
3. Heat transferred, Q = 100.0644 kJ
Example 2.7
A gas has a density of 1.95 kg/ m3 at 1 bar and 18 o C .
0.8 kg of this gas is heated from 20 o C to 225 o C at constant
pressure by adding 180 kJ of heat. Calculate the specific heat at
constant pressure and specific heat at constant volume of the gas.
Also calculate the external work doe and change in internal energy
during the process.
Given data
Density of the gas, ρ = 1.95 kg/ m 3
Pressure of gas, p = 1 bar = 100 kN/ m 2
Temperature of gas, t = 18 o C ; T= 18 + 273 = 291 K
Mass of gas, m = 0.8 kg
Heat added, Q = 180 kJ
To find
1. Specific heats, C p and Cv 2. Work done , W
Unit – I  P2.7
Solution
By gas equation, p = ρ. R.T
p 100
∴R= = =0.176227 kJ/kg.K
ρ.T 1.95 × 291
Heat supplied, Q = m.Cp.(T2 − T1 ) = 1.09756 kJ/kg.K
C p − Cv = R; ∴ Cv = Cv − R
=1.09756 − 0.176227 = 0.92133 kJ/kg.K
For a constant pressure process,
W = p.(V2 − V1 ) = m. R.(T2 − T1 )
= 0.8 × 0.176227 × 9498 − 293) = 28.9 kN−m

∴ ∆U = Q − W = 180 − 28.9 = 151.1 kJ
Result
1.Specific heats, C p = 1.09756 kJ/kg.K and Cv = 0.92133 kJ/kg.K
2. Work done , W = 28.9 kJ
3. Change in internal energy, ∆U =151.1 kJ
Example 2.8
0.25 kg of air at a pressure of 1 bar occupies a volume of
0.3 m3 . If this air expands isothermally, to a volume of 0.9 m3 ,
determine (1) the initial temperature, (2) the final temperature,
(3)external work done, (4) change in internal energy, (5) heat absorbed
by the air and (6) change in entropy. Assume R= 0.29kJ/kg.K
Given data
Mass of the air, m = 0.25 kg
Initial pressure , p1 = 1 bar = 100 kN/ m 2
Isothermal expansion : T2 = T1
Gas constant, R = 0.29 kJ/kg.K
To find
1.Initial temperature, T1 2. Final temperature, T2
3. Work done, W 4. Change in internal energy, ∆U
5. Heat absorbed, Q 6. Change in entropy ∆S
Unit – I  P2.8
Solution
1. Initial temperature, T1
p .V 100 × 0.3
∴Initial temperature, T1 = 1 1 = = 419.79 K
m. R 0.25 × 0.29
T1 = 419.79 K (or) t1 = 419.79 − 273 = 140.79 o C
2. Final temperature, T2
For isothermal process, T2 = T1 = 419.79 K
V   0.9 
3. Work done, W = p1 .V1 . ln 2  = 100 × 0.3 × ln  = 32.9583 kJ
 V1   0 .3 
2
For any process, ∆U = m.Cv . dT .
1
But, in isothermal process, dT = 0. ∴ ∆U = 0

There is no change in internal energy
5. Heat absorbed by the air, Q
Q = 32.9583 + 0 = 32.9583 kJ
6. Change in entropy
V   0.9 
dS = m. R. ln 2  = 0.25 × 0.29 × ln  = 0.07965 kJ/K
 V1   0 .3 
Results
1.Initial temperature, T1 = 419.79 K ( t1 = 140.79 o C )
2. Final temperature, T2 = 419.79 K ( t2 = 140.79 o C )
3. Work done, W = 32.9583 kJ
4. Change in internal energy, ∆U = 0
5. Heat absorbed, Q =32.9583 kJ
6. Change in entropy ∆S = 0.07965 kJ/K
Example 2.9
1 kg of air is compressed from 1 bar and 30 o C to 7 bar
keeping the temperature constant. Determine the work done and
heat exchange during the process.
Unit – I  P2.9
Given data
Mass, m = 1 kg
Initial pressure , p1 = 1 bar = 100 kN/ m 2
Initial temperature t1 : 30 o C ; T1 = 30 + 273 = 303 K
Final pressure, p2 = 7 bar = 700 kN/ m 2
Assume, gas constant, R = 0.287 kJ/kg.K
To find
1. Work done , W 2. Heat transferred, Q
Solution
1. Work done, W
V  p  1
W = m. R.T1 . ln 2  = m. R.T1 . ln 1  = 1 × 0.287 × 303 × ln 
 V1   p2  7
= −169.222 kJ
Negative sign indicates that work is done on the gas.
2. Heat transferred, Q
For isothermal process, Q = W = −169.222 kJ
Result
1. Work done , W = −169.222 kJ
2. Heat transferred, Q = −169.222 kJ
Example 2.10
A gas is compressed hyperbolically from initial conditions
of 80 kN/ m 2 and 0.007 m3 to a final pressure of 100 kN/ m 2 .
Determine the final volume of the gas and work done.
Given data
Final pressure, p2 = 100 kN/ m 2
To find
1. Final volume, V2 2. Work done, W
Unit – I  P2.10
Solution
1. Final volume, V2
For an hyperbolic process, p1 .V1 = p2 .V2
p .V 80 × 0.007
∴ V2 = 1 1 = = 0.0056 m 3
p2 100
2. Work done, W
V   0.0056 
W = p1 .V1 ln 1  = 80 × 0.007 × ln  = − 0.125 kJ
V
 2  0.007 
Negative sign indicates that work is done on the gas.
Result
1. Final volume, V2 = 0.005 m 3 2. Work done, W = −0.125 kJ
Example 2.11
0.9 kg of air at a pressure of 15 bar and 250 o C expanded
adiabatically and reversibly to a pressure of 1.5 bar. Determine the
work done. R = 0.287 kJ/kg.K; γ = 1.4
Given data
Mass of air, m = 0.9 kg
Initial temperature, t1 = 250 o C ; T1 =250 + 273 = 523 K
Final pressure, p2 = 1.5 bar = 150 kN/ m 2
Gas constant, R = 0.287 kJ/kg.K
γ = 1.4
To find
Work done, W
Solution
γ −1
T p  γ
In an adiabatic process, 2 =  2 
T1  p1 
γ −1 1. 4 − 1
p  γ
 150  1. 4
∴ T2 = T1 ×  2  = 523 ×   = 270.886 K
 p1   1500 
Unit – I  P2.11
m. R.(T2 − T1 )
Work done, W =
γ −1
0.9 × 0.287 × 9523 − 270.886)
W= =162.8026 kJ.
1.4 − 1
Result
Work done, W = 162.8026 kJ
Example 2.12
1 kg of gas expands isentropically and its temperature is
observed to fall from 240 o C to 110 o C while its volume is doubled.
The work done by the gas is 90 kJ in the process. Determine C p ,
Cv and R for the gas.
Given data
Final volume, V2 = 2 × V1
Work done, W = 90 kJ
To find
1. Specific heat, C p 2. Specific heat, Cv 3. Gas constant,
R
Solution
1.Specific heat , Cv
In an adiabatic process, work done, W = m.Cv .(T2 − T1 )
W 90
∴ Cv = = = 0.6923 kJ/kg.K
m.(T1 − T2 ) 1(513 − 383)
2. Specific heat, C p
By adiabatic law,
γ −1 γ −1
T1  V2  513  2.V1 
=   = 
T2  V1  383  V1 
Taking log on both sides,
log (1.3394) = (γ−1) × log 2
0.12691 = (γ−1) × 0.301
0.12691 = 0.301 γ − 0.301
Unit – I  P2.12
0.301 γ = 0.12691 + 0.301
0.42791
γ= = 1.4216
0.301
C
We know that, p = γ  C p = γ × Cv
Cv
= 1.4216 × 0.6923 = 0.98423 kJ/kg.K
3. Gas constant
R = C p − Cv = 0.9892 − 0.6923 = 0.2918 kJ/kg.K
Result
1. Specific heat, Cv = 0.9842 kJ/kg.K
2. Specific heat, C p = 0.6923 kJ/kg.K
3. Gas constant, R = 0.2918 kJ/kg.K
Example 2.13
2 kg of gas at 8×105 N/ m 2 expands adiabatically till the
pressure falls to 4×105 N/ m 2 . During the process 1,20,000 N−m of
work is done by the system and the temperature falls from 377 o C
to 257 o C . Calculate the value of index of expansion and
characteristic gas constant.
Given data
Initial pressure, p1 = 8 × 10 5 N/ m 2 = 800 kN/ m 2
Final pressure, p2 = 4 × 10 5 N/ m 2 = 400 kN/ m 2
Work done, W = 1,20,000 N−m = 120 kN−m
To find
1. Index of expansion, γ 2. Characteristic gas constant, R
Solution
1. Index of expansion, γ
γ −1 γ −1
p  γ T  800  γ 650
In an adiabatic process,  1  = 1   =
 p2  T2  400  530
Unit – I  P2.13
Taking log on both sides,
γ −1  800   650 
log  = log 
γ  400   530 
 800 
log  
γ −1  400  = 0.2944
=
γ  650 
log 
 530 
γ −1 = 0.2944 γ
γ − 0.2944 γ = 1
0.7056 γ = 1
1
γ= = 1.4172
0.7056
2. Characteristic gas constant
m. R.(T1 − T2 )
Work done during adiabatic process, W =
γ −1
W (γ − 1) 120 × (1.4172 − 1)
∴R= = = 0.2086 kJ/kg.K
m.(T1 − T1 ) 2 × (650 − 530)
Result
1. Index of expansion, γ =1.4172
2. Characteristic gas constant, R = 0.2086 kJ/kg.K
Example 2.14
The initial volume of 0.18 kg of a certain gas was 0.15 m3
at a temperature of 15 o C and pressure of 1kg/c m 2 . After adiabatic
compression to 0.056 m3 , the pressure was found to be 4 kg/c m 2 .
Find (1) ratio of specific heats, (2) change in internal energy.
Given data
Mass of gas, m = 0.18 kg
Initial pressure, p1 = 1 kg/c m 2 = 100 kN/ m 2
Final pressure, p2 = 4 kg/c m 2 = 400 kN/ m 2
Unit – I  P2.14
To find
1. Ratio of specific heats, γ 2. Change in internal energy, ∆U
Solution
1. Ratio of specific heat, γ
p   400 
log  2  log  
p
 1=  100  =1.407
In an adiabatic process, γ =
V   0.15 
log 1  log  
 V2   0.056 
m. R.(T2 − T1 ) p2 .V2 − p1 .V1
∆U = =
γ −1 γ −1
(400 × 0.056) − (100 × 0.15)
∆U = = 18.182 kJ
1.407 − 1
Result
1. Ratio of specific heats, γ = 1.407
Example 2.15
Air at 1 bar pressure and 40 o C is compressed to 1/10th of
the original volume isentropically. Determine the final pressure and
temperature and the work done on 1 m 3 of air. Assume
R=287 J/kg.K. C p / Cv = 1.41
Given data
Final volume, V2 = 1/10th of initial volume, V1
V2 1 V1
= (or) = 10
V1 10 V2
1
Initial volume, V1 = 1 m 3 ; ∴ V2 = =0.1 m 3
10
Gas constant, R = 287 J/kg.K
C p / Cv = γ = 1.41
To find
1. Final pressure, p2 2. Final temperature, t2 3. Work done, W
Unit – I  P2.15
Solution
1. Final pressure, p2
γ γ
In isentropic process, p1 .V1 = p2 .V2
γ
V 
∴ p2 = p1 ×  1  = 100 × (10)1.41 = 2570.396 kN/ m 2
 V2 
2. Final temperature, T2
γ −1
T V 
In isentropic process, 1 =  1 
T2  V2 
1.41 −1
V 
∴ T2 = T1 ×  1  = 313 × (10)0.41 = 804.534 K
 V2 
t2 = 804.534 − 273 = 531.534 o C
3. Work done, W
p .V − P2 .V2 (100 × 1) − (2570 .396 × 0.1)
W= 1 1 =
γ −1 1.41 − 1
= − 383.0234 kN−m
The negative sign indicates that work is done on the air.
Results
1. Final pressure, p2 = 2570.396 kN/ m 2
2. Final temperature, T2 = 804.534 K; t2 = 531.534 o C
3. Work done, W = 383.0234 kN−m
Example 2.16
1 kg of air at 11 bar and 80 o C is expanded to 10 times the
original volume by (1) isothermal process and (2) isentropic
process. Determine the work done in each of the cases.
R=287J/kg.K and γ=1.4
Given data
Final volume, V2 = 10 × original volume ( V1 )
V1 1
V2 =10 V1 ; =
V2 10
Gas constant, R = 287 J/kg.K = 0.287 kJ/kg.K
γ = 1.4
Unit – I  P2.16
To find
1. Work done in isothermal process, W
2. Work done in isentropic process, W
Solution
1. Isothermal process
In isothermal process,
V  V 
Work done, W = p1 .V1 . ln 2  = m. R.T1 . ln 2 
 V1   V1 
W = 1 × 0.287 × 353 × ln(10) = 233.2772 kN−m
2. Isentropic process
p .V − P2 .V2 m. R.(T1 − T2 )
W= 1 1 =
γ −1 γ −1
γ −1
T V 
In isentropic process, 1 =  1 
T2  V2 
1.41 −1
V   1 
0 .41
∴ T2 = T1 ×  1  = 353 ×   =140.532 K
 V2   10 
1 × 0.287 × 9353 − 140.532)
W= = 152.4458 kN−m
1.4 − 1
Result
1) Work done in isothermal process, W = 233.2772 kN−m
2) Work done in isentropic process, W = 152.4458 kN−m
Unit – I  P2.17
PROBLEMS FOR PRACTICE
1. A certain gas occupies a space of 0.3 m 3 at a pressure of 2 bar
and temperature of 77 o C . It is heated at a constant volume,
until the pressure is 7 bar. Determine the (1) the temperature
at the end of the process (2) mass of the gas (3) change in
internal energy and (4) change in enthalpy during the
process. Assume C p =1.005 kJ/kg.K; C p =0,712 kJ/kg.K; and
R=287J/kg.K
[Ans: t2 =952 o C , m=0.597 kg, ∆U =372 kJ, ∆H =525kJ]
2. 5 kg of gas is heated from a temperature of 100 o C at a
constant volume till its pressure becomes three times it
original pressure. Calculate (1) the heat transfer (2) change
in internal energy (3) change in enthalpy and (4) change in
entropy. Assume C p =1.00 kJ/kg.K and Cv =0.71 kJ/kg.K
[Ans: Q=2648 kJ, ∆U =2648 kJ, ∆H =3730kJ, ∆S =3.9kJ/K
3. A gas has a density of 1.875 kg/ m 3 at 1 bar and 15 o C .
Calculate the characteristic gas constant R. When 0.9 kg of
this gas is heated from 15 o C to 250 o C at constant pressure,
the heat required is 176 kJ. Calculate the specific heat
capacity of the gas at constant pressure and specific heat
capacity of the gas at constant volume. Also calculate the
change in internal energy and external work done during the
process. [Ans: R= 0.1852 k/kg.K; C p = 0.8274 kJ/kg.K ;
Cv = 0.6422 kJ/kg.K; ∆U =135.8253 kJ and W=39.1747 kJ]
4. A quantity of gas has a volume of 0.14 m 3 , pressure 1.5 bar

and a temperature 100 o C . If the gas is compressed at a
constant pressure, until its volume becomes 0.113 m 3 ,
determine (1) the temperature at the end compression (2)
work done in compressing the gas (3) decrease in internal
energy and (4) heat given out by the gas. Assume C p =1.005
kJ/kg.K; Cv =0.712 kJ/kg.K and R=285 J/kg.K
[Ans: t2 = 25.4 o C , W=4.2 kJ, ∆U =10.46 kJ, Q=14.77 kJ]
5. A gas whose pressure, volume and temperature are 275 kN,
0.09 m 3 , and 185 o C respectively has changed its state at
Unit – I  P2.18
constant pressure until its temperature becomes 15 o C .
Calculate (1) the heat transferred (2) work done and (3) change
in entropy. Assume R=0.28 kJ/kg.K and C p =1.005 kJ/kg.K
[Ans: Q = −32.974 kJ, W = −9.1868 kJ, ∆S = 0.0899 kJ/K]
6. One kg of air at 1.5 bar and 30 o C undergoes a constant pressure
process until the volume is trebled. Calculate (a) change in
internal energy, (b) change in enthalpy, (c) work done and (d)
change in entropy. C p =1 kJ/kg.K and Cv =0.71 kJ/kg.K
[Ans: ∆U =430.26kJ, ∆H =606kJ, W=175.74 kN−m,
∆S =1.0986 kJ/K]
7. A quantity of air has a volume of 0.4 m 3 at a pressure of 5 bar
and a temperature of 80 o C . It is expanded in cylinder at a
constant temperature to a pressure of 1 bar. Determine the
amount of work done by the air during expansion.
[Ans: W=321.54 kJ]
8. 0.2 kg of air at a pressure of 1.1 bar and 15 o C is compressed
isothermally to a pressure of 5.5 bar. Calculate (a) the final volume
(b) heat rejected, (c) change in entropy and (d) change in internal
energy. Assume R=0.292 kJ/kg.K. [Ans: V2 =0.03058 m 3 ,
Q=27.069 kJ, ∆S = − 0.09399 kJ/K , ∆U =0]
9. 0.5 kg of air at a pressure of one bar occupies a volume of 0.4
m 3 . If this air expands isothermally to a volume of 0.8 m 3 ,
find (1) the initial temperature, (2) external work done and
(3) change in internal energy. Assume R=0.29 kJ/kg.K
[Ans: t1 =2.862 o C , W=27.726 kN−m, ∆U = 0]
10. A gas is compressed hyperbolically from a pressure and
volume of 100 kN/ m 2 and 0.056 m 3 respectively to a volume
of 0.007 m 3 . Determine the final pressure and the work done
on the gas. [Ans: p2 =800 kN/ m 2 , W=11.6449 kJ]
11. A quantity of air occupies a volume of 30 litres at a
temperature of 38 o C and a pressure of 104 kN/ m 2 . The
temperature of the air is raised by adiabatic compression until
the volume becomes 6 litres. Find the final temperature, the
external work done, the change of internal energy, the heat
transferred, the change in enthalpy and the change in entropy.
Unit – I  P2.19
Take R=0.29 kJ/kg.K and γ=1.4. [Ans: t2 =319.036 o C , W=
−7.0485 kN−m, ∆U =7.0485 kJ, Q=0, ∆H =9.868 kJ, ∆S =0]
12. 1 kg of gas expands adiabatically and its temperature is
observed to fall from 240 o C to 100 o C while its volume increase
to 1.8 times the initial volume. The work done by the gas is 85
kJ in the process. Determine C p , Cv and R for the gas.
[Ans: C p =0.934 kJ/kg.K, Cv =0.607 kJ/kg.K,
R=0.327kJ/kg.K]
13. 0.5 kg of a gas occupies 0.3 m at 20 C and 140 kN/ m 2 and
3 o
after adiabatic compression to 0.15 m 3 , the pressure is 370 kN/

m 2 . Find the value of gas constant and the two specific heats.
[Ans: R=0.287 kJ/kg.K, C p =1.001 kJ/kg.K,
Cv =0.714 kJ/kg.K]
14. 0.3 m 3 of a gas at 14 o C and 1 bar is compressed isentropically

to 7 bar. Calculate (a) mass of the gas, (b) the final temperature,
(c) work done. Assume C p =1 kJ/kg.K and Cv =0.715 kJ/kg.K
[Ans: m=0.36677 kg, t2 =226.73 o C , W=55.78 kJ]
Unit – I  P2.20
Unit – II
Chapter 3. THERMODYNAMIC AIR CYCLES
3.1 Introduction
A thermodynamic cycle consists of a series of
thermodynamic operations, which takes place in a certain order,
and the initial conditions are restored at the end of the process.
These processes can be plotted on p−V diagram and T−S diagram.
Each process is represented by its own curve and thus form a closed
figure.
3 3
2 4
p 4 2
T
1 1
V S
Fig.3.1 Thermodynamic cycle
The area enclosed by the complete curve in the p−V

diagram gives the work done during the complete cycle. The net
heat transfer during the complete cycle is given by the are enclosed
by the complete curve in T−S diagram.
3.2 Air cycles and air standard efficiency

In air cycles, the air is used as the working fluid. The air in
an engine cylinder may be subjected to series of operations which
cause the air to return to its original state. This is called as air
cycle. The thermal efficiency obtained using air as working fluid is
known as air standard efficiency. This efficiency is the standard
efficiency for all cycles. It is used to compare the performance of
engines working on various cycles.
Unit – II  3.1
3.3 Efficiencies of cycles
Thermal efficiency
During a cyclic process, a certain quantity of heat is taken
by the engine. A portion of this heat is converted into useful work
and the remaining heat is rejected. Therefore, work done during
the cycle is given by,
Work done, W = Heat supplied − Heat rejected
W = Qs − Qw
Efficiency of the cycle is given by,
Output Work done Heat supplied- Heat rejected
η= = =
Input Heat supplied Heat supplied
W Q − Qr
η= = s
Qs Qs
This efficiency is the theoretical efficiency and is known as
thermal efficiency of the cycle. In this efficiency, the practical losses
which may occur during the running of an engine are not
considered. Hence, the actual thermal efficiency is always less than
the theoretical thermal efficiency.
Relative efficiency
The relative efficiency is defined as the ratio of actual
thermal efficiency and theoretical thermal efficiency. It is also
called as efficiency ratio.
Relative efficiency (or) Efficiency ratio,

Indicated thermal efficiency (or)
Actual thermal efficiency
η rel =
Theoretica l (Ideal) theraml efficiency (or)
Air standard efficiency
3.4 Reversible and irreversible cycle

Reversible cycle
A thermodynamic process is said to be reversible, if the
system and surroundings are completely restored back to their
initial state when the process reversed.
Unit – II  3.2
2 2
p p
1 1
V V
(a) Reversible process (b) Irreversible process
Fig.3.2 Reversible and irreversible process
A reversible process occurs when the system passes

through a serious of equilibrium state. In a reversible process,
there should not be any loss of heat due to friction, radiation or
conduction, etc. A cycle will be reversible if all the processes
constituting the cycle are reversible. Thus in a reversible cycle, the
initial conditions are restored at the end of the cycle.
Irreversible cycle
When the system and surroundings are not completely
restored by reversing the process, then the process is known as
irreversible process. In an irreversible process, there is a loss of
heat due to friction, radiation or conduction.
• The main causes for the irreversibility are:
• Mechanical and fluid friction
• Unrestricted expansion
• Heat transfer with large temperature difference
A cycle will be irreversible, if any of the processes,

constituting the cycle, is irreversible. Thus in an irreversible cycle,
the initial conditions are not restored at the end of the cycle.
3.5 Thermodynamic reversibility

A process is thermodynamically reversible, if
• It passes through a number of equilibrium stages
• The change from one stage to successive stage is very slow
or quasi−static.
• There is no frictional resistance
Unit – II  3.3
Effects of thermodynamic reversibility on efficiency
• No other cycle can be more efficient than a reversible cycle
(Carnot cycle) when working between the same two fixed
temperature.
• All reversible engines working between the same
temperature limit have the same efficiency.
• Two reversible engines of different capacities working with
different mediums and operating between the same
temperature limits have the same efficiency.
3.6 Conditions for reversibility

The following are the conditions for reversibility of a cycle
• There should be no loss of energy during the cycle of
operation
• There should not be any free expansion process or
throttling process.
• The pressure and temperature of the working substance
should be same as that of the surroundings.
• The working substance must be a good conductor of heat.
• All the processes taking place in the cycle of operation must
be extremely slow.
• The working parts of the engine must be friction free.
3.7 Assumptions in deriving air standard efficiency

• Air is the working fluid
• The gas in the engine cylinder is a perfect gas. It obeys the
gas laws.
• All the compression and expansion processes are adiabatic.
• There is no friction inside the cylinder.
• Heat is supplied by bringing a hot body in contact with the
cylinder at certain points during the process. Similarly
heat is rejected by bringing a cold body in contact with the
cylinder at these points.
• The cycle is considered as a closed cycle.
• There is no chemical reaction in the engine cylinder.
Unit – II  3.4
3.8 Thermodynamic cycles
The following are the important thermodynamic cycles
1) Carnot cycle [constant temperature cycle]
2) Otto cycle [constant volume cycle]
3) Diesel cycle
4) Joule or Brayton cycle [constant pressure cycle]
5) Dual combustion cycle
6) Rankine cycle
7) Stirling cycle
8) Ericsson cycle
3.9 Carnot cycle [Constant temperature cycle]
2 Qs Isothermal Isothermal
3 2 3
T2
W Q Adiabatic
p Adiabatic T
1 4
Qr T1 1 4
V S1 = S2 S3=S4
S
Fig.3.3 Carnot cycle
This cycle was introduced by Nicolas Leonard Sadi Carnot.
It consists of two isothermal processes and two isentropic
(reversible adiabatic) processes. The p−V and T−S diagrams of this
cycle are shown in the figure.
Working of the cycle
At point 2, the clearance volume of the cylinder is occupied
by compressed air. A hot object is placed at the end of cylinder head
and the heat is supplied to the air at constant temperature ( T2 ).
The air expands and forces the piston forward by doing work on the
piston. At point 3, the hot object is removed and the air expands
isentropically till the temperature falls to T1 at point 4. The piston
reverses and compression stroke starts. A cold object is placed at
the end of the cylinder head and the air is cooled at constant
temperature ( T1 ) up to point 1. At point 1, the cold object removed
and the air is compressed adiabatically (isentropically) till it
returns to its original state 2.
Unit – II  3.5
Heat supplied during the constant temperature process 2−3,
Qs = T2.dS Q dS =
dQ 
 T 
Heat rejected during the constant temperature process 4−1,
Qr = T1.dS
Work done during the cycle, W = Qs − Qr = T2.dS− T1.dS
W = (T2 − T1).dS
W (T2 − T1 ).dS
Efficiency of the cycle, ηcarnot = =
Qs T2 .dS
(T − T1 ) T
ηcarnot = 2 = 1− 1
T2 T2
where, T1 = Minimum temperature of the cycle,
T2 = Maximum temperature of the cycle
For the two given temperature limits, only Carnot cycle

gives the maximum possible efficiency. But, an engine working on
Carnot cycle is not possible because of the following reasons:
• For isothermal compression, the piston should move very
slowly and for isentropic compression, the piston should
move as fast as possible. This speed variation during the
same stroke of the piston is not possible.
• It is not possible to provide a heat source which will supply
heat without change in temperature.
• It is not possible to avoid friction between moving parts
completely.
3.10 Reversed Carnot cycle

The p−V and T−S diagram for a reversed Carnot cycle is

1−2 : Isentropic compression in a compressor
2−3 : Isothermal heat rejection to a hot body ( T2 = T3 )
3−4 : Isentropic expansion in expansion valve
4−1 : Isothermal heat extraction from a cold body ( T1 = T4 )
Unit – II  3.6
3 Qr 2 3 2
on
Exp
ssi
W
re
Q
ans
mp
io
Co
n
4 1 T
Qe 4 1
V S
Fig.3.4 Reversed Carnot cycle
Heat is extracted during the isothermal process 4−1.

Heat extracted, Qe = T1.dS
Heat is rejected during the isothermal process 2−3
Heat rejected, Qr = T2.dS
Work input, W = Qr − Qe = T2.dS− T1.dS= (T2 − T1).dS
The main purpose of Carnot cycle is to extract heat from a
cold body and reject heat to a hot body. In this case, the
performance of cycle is called as Coefficient of Performance (COP).
In the case of refrigerator, we require a cooling effect. So, COP is

defined as the ratio of heat rejected to work input.
Heat extracted Qe T1 .dS
COPref = = =
Work input W (T2 − T1 ).dS
T1
∴ COPref =
T2 − T1
In the case of heat pump, heating effect is required. So,
COP is defined as the ratio of heat delivered to the work input.
Heat rejected Qr T2 .dS
COPhp = = =
T2
∴ COPhp =
T2 − T1
3.11 Otto cycle or Constant volume cycle

The first successful engine working on this cycle was
introduced by Nicholas A. Otto in 1876. Nowadays, many gas,
Unit – II  3.7
petrol and many of the oil engines run on this cycle. Since, the heat
is supplied and rejected at a constant volume, it is also known as
constant volume cycle.
3
Qs 3
Adiabatic
S=C
2 C
V=
4
4 2
p
Qr S=C
T C
1 V=
Vc Vs 1
V2=V3 V1=V4 S1= S2 S3=S4

V S
Fig.3.5 Otto cycle
The ideal p−V diagram and T−S diagram of this cycle are
shown in the figure. It consists of two reversible adiabatic
(isentropic) processes and two constant volume processes.
Working of Otto cycle

1−2 : Isentropic compression of air : Pressure and temperature
increases. Volume decreases. Entropy remains constant ( S1 = S2 )
2−3 : Constant volume heating of air : Pressure, temperature and
entropy increases. Volume remains constant ( V1 = V2 )
3−4 : isentropic expansion of air : Pressure and temperature
decreases. Volume increases. Entropy remains constant ( S3 = S4 )
4−1 : Constant volume heat rejection from air: Pressure, temperature
and entropy decreases. Volume remains constant ( V4 = V1 )
Heat is supplied at constant volume during the process 2−3 :

∴ Heat supplied, Qs = m.Cv.(T3 − T2)
Heat is rejected at constant volume during the process 4−1 :
Qr = m.Cv.(T4 − T1)
∴ Heat rejected,
Work done, W = Qs − Qr = m.Cv.(T3 − T2) − m.Cv.(T4 − T1)
Unit – II  3.8
m.Cv .(T3 − T2 ) − m.Cv .(T4 − T1 ) m.Cv .(T4 − T1 )
Efficiency, ηotto = =1 −
m.Cv .(T3 − T2 ) m.Cv .(T3 − T2 )
(T − T1 )
ηotto = 1− 4
(T3 − T2 )
It is very difficult to measure the temperature at various
point in an Otto cycle. Hence, the efficiency is simplified in terms
of volume ratio as follows:
From the p−V diagram of Otto cycle,

Total cylinder volume, Vtotal = V1
Clearance volume, Vc = V2 = V3
Stroke volume, Vs = V1 − V2 = V4 − V3
V1 Total cylinder volume
Adiabatic compression ratio, r = =
V2 Clearance volume
V1 Vc + Vs
r= =
V2 Vc
Hence, the compression ratio is defined as the ratio
between total cylinder volume and clearance volume.
V V
Adiabatic expansion ration = 4 = 1 = r
V3 V2
Consider adiabatic compression process 1−2
γ −1
T2  V1  γ −1
=   = r γ −1 ; ∴ T2 = T1.r
T1  V2 
Consider adiabatic expansion process 3−4
γ −1
T3  V4  γ −1
=  = r γ −1 ; ∴ T3 = T4 .r
T4  V3 
Substituting the values of T2 and T3 in efficiency equation,
(T4 − T1 ) (T − T1 )
ηotto = 1 − = 1 − γ −1 4
T4 .r γ −1 − T1 .r γ −1 r .(T4 − T1 )
1
η otto = 1 −
r γ −1
From the above equation, it is understood that the
efficiency of Otto cycle increases when compression ratio (r)
increases and vice versa.
Unit – II  3.9
3.12 Joule’s cycle or Brayton cycle or Constant pressure cycle
Joule’s cycle is an ideal cycle for gas turbine plants. It
consists of two adiabatic (isentropic) processes and two constant
pressure processes. The p−V and T−S diagram for this cycle is
p2= p3 2 Qs 3
3
Adiabatic
C
p= S=C
p 2 4
p1= p4
T S=C p=C
1 Qr 4 1
S1= S2 S3=S4
V S
Fig.3.6 Joule’s cycle
Working of Joule’s cycle

1−2 : Air is compressed isentropically ( S1 = S2 )
2−3 : Air is heated at constant pressure ( p2 = p3 )
3−4 : Air is expanded isentropically ( S3 = S4 )
4−1 : Heat is rejected by the air at constant pressure ( p4 = p1 )
Heat is supplied during constant pressure process 2−3

Heat supplied, Qs = m.Cp.(T3 − T2 )
Heat is rejected during constant pressure process 4−1
Heat rejected, Qr = m.Cp.(T4 − T1 )
Work done during the cycle, W = Qs − Qr
W = m.Cp.(T3 − T2 ) − m.Cp (T4 − T1)
W m.C p .(T3 − T2 ) − m.C p (T4 − T1 )
Efficiency, η joule = =
Qs m.C p .(T3 − T2 )
(T4 − T1 )
η joule = 1 −
(T3 − T2 )
Unit – II  3.10
The above equation can be simplified to obtain the
air−standard efficiency in terms of pressure ratio, Rp
Consider the isentropic compression 1−2.
γ −1
T2  p2 
= (Rp ) ( )
γ γ −1 γ −1
=  γ ; ∴ T2 = T1. Rp γ
T1  p1 
Consider the isentropic expansion 3−4.
γ −1
T3  p3 
= (Rp ) ( )
γ γ −1 γ −1
=  γ ; ∴ T3 = T4 . Rp γ
T4  p4 
Substituting the values of T2 and T3 in the efficiency equation,
T4 − T1 T4 − T1
η joule = 1 − =1−
T4 . (R ) − T1.(R ) (R )
γ −1 γ −1 γ −1
p γ p γ p γ (T4 − T1 )
1
η joule = 1 −
(R )
γ −1
p γ
From the above expression, it is understood that the efficiency

of Joule’s cycle increases if the pressure ratio ( Rp ) increases.
Efficiency in terms of volume compression ratio, r
Compression ratio, r = Expansion ratio
V V
r= 1 = 4
V2 V3
γ −1
T2  V1  γ −1
=   = (r) γ −1 ; ∴ T2 = T1.(r)
T1  V2 
Consider isentropic expansion 3−4
γ −1
T3  V4  γ −1
=  = (r) γ −1 ; ∴ T3 = T4 .(r)
T4  V3 
Substituting the values of T2 and T3 in efficiency equation,
T4 − T1 T4 − T1
η joule = 1 − =1−
T4 .(r) γ −1 − T1 .(r) γ −1 (r) γ −1 .(T4 − T1 )
1
η joule = 1 −
(r)γ −1
Unit – II  3.11
3.13 Diesel cycle
Diesel cycle was introduced by Rudolph Diesel. This cycle
is mostly used in diesel engines. It consists of two adiabatic
processes, one constant volume process and one constant pressure
process. The p−V diagram and T−S diagram for this cycle are
p2 = p3 2 Qs 3
Adiabatic 3
S=C
C
p=
4
4 2
p
Qr
T S=C C
1 V=
Vc Vs 1
V1=V4 S1 = S2 S3=S4
V S
Fig. 3.7 Diesel cycle
= S2 )
1−2:Air is compressed isentropically ( S1
2−3:Air is heated at constant pressure ( p2 = p3 ). Heat supply is
stopped when temperature reaches to T3 at point 3. This point 3
is known as cut−off point. The volume at this point ( V3 ) is
known as cut−off volume.
3−4:Air is expanded isentropically ( S3 = S4 )
4−1:Air is cooled at constant volume ( V4 = V1 )
Heat is supplied during constant pressure process 2−3

Heat supplied, Qs = m.Cp.(T3 − T2 )
Heat is rejected during constant volume process 4−1
Qr = m.Cv.(T4 − T1)
Heat rejected,
Work done during the cycle, W = Qs − Qr
W = m.Cp.(T3 − T2 ) − m.Cv.(T4 − T1)
W m.C p .(T3 − T2 ) − m.C v (T4 − T1 )
Efficiency, η diesel = =
Qs m.C p .(T3 − T2 )
Unit – II  3.12
1  T − T1   Cp 
ηdiesel = 1 −  4  Q = γ
γ  T3 − T2   Cv 
The above efficiency equation can be simplified in terms of
volume ratios as follows.
Cut−off ratio is defined as the ratio of volume at point of
cut−off to the clearance volume.
Cut - off volume V3 V3
Cut−off ratio, ρ = = =
Clearance volume Vc V2
Total cylinder volume V1
Compression ratio, r = =
Clearance volume V2
V V V V 1 r
Adiabatic expansion ratio = 4 = 1 = 1 . 2 = r. =
V3 V3 V2 V3 ρ ρ
γ −1
T2  V1  γ −1
=   = (r) γ −1 ; ∴ T2 = T1.(r)
T1  V2 
Consider constant pressure process 2−3
V2 V3 T3 V3 γ −1
= ; = = ρ ; ∴ T3 = T2.ρ = T1.(r) .ρ
T2 T3 T2 V2
Consider adiabatic expansion 3−4
γ −1 γ −1
T3  V4  r T3 T1 .( r ) γ −1 .ρ.ρ γ −1
=  =   ; ∴ T4 = =
T4  V3  ρ r
γ −1
(r ) γ −1
 
ρ
γ
∴ T4 = T1 .ρ
Substitute the values of T2, T3 and T4 in efficiency equation,
1 T1.ργ − T1 
ηdiesel = 1 −  γ −1 γ −1 
γ  T1.(r) .ρ − T1.(r) 
1  ργ − 1 
ηdiesel = 1 −  
γ.(r)γ −1  ρ −1 
From the above equation, it is understood that
a) If compression ratio (r) increases, the efficiency of diesel cycle
increases.
b) If cut−off ratio ( ρ ) increases, the efficiency of diesel cycle decreases.
Unit – II  3.13
3.14 Comparison of Otto cycle and Diesel cycle
Otto cycle Diesel cycle
1. It consists of two adiabatic and It consists of two adiabatic,
two constant volume one constant pressure and one
processes. constant volume processes.
2. Heat is supplied at constant Heat is supplied at constant
volume. pressure.
3. Efficiency of the cycle depends Efficiency of the cycle depends
on compression ratio (r) only. on compression ratio (r) and
cut−off ratio ( ρ ).
4. Compression ratio is equal to Compression ratio is not equal
expansion ratio. to expansion ratio.
5. For the same compression For the same compression
ratio and same heat input, the ratio and same heat input, the
efficiency of Otto cycle is more efficiency of Otto cycle is less
than that of Diesel cycle. than that of Diesel cycle.
6. Compression ratio is less. It Compression ratio is more. It
varies from 5 to 8. varies from 12 to 18.
3.15 Actual p−V diagram of Otto cycle
p e
a b
Vc Vs
V
Fig.3.8 Actual p−V diagram of Otto cycle
The actual p−V diagram of Otto cycle is shown in the figure.
An engine working on Otto cycle consists of the following strokes:
1. Suction stroke (a−b): The air−fuel mixture is sucked in to the
engine cylinder by the outward movement of the piston.
2. Compression stroke (b−c): The air− fuel mixture is compressed

by the piston during the return stroke. At the end of compression,
the mixture occupies clearance volume ( Vc ) only.
Unit – II  3.14
3. Heat addition at constant volume (c−d) : The air−fuel
mixture is ignited by an electric spark. This rises the pressure and
temperature of the mixture.
4. Expansion or working or power stroke (d−e) : The burnt

gases force the piston to move forward. As this expansion occurs at
high speed, it is considered as adiabatic (isentropic). This working
stroke gives sufficient energy to drive the piston through the other
three strokes. The excess energy is stored in the fly wheel.
5. Exhaust stroke (e−g) : The burnt gases are pushed out through
the exhaust valve by the inward movement of the piston. Thus the
cycle is completed.
We know that the net work done during a cycle is

represented by the net area of the p−V diagram. The piston
requires energy to act as a pump during suction and exhaust
strokes. This energy can be supplied by the fly wheel. The energy
lost due to the area ‘eab’ is called as negative energy or pumping
energy and it is negative.
∴ Net work done = Area ‘bcde’ − Area ‘eab’
3.16 Actual p−V diagram of Diesel cycle
c d
Adiabatic
e
p a b
Vc Vs
V
Fig.3.9 Actual p−V diagram of Diesel cycle
Unit – II  3.15
The actual p−V diagram of the Diesel cycle is shown in the
figure. It consists of the following strokes.
1. Suction stroke (a−b) : During this stroke, air alone is drawn
into the engine cylinder by the outward movement of the piston.
2. Compression stroke (b−c) : The air is compressed adiabatically

by the inward movement of the piston. The air now occupies
clearance volume ( Vc ) only. The final pressure is above 40
atmosphere at the end of this stroke. The temperature of this high
pressure air is sufficient to ignite the fuel.
3. Heat addition at constant pressure (c−d) : The atomized fuel

is injected into the engine cylinder and it is immediately ignited by
the hot air in the cylinder. The burning of fuel takes place at
constant pressure. The fuel supply is cut−off when the piston
reaches ‘d’.
4. Working or expansion of power stroke (d−e) : The burnt

mixture forces the piston outward, thus doing work. This
expansion is adiabatic on account of high speed. This is the only
working stroke during the cycle. It gives sufficient power to drive
the engine and drive the piston through the other three strokes.
5. Exhaust stroke (e−a) : The burnt gases are pushed through the
exhaust valve by the inward movement of the piston. Thus the
cycle is completed.
The net work done during a cycle is represented by the net

area of the p−V diagram. The piston requires energy to act as a
pump during suction and exhaust strokes. This energy can be
supplied by the fly wheel. The energy lost due to the area ‘eab’ is
called as negative energy or pumping energy and it is negative.
∴ Net work done = Area ‘bcde’ − Area ‘eab’
Unit – II  3.16
3.17 Comparison of theoretical an actual p−V diagram
Theoretical p−V diagram Actual p−V diagram

1. The pressure during the The pressure during the suction
suction stroke is stroke is less than atmospheric
atmospheric pressure. pressure.
2. Exhaust takes place at Exhaust takes place above
atmospheric pressure. atmospheric pressure.
3. Net work done during the Net work done is obtained after
cycle is given by the subtracting the energy lost due to
enclosed are of the p−V pumping during suction and
diagram. exhaust strokes.
4. The corners of the The corners of the theoretical p−V
theoretical p−V diagram diagram are rounded.
are sharp.
3.18 Dual combustion cycle or semi−diesel cycle

Qs 4
3
Qs Adiabatic
4
C
p=
2 3 S=C
W C
V= 5
5 2
p
Qr S=C
T V=C
Vc Vs 1 1
V2=V3 V1=V5 S1 = S2 S4=S5

V S
Fig.3.10 Dual combustion cycle
This cycle is a combination of Otto and Diesel cycles. In this
cycle, heat is absorbed partly at constant volume and partly at
constant pressure.
1−2 : Air is compressed isentropically ( S1 = S2 )
2−3 : Air is heated at constant volume ( V2 = V3 )
3−4 : Air is heated at constant pressure ( p3 = p4 )
4−5 : Air is expanded isentropically ( S4 = S5 )
5−1 : Air is cooled at constant volume ( V5 = V1 )
Unit – II  3.17
Heat is supplied during constant volume process 2−3 and constant
pressure process 3−4.
∴Heat supplied, Qs = m.Cv.(T3 − T2 ) + m.Cp.(T4 − T3 )
Heat is rejected during constant volume process 5−1
∴ Heat rejected, Qr = m.Cv.(T5 − T1)
Work done during the cycle,
W = Qs − Qr = m.Cv.(T3 − T2 ) + m.Cp.(T4 − T3 ) − m.Cv.(T5 − T1)
W
Efficiency of the cycle, ηdual =
Qs
m.C v .(T3 − T2 ) + m.C p .(T4 − T3 ) − m.C v .(T5 − T1 )
η dual =
m.C v .(T3 − T2 ) + m.C p .(T4 − T3 )
(T5 − T1 )
ηdual = 1 −
(T3 − T2 ) + γ.(T4 − T3 )
The above efficiency can be simplified in terms of
compression ratio (r), explosion or pressure ratio ( α ) and cut−off
ratio ( ρ ).
V
Compression ratio, r = 1
V2
p3
Explosion or pressure ratio, α =
p2
V4
Cut−off ratio, ρ =
V3
Isentropic expansion ratio:

V5 V1 V1 V2
= = × (QV5 = V1)
V4 V4 V2 V4
= (QV2 = V3 )
V1 V3 r
× =
V2 V4 ρ
Consider the isentropic compression 1−2
γ −1
T2  V1  γ −1
=  = (r) γ −1 ; ∴ T2 = T1.(r)
T1  V2 
Consider the constant volume process 2−3

p2 p3 p
= ; ∴ T3 = T2 . 3 = T1.(r)γ −1.α
T2 T3 p2
Unit – II  3.18
Consider the constant pressure process 3−4
V3 V4 V γ −1
= ; ∴ T4 = T3 . 4 = T3 .ρ = T1 .(r) .α.ρ
T3 T4 V3
Consider the isentropic expansion 4−3

γ −1
T4  r  T4 T1 .(r ) γ −1 .α.ρ.ρ γ −1
=  ; ∴ T5 = = = T1 .α.ρ γ
T5  ρ  r
γ −1
(r ) γ −1
 
ρ
Substituting these values in the efficiency equation,
(T1 .α.ρ γ − T1 )
η dual = 1 −
[T1 .( r ) .α − T1 .( r ) ] + γ.[ T1 .( r ) γ −1 .α.ρ − T1 .( r ) γ −1 .α ]
γ −1 γ −1
T1[ α.ρ γ − 1]
η dual = 1 − γ −1
T1 .( r ) .[( α − 1) + γ.α (ρ − 1)]
α.ρ γ − 1
ηdual = 1 −
(r )γ −1 .[(α − 1) + γ .α(ρ − 1)]
3.19 Mean effective pressure (pm)
b c
f g
p d
Area=W
e V a
Stroke volume
Fig.3.11 Mean effective pressure
The mean effective pressure of a cycle or heat engine is the

average pressure acting on the piston during the working stroke.
It is given by the mean height of the p−V diagram.
Unit – II  3.19
Referring the p−V diagram,
Area ‘abcda’ = Area ‘aefga’

Workdoneduringthe cycle W
∴ pm = ; pm =
Strokevolume Vs
Mean effective pressure is determined with the help of
indicator diagram.
Let, A − Area of indicator (p−V) diagram ( m 2 )

S − Spring scale or pressure scale (kN/ m 2 /m)
L − Length of indicator diagram (m)
Then, mean effective pressure is given by,

Area of indicatordiagram× Springscale A × S
pm = =
Lenghtof indicatordiagram L
If the mean effective pressure is based on the area of p−V
diagram or on indicated power, it is known as indicated mean
effective pressure ( pmi ).
Indicatedpower
pmi =
No.of workingstrokesper second× Strokevolume
IP
pm =
n × Vs
If the mean effective pressure is based on the brake power
of an engine, it is known as brake mean effective pressure ( pmb).
Brake power BP
pmb = =
n × Vs n × Vs
Unit – II  3.20
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Define air standard efficiency.

2. What are the assumptions made in deriving the air−standard
efficiency?
3. Draw the p−V and T−S diagrams of Carnot cycle.
4. Derive an expression for air−standard efficiency of Carnot cycle.
5. No engine can work on Carnot cycle. Why?
6. Derive an expression for air−standard efficiency of reversed
Carnot cycle.
7. Explain the reversible and irreversible processes.
8. State the conditions of reversibility.
9. Draw the p−V and T−S diagram of the Otto cycle and indicate
the various processes.
10. Derive an expression for the air−standard efficiency of Otto cycle.
11. What is the effect of compression ratio on efficiency of Otto cycle.
12. Draw the p−V and T−S diagram of Brayton’s (Joule’s) cycle.
13. Derive an expression for the air−standard efficiency of
Brayton cycle in terms of compression ratio.
14. Derive an expression for the air−standard efficiency of
Brayton cycle in terms of pressure ratio.
15. Draw the p−V and T−S diagrams of Diesel cycle and mention
the various processes.
16. Derive an expression for the air−standard efficiency of Diesel cycle.
17. What are the limitations of compression ratio/
18. Explain the effect of cut−off ratio and compression ratio on
efficiency of Diesel cycle.
19. Compare Otto cycle and Diesel cycle.
20. Draw the p−V and T−S diagrams for Dual combustion cycle.
21. Draw the theoretical and actual p−V diagrams of Diesel cycle
and explain the reasons for differences.
22. What is meant by mean effective pressure.
Unit – II  3.21
POINTS TO REMEMBER
Work done W Qs − Qr
1. Efficiency, η = = =
Heat supplied Qs Qs
V + Vs V
2. Compression ratio, r = c =1+ s
Vc Vc
Indicated(Actual)thermalefficiency
3. Relative efficiency =
Ideal thermal(Air standard)efficiency
T2 − T1 T1
4. η carnot = =1 −
T2 T2
T1
5. C.O. Pref =
T2 − T1
T2
6. C.O.Php =
T2 − T1
(T − T1 ) 1
7. ηotto = 1 − 4 = 1 − γ −1
(T3 − T2 ) r
(T − T1 ) 1
8. η joule = 1 − 4 = 1 − γ −1
(T3 − T2 ) (r )
1  T − T1  1  ργ − 1 
9. ηdiesel = 1 −  4  =1−  
γ  T3 − T2  γ.(r)γ −1  ρ −1 
(T5 − T1 ) α.ρ γ − 1
10. ηdual = 1 − =1−
(T3 − T2 ) + γ.(T4 − T3 ) γ −1
(r ) .[(α − 1) + γ.α(ρ − 1)]
V1 p
Compression ratio, r = ; Pressure ratio, α = 3
V2 p2
V
Cut−off ratio, ρ = 4
V3
W
11. Mean effective pressure, pm =
Vs
Area of indicatordiagram× Springscale
pm =
Lengthof indicatordiagram
Unit – II  3.22
SOLVED PROBLEMS
Example 3.1
While undergoing a Carnot cycle, the working fluid receives
heat at a temperature of 317 o C and reject heat at a temperature of
22 o C . Find the theoretical efficiency of the cycle.
Given data
Minimum temperature, t1 = 22 o C ; T1 =22 + 273 = 295 K
Maximum temperature, t2 = 317 o C ; T2 =317 + 273 = 590 K
To find
Efficiency of the cycle, η carnot
Solution
Efficiency of Carnot cycle,
T − T1 590 − 295
η carnot = 2 = = 0.5 = 50%
T2 590
Result
Efficiency of the cycle, η carnot = 50%
Example 3.2
An ideal heat engine working on Carnot cycle converts 20
percentage of heat supplied into work. When the temperature of the
sink is reduced by 80 o C , its efficiency is doubled. Determine the
temperature of the source and sink.
Given data
Case I:
Efficiency of Carnot cycle, η carnot = 20% = 0.2
Case II:
Temperature of the sink, t1 = 80 o C ; T1 = 80 + 273 = 353 K
Efficiency of Carnot cycle, η carnot = 40% = 0.4
To find
1. Temperature of sink, T1 2. Temperature of source, T2
,
Unit – II  P3.1
Solution
Case I:
Efficiency of Carnot cycle,
T
η carnot = 1 − 1 = 0.2
T2
T1
= 1 − 0.2 = 0.8
T2
T1 = 0.8 T2 ….. (1)
Case II:
T1
η carnot = 1 − = 0.4
T2
T1
= 1 − 0.4 = 0.6
T2
T1 = 0.6 T2
353 = 0.6 T2
353
T2 = = 588.33 K ; t1 = 588.33 − 273 = 315.33 o C
0. 6
Substitute the value of T2 in (1)
T1 = 0.8 T2 = 0.8 × 588.33 = 470.664 K ;
t1 = 470.664 − 273 = 197.664 o C
Result
1. Temperature of sink, T1 = 470.664 K ( t1 =197.664 o C )
2. Temperature of source, T2 = 588.33 K ( t2 = 315.33 o C )
Example 3.3
An inventor claims a new engine that will develop 2.5 kW
for a heat addition of 300 kJ/min. The highest temperature of the
cycle is 1800 K and the lowest temperature is 600 K. Examine the
feasibility of the engine.
Given data
Power developed, P = 2.5 kW
∴ Work done, W = 2.5 kJ/s
300
Heat supplied, Qs = 300 kJ/min = = 5 kJ/s
60
,
Highest temperature, T2 = 1800 K
Lowest temperature, T1 = 600 K
To examine
The feasibility of the engine
Solution
For the two given temperature limits only Carnot cycle gives
maximum possible efficiency.
Maximum efficiency,
T − T1 1800 − 600
η carnot = 2 = = 0.6667 = 66.67%
T2 1800
Efficiency of the engine,
ηengine = Work done = W = 2.5 = 0.5 = 50%
Heat supplied Qs 5
Result
ηcarnot > ηengine . Hence this is possible. Hence inventor’s claim
is correct.
Example 3.4
A Carnot engine working between 650K and 310K produces
150 kJ of work. Find (i) thermal efficiency and (ii) heat added
during the process.
Given data
Maximum temperature, T2 = 650 K
Minimum temperature, t1 = 10 o C ; T1 = 10 + 273 = 283 K
To find
1. Thermal efficiency, η carnot 2. Heat added, Qs
Solution
Efficiency,
T2 − T1 650 − 310
η carnot = = = 0.5231 = 52.31%
T2 650
Efficiency, η carnot = Work done = W
Heat added Qs
,
∴ Heat added, Qs = W = 150 = 286.752 kJ
ηcarnot 0.5231
Result
1. Thermal efficiency, η carnot = 52.31 %
2. Heat added, Qs = 286.752 kJ
Example 3.5
An ideal Otto cycle takes in air at 27 o C . The adiabatic
expansion ratio for this engine is found to be 6. Find the air
standard efficiency of the engine.
Given data
Lowest temperature, t1 = 27 o C ; T1 = 27 + 273 = 300 K
Expansion ratio, r = 6
To find
1. Air−standard efficiency, ηotto
Solution
Efficiency,
ηotto = 1 − 1 = 1 − 11.4 −1 = 0.512 = 51.2%
r γ −1 6
Result
1. Air−standard efficiency, ηotto = 51.2%
Example 3.6
Calculate the air−standard efficiency of an engine working
on Otto cycle, if the pressure at he beginning and the end of
compression are 103.5 kN/ m 2 and 827.5 kN/ m 2 respectively.
Take γ=1.4.
Given data
Pressure before compression, p1 = 103.5 kN/ m 2
Pressure after compression, p2 = 827.5 kN/ m 2
γ = 1.4
To find
1. Air−standard efficiency, ηotto
,
Solution
1
V  p γ
Compression ratio, r = 1 =  2 
V2  p1 
1
r =  827.5  = 4.4145
1 .4
 103.5 
Air standard efficiency,
ηotto = 1 − 1 = 1− 1 = 0.4479 = 44.79 %
r γ −1 4.41451.4 −1
Result
1. Air−standard efficiency, ηotto = 44.79%
Example 3.7
An engine working on ideal constant volume cycle has a
piston of 120mm diameter and 120mm stroke. The clearance
volume is 0.2 litres. If its relative efficiency is 40%, calculate the
actual thermal efficiency. Take γ=1.4
Given data
Piston diameter, d = 120 mm = 0.12 m
Stroke, l = 120 mm = 0.12 m
Clearance volume, Vc = 0.2 litres = 0.0002 m 3
Relative efficiency, ηrel = 40% = 0.4
γ = 1.4
To find
1. Actual thermal efficiency, η actual
Solution
Stroke volume, Vs = π.d × l = π × (0.12) × 0.12 = 0.0013572 m 3
2 2
4 4
Vc + Vs 0.0002 + 0.0013572
Compression ratio, r = = = 7.786
Vc 0.0002
ηotto = 1 − 1 = 1− 1 = 0.56 = 56 %
r γ −1 7.7861.4 −1
Relative efficiency, ηrel = Actual thermal efficiency
∴ ηactual = ηrel × ηotto = 0.4 × 0.56 = 0.224 = 22.4%
Result
1. Actual thermal efficiency, η actual = 22.4%
,
Example 3.8
An engine working on Otto cycle has a compression ratio of
6. The temperature of air at the start of compression is 50 o C and
the maximum temperature is 1350 o C . Determine the work done per
cycle and efficiency of the cycle. Assume C p =1.005 kJ/kg.K,
Cv =0.717 kJ/kg.K
Given data
Initial temperature, t1 = 50 o C ; T1 = 50+273 = 323 K
Maximum temperature, t3 = 1350 o C ; T3 =1350+273=1623K
C p = 1.005 kJ/kg.K; = Cv = 0.717 kJ/kg.K
To find
1. Efficiency, ηotto 2. Work done / cycle, W
Solution
Cp 1.005
γ= = = 1.4017
Cv 0.717
Efficiency, ηotto = 1 − 1 1
= 1 − 1.4017 −1 = 0.513 = 51.3 %
r γ −1 6
Efficiency, ηotto = Work done (W)
Heat supplied (Qs)
∴ Work done , W = ηotto × Q s
Heat supplied, Qs = m.Cv .(T3 − T2 )
From the adiabatic compression process 1−2,

γ −1
T2  V1 
= = rγ −1 = 60.4017 = 2.0539
T1  V2 
∴ T2 = 2.0539 × T1 = 2.0539 × 323 = 663.41 K
Qs = m.Cv .(T3 − T2 ) = 1 × 0.717 × (1623 − 663.41) = 688.026 kJ/kg
∴ Work done, W = ηotto × Qs = 0.513 × 688.026 = 352.96 kJ/kg
Result
1. Efficiency, ηotto = 51.3 %
2. Work done / cycle, W = 352.96 kJ/kg
,
Example 3.9
In an Otto cycle operation the compression ratio is changed
from 4.5 to 8.5. Determine the increase in air standard efficiency of
the cycle.
Given data
Compression ratio, r1 = 4.5
Compression ratio, r2 = 8.5
To find
Increase in air standard efficiency, η2 − η1
Solution
Initial efficiency, η1 = 1 − 1 = 1− 1 = 0.4521 = 45.21 %
(r1)γ −1 4.51.4 −1
Final efficiency, η2 = 1 − 1γ −1 = 1 − 11.4 −1 = 0.5752 = 57.52 %
(r2) 8.5
Increase in efficiency = η2 − η1 = 57.52 − 45.21 = 12.31%
Result
Increase in air standard efficiency, η2 − η1 = 12.31%
Example 3.10
In an ideal constant volume cycle, the pressure and
temperature of the air at the beginning of compression are 97 kN/
m 2 and 50 o C respectively. The ratio of compression is 5:1. The
heat supplied during the cycle is 970 kJ/kg of the working fluid.
Determine: (1) maximum temperature of the cycle, (2) the thermal
efficiency of the cycle and (3) the work done during the cycle per kg
of working fluid. Assume γ=1.4 and Cv =0.717 kJ/kg.K
Given data
Pressure at the beginning
of compression, p1 = 97 kN/ m 2
Temp. at the beginning
of compression, t1 = 50 o C ; T1 =323K
Heat supplied, Qs = 970 kJ/kg
γ = 1.4; = Cv =0.717 kJ/kg.K
,
To find
1. Maximum temperature of the cycle, T3 ,
2. Thermal efficiency, ηotto 3. Work done, W
Solution
From the isentropic process 1−2,
γ −1
T2  V1 
= = (r)γ −1 ;
T1  V2 
∴ T2 = T1 .(r)γ −1 = 323 × (5)1.4 −1 = 614.88 K
From the constant volume process 2−3,
Qs = m.Cv.(T3 − T2)
Qs
∴ T3 = T2 + = 614.88 + 970 = 1967.74 K
m.Cv 1 × 0.717
T3 = 1967.74 K ; t3 = 1967.74 − 273 = 1694.74 o C
Thermal efficiency,
ηotto = 1 − 1γ −1 = 1 − 11.4 −1 = 0.4747 = 47.47 %
(r2) 5
Work done, W = ηotto × Qs = 0.4747 × 970 = 460.46 kJ/kg
Result
1.Maximum temperature of the cycle, T3 = 1967.74 K ( t3 =1694.7 o C )
2. Thermal efficiency, ηotto = 47.47%
3. Work done, W = 460.46 kJ/kg
Example 3.11
A cycle consists of two isentropic and two constant volume
process. The compression ratio is 6. The pressure and temperature
at the beginning of compression are 1 bar and 35 o C respectively.
The maximum pressure of the cycle is 30 bar. If air is working fluid
and the cycle is theoretical cycle, determine the heat added and work
done per kg of air and the thermal efficiency of the cycle.
Given data
Initial temperature, t1 = 35 o C ; T1 =308 K
,
Maximum pressure, p3 = 30 bar = 3000 kN/ m 2
To find
1. Heat added, Qs 2. Work done / kg, W
3. Thermal efficiency, ηotto
Solution
1. Heat added, Qs = m.Cv .(T3 − T2 )
From the adiabatic process 1−2,
γ −1
T2  V1 
= = (r)γ −1
T1  V2 
∴ T2 = T1 .(r)γ −1 = 308 × (6)1.4 −1 = 630.66 K
γ
p2  V1 
Also, =   = (r) γ
p1  V2 
p2 = 100 × (6)1.4 = 100 × 12.286 = 1228.6 kN/ m 2
From the constant volume process 2−3

T3 p3
= = 3000 = 2.4418
T2 p2 1228 .6
T3 = 2.4418 × T2 = 2.4418 × 630.66 = 1539.94 K
∴ Qs = 1 × 0.717 × (1539.947 − 630.66) = 651.9586 kJ
2. Work done, W = Qs − Qr
Heat rejected, Qr = m.Cv .(T4 − T1 )
From the adiabatic process 3−4

γ −1 γ −1 0.4
T4  V3 
=   =  1  =  1  = 0.4884
T3  V4  r 6
∴ T4 = 0.4884 × T3 = 0.4884 × 1539.947 = 752.11 K
Qr = 1 × 0.717 × (752.11 − 308) = 318.4272 kJ
W = Qs − Qr = 651.9586 − 318.4272 = 333.5314 kJ
3. Thermal efficiency
333.5314
ηotto = Work done = = 0.5116 = 51.16 %
Heat supplied 651.9586
,
Result
1. Heat added / kg, Qs = 651.9586 kJ
2. Work done / kg, W = 333.531 kJ
3. Thermal efficiency, ηotto = 51.16 %
Example 3.12
The following data refer to a four cylinder petrol engine:
Total swept volume = 2000 c.c
Clearance volume = 60 c.c per cylinder
Maximum cycle temperature = 1400 o C
At the beginning of compression, the pressure is 10 5 N/ m 2
and the temperature is 24 o C .Calculate the air standard efficiency
and the mean effective pressure.
Given data
Petrol engine − Otto cycle
No. of cylinders, k = 4
Total swept volume = 2000 c.c = 0.002 m 3
Clearance volume, Vc = 60 c.c / cylinder = 0.00006 m 3 /cylinder
Max. temperature, t3 = 1400 o C ; T3 = 1673 K
Initial pressure, p1 = 10 5 N/ m2 =100 kN/ m 2
Min. temperature, t1 = 24 o C ; T1 =297 K
To find
1. Air standard efficiency, ηotto 2. Mean effective pressure, pm
Solution
Total swept volume = 0.002 m 3
Swept volume per cylinder, Vs = 0.002 = 0.0005 m 3
4
Vc + Vs 0.00006 + 0.0005
Vc 0.00006
ηotto = 1 − 1γ −1 = 1 − 1 = 0.5908 = 59.08 %
(r2) (9.3333)1.4 −1
From the adiabatic process 1−2,
γ −1
T2  V1 
= = (r)γ −1
T1  V2 
,
∴ T2 = T1.(r)γ −1 = 297 × (9.3333)1.4 −1 = 725.72 K
From the adiabatic process 3−4

γ −1 γ −1 0.4
T4  V3 
=   =  1  =  1  = 0.4092
T3  V4  r  9.3333 
∴ T4 = 0.4092 × T3 = 0.4884 × 1673 = 684.67 K
V1 = Vc + Vs = 0.00006 + 0.0005 = 0.00056 m 3
From characteristic gas equation, p1 .V1 = m. R.T1

p1.V1 100 × 0.00056
∴ Mass, m = = = 0.000657 kg
R.T1 0.287 × 297
Stroke volume / kg, Vs = 0.0005 = 0.761 m 3 /kg
0.000657
Heat supplied at constant volume 2−3
Qs = m.Cv.(T3 − T2) = 1 × 0.718 × (1673 − 725.72) = 680.147 kJ/kg
Heat rejected at constant volume 4−1

Qr = m.Cv.(T4 − T1) = 1 × 0.718 × (684.67 − 297) = 278.347 kJ/kg
Work done during the cycle,

W = Qs − Qr = 680.147 − 278.347 = 401.8 kJ/kg
Mean effective pressure, pm = W = 401.8 = 527.99 kN/ m 2

Vs 0.761
Result
1. Air standard efficiency, ηotto = 59.08%
2. Mean effective pressure, pm = 527.99 kN/ m 2
Example 3.13
Calculate the air standard efficiency of diesel cycle having
compression ratio 18 and expansion ratio 10.
Given data
Expansion ratio, r = 10
ρ
To find
Air standard efficiency, ηdiesel
,
Solution
Expansion ratio 18
Cut−off ratio, ρ = = =1.8
r 10
Air standard efficiency of diesel cycle,
 ργ − 1 
ηdlesel = 1 − 1 γ −1 
γ.(r)  ρ − 1 
1  (1.8)1.4 − 1 
=1 − 1 .4 − 1 
= 0.6412 = 64.12 %
1.4 × (1.8)  (1.8 − 1) 
Result
Air standard efficiency, ηdiesel = 64.12 %
Example 3.14
Find the air standard efficiency of a diesel cycle engine if the cut
off is 6% of the stroke and the clearance is 1th of the stroke. Take γ=1.4.
13
Given data
Cut off = 6% of Vs
Clearance volume, Vc = 1 Vs
13
To find
Solution
Cut−off volume, V3 = Vc + 6% Vs = Vc + 0.06Vs
Clearance volume, Vc = V2 = 1 Vs
13
Compression ratio,
1 Vs 1 + 1   14 
Vc + Vs 13 Vs + Vs
=   =  13  = 14
13
r= =
Vc 1 V 1 V 1
13 s 13 s 13
Cut−off ratio,
1 Vs 1 + 0.06 
V3 V3 Vc + 0.06Vs 13 Vs + 0.06Vs
=  
13
ρ= = = =
V2 Vc Vc 1 V 1 V
13 s 13 s
= 13 ×  1 + 0.06  = 1.78
 13 
,
γ
ηdlesel = 1 − 1 ρ − 1
γ −1  ρ − 1 
γ.(r)  
1  (1.78 )1.4 − 1 
=1 − 1 .4 − 1 
= 0.6043 = 60.43 %
1.4 × (1.78 )  (1.78 − 1) 
Result
Example 3.15
Estimate the air standard efficiency of a diesel engine
having cylinder diameter 250mm, stroke 400mm, clearance volume
1.5 litre, fuel cut off at 5% of the stroke.
Given data
Cylinder diameter, d = 250 mm = 0.25 m
Stroke, l = 400 mm = 0.4 m
Clearance volume, Vc = V2 = 1.25 litres = 0.00125 m 3
Cut off = 5% of Vs
To find
Solution
Stroke volume, Vs = π × d × l = π × 0.25 × 0.4 = 0.0196 m 3
2 2
4 4
Vc + Vs 0.00125 + 0.0196
Vc 0.00125
Cut−off volume, V3 = Vc + 6% Vs = Vc + 0.05Vs

= 0.0025 + (0.05 × 0.0196) = 0.00223 m 3
Cut−off ratio,
V V
ρ = 3 = 3 = 0.00223 = 1.784
V2 Vc 0.00125
γ
∴ ηdlesel = 1 − 1 ρ − 1
γ −1  ρ − 1 
γ.(r)  
1  (1.784)1.4 − 1 
=1 −  (1.784 − 1)  = 0.6308 = 63.08 %
1.4 × (16.68)1.4 −1
Result
<
,
Example 3.16
In an ideal diesel cycle, the compression ratio is 14:1 and
expansion ratio is 8:1. The pressure and temperature at the beginning of
compression are 100 kJ/ m 2 and 45 o C respectively and the pressure at
the end of expansion is 219 kN/ m 2 . Determine the 1) maximum
temperature of the cycle 2) thermal efficiency of the cycle. Take γ=1.4.
Given data
Expansion ratio = 8
Initial temperature, t1 = 45 o C ; T1 =318 K
Pressure at the end of expansion, p4 = 219 kN/ m 2
To find
1. Maximum temperature, T3 2. Thermal efficiency, ηdiesel
Solution
1) Maximum temperature, T3
Expansion ratio = r = 8
ρ
∴ Cut off ratio, ρ = r = 14 = 1.75
8 8
From the adiabatic compression process 1−2
γ −1
T2  V1 
=   = (r ) γ − 1
T1  V2 
∴ T2 = T1.(r)γ −1 = 318 × (14)1.4 −1 = 913.85 K
From the constant pressure process 2−3

T3 V3
= =ρ
T2 V2
∴ T3 = ρ.T2 = 1.75 × 913.85 = 1599.237 K
t3 = 1599.237 − 273 = 1326.237 o C
γ
Thermal efficiency, ηdlesel = 1 − 1 ρ − 1
γ −1  ρ − 1 
γ.(r)  
1  (1.75)1.4 − 1 
=1 − 1 .4 − 1 
= 0.605 = 60.5 %
1.4 × (14)  (1.75 − 1) 
,
Result
1. Maximum temperature, T3 = 1599.237 K ( t3 =1326.237 o C )
2. Thermal efficiency, ηdiesel = 60.5%
Example 3.17
What will be the loss in ideal efficiency of a diesel engine
with the compression ratio of 14, if the fuel cut off is delayed from
6% to 9% of the stroke?
Given data
Fuel cut off in case I = 6 % of Vs
Fuel cut off in case II = 9 % of Vs
To find
Loss in thermal efficiency, η1 − η2
Solution
V
Compression ratio, r = 1 = 14
V2
∴ V1 = 14 V2
V2 + Vs = 14V2
∴ Stroke volume, Vs = 14V2 − V2 = 13V2
1. Fuel cut off is 6% of Vs

Fuel cut off = 0.06 × Vs = 0.06 × 13V2 = 0.78V2
Cut off volume, V3 = V2 + Fuel cut off = V2 + 0.78V2 = 1.78V2
V 1.78V2
∴ Cut off ratio, ρ = 3 = = 1.78
V2 V2
1  ργ − 1 
Thermal efficiency, η1 = 1 −  ρ −1 
γ.(r) γ −1 
1  (1.78) − 1 
1.4
=1 −  (1.78 − 1)  = 0.6043 = 60.43 %
1.4 × (14)1.4 −1  
2. Fuel cut off is 9% of Vs

Fuel cut off = 0.09 × Vs = 0.09 × 13V2 = 1.17V2
Cut off volume, V3 = V2 + Fuel cut off = V2 + 1.17V2 = 2.17V2
,
V3 2.17V2
∴ Cut off ratio, ρ = = = 2.17
V2 V2
1  ργ − 1 
Thermal efficiency, η2 = 1 −  
γ.(r) γ −1  ρ − 1 
1  (2.17)1.4 − 1 
=1 − = 0.5840 = 58.40 %
1.4 × (14)1.4 −1  (2.17 − 1) 
Loss in thermal efficiency, η1 − η2 = 60.43 − 58.40 = 2.03 %
Result
Loss in thermal efficiency, η1 − η2 = 2.03 %
Example 3.18
Find the power output of a diesel engine working on a diesel
cycle with a compression ratio of 16 and an air flow rate of 0.25
kg/s. The initial condition of air is at 1 bar absolute and 27 o C
temperature. Heat added per cycle is 2500 kJ/kg. Assume C p =1.00
kJ/kg.K and Cv =0.714 kJ/kg.K
Given data
Mass flow rate, m = 0.25 kg/s
Initial temperature, t1 = 27 o C ; T1 =27 + 273 = 300 K
Heat supplied, Qs = 2500 kJ/kg
C p = 1.00 kJ/kg.K
Cv = 0.714 kJ/kg.K
To find
Power output, P
Solution
Cp 1
γ= = = 1.4
Cv 0.74
γ −1
T2  V1 
=   = (r ) γ − 1
T1  V2 
∴ T2 = T1.(r)γ −1 = 300 × (16)1.4 −1 = 909.43 K
,
Heat supplied, Qs = m.C p (T3 − T2 )
2500 = 1 × 1 × ( T3 −909.43)
T3 = 2500 + 909.43 = 3409.43 K
From the constant pressure process 2−3
T3 V3
= =ρ
T2 V2
T 3409.43
∴ ρ= 3 = = 3.749
T2 909.43
1  ργ − 1 
Air standard efficiency, ηdiesel = 1 −  
γ.(r) γ −1  ρ − 1 
1  (3.749)1.4 − 1 
=1 − = 0.5405 = 54.05 %
1.4 × (16)1.4 −1  (3.749 − 1) 
Work done (W )
Also, Air standard efficiency, ηdiesel =
Heat supplied (Qs )
∴ Work done, W = ηdiesel × Qs
= 0.5405 × 2500 = 1351.125 kJ/kg
Power = Work done × Mass flow rate
= 1351.25 × 0.25 = 337.813 kW
Result
Power output, P = 337.813 kW
Example 3.19
An air standard diesel cycle has a compression ratio of 18, and
the heat transferred to the working fluid per cycle is 1800 kJ/kg. At the
beginning of compression stroke the pressure is 1 bar and the
temperature is 300K. Calculate the temperature at each point in the
cycle. C p =1.005 kJ/kg.K; Cv =0.718 kJ/kg.K; R=0.287 kJ/kg.K
Given data
Heat transferred, Qs = 1800 kJ/kg
Initial temperature, T1 = 300 K
C p = 1.005 kJ/kg.K ; Cv = 0.718 kJ/kg.K
R = 0.287 kJ/kg.K
,
To find
Temperature at each point of the cycle, T1 , T2 , T3 & T4
Solution
At point 1: T1 = 300 K; t1 = 300 −273 = 27 o C
To find T2 :
C p 1.005
γ= = = 1. 4
Cv 0.718
γ −1
T2  V1 
=   = (r ) γ − 1
T1  V2 
∴ T2 = T1.(r)γ −1 = 300 × (18)1.4 −1 = 953.3 K
t2 = 953.3 − 273 = 680.3 o C
To find T3 :
Heat supplied, Qs = m.C p (T3 − T2 )
1800 = 1 × 1.005 × ( T3 −953.3)
1800
T3 = 953.3 + = 2744.34 K
1 × 1.005
t3 = 2744.34 −273 = 2471.34 o C
To find T4 :
V3 T3 2744.34
Cut off ratio, ρ = = = = 2.88
V2 T2 953.3
By adiabatic process 3−4,
V4 r 18
Expansion ratio = = = = 6.25
V3 ρ 2.88
γ −1
T3  V4  T3 2744.34
=  = (6.25)1.4 −1 ∴ T4 = = = 1318.52 K
T4  V3  (6.25)0.4 (6.25)0.4
t4 = 1318.52 − 273 = 1045.52 o C
Result
Temperature at each point of the cycle,
T1 = 300 K (27 o C ); T2 = 953.3 K (680.3 o C )
T3 = 2744.34 K (2471.34 o C ); T4 = 1318.52 K (1045.52 o C )
,
1. The temperature limits of a Carnot cycle using air as working
fluid between 650K and 310K produces 150 kJ of work. Find
a) thermal efficiency and b) heat added during the process.
[Ans: ηCarnot =52.31%, Qs =286.75 kJ]
2. The temperature limits for a Carnot cycle using air as working

fluid are 500 o C and 10 o C . Calculate efficiency of the cycle and
the ratio of adiabatic expansion. Assume γ=1.4.
[Ans: ηCarnot = 63.39%, r = 12.33]
3. An inventor claims that his engine develops 5 kW for a heat

addition of 435 kJ/min. The highest possible temperature of
the cycle is 200K and the lowest is 800K. Find out whether the
inventor is correct in his statement.
[Ans: Incorrect, ηengine(68.96%) > ηcarnot(60%) ]
4. An ideal Carnot engine takes in air at 27 o C . The absolute

expansion ratio for this engine is found to be 6. Find the air
standard efficiency of the engine. [Ans: ηCarnot = 51.16%]
5. An engine has a bore of 90mm and stroke of 100mm. The

clearance volume is 82 c.c. If the engine works on Otto cycle,
determine the air standard efficiency of the engine.
[Ans: ηOtto = 58.02%]
6. An engine working on Otto cycle uses air as working fluid. Its

compression ratio is raised from 5 to 6. Find the increase in
efficiency. [Ans: η1 − η2 = 3.69%]
7. An engine working on Otto cycle, has a cylinder diameter of

150mm and stroke of 225mm. The clearance volume is 0.00125
m 3 . Find the air standard efficiency of this engine. Take γ=1.4
[Ans: ηOtto = 43.6%]
8. An engine working on Otto cycle has a piston diameter 100mm

and stroke 100mm. The clearance volume is 0.105 litres. If its
relative efficiency is 40%, calculate the actual thermal
efficiency. Take γ=1.4 [Ans: ηOtto = 23%]
,
9. In an ideal constant volume cycle, the pressure and
temperature at the beginning of compression are 90 kN/ m 2
and 45 o C respectively. The ratio of compression is 5:1. The
heat supplied during the cycle is 900 kJ/kg of working fluid.
Determine (a) the maximum temperature attained in the cycle,
(b) the thermal efficiency of the cycle and (c) the work done
during the cycle per kg of the working fluid. Assume γ=1.4 and
Cv =0.717 kJ/kg.K.
[Ans: T3 =1860.6K, ηOtto =47.47%, W= 427.23 kJ/kg]
10. An Otto cycle has a compression ratio of 6 and works between

the temperature limits 350K and 1800K. Determine the
maximum power developed when the working fluid air is used
at the rate of 0.4 kg/min. Also determine the temperature at
the end of compression. Take γ = 1.4
[Ans: P = 2.653 kW, T2 =716.7K]
11. A car possesses a four−stroke cylinder in−line diesel engine

with compression ratio 21:1 and expansion ratio 10.5:1. Find
the cut off ratio and air standard efficiency.
[Ans: ρ = 2, ηdiesel = 65.36%]
12. A compression ignition engine working on diesel cycle has the

following data: Cylinder bore = 150mm, Stroke = 250mm,
Clearance volume = 400 c.c. The fuel injection takes place at
constant pressure for 5% of the stroke. Find the air standard
efficiency. [ ηdiesel =59.33%]
13. A diesel cycle has a compression ratio of 18 and cut off occurs
at 5% of stroke. Determine the air−standard efficiency of the
cycle. [Ans: ηdiesel =63.87%]
14. What will be the loss of thermal efficiency of a diesel engine

with a compression ratio of 14, if the fuel cut off is delayed from
5% to 9% of the stroke. [Ans: η1 − η2 =2.75%]
15. A compression ignition engine has a stroke of 270mm and

cylinder of 165mm. The clearance volume is 0.000435 m3 and
the fuel injection takes place at constant pressure for 4.5% of
the stroke. Find the efficiency of the engine assuming it works
,
on diesel cycle. If the cut−off is increased to 7% with the
compression ratio unchanged, find the change in air−standard
efficiency. [Ans: η1 − η2 =1.81%]
16. In a diesel cycle, the pressure and temperature at the start of

compression are 100kN/ m2 and 60 o C respectively. The
maximum pressure attained in the cycle is 4.5 bar and the heat
received during the cycle is 600 kJ/kg of the working fluid.
Determine (a) the temperature at the end of compression and
(b) the temperature at the end of combustion. Assume γ=1.4
and C p =1.003 kJ/kg.K [Ans: T2 =511.72K, T3 =1110K]
17. The compression ratio and cut off ratio of a diesel is 14 and 22
respectively. Pressure and temperature at the beginning of
compression are 0.98 bar and 100 o C respectively. Obtain the
values of pressure and tem at all salient points of the cycle.
[Ans: p1 =98kN/ m2 , p2 = p3 =3943kN/ m2 , p4 =295.5kN/,
T1 =373K, T2 =1072K, T3 =2358K, T4 =1125K]
18. In an engine working on ideal diesel cycle, the pressure and

temperature at the beginning of compression stroke are
98.5kN/ m2 and 60 o C . The maximum pressure attained
during the cycle is 4.5MN/ m2 and heat received during the
cycle is 580kJ/kg of air. Determine compression ratio and
efficiency of the cycle. [Ans: r = 15.33, ηdiesel =62.9%]
,
Unit – II
Chapter 4. HEAT TRANSFER
4.1 Heat transfer
Heat is defined as the transfer of thermal energy across a
well-defined boundary around a thermodynamic system. Heat
transfer is a discipline of thermal engineering that concerns the
generation, use, conversion, and exchange of thermal energy and
heat between physical systems.
4.2 Modes of heat transfer

The fundamental modes of heat transfer are:
1) Conduction or diffusion
2) Convection
3) Radiation
1. Conduction
Conduction is the transfer of heat energy by microscopic
diffusion and collisions of particles within a body due to a
temperature gradient. The microscopically diffusing and colliding
objects include molecules, electrons, atoms, and phonons.
Conduction takes place in solids, liquids and gases.
Heat is transferred by conduction when adjacent atoms

vibrate against one another, or as electrons move from one atom
to another. Conduction is greater in solids because the network of
relatively close fixed spatial relationships between atoms helps to
transfer energy between them by vibration. Fluids are less
conductive. This is due to the large distance between atoms in a
gas. Conductivity of gases increases with temperature.
Steady-state conduction : Steady state conduction is

the form of conduction that happens when the temperature
difference is constant. In steady state conduction, the amount of
heat entering any region of an object is equal to amount of heat
coming out . There is no change in the internal energy of the
Unit – II  4.1
system during such process. Typical examples of steady state heat
transfer are :
• Cooling of an electric bulb by the surrounding atmosphere
• Heat flow from the hot to cold fluid in a heat exchanger
Unsteady state conduction : When the temperatures

are changing in an object with respect to time, the mode of heat
transfer is termed as unsteady state conduction. A change in
temperature indicates a change in internal energy of the system.
Energy storage is thus a part of unsteady heat flow. Typical
examples of unsteady heat transfer are :
• Warm-up periods of furnaces
• Boilers and turbines
• Cooling of castings in a foundry.
Transient conduction : It is a special kind of unsteady

process in which the system is subjected to cyclic variations in the
temperatue of its environment. The temperature at a particular
point of the system returns periodically to the same value. The
rate of heat flow and energy storage also undergo periodic
variations. Typical example include :
• Heating and cooling of the water of an I.C engine.
2. Convection
Convection is the transfer of thermal energy from one place
to another by the movement of fluids or gases. Convection is usually
the dominant form of heat transfer in liquids and gases. Convection
describes the combined effects of conduction and fluid flow or mass
exchange. Two types of convections are described below:
Natural of free convection : It is a type of heat

transfer, in which the fluid motion is not generated by any
external source but only by density differences in the fluid
occurring due to temperature gradients. In natural convection,
fluid surrounding a heat source receives heat, becomes less dense
and rises. The surrounding, cooler fluid then moves to replace it.
This cooler fluid is then heated and the process continues,
Unit – II  4.2
forming a convection current. This process transfers heat energy
from the bottom of the convection cell to top. The driving force for
natural convection is buoyancy, a result of differences in fluid
density. Because of this, the presence of a proper acceleration
such as arises from resistance to gravity, or an equivalent force,
is essential for natural convection. Examples of natural
convection include:
• The upward flow of air due to a fire or hot object
• The circulation of water in a pot that is heated from
below.
• Cooling of billets in the atmosphers
Forced convection : It is a type of transfer in which fluid

motion is generated by an external source,like a pump, fan,
suction device, etc. It should be considered as one of the main
methods of useful heat transfer as significant amounts of heat
energy can be transported very efficiently. Forced convection is
often encountered by engineers designing or analyzing heat
exchangers, pipe flow, and flow over a plate at a different
temperature than the stream. Examples of forced convection
include:
• Flow of water in condenser tubes
• Fluid passing through the tubes of a heat exchanger
• Cooling of internal combustion engines
3. Radiation
Thermal radiation is electromagnetic radiation generated
by the thermal motion of charged particles in matter. All matter
with a temperature greater than absolute zero emits thermal
radiation. The mechanism is that bodies with a temperature
above absolute zero have atoms or molecules with kinetic energies
which are changing, and these changes result in charge-
acceleration and/or dipole oscillation of the charges that compose
the atoms. This motion of charges produces electromagnetic
radiation in the usual way. The main properties of thermal
radiation include:
Unit – II  4.3
• Thermal radiation emitted by a body at any temperature
consists of a wide range of frequencies.
• The dominant frequency (or colour) range of the emitted
radiation shifts to higher frequencies as the temperature
of the emitter increases. For example, a red hot object
radiates mainly in the long wavelengths .
• The total amount of radiation of all frequencies increases
steeply as the temperature rises; it grows as t4, where t is
the absolute temperature of the body.
• The rate of electromagnetic radiation emitted at a given
frequency is proportional to the amount of absorption
from the source. Thus, a surface that absorbs more red
light thermally radiates more red light.
Examples of thermal radiation include:
• The visible light from sun
• TheInfrared light emitted by an incandescent light bulb
• The Infrared radiation emitted by animals
4.3 Heat transfer by conduction

4.3.1 Fourier's Law
The law of heat conduction, also known as Fourier's law,
states that the time rate of heat transfer through a material is
proportional to the negative gradient in the temperature and to
the area, at right angles to that gradient, through which the heat
is flowing. Mathematically,
dt dt
Q ∝ A or Q = − k A
dx dx
where, Q = Amount of heat flow in a unit time (kJ/s)
A = Surface area of heat flow, taken at right angles to the
direction of flow ( m2 )
dt = Temperature difference on the two faces of the body (K)
dx = Thickness of the body through which heat flows,
taken along the direction of flow (m)
k = Constant of proportionality known as thermal
conductivity of the body (W/mK)
Unit – II  4.4
4.3.2 Thermal Conductivity
Thermal conductivity is defined as the quantity of heat
(Q) transmitted through a unit thickness (dt) in a direction
normal to a surface of unit area (A) due to a unit temperature
difference (dt) under steady state conditions and when the heat
transfer is dependent only on the temperature gradient.
Mathematically,
Q. dx
Thermal conductivity, k =
A. dt
The unit of thermal conductivity is W/mK.
Thermal conductivity for some common materials are

given below.
Thermal Conductivity
Material
(W/m K)
Air at oC 0.024
Aluminum 205.0
Brass 109.0
Concrete 0.8
Copper 385.0
Glass 0.8
Gold 310
Ice 1.6
Lead 34.7
Silver 406.0
Steel 50.2
Wood 0.12-0.04
4.3.3 Heat conduction through plane wall

Let , Q=Heat flow rate through the wall
A=Area of the wall surface
δ =Thickness of the wall
dx=Thickness of elementary strip
dt=Temperature difference across the strip
t1 =Temperature at surface 1
t2 =Temperature at surface 2
Unit – II  4.5
t1
dt
Q
t2
x dx
δ
Fig.4.1 Heat conduction through plane wall
The Fourier's equation is given by,

dt
Q=−k A
dx
Q. dx = −k. A dt
Integrating on both sides,
δ t2
Q  dx = − k. A  dt
0 t1
Q δ = k. A (t1 − t2)
k.A (t1 − t2)
Q =
δ
The above expression for heat flow rate can be written as,
(t − t2) (t − t2)
Q = 1 = 1
(δ / kA) Rt
where, Rt =
δ = thermal resistance to heat flow.
kA
4.3.4 Heat conduction through composite wall

A composite wall refers to a wall of a several
heterogeneous layers. Walls of furnaces, boilers and heat
exchange devices consist of several layers. Consider a wall
composed of three layers as shown in the figure.
Let
Q=Heat flow rate through the wall
A=Area of the wall surface
δ1, δ 2, δ3 =Thickness of the layers 1,2,3
Unit – II  4.6
t1, t4 =Temperature at surfaces 1,4
t2, t3 =Temperature at the interfaces
k1, k2, k3 Thermal conductivities of layers 1,2,3
δ1 δ2 δ3
t1
t2
t3
Q Q
t4
k1 k2 k3
Fig.4.2 Heat conduction through composite wall

Under steady state conditions, heat flows does not vary
across the wall, i.e., it is same for every layer.
δ1 δ2 δ3
Rt1 = Rt2 = Rt3 =
k1A k2 A k3 A
k1 A (t1 − t2) k2 A (t2 − t3) k3 A (t3 − t4)
Q = = =
δ1 δ2 δ3
Rewriting the above expression in terms of temperature
drop across each layer,
Q δ1 Q δ2 Q δ3
t1 − t2 = t2 − t3 = t3 − t4 =
k1 A k2 A k3 A
Summation gives the overall temperature difference
across the wall
 δ δ δ 
t1 − t4 = Q 1 + 2 + 3 
k
 1 A k2 A k3 A
(t − t )
Then, Q = (δ / k A) + (δ 1 / k 4A) + (δ / k A)
1 1 2 2 3 3
(t1 − t4)
Q =
Rt1 + Rt2 + Rt3
For a composite wall of 'n' layers , the above expression
can be generalised as,
(t − tn +1)
Q = n1
 (δ / k A)
1
Unit – II  4.7
4.3.5 Heat conduction through a cylinder
Cylindrical metal tubes constitute an essential element of
power stations, oil refineries and most process industries. The
boilers have tubes in them, the condensers contain bank of
tubhes, the heat exchangers are tubulars and all these units are
connected by tubes.
Q
r2
r1
t1 dr
dt
Temperature profile
t2
Fig.4.3 Heat conduction through cylinder

Let
Q =Heat flow rate through the cylinder
A =Surface area of the cylinder
r1 =Inner radius of the cylinder
r2 =Outer radius of the cylinder
l =Length of the cylinder
t1 =Temperature at inside surface
t2 =Temperature at outside surface
dr=Thickness of elementary strip
dt =Temperature difference across the strip
The Fourier's equation is given by,
dt dt
Q = −k A = −k(2πrl)
dr dr
Q dr
. = − dt
2π kl r
Integrating on both sides,
r2 t2
Q dr
2πkl 
r1
r
= −  dt
t1
Unit – II  4.8
Q r
loge 2 = (t1 - t2)
2πkl r1
(t1 − t2) (t − t2)
or Q = 2πkl = 1
loge r2 / r1 Rt
loge r2 / r1
where, Rt = Thermal resistence =
2πkl
4.4 Heat transfer by convection

4.4.1 Newton's law of cooling
The convective heat transfer between a surface and an adjacent
fluid is prescribed by Newton's law of cooling. It states that the
rate of heat loss of a body is proportional to the difference in
temperatures between the body and its surroundings.
Mathematically, Q ∝ (ts - t f ) or Q = h A (ts - t f )
where
Q =Convective heat flow rate (Joules)
A =Area exposed to heat transfer ( m2 )
h =Convective heat transfer co-efficient (W/ m2 K)
tS =Surface temperature (K)
t f =Fluid temperature (K)
4.4.2 Heat exchanger

Heat exchanger is a process equipment designed for the
effective transder of heat energy between two fluids. The purpose
may be either to remove heat from a fluid or to add heat to a fluid.
Examples include:
• Boilers, superheaters and condensers of a power plant
• Automobile radiators and oil coolers of heat engines
• Condensers and evaporators in refrigeration units
• Water heaters and coolers
Based on the direction of flow of fluids, the heat

exchangers are classified into three types:
• Parallel flow heat exchangers
• Counter flow heat exchangers
• Cross flow heat exchangers
Unit – II  4.9
Fluid B
Fluid A Fluid A
Fluid B
Fig.4.4 Parallel flow heat exchanger
Parallel flow heat exchangers : In parallel flow

arrangement, the fluid (hot and cold) enter the unit from the
same side, flow in the same direction and subsequently leave from
the same side. Obviously the flow of fluids is unidirectional and
parallel to each other.
Fluid B
Fluid A Fluid A
Fluid B
Fig.4.5 Counter flow heat exchanger
Counter flow heat exchangers : In counter flow

arrangement, the fluid (hot and cold) enter the unit from opposite
ends, travel in opposite directions and subsequently leave from
opposite ends. Obviously the flow of fluid is opposite in direction
to each other. For a given surface area, the counter-flow
arrangement gives the maximum heat transfer rate and is
naturally preferred for the heating and cooling of fluids.
Fluid B Fluid B
Fluid A Fluid A
Stream A unmixed Stream A unmixed

Stream B mixed Stream B unmixed
Fig.4.6 Cross flow heat exchanger
Unit – II  4.10
Cross flow heat exchangers : In the cross-flow
arrangement, the two fluids (hot and cold) are directed at right
angles to each other. Figure shows the common cross flow
arrangements. When mixing occurs, the temperature variations
are primarily in the flow direction. When unmixed, ther is
temperature gradient along the stream as well as in the direction
perpendicular to it. Apparently, temperaturess of the fluids
leaving the unit are not uniform for the unmixed streams. The
cross flow heat exchangers are commonly employed in air or gas
heating and cooling applications.
4.4.3 Overall heat transfer cofficient

A heat exchanger is a device in which energy is
transferred from one fluid to another across a good conducting
solid wall. Therefore the heat transfer is the combined effect of
conduction and covection. In this case an overall heat transfer
coefficient is used. Mathematically,
1
U =
1
+
δ +
1
hi k h0
where
Q =Overall heat transfer coefficient
hi =Convective heat transfer coefficient of inner surface
h0 =Convective heat transfer coefficient of outer surface
k =Thermal conductivity of heat exchanger material
δ =Thickness of the material
4.4.4 Logrithmic mean temperature difference (LMTD)
During heat exchange between two fluids, the temperature
of the fluids change in the direction of flow. In a parallel flow
system, the thermal head causing the flow of heat is maximum at
the inlet. However, the thermal head goes on decreasing along the
flow path and is minimum at the outlet. In a counter flow system,
both the fluids are in their coldest state at the exit. To calculate the
rate of heat transfer, an average value of the temperature
difference between the fluids has to be determined. It is known as
logrithmic mean temperature difference (LMTD).
Unit – II  4.11
∆t1 − ∆t2
Mathematically, LMTD, tm = ∆t
loge 1 
 ∆t2 
where
∆t1 =Temperature difference between hot and cold fluid at entrance
∆t2 =Temperature difference between hot and cold fluid at exit
4.4.5 Properties of heat exchanger

1. Capacity ratio (C)
The product mc (mass x specific heat) of a fluid flowing in
a heat exchanger is termed as the capacity rate. It indicate the
capacity of the fluid to store energy at a given rate.
Capacity rate of the hot fluid, Ch = mh ch
Capacity rate of the cold fluid, Cc = mc cc
The capicity ratio (C) is defined as the ratio of the
minimum to maximum capacity rate.
m c
if mh ch > mc cc , then C = mc cc
h h
m c
if mh ch < mc cc , then C = mh ch
c c
2. Heat exchanger effectiveness ( ∈ ):

The effectiveness of a heat exchanger is defined as the
ratio of the energy actually transferred to the maximum
theoretical energy transfer.
Q actual heat transfer
∈= act =
Qmax maximum possible heat transfer
3. Number of transfer units (NTU)

The number of transfer units (NTU) is a measure of the
size of heat exchanger. It is defined as:
UA
NTU =
mc cc when mh ch > mc cc
UA
NTU =
mh ch when mh ch < mc cc
The denominator is always the smaller thermal capacity rate .
UA UA
Therefore, NTU = (m c) =
Cmin
min
Unit – II  4.12
4.5 Heat transfer by radiation
4.5.1 Properties of radiation

The important properties of thermal radiation are
described below:
1. Emissivity ( ε )
The emissivity of a material (usually written ε or e) is the
relative ability of its surface to emit energy by radiation. It is the
ratio of energy radiated by a particular material to energy
radiated by a black body at the same temperature.
E Energy emitted by the material
Mathematically, ε = E = Energy emitted by the block body
b
Emissivity is a dimensionless quantity. A true black body

would have an ε = 1 while any real object would have ε < 1.
2. Absorptivity ( α ):
It is the ratio of the radiation energy absorbed by the body
to the total incident radiation energy.
Q Energy absorbed by the body
Mathematically, α = Qa = Total incident energy
o
3. Reflectivity ( ρ ):
It is the ratio of the radiation energy reflected from the
body surface to the total incident radiation energy.
Q Energy reflected from the body
Mathematically, ρ = Qr = Total incident energy
o
4. Transmissivity ( τ ):
It is the ratio of the radiation energy transmitted through
the body surface to the total incident radiation energy.
Mathematically,
Qt Energy transmitted through the body

τ = =
Qo Total incident energy
Unit – II  4.13
5. Black body
A black body is an idealized physical body that absorbs
all incident electromagnetic radiation, regardless of frequency or
angle of incidence. The radiations are neither reflected from the
surface nor transmitted through it. For a black body α = 1 and
ρ = τ = 0 . In actual practice, there is no perfect black body
which will absorb all the incident radiations. Snow with 0.985
absorptivity is neary black to thermal radiations.
6. Gray body :
When a surface absorbs a certain percentage of impinging
radiations, the surface is called the gray body. The absorptivity of
a gray body is necessarily below unity. But it remains constant
over the entire range of temperature and wavelength of incident
radiation. For a gray body α, ρ and τ are uniform for all
wavelengths.
7. White body :
A body that reflects all the incident thermal radiations is
called an absoutely white body. For such bodies ρ = 1 and
α = τ = 0.
8. Transparent body :
A body that allows all the incident radiations to pass
through it is called transparent or diathermaneous. For such
bodies τ = 1 and α = ρ = 0 . Transmissivity varies with
wavelength of incident radiation. A material may be non-
transparent for a cenrtain wavelength band and transparent for
another.
9. Opaque body :
An opaque body is one that does transmit any of the
radiation that reaches it. But it reflects some of the radiation.
Thus for an opque body, τ = 0 and α + ρ = 1.
Unit – II  4.14
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Explain the various modes of heat transfer.

2. Define convection.
3. What are the properties of thermal radiation?
4. State Fourier's Law.
5. Define thermal conductivity of a material.
6. Discuss about the heat conduction through plane wall and
composite wall.
7. Derive the expression for heat trnasfer through a cylinder.
8. List out the applications heat exchanger.
9. Explain the types of heat exchanger.
10. Define LMTD.
11. What is overall heat transfer?
12. Define: Capacity ratio, NTU.
13. What is effectiveness of a heat exchanger.
14. List out the properties of radiation.
15. Define : Emissivity
16. Define : Absorbtivity, Reflectivity, Transmissivity
17. Explain : Black body, opaque body, grey body, transparent
body.
Unit – II  4.15
Unit – II
STEADY FLOW ENERGY
Chapter 5.
EQUATION AND APPLICATIONS
5.1 Introduction
In a steady flow system, the rates of flow of mass and energy
across the control surface are constant. In other words, at the steady
state of a system, any thermodynamic property will have a fixed
value at particular location, and will not change with time.
Example: The flow system in boiler, steam condenser,

steam nozzles and air compressors are examples of steady flow
system.
5.2 Steady flow energy equation (SFEE)

Q
1
boundary
System
W
Z2 2
Z1
Datum
Fig.5.1 Steady flow system

Consider a thermodynamic system as shown in the figure,
in which the rate of fluid flow is constant. Fluid enters the system
at point 1 and leaves the system at point 2.
Assumptions made in the system analysis
1. The rate of flow of mass and energy through the control
volume is constant.
2. Only potential, kinetic, internal and flow energies are
considered. Other forms of energies are neglected.
3. The rate of work and heat transfer between the system and
surroundings is constant.
4. The properties of fluid at any point remain constant at all times.
Unit – II  5.1
Let, p1 = Intensity of pressure at the inlet
u1 = Internal energy at inlet
C1 = Velocity of flow at the inlet
Z1 = Height above the datum at the inlet
v1 = Specific volume of the fluid at the inlet
h1 = Enthalpy of working fluid at the inlet
p2 , u2 , C2 , v2 , and h2 are the corresponding values at the outlet
Q = Heat transfer during the flow through system
W = Work transfer during the flow through the system
Total energy entering the system

= Potential energy + Kinetic energy + Internal energy
+ Flow energy + Heat transfer
2
C
= g.Z1 + 1 + u1 + p1 .v1 + Q
2
Total energy leaving the system

= Potential energy + Kinetic energy + Internal energy
+ Flow energy + Work transfer
C2
= g. Z2 + 2 + u2 + p2 .v2 + W
2
By law of conservation of energy,
Energy entering the system = Energy leaving the system
C2 C 2
g . Z1 + 1 + u1 + p1 .v1 + Q = g . Z 2 + 2 + u2 + p2 .v2 + W
2 2
The above equation is called steady flow energy equation.
We know that, u + p.v = h
∴ The above equation can be written as,
2 2
C C
g.Z1 + 1 + h1 + Q = g.Z2 + 2 + h2 + W
2 2
If ‘m’ is the mass flow rate of the fluid, the steady flow energy
equation may be written as,
 C2   C 2 
m  g . Z1 + 1 + h1 + Q  = m  g . Z 2 + 2 + h2 + W 
 2   2 
Unit – II  5.2
5.3 Application of steady flow energy equation
The application of steady flow energy equation includes the
following:
a) Steam generators ( Boilers) b) Steam condensers
c) Steam nozzles d) Air compressors
e) Steam or gas turbines f) Air heaters, etc.
a) Steam generator or boiler

The main function of the boiler is to transfer the heat to the
steady flow system (water). The heat transfer takes place at
constant pressure.
Steam out
Water in
Control
Volume
Heat supply
Fig. 5.2 Steam generator
In a boiler,
i) No mechanical work is done. ∴ W=0
ii) Fluid velocity at the inlet and exit is small. ∴ There is no
change in kinetic energy, i.e. C1 = C2
iii) Potential energy between inlet and exit is also negligible, i.e.
Z1 = Z 2
Applying steady flow energy equation to inlet and exit,

h1 + Q = h2
or, Heat transfer, Q = h2 − h1 J/kg.
b) Steam condenser
The main function of the steam condenser is to transfer the
heat from the steady flow system (steam).
Unit – II  5.3
In
1
Coolant Coolant
in exit
2
Condensate exit
Fig. 5.3 Steam condenser
In a condenser,
i) No work is done (W=0)
ii) No change in kinetic energy ( C1 = C2 )
iii) No change in potential energy ( Z1 = Z 2 )
The steady flow energy equation will be reduced to, h1 + Q = h2

or, heat transfer, Q = h2 − h1 J/kg.
c) Steam nozzles
1 2
Entry Exit
Control volume
Fig.5.4 Steam nozzle
Nozzle is a device used for increasing the velocity of flowing

fluid at the cost of pressure drop. IN a nozzle,
i) No work is done (W=0)
ii) No heat transfer takes place (Q=0)
iii) No change in potential energy ( Z1 = Z 2 )
The steady flow energy equation can be written as,
2 2
C1 2 C 2 C C
+ h1 = 2 + h2 or, 2 − 1 = h1 − h2
2 2 2 2
This equation shows that enthalpy of the system is
reduced. The energy lost is converted into the kinetic energy.
C2 2 − C12 = 2(h1 − h2 )
or, final velocity, C2 = 2(h1 − h2 ) + C1
2
Unit – II  5.4
If initial velocity is negligible,
C2 = 2(h1 − h2 )
For a perfect gas, h = C p .t
∴ Final velocity can be written as
C2 = 2 × C p × (T1 − T2 ) + C1
2
The expansion of a fluid in the nozzle is treated as an

isentropic process.
γ −1 γ −1
T p  γ p  γ
∴ 2 =  2  or, T2 = T1 . 2 
T1  p2   p2 
γ −1
 
 p  γ
∴ C2 = 2 × C p × T1 − T1    + C1
 2 2
p
 1 
 
or, final velocity,
γ −1
 
  p2  γ 
C2 = 2 × C p × T1 × 1 −   + C1
2
  p1  
 
d) Air compressors
Air compressor is a machine used to produce high pressure
air. It takes in atmospheric air and compresses it to a high
pressure. Air compressors are generally classified as:
(i) Rotary compressors and (ii) Reciprocating compressors
(i) Rotary compressor : In rotary compressors, a rotor is used to

develop pressure. The rate of flow is very high in rotary
compressors. Hence this process is treated as reversible adiabatic
or isentropic. The steady flow energy equation is written as,
h1 = h2 + W
or, Work input, W = h1 − h2
(ii) Reciprocating compressor: In this type of compressors, a

piston with cylinder is used to produce high pressure. The rate of
flow is comparatively low and large area is in contact with the
surroundings. Hence heat transfer is not negligible. The steady
flow energy equation can be written as,
h1 + Q = h2 + W
or, Work input, W = Q + ( h1 − h2 )
Unit – II  5.5
e) Steam turbine and gas turbines
A steam turbine is a device which converts the energy of
steam into mechanical work. Steam is expanded through a nozzle
and a certain amount of heat energy is converted into kinetic
energy. The steam with high velocity flows over curved blades and
its direction of motion is changed. This causes a change of
momentum and force thus developed drive the turbine shaft.
In a gas turbine, air is compressed in a compressor. This

air is heated by the combustion of fuel. The hot products of
combustion is expanded in turbine blades, thus doing mechanical
work.
In both the turbines, expansion of working fluid is treated

as reversible adiabatic (isentropic). Neglecting the changes in the
potential and kinetic energies, steady flow energy equation is
written as,
h1 = h2 + W
or, Work input, W = h1 − h2
5.4 Non flow energy equation

In a closed system, there is no mass transfer across the
boundary. Hence the flow energy, kinetic energy and potential
energies are neglected. Therefore for a closed system, the energy
equation is written as,
u1 + Q = u2 + W
or, Q = W + u2 − u1
Q = W + ∆u
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What is meant by steady flow system?

2. State and explain the steady flow energy equation.
3. List out the applications of steady flow energy equation.
4. Write down the steady flow energy equation for a steam nozzle.
5. Derive the steady flow energy equation for reciprocating air
compressor.
Unit – II  5.6
POINTS TO REMEMBER
1. Steady flow energy equation:

2 2
C C
g.Z1 + 1 + u1 + p1 .v1 + Q = g.Z2 + 2 + u2 + p2 .v2 + W
2 2
2 2
C1 C
or, g.Z1 + + h1 + Q = g.Z2 + 2 + h2 + W
2 2
( h1 , Q, h2 , W are in J/kg)
2 2
g.Z1 C1 g.Z2 C2
+ + h1 + Q = + + h2 + W
1000 2 × 1000 1000 2 × 1000
( h1 , Q, h2 , W are in kJ/kg)
SFEE for
2. Steam boiler : Q = h2 − h1
3. Steam condenser : Q = h2 − h1
2 2
C2 C
4. Steam nozzle : − 1 = h1 − h2
2 2
γ −1
 
  p2  γ 
Final velocity, C2 = 2 × C p × T1 − T1    + C1
2
p
 1 
 
γ −1
 
  p2  γ 
or, C2 = 2 × C p × T1 × 1 −    + C1
2
p
 1 
 
5. Rotary air compressor, W = h1 − h2
6. Reciprocating air compressor, W = Q + (h1 − h2 )
7. Steam turbines : W = h1 − h2
8. Non flow energy equation : Q = W + ∆u
Unit – II  5.7
Unit – III
Chapter 6.NTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

6.1 Introduction
A machine which converts heat energy into mechanical
work is known as heat engine. Internal combustion (I.C) engine is
a heat engine in which combustion of fuel takes place inside the
engine cylinder.
Example: Petrol engine, diesel engine, gas engine, gas
turbine, etc.
If the combustion takes place outside the working cylinder,

then it is called external combustion engine.
Example: Steam engines and steam turbines.
6.2 Classification of I.C. engines

Internal combustion engines may be classified according to
1. The type of fuel used

a) Petrol engines b) Diesel engines c) Gas engines
2. Number or strokes per cycle
a) Four stroke engine b) Two stroke engine
3. Method of ignition
a) Spark Ignition (S.I) engines
b) Compression Ignition (C.I) engines
4. Cycle of operation
a) Otto cycle engines b) Diesel cycle engines
c) Dual combustion cycle engines
5. Arrangement of cylinders
a) Vertical engines b) Horizontal engines c) V-type engines
d) In-line engines e) Radial engines
6. Cooling system used
a) Air cooled engines b) Water cooled engines
Unit – III  6.1

7. Method of fuel injection
a) Carburetor engines b) Air injection engines
c) Airless or solid injection engines
5. Number of cylinders
a) Single cylinder engines b) Multi-cylinder engines
9. Method of governing
a) Quantity governed engine b) Quality governed engines
c) Hit and miss governed engines
10. Location of valves

a) Overhead valve engines b) Side valve engines
11. Method of lubrication

a) Wet sump engines b) Dry sump engines
12. Speed of the engine

a) Low speed engines b) Medium speed engines
c) High speed engine
6.3 Major components of I.C. engines

The figure shows the constructional details of a four stroke
cycle petrol engine. The major components of the engine are
explained below.
1. Cylinder block
It is the main part of the engine. It contains cylinders. The
cylinders are accurately finished to accommodate piston. The
cylinder block houses piston, crank, connecting rod, cam shaft and
other engine parts. In water cooled engines, the cylinder block is
provided with water jackets for the circulation of cooling water.
The materials used for making cylinder block are grey cast iron,
aluminium alloys, etc.
2. Cylinder head
The cylinder head is bolted to the top of cylinder block by
means of studs. The cylinder block contains inlet and exhaust
ports and valves. In the cylinder head, a spark plug is provided in
the case of petrol engine and a fuel injection nozzle is provided in
the case of diesel engine. A copper or asbestos gasket is provided
between the engine cylinder and cylinder head to make an air
tight joint. The materials used for making cylinder head are cast
iron, aluminium alloy, etc.
Valve spring Spark plug

Rocker arm
Cylinder head
Inlet port Exhaust port
Exhaust valve
Inlet valve
Cylinder
Gudgeon pin
Connecting rod Piston rings

Piston
Push rod
Cam
Crank pin
Crank
Crank case
Crank shaft
Crank web
Fig.6.1 Four stroke cycle petrol engine
3. Cylinder liners
The liner is a sleeve, which is fitted into the cylinder bore.
It provides wear resisting surface for the cylinder bores. Liners
may be of two types : (a) Dry liners and (b) Wet liners.
(a) Dry liners: Dry liners have metal−to−metal contact with
the cylinder block. They are not directly in touch with cooling water.
(b) Wet liners: These liners are surrounded or wetted by
cooling water. It provides wear resisting surface for the piston to
reciprocate. Also it acts as a seal for the water jacket.
Liner material should withstand abrasive wear and
corrosive wear. Chromium plated mild steel tubes are used as
liners. Good quality cast iron liners produced by centrifugal
casting is also commonly used in engines.
4. Crank case
It may be cast integral with the cylinder block. Some times,
it is cast separately and fitted to the cylinder block. It also serves
as a sump for the lubricating oil. The material used for crankcase
are cast iron, alumimium alloys or alloy steels.
5. Oil pan or oil sump

Oil sump is the bottom part of the engine. It contains
lubricating oil. A drain plug is provided in the oil sump to drain
out the oil. It is made of pressed steel sheet.
6. Piston
The piston is a cylindrical part. The main function of the
piston is to transmit the force exerted to the burning of fuel in the
cylinder to crank shaft through connecting rod. It also acts as a
movable gas tight seal to keep the gases inside the cylinder. It is
opened the bottom and closed at the top. The top of the piston is
called crown. The bottom portion is called skirt. Three grooves are
provided on the circumference of the piston to fit piston rings. The
piston may be made of cast iron, aluminium alloy or cast steel.
7. Piston rings
Compression rings and oil rings are inserted in the grooves
provided on the piston. Compression rings provide an effective
seal for the high pressure gases inside the cylinder. At least two
compression rings are provided in each piston.
Oil rings wipe off the excess oil from the cylinder walls.
This excess oil is returned to the oil sump through the oil holes.
Generally piston rings are made of wear resistant materials such
as alloy cast iron, alloy steel, etc.
8.Connecting rod
It connects the piston and crank shaft. It transmits the
force exerted due to the burning of fuel during power stroke to the
crank shaft. The upper end of the connecting rod is fitted to the
piston by means of gudgeon pin. The lower end is called big end
and is connected to the crank.
The connecting rods must withstand heavy thrusts. Hence
it must have more strength and rigidity. The connecting rod is
usually made with drop forged I–sections. The materials used for
connecting rod are plain carbon steel, aluminium alloys, nickel
alloy steels, etc.
9. Crank shaft
Crank shaft is the main rotating shaft of the engine. The
main function of crank shaft is to convert the reciprocating
motion of the piston into rotary motion with the help of
connecting rod. The crank shaft is held in position by the
bearings. This shaft contains one or more eccentric portions called
cranks. A crank is connected to the connecting rod by a crank pin.
Front end of the crankshaft is provided with the following:
(a) A gear or sprocket: It drives the camshaft at half the
speed of the crankshaft.
(b) Vibration damper: It protects the crankshaft from the
torsional vibrations set up during power strokes.
(c) Pulley : The pulley is fitted with V−belts. It drives
engine fan, water pumps, dynamo, etc.
The material of the crankshaft must be strong enough to

withstand heavy forces of the piston. They are made from carbon
steel, nickel–chromium alloy, heat treated alloy steels, etc.
10. Camshaft
Camshaft contains number of cams. It is used to convert
rotary motion into linear or straight line motion. It has number of
cams equal to the number of valves in an engine. An additional
cam is also provided to drive the fuel pump. A gear is provided in
the cam shaft to drive the distributor or oil pump. The opening
and closing of the engine valves are controlled by the cams
provided on the cam shaft. The camshaft rotates inside the main
bearings. It is driven by crankshaft through chain or gear drive.
It is rotated at half the speed of the crankshaft.

11. Valves
The inlet valve and the exhaust valve are the main valves
in an engine. The fresh charge enters into the cylinder through
inlet valve. The exhaust gases are forced out of the engine
cylinder through the exhaust valves. The opening and closing of
these valves are controlled by the cams provided in the camshaft.
Inlet valve is made of plain nickel, nickel−chrome or
chrome−molybdenum. The exhaust valve is subjected to more
heat. Hence it should be capable of withstanding high
temperatures. Exhaust valves are made of silicon−chrome steel,
high speed steel, cobalt−chrome steel, nickel−chrome steel and
tungsten steel, etc.
12. Valve actuating mechanism

Valve actuating mechanism is provided in an engine to
open and close the valves. The following are the important
mechanisms:
(a) Side valve mechanism
(b) Overhead valve mechanism
(c) Overhead inlet and side exhaust valve mechanism
(a) Side valve mechanism: Side valve mechanism consists
of valves, valve spring, valve tappet, valve guide, camshaft and its
drive, etc. The cam mounted on the camshaft operates the valve
tappet. The valve tappet is pushed up. The valve tappet pushes the
valve from its seat against the spring force. Thus the valve is
opened. When the cam is not in action, the valve returns back to its
seat by the valve spring and spring retainer.
(b) Overhead valve mechanism: This type of mechanism
is commonly used in i.c engines. The valves are located in the
cylinder head. This mechanism includes valves, valve springs,
valve tappet or valve lifter, push rod, rocker arm, etc. The cam
mounted on the camshaft moves the valve lifter. The valve lifter
pushes the push rod upwards. Push rod moves the rocker arm. The
rocker arm pushes the valve off its seat against the spring force.
Thus the valve is opened. When the cam is not in action, the valve
returns back to its seat by the valve spring and spring retainers.

(c) Overhead inlet and side exhaust valve mechanism:
In this system, the inlet valves are located in the cylinder head.
They are operated by the overhead valve mechanism. The exhaust
valves are located in the cylinder block. They are operated by the
side valve mechanism principle.
6.4 Engine parts, materials and manufacturing methods

Sl. Manufacturing
Part name Materials used
No. method
1. Cylinder Grey cast iron, Casting
block aluminium alloys,
alloy steel, etc.
2. Cylinder Grey cast iron, Casting or
head aluminium alloys, forging
alloy steel, etc.
3. Cylinder Cast iron, chromium Centrifugal
head plated mild steel tubes casting
4. Crankcase Alloy steels, cast iron Forging, casting
5. Piston Cast iron, aluminium Casting or
alloy, nickel−chrome forging
alloy, cast steel, etc.
6. Piston Alloy cast iron containing Casting
rings silicon and manganese,
alloy steels, etc.
7. Connecting Plain carbon steel, Drop forging
rod aluminium alloys, nickel
alloy steels, etc.
8. Crankshaft Hot billet steel, carbon Drop forging or
steel, nickel−chrome, casting
other heat treated alloy
steels, etc.
9. Inlet valves Plain nickel, Forging
nickel−chrome, or chrome
molybdenum
10. Exhaust Silicon chrome steel, Forging
valves high speed steel,
cobalt−chrome steel,
nickel−chrome steel,
tungsten steel, etc.

6.5 Four stroke cycle petrol engine or spark ignition engine
A four stroke petrol engine requires four strokes of piston to
complete one cycle of operation. In petrol engines, as the air fuel
mixture is ignited by a spark plug, it is also known as spark
ignition engines.
Cylinder Spark plug

Inlet valve
Piston
Connecting rod
Crank shaft
Crank
1. Suction stroke 2. Compression stroke
Exhaust valve
3. Power stroke 4. Exhaust stroke

Fig.6.2 Working of four stroke cycle petrol engine
Construction
The engine contains a piston, which reciprocates inside the
cylinder. The piston is connected to the crank shaft by means of
connecting rod and crank. The inlet and outlet valves are
mounted on the cylinder head. A spark plug is also provided on
the cylinder head for spark ignition. The events in a four stroke
cycle petrol engine are as follows.
1. Suction or charging stroke

In this stroke, the required air–fuel mixture called as charge
is sucked into the engine cylinder. During this stroke, piston

moves down from Top Dead Centre (TDC) to Bottom Dead Centre
(BDC). Due to the downward movement of the piston, the
pressure inside the cylinder is reduced below the atmospheric
pressure. Now inlet valve opens and fresh air–fuel mixture is
sucked into the cylinder through the inlet valve. Exhaust valve
remains closed during this stroke.
2. Compression stroke
In this stroke, the air–fuel mixture inside the cylinder is
compressed. During this stroke, the piston moves up from BDC to
TDC and both the inlet and outlet valves are kept closed. Due to
the upward movement of the piston, the air–fuel mixture in the
cylinder is compressed. As a result of compression, the pressure
and temperature of air–fuel mixture increases considerably. This
completes one revolution of crank shaft.
Ignition: When the piston reaches near TDC, an electric

spark is produced by the spark plug. The compressed air–fuel
mixture is ignited by the spark. It results in a sudden increase of
temperature and pressure of combustion products. However, the
volume remains constant during combustion.
3. Expansion stroke or working stroke or power stroke

In this stroke, the heat energy is converted into useful
mechanical work. The burning gases expand rapidly. A force is
exerted on the piston due to the high pressure and expansion of
hot gases. Now the piston is pushed downward from TDC to BDC.
The movement of the piston is converted into rotary motion of the
crank shaft through connecting rod. Thus, the heat energy is
transformed into useful mechanical work. Both inlet and exhaust
valves are closed during this stroke.
4. Exhaust stroke
In this stroke, the burnt gases are exhausted from the
cylinder. Now the exhaust valve is opened. The piston moves
upward from BDC to TDC. This movement of piston pushes out
the burnt gases to the atmosphere through exhaust valve. During

this stroke, the inlet valve remains closed. This completes one
cycle and the cylinder is ready to suck air–fuel mixture to start a
new cycle.
Thus in a four stroke engine, there is only one power stroke

and three idle strokes. The power stroke supplies the required
momentum to carry out all other strokes. Thus the engine is kept
running
6.6 Two stroke cycle petrol engine

A two stroke engine require two strokes of piston to
complete one cycle of operation. It means that the suction,
compression, expansion and exhaust are completed in two strokes
of the piston. Thus, in a two stroke engine, there is one power
stroke for every revolution of crank shaft.
Compressed charge
Spark plug Cylinder
Exhaust port
Transfer port
Piston Inlet port

Crank shaft
Connecting rod
Crank case
a) Compression b) Ingnition and

inductance
c) Expansion and d) Exhaust and

crank case compression transference
Fig.6.3 Working of two stroke cycle petrol engine

Construction
The engine contains a piston, which reciprocates inside the
connecting rod and crank. In two stroke engines, ports are
provided in the cylinder walls instead of valves. There are three
ports namely inlet port, exhaust port and transfer port. The
closing and opening of the ports is obtained by the movement of
the piston. The crown of the piston is made with a shape so as to
deflect the air–fuel mixture upwards inside the cylinder. A spark
plug is also provided on the cylinder head for spark ignition. The
events in a two stroke cycle petrol engine are as follows.
1. First stroke (upward movement) of the piston

During the upward movement of the piston, compression,
ignition and inductance of air–fuel mixture take place.
a) Compression
The piston moves from BDC to TDC. Both transfer and
exhaust ports are covered by the piston. Due to the upward
movement of the piston, the air–fuel mixture which is transferred
already into the engine cylinder is compressed by the piston. As a
result of compression, the pressure and temperature of air–fuel
mixture increases considerably.
b) Ignition and inductance
When the piston reaches near TDC, an electric spark is
produced by the spark plug. The compressed air fuel mixture is
ignited by the spark. It results in a sudden increase of
temperature and pressure of combustion products.
At the same time, the inlet port is uncovered by the piston.

Now the fresh air–fuel mixture from the carburetor enters into
the crank case through the inlet port.
2. Second stroke (downward movement) of the piston

During the downward movement of the piston, expansion of
hot gases, crank case compression of air–fuel mixture, exhaust of
burnt gases and transference of air–fuel mixture take place.

c) Expansion and crank case compression
The burning gases expand rapidly in the cylinder. A force is
exerted on the piston due to the high pressure and expansion of hot
gases. Now the piston is moved downward. The movement of the
piston is converted into rotary motion of crank shaft through
connecting rod. Thus, the heat energy is transformed into useful
mechanical work.
When the piston moves downward, the air–fuel mixture

inside the crank case is partially compressed. This process is
known as crank case compression.
d) Exhaust and transference
When the piston further moves downward, the exhaust port
is uncovered. The burnt gases escape to atmosphere through
exhaust port. The transfer port is also opened. The partially
compressed air fuel mixture inside the crank case enters into the
cylinder through transfer port. Due to the deflected shape in
crown of the piston, the air–fuel mixture is deflected upwards
inside the cylinder. Thus, the escape of fresh air–fuel mixture
along with exhaust gases is reduced.
Again, when the piston moves up, the transfer port is first
closed and then the exhaust port is closed. The air–fuel mixture
inside the cylinder is compressed. When the piston reaches near
TDC, the inlet port is uncovered. Fresh air–fuel mixture enters
into the crank case. At the same time, the compressed air–fuel
mixture is ignited and the cycle is repeated.
Application
The two stroke cycle petrol engines are generally used in
light vehicles such as scooters, motor cycles, three wheelers, etc.
6.7 Four stroke cycle diesel engine or

compression ignition (C.I) engine
A four stroke diesel engine requires four strokes of piston to
complete one cycle of operation. In diesel engines, as the air–fuel
mixture is ignited due to the temperature developed by the
compression, it also known as compression ignition engines.
Cylinder Fuel injector
Inlet valve
Piston
Connecting rod
Crank shaft
Crank
1. Suction stroke 2. Compression stroke
Exhaust valve
3. Power stroke 4. Exhaust stroke

Fig.6.4 Four stroke diesel engine
Construction
This engine contains a piston, which reciprocates inside the
connecting rod and crank. The inlet and outlet valves are
mounted on the cylinder head. A fuel injector is also provided on
the cylinder head for injection of fuel. The events in four stroke
cycle diesel engine are as follows.
1.Suction stroke
In this stroke, the air is sucked into the engine cylinder.
During this stroke, piston moves down from Top Dead Centre
(TDC) to Bottom Dead Centre (BDC). Due to the downward
movement of the piston, the pressure inside the cylinder is
reduced below the atmospheric pressure. Now the air from the
atmosphere is sucked into the cylinder through the inlet valve
after filtering. The exhaust valve remains closed during this
stroke.

2. Compression stroke
In this stroke, the air inside the cylinder is compressed.
During this stroke, the piston moves up from BDC to TDC and
both the inlet and outlet valves are kept closed. Due to the
upward movement of the piston, the air in the cylinder is
compressed. As a result of compression, the pressure and
temperature of air increases considerably. This completes one
revolution of crank shaft.
Ignition: When the piston reaches near TDC, the fuel is
injected into the cylinder in the form of fine spray with the help of
fuel injector. Due to high pressure and temperature of compressed
air, the air–fuel mixture is ignited. It results in a sudden increase
of temperature and pressure of combustion products. However,
the volume remains constant during combustion.
3. Expansion stroke or working stroke or power stroke

In this stroke, the heat energy is converted into useful
mechanical work. The burning gases expand rapidly. A force is
exerted on the piston due to the high pressure and expansion of
hot gases. Now the piston is pushed downward from TDC to BDC.
The movement of the piston is converted into rotary motion of the
crank shaft through connecting rod. Thus, the heat energy is
transformed into useful mechanical work. Both inlet and exhaust
valves are closed during this stroke.
4. Exhaust stroke
In this stroke, the burnt gases are exhausted from the
cylinder. Now the exhaust valve is opened. The piston moves
upward from BDC to TDC. This movement of piston pushes out
the burnt gases to the atmosphere through exhaust valve. During
this stroke, the inlet valve remains closed. This completes one
cycle and the cylinder is ready to suck air to start a new cycle.
Thus in a four stroke engine, there is only one power stroke

and three idle strokes. The power stroke supplies the required
momentum to carry out all other strokes. Thus the engine is kept
running

Application
The diesel engines are relatively slow speed engines and
they are generally used in heavy duty vehicles such as buses,
trucks, earth moving machines, etc.
6.8 Comparison of two stroke and four stroke engines

Two stroke engines Four stroke engines
1. One power stroke is obtained One power stroke is obtained
in one revolution of the crank in two revolutions of the crank
shaft shaft.
2. Simple in design and lighter in Complicated design and
weight heavier in weight
3. The torque obtained is uniform The torque obtained is not
uniform
4. Starting is easy Starting is not so easy
5. Mechanical efficiency is high Mechanical efficiency is low
6. Air cooling is generally used Water cooling is generally
used
7. Fuel consumption is more Fuel consumption is less
8. Consumption of lubricating oil Consumption of lubricating oil
is more is less
9. Some of the fuel may escape Fuel cannot escape with
with exhaust gases exhaust gases
10. Thermal efficiency is less Thermal efficiency is more
11. Wear and tear of the moving Wear and tear of the parts is
parts is more less
12. It gives more noise Noise is less
13. The initial cost and The initial cost and
maintenance cost are less maintenance cost are more
14. These engines are generally These engines are generally
used in light vehicles such as used in heavy vehicles such as
motor cycles, scooters, mopeds, buses, lorries, trucks, etc.
etc.

6.9 Comparison of petrol (S.I) engine and diesel (C.I) engine
Petrol (S.I) engines Diesel (C.I) engines
1. It works on the basis of Otto It works on the basis of Diesel
cycle cycle
2. Air–fuel mixture is sucked into Air alone is sucked into the
the cylinder during suction cylinder during suction stroke
stroke
3. Petrol engine operates with Diesel engine operates with
low pressure and temperature high pressure and
temperature
4. Carburetor and spark plugs Fuel injection pump and
are provided injectors are provided
5. Ignition of air–fuel mixture Ignition of air–fuel mixture
takes place by an electric takes place due to the heat
spark produced by the spark developed by the compression
plug of air
6. They are quantity governed They are quality governed
engines engines
7. Operating speed is more Operating speed is less
8. Weight per unit power is less Weight per unit power is more
9. Starting is easy Starting is not so easy
10. Initial cost and maintenance Initial cost and maintenance
cost are less cost are more
11. These engines produce less These engines produce more
noise noise
12. Thermal efficiency is less Thermal efficiency is more
13. Fuel consumption per unit Fuel consumption per unit
power is more power is less
14. The cost of petrol is more The cost of diesel is less than
petrol
15. Petrol engines are widely used Diesel engines are widely
in light vehicles, automobiles, used in heavy vehicles such as
airplanes, etc. buses, lorries, trucks, tractors,
etc.

6.10 Valve timing diagram (V.T.D)
The valves in an i.c engines are assumed to open and close
at the dead centre positions of the piston. But, in actual practice
the valves operate some degrees before or after the dead centres
for the better utilization of charge. The ignition is also timed to
occur a little before the top dead centre. The timings of these
sequence of events are represented graphically in terms of crank
angle from dead centre position. This diagram is known as valve
timing diagram.
6.10.1 Valve timing diagram for four−stroke petrol engine

TDC
EVC
IVO - Inlet valve opens

Ig IVC - Inlet valve closes
10°
25° Ig - Ignition
IVO EVO - Exhaust valve opens
EVC - Exhaust valve closes
20°
IVO - IVC : Suction

IVC - Ig : Compression
Ig - EVO : Expansion
EVO - EVC : Exhaust
30°
IVO - EVC : Valve overlap
IVC 40°
EVO
BDC
Fig.6.5 Valve timing diagram for four stroke petrol engine
The valve timing diagram for four stroke petrol engine is

shown in the figure 6.5. The inlet valve opens10−30 o before the
top dead centre (TDC) position. The air−fuel mixture is sucked
into the engine cylinder till the inlet valve closes. The inlet valve
closes 30−40 o or even 60 o after the bottom dead centre (BDC)
position. The air−fuel mixture is compressed till the spark occurs.
The spark is produced 20−40 o before the TDC position. This gives
sufficient time for the fuel to burn. The pressure and temperature
increases considerably. The burning gases expand and force the
piston to do useful work.

The burning gases expand till the exhaust valve opens. The
exhaust valve opens 30−60 o before the BDC position. The
exhaust gases are forced out of the cylinder till the exhaust valve
closes. The exhaust valve closes 8−20 o after the TDC position.
Before it closes, again the inlet valve opens 10−30 o before the
TDC position. The period between the inlet valve opening and
exhaust valve closing is known as valve overlap period. During
this period both inlet and exhaust valves are open. The angle
between the inlet valve opening and exhaust valve closing is
known as angle of valve overlap.
6.10.2 Valve timing diagram for four−stroke diesel engine

TDC
EVC
FIB FIC IVO - Inlet valve opens
IVC - Inlet valve closes
FIB - Fuel injection begins
10°
15° FIC - Fuel injection ceases
IVO EVO - Exhaust valve opens
18° 20° EVC - Exhaust valve closes
IVO - IVC : Suction

IVC - FIB : Compression
FIB - FIC : Fuel injection
30°
FIC - EVO : Expansion
EVO - EVC : Exhaust
IVC 40°
EVO
BDC
Fig.6.6 Valve timing diagram for four stroke diesel engine
The actual valve timing diagram for four stroke diesel

engine is shown in figure 6.6. The inlet valve opens10−25 o before
the top dead centre (TDC) position. Fresh air is sucked into the
engine cylinder till the inlet valve closes. The inlet valve closes
25−50 o after the bottom dead centre (BDC) position. The air is
compressed till the fuel is injected. The fuel injection starts
5 o −10 o before TDC position in the compression stroke. The
air−fuel mixture burns. The pressure and temperature increases
considerably. The burning gases expand and force the piston to do
useful work.

The burning gases expand till the exhaust valve opens. The
exhaust valve opens 30−50 o before the BDC position. The
exhaust gases are forced out of the cylinder till the exhaust valve
closes. The exhaust valve closes 10−15 o after the TDC position.
Before exhaust valve closes, again the inlet valve opens 10−25 o
before the TDC position. The period between the inlet valve
opening and exhaust valve closing is known as valve overlap
period. During this period both inlet and exhaust valves are open.
The angle between the inlet valve opening and exhaust valve
closing is known as angle of valve overlap.
6.11 Port timing diagram (P.T.D)

Ports are provided in two−stroke cycle engines. The timings
of the sequence of events, such as opening and closing of ports,
ignition, etc. are represented graphically in terms of crank angle
from dead centre position. This diagram is known as port timing
diagram.
6.11.1 Port timing diagram of two−stroke petrol engine

Ig
TDC
IPO - Inlet port opens
IPO IPC - Inlet port closes
20° TPO - Transfer port opens
IPC TPC - Transfer port closes
Ig - Igniton
100°
EPO - Exhaust port opens
EPC - Exhaust port closes
120°
IPO - IPC : Suction
EPC EPO IPO - TPO : Crank case compression
140°
TPC TPO TPO - TPC : Tranfer
TPC - Ig : Compression
Ig - TPO : Expansion
EPO - EPC : Exhaust
BDC
Fig.6.7 Port timing diagram for two stroke petrol engine
The port timing diagram of a two−stroke petrol engine is

shown in figure 6.7. The inlet port is uncovered (opened) by the
piston 45−55 o before TDC position. The inlet port is covered
(closed) by the piston 45−55 o after TDC position.

The exhaust port is uncovered by the piston 65−75 o before
the BDC position. The exhaust port is covered 65−75 o after the
BDC position. The transfer port is uncovered and covered by the
piston 55−65 o before and after BDC respectively. Ignition occurs
15−25 o before the TDC. The sequence of events are given below:
IPO − IPC : Air−fuel mixture is sucked into the crankcase
IPC − TPO : Air−fuel mixture is partially compressed in the
crankcase (crankcase compression)
TPO − TPC : Partially compressed air−fuel mixture is
transferred into the engine cylinder.
TPC − Ig : Air−fuel mixture is compressed in the cylinder.
Ig : Air−fuel mixture is ignited by an electric spark.
Air−fuel mixture burns.
Ig − EPO : The burning gases expand and move the piston to
do work.
EPO − EPC : Burnt gases are pushed out of the engine cylinder.
6.11.2 Port timing diagram of two−stroke diesel engine

TDC
IPC PVO - Plate valve opens
FIB 10° 15 FIC PVC - Plate valve closes
IPO ° TPO - Transfer port opens
TPC - Transfer port closes
FIB - Fuel injection begins
FIC - Fuel injection ceases
EPO - Exhaust port opens
EPC - Exhaust port closes
PVO - PVC : Air induction

100° PVC - TPO : Crank case compression
TPO - TPC : Air tranfer
EPC 120°
EPO
TPC - FIB : Compression
EPC TPC TPO FIB - FIC : Fuel injection
FIC - EPO: Expansion
EPO - EPC : Exhaust
BDC
Fig.6.8 Port timing diagram for two stroke diesel engine
The port timing diagram of a two−stroke diesel engine is

shown in figure 6.8. The plate valve opens after the bottom dead
centre position. It remains open till the piston reaches top dead
centre. The fuel is injected into the cylinder 10−15 o before TDC
position. Fuel injection continues 15−20 o after TDC position.

The exhaust port is uncovered and covered by the piston
35−40 o before and after the BDC position respectively. The
transfer port is uncovered and covered by the piston 30−35 o
before and after BDC respectively. The sequence of events are
given below:
PVO − PVC : Air is induced into the crankcase through plate
valve
PVC − TPO : Air is partially compressed in the crankcase
(crankcase compression)
TPO − TPC : Partially compressed air is transferred into the
engine cylinder through transfer port.
TPC − FIB : Air is compressed in the cylinder. The pressure
and temperature of the air increases.
FIB − FIC : Fuel is injected into the hot compressed air. Fuel
mixes with hot air and burns.
FIC − EPO : The burning gases expand and move the piston to
do work.
EPO − EPC : Burnt gases are pushed out of the engine cylinder.
6.12 Fuel supply system in petrol (S.I)engines

The fuel supply system is used to supply required amount
of fuel to the engine. Generally, the following fuel supply systems
are used in petrol engines.
a) Gravity feed system
b) Pressure feed system or pump feed system
Gravity feed system: In this system, the fuel storage tank

is kept at a higher level than the carburetor and the engine. The
fuel from the tank flows into the carburetor under gravitation
force. This system is employed in motor cycles, scooters, etc.
To engine
cylinder
Carburettor
Storage tank
Fuel pump Fuel filter
Fig.6.9 Fuel supply system in petrol engine

Pump feed system: In this system, a feed pump is used to
feed the fuel to the carburetor. It consists of a storage tank, fuel
pump, fuel filter and carburetor. The fuel tank is mounted away
form the engine to avoid fire risk. The fuel pump supplies fuel to
the carburetor through a fuel filter. The filter removes dirt, grit
and other foreign particles from the fuel. The carburetor supplies
required air–fuel mixture to the engine. This system is widely
employed in automobiles and air–crafts.
6.13 AC mechanical fuel pump

Fuel pump is used to supply fuel to the carburetor by
pumping. A commonly used diaphragm type AC mechanical fuel
pump is shown in the figure.
Construction
Fuel from tank
Outlet valve
Suction valve
Fuel out to
carburettor
Rocker arm Diaphragm
Spring
Pivot Diaphragm lever Pull rod
Fig.6.10 AC mechanical fuel pump

This pump consists of a cam, rocker arm, pull rod, lever,
diaphragm, inlet and outlet check valves, return springs, etc. The
diaphragm is made of high grade cotton impregnated with
synthetic rubber. The valves are non–return check valves and
made of bakelite. A spring is provided under diaphragm to
maintain tension on diaphragm. The bottom of the diaphragm is
fitted with a pull rod. One end of the rocker arm is connected to
the pull rod and another end slides over the cam, the rocker arm
is pivoted at a point in the pump body.
Working principle
When the cam rotates and pushes the rocker arm, the
rocker arm moves towards the body of the pump. This causes the
pull rod to pull down the diaphragm through the lever. The
pressure inside the chamber falls below the atmospheric pressure.
As the result of this pressure difference, the fuel is sucked into
the main chamber through the suction valve from the fuel tank.
During this movement, the outlet valve remains closed.
When the cam is released from the rocker arm, the rocker
arm moves towards the cam shaft. This causes the diaphragm to
move upwards by the spring force. The pressure in the main
chamber is increased. Now the outlet valve opens and the fuel is
pumped out of the main chamber to the carburetor. During this
movement, the inlet valve remains closed. The suction and
pumping action is repeated continuously and the fuel is pumped
to the carburetor from the tank.
6.14 Carburetor
The process of atomizing and vaporizing the fuel and
mixing it with air is called carburetion. The device used for
carburetion is known as carburetor.
Functions of a carburetor.
1) It atomizes and vaporizes the fuel.
2) It prepares a mixture of petrol and air in correct proportion.
3) It measures and supplies the proper quantity of air–fuel
mixture under all conditions of engine operations.
4) It maintains a small reserve of fuel at a constant head.
5) It provides easy starting of the engine in cold condition.
6.15 Simple carburetor

Construction
A simple carburetor is shown in the figure. It consists of a
float chamber and a mixing chamber. In the float chamber, a float
and a needle valve is provided to maintain a constant level of
petrol. The float chamber is vented to atmosphere.
Air fuel mixture
to engine
Fuel from
fuel pump Throttle valve
Vent to Fuel jet
atmosphere
Venturi
Float
Air
Float chamber
Choke valve
Fig.6.11 Simple carburetor
The mixing chamber contains a constricted section called

venturi. The fuel is supplied to the jet from the float chamber. The
jet keeps same level of petrol as the level in the float chamber.
The mixing chamber has two butterfly type valve. One is called
choke valve and is used to allow air into the mixing chamber.
Another one is called throttle valve and is used to allow air–fuel
mixture to the engine. The outlet of carburetor is fitted to the
inlet manifold of the engine to connect inlet valve.
Working principle
When the fuel level goes down in the float chamber, the
float also goes down. This opens the needle valve and the fuel
enters into the float chamber. When the correct level is reached,
the float closes the needle valve. Now fuel supply is stopped.
During suction stroke, vacuum is created inside the engine

cylinder. This causes pressure difference between the cylinder
and outside the carburetor. Due to this pressure difference,
atmospheric air flows into the carburetor. When the air passes
through the venturi, the velocity of air increases and pressure
reduces. Due to this pressure drop, the air sucks the fuel from the
jet. The fuel comes out in the form of fine particles and mixes
with air to form air–fuel mixture. This air–fuel mixture is
supplied to the engine through a throttle valve. The throttle valve
is operated by an accelerator to control the amount of air–fuel
mixture supplied to the engine.
During cold stating, the choke valve is closed completely. This
causes a greater pressure difference and more fuel is sucked from
the jet. The engine can be started easily by this rich mixture.
Disadvantages of simple carburetor
1. It is suitable only for engines running at constant speed and load.
2. The working of a simple carburetor is affected by the charges in
atmospheric pressure and temperature. It gives rich mixture at
high altitude.
3. A week mixture supplied by the carburetor at low speeds may not
ignite properly.
4. It gives a weak mixture when the throttle valve is opened suddenly.
5. It does not have arrangement for providing rich mixture during
starting and warm up.
6.16 Solex carburettor
Air
18
5 Acceleration
pump Spring
3
10 13 14
6 22
12 9
20
1
4 Idling
8
circuit 21
Bi-starter 2 19
17
7
11
16 15
1−Float, 2−Main jet, 3−Venturi, 4−Emulsion tube, 5−Air correction jet, 6−Spraying
nozzle, 7− Butterfly valve (Throttle valve), 8−Flat disc, 9−starter petrol jet, 10−Starter air
jet, 11−Cold starting passage, 12−Bi-starter lever, 13−Pilot jet, 14−Air bleed orifice,
15−Volume control (idle) screw, 16−Idle port, 17−Slow speed opening, 18− Pump
injector, 19−Pump lever, 20−Pump jet, 21−Pump inlet valve, 22−Well
Fig.6.12 Solex carburettor

Solex carburettor is mostly used in modern automobiles.
Fig.6.12 shows the schematic arrangement of solex carburettor.
The drawbacks in simple carburettor can be overcome by using
this solex carburettor. The special feature of this carburetor is the
provision of bi−starter for cold starting. The working of the solex
carburettor is explained below.
Normal running circuit :

Air
correction jet
Spraying nozzle
Float
Main jet
Emulsion tube
Fig.6.13 Normal running circuit of solex carburettor

The normal running circuit is shown in fig.6.13. During
normal running, the air is supplied through the choke tube into
the venturi. Petrol is supplied through the main jet. Lateral holes
are provided in the emulsion tube. The air passing through this
tube draws petrol through the lateral holes. The air−correction jet
mixes air and fuel in required ratio. The correct quantity of
air−fuel mixture is sprayed through spray nozzles. This mixture
is supplied to the engine through the throttle valve.
Cold starting and warming circuit :

The cold starting circuit is shown in fig.6.14. A bi−starter or
progressive starter is provided for cold starting. The bi−starter has
a flat disc with different size holes. These holes connect the starter
petrol jet and starter air jet to the passage. This passage opens just
below the throttle valve. The bi−starter lever is operated from the
dashboard. This connects either bigger or smaller hole to the
passage. For starting, bigger holes are connected to the passage.
The throttle valve is closed. The engine suction is applied to the
starting passage. More is drawn through the starter petrol jet and
less air is drawn through air−jet. Thus a rich mixture is supplied to
the engine through the starting passage.
Choke valve
Starter Breather
petrol jet
Float
Lever
Float chamber
Bistarter
Throttle valve
Fig.6.14 Cold starting circuit of solex carburettor
The starter lever is brought to an intermediate position after

the engine has started. This connects the smaller hole in the circuit
and the fuel supply becomes normal. The starter lever is brought to
off position when the engine reaches normal running condition.
Idling and slow running circuit :

The idling and slow running circuit of solex carburettor is
shown in fig.6.15. During idling, the engine is kept running while
the throttle valve is almost closed. The engine suction is applied
at the idle port. Fuel is drawn from the pilot jet. Air is drawn
through the small air bleed orifice. The air and fuel mixes
together in the idling passage. This air−fuel mixture is supplied
to the engine through the idle port. A by pass orifice is provided
above the throttle valve. It ensures smooth transfer from the idle
circuit to the main circuit and avoids flat spot.

Air bleed
Pilot jet orifice
Slow speed opening
Volume control screw
Idle port
Fig. 6.15 Idling and slow running circuit of solex carburettor
During slow running, the throttle valve is partly opened.
The suction at the idle port is not sufficient. The slow speed
opening supplies air−fuel mixture to the engine.
Accelerating circuit:
Air
Spring
Pump jet
Diaphragm
Injector
Float
chamber
Pump
Pump inlet valve lever
Accelerator pedal
Fig.6.16 Accelerating circuit

Extra fuel is need during acceleration. The acceleration
pump injects extra fuel through the pump jet and the pump
injector. This pump is actuated by the accelerator through a lever.

When accelerator is released, fuel is drawn into the pump
through a non−return valve. when the accelerator is pressed
down, the lever operates the pump diaphragm. The pump
diaphragm moves against the spring and pushes the fuel through
pump jet and the pump injector into the venturi.
6.17 Fuel supply system in diesel (C.I) engines

Leakage
Surplus fuel
Feed pump return
Fuel Injection
tank Fuel filter
pump
Fuel injectors
Fig.6.17 Fuel supply system in diesel engine
In diesel engines, the pressure of compressed air reaches
3500 to 4000 KN/m2 or even above at the end of compression stroke.
So the fuel must be injected with a high injection pressure.
The fuel injection system in a diesel engine is shown in the

figure. It consists of a fuel tank, fuel feed pump, fuel filter, fuel
injection pump and injectors. The fuel from the tank is pumped to
the fuel injection pump through the filters by fuel feed pump.
From the fuel injection pump, the fuel is delivered to the injector.
The injectors spray the fuel into the cylinder as fine particles.
6.18 Fuel injection pump

The main function of fuel injection pump is to deliver
correct quantity of fuel to the injector at high pressure. The most
widely used CAV fuel injection pump is shown in the figure. It is
introduced by Lucas CAV Ltd.
Construction
It consists of a plunger, which reciprocates inside a barrel.
The plunger can be rotated by the rack and pinion arrangement. At
the same time, the plunger can be moved up and down in the
barrel by means of a cam. The plunger has a vertical rectangular
groove. This groove extends from the top to another helical groove.
The fuel delivery non–return valve is seated in its seat by

spring force. Supply port and spill ports are provided in the
barrel. These ports are opened and closed by movement of the
plunger. The fuel passage is connected to the fuel injector.
Working principle
When the plunger is at the bottom of its stroke, it uncovers
supply port and spill port. Diesel from feed pump is forced into
the barrel after filtration. When the cam pushes the plunger, the
inlet port and spill port are closed. The fuel above the plunger is
compressed. Due to the high pressure, the delivery valve opens
against the spring pressure. The fuel flows through the fuel
passage to the injectors.
Fuel to injector
spring
Barrel
Delivery valve
Spill port
Supply port
Plunger
Rack
Cam
Tappet
Fig.6.18 CAV fuel injection pump
When the plunger moves up further, the helical groove

connect the spill port to the top of the plunger. The remaining fuel
escapes through the spill port and the pressure is reduced

suddenly. This causes the delivery valve to come back to its seat
by the spring force. This cycle is repeated and the fuel is supplied
to the injector intermittently.
The quantity of fuel delivered is controlled by the rotary

movement of the plunger. The plunger is rotated inside the barrel
by using the rack and pinion arrangement. This alters the effective
stroke of the plunger and the amount of fuel supply is varied.
6.19 Fuel injector (Atomizer)

The function of a fuel injector is to spray the fuel into the
engine cylinder in the form of fine particles at the end of
compression stroke.
Adjusting screw
Spring
Leak off
Spindle
Fuel in
Nozzle cap
Plunger
Pressure chamber Nozzle valve

Nozzle
Fig.6.19 Fuel injector
Construction
The fuel injector consists of a nozzle. The nozzle is made with
the injector body. The nozzle valve is seated in its seat by spring
force. A piston is provided in between the spring and the valve. The
tension in the spring can be adjusted by an adjusting screw. A fuel
passage is provided in the body of the injector to allow the fuel from
the injection pump into pressure chamber. The fuel leaking from
the injector is collected and sent back to the tank through leak off
passage. The main types of nozzles used in diesel engine are single
hole nozzle, multiple hole nozzle and pintle nozzle.
Working principle
The high pressure fuel from the fuel injection pump enters
into the injector through the fuel passage. Due to the high
pressure of the fuel, the nozzle valve is lifted off its seat against
the spring force. Now the fuel is injected into the engine cylinder
through the nozzle in the form of fine particles. When the fuel
pressure falls, the nozzle valve is brought back to its seat by the
spring force. This causes the nozzle hole to close. This process is
repeated and the fuel is sprayed into the cylinder at the end of
every compression stroke.
6.20 Injection nozzles

The function of the fuel injection nozzle is to inject the fuel
delivered by the pump into the combustion chamber. It also
atomizes the fuel. The following are the important types of
nozzles used in diesel engines.
a) Single hole nozzles (flat and conical end)
b) Multiple hole nozzles (short and long stem)
c) Pintle nozzles
d) Delay type nozzles
a) Single hole nozzles: This type of nozzle contains a

single hole at the end of the nozzle. The fuel passes through this
hole into the combustion chamber. It is closed at the inner end by
the nozzle valve. Single hole nozzles are available with flat end
or conical end. In flat end nozzles, the hole is drilled at he centre
of the nozzle axis. In conical type, the hole is drilled at an angle
(4 o to 15 o ) to the nozzle axis. Single hole nozzles are used in
engines having turbulent chambers.
b) Multiple hole (orifice) nozzle : This nozzle contains

many drilled holes. The number of holes may vary from 3 to 18. It
gives finely atomized spray of fuel with greater penetration. They
are used in open combustion chambers. They are of two types : (i)
Nozzle with axial hole (ii) Long stem nozzles without axial hole.
c) Pintle nozzles : The pintle nozzle consists of a plunger
(pintle) in the fuel passage. This plunger protrudes through the
mouth of the nozzle. The movement of the plunger controls the
fuel flow into the combustion chamber. The shape of the spindle is
made according to the required spray pattern. A hollow
cylindrical jet or a hollow cone shaped spray can be obtained by
suitably shaping the pintle.
d) Delay type nozzles : This is also a type of pintle nozzle.

The shape of shape of the pintle is change. The shape is in such a
way that it reduces the rate of fuel injection at the beginning of
the delivery and increases towards the end of delivery. It is used
in pre−combustion chambers to reduce the combustion noise when
the engine is idling.
6.21 Fuel filters

The petrol or diesel used in i.c engines may contain
impurities such as dust particles, abrasive particles, water
droplets, etc. Fuel filters are used to prevent these impurities
from going into the fuel pump and engine cylinder.
6.21.1 Fuel filter for petrol engines

Screw Body
In Out
Gasket
Bowl
Strainer
Srping
Retainer
Fig.6.20 Ceramic fuel filter for petrol engine
Different types of fuel filters are used in petrol engines.

Nowadays, ceramic type filters are commonly used. If filters out
fine particles and water droplets from the fuel before it is
supplied to the carburettor. It consists of a glass bowl, ceramic
strainer, spring, body, etc. These filters are fitted in between the
fuel tank and fuel pump. The fuel is filtered when it passes
through the ceramic filter.
The sediments and water are collected at the bottom of the

bowl. The filtered fuel enters the fuel pump through the outlet.
The sediments settled at the bottom of the bowl may be cleaned
periodically by removing the glass bowl.
6.21.2 Fuel filter for diesel engines

There are two types of fuel filters are used in diesel engines.
a) Primary filter or pre−filter
b) Secondary filter of micro−filter
a) Primary filter or pre−filter: The primary filter is

fitted in between fuel tank and the suction side of the fuel feed
pump. The element of this filter is made of nylon mesh or bronze
mesh. They filter longer size dust particles above 40 µ m.
Outlet Inlet
Conical
diffuser
Sediment
chamber
Drain plug
Fig.6.21 Sedimentation type primary filter
The fuel from the tank enters into the filter. It flows around
the conical diffuser funnel and moves downward to the sediment
chamber. The heavier impurities settle down at the bottom of the
sediment chamber. The filtered diesel moves up and passes
through the outlet. The impurities collected at the bottom of the
chamber can be drained off periodically.

b) Secondary filter or micro−filter : The micro−filter is
fitted in between the fuel feed pump and fuel injection pump. The
elements of this type of filter are made of cotton, cloth, various of
types of paper or cellulose. They filter out very minute particles
(upto 3 µ m) and water content in the fuel.
Outlet Inlet
Canister
Filter
element
Drain plug
Fig.6.22 Secondary filter or micro filter
The filtering element contains fine pores and it retains the

abrasive particles and other solid impurities except water
droplets. When water droplets pass through the element, an
electrostatic attraction is produced between them by the
resin−impregnated element. This causes the droplets to be pulled
towards each other and form larger droplets. These heavier
droplets settle down in the sediment chamber. The filtered fuel
passes through the filter outlet to the fuel injection pump.
6.22 Ignition system of I.C engines

In an internal combustion engine, the air–fuel mixture is
ignited at correct instant at the end of compression stroke. This
results in efficient and smooth running of the engine. The
following two methods are employed in internal combustion
engines.
a) Compression ignition (for diesel engines)
b) Spark ignition (for petrol engines)

6.23 Compression ignition system
This system is used in heavy oil engines working on Diesel
cycle. In these engines, fresh air alone is sucked into the engine
cylinder during suction stroke. This air is compressed to a high
compression ratio ranging from 12 to 20. The pressure and
temperature of compressed air at the end of compression are
approximately 3500 KN/m2 and 600OC respectively. The
atomized fuel is injected into the engine cylinder at the end of
compression stroke.
The temperature of compressed air is higher than the self
ignition temperature of fuel and hence fuel–air mixture is ignited.
Since the ignition takes place due to high temperature of
compressed air, the diesel engines are known as compression
ignition engines.
6.24 Spark ignition system

This system is used in gas engines, petrol engines and light
oil engines working on Otto cycle. In this system the air–fuel
mixture is ignited by an electric spark produced by the spark
plug. The voltage required for producing an electric spark is about
8000 Volts. So, the ignition system in a petrol engine has to step
up the battery voltage from 6 volts to 8000 volts. Moreover, it has
to provide a spark in each cylinder at the right time. The
following ignition methods are used in petrol (S.I) engines.
1) Coil ignition system
2) Magneto ignition system
3) Electronic ignition system
6.24.1 Coil ignition system
Coil ignition system is generally employed in medium and
heavy duty petrol engines such as cars. The wiring diagram of a coil
ignition system for a four cylinder petrol engine is shown in the figure.
Construction
This system consists of a battery, ignition switch, ignition
coil, condenser, contact breaker, distributor and spark plugs.
Generally, 6V or 12V battery is used. The ignition coil consists of

primary and secondary windings. The primary winding consists of
thick wire with few number of turns. The secondary winding
consists of thin wire with several thousand turns.
Ignition coil Secondary winding
Ignition switch Distributor
Rotor
1 2
Primary winding Contact breaker 3 4
1 2 3 4
Cam
Battery
Condensor Spark plug
Fig.6.23 Coil ignition system
The circuit of this system can be divided into primary

circuit and secondary circuit. The primary circuit consists of
battery, primary winding, condenser and contact breaker. The
secondary circuit consists of secondary winding, distributor and
spark plugs. One end of the primary coil is connected to the
battery through ignition switch. Another end is connected to a
condenser and contact breaker.
The contact breaker makes and breaks the primary circuit.

The timing of the spark is controlled by the contact breakers. The
contact breaker is operated by a cam revolving at half crank
speed. The condenser is connected parallel with the contact
breaker. If prevents sparking across the gap between the contact
breaker points. It also causes a rapid break of the primary circuit,
giving higher voltage in the secondary circuit.
The secondary coil is connected to the distributor. A carbon

contact carries the current to the revolving rotor arm. The rotor
distributes the high voltage to the respective spark plug at
regular intervals in the sequence of firing order of the engine. The
outer terminal of the spark plugs are earthed together and
connected to the body of the engine.

Working principle
The ignition switch is switched on and the engine is
cranked. The cranking of the engine opens and closes the contact
breaker points through the cam.
When the contact breaker points are closed, the current flows
from the battery to the contact breaker through the switch and
primary winding. This current sets up a magnetic field around the
primary winding of ignition coil. When the primary current is at
the highest peak, the contact breaker points are opened by the cam.
The magnetic field set up in the primary winding is collapsed
suddenly. Due to this, a high voltage (about 10,000 Volts) is
generated in the secondary winding of the ignition coil. This high
voltage is supplied to the rotor of the distributor. The rotor
distributes the high voltage to various spark plugs in the sequence
of firing order of the engine. When this high voltage tries to escape
through the spark plug gap, an electric spark is produced. This
spark ignites the air–fuel mixture.
6.24.2 Magneto ignition system
Fixed armature
Secondary winding
N Distributor
Rotor
1 2
S S
Contact breaker 3 4
N
Rotating magnet Primary winding

assembly 1 2 3 4
Cam
Condensor Spark plug

Fig.6.24 Magneto ignition system
Magneto ignition system is generally employed in light duty

petrol engines such as motor cycles, scooters, etc. The wiring
diagram of magneto ignition system for a four cylinder petrol
engine is shown in the figure.

Construction
This system consists of a magneto, ignition switch, contact
breaker, condenser, distributors and spark plugs. The magneto
consists of a fixed armature and a rotating magnet assembly. The
armature contains primary and secondary windings. The magnet
is placed on the outer rim of the fly wheel.
The circuit of this system can be divided into primary

circuit and secondary circuit. The primary circuit consists of
battery, primary winding, condenser and contact breaker. The
secondary circuit consists of secondary coil, distributor and spark
plug. The functions of all other parts are similar to the coil
ignition system.
Working principle
cranked. The cranking of the engine opens and closes the contact
breaker points through the cam.
When the contact breaker points are closed, the current flows
from the battery to the contact breaker through the switch and
primary winding. This current sets up a magnetic field around the
primary winding of ignition coil. When the primary current is at
the highest peak, the contact breaker points are opened by the cam.
The magnetic field set up in the primary winding is collapsed
suddenly. Due to this, a high voltage (about 10,000 Volts) is
generated in the secondary winding of the ignition coil. This high
voltage is supplied to the rotor of the distributor. The rotor
distributes the high voltage to various spark plugs in the sequence
of firing order of the engine. When this high voltage tries to escape
6.24.3 Electronic ignition system
In this system, contact breaker points are replaced by the
magnetic pickup and reluctor. This eliminates the defects due to
contact breaker points. The schematic diagram of an electronic
ignition system is shown in the figure.
Electronic control module
Spark plug
Ignition switch Ignition coil
Distributor
Magnetic pickup
Vacuum advance
Battery
Reluctor or armature
Fig.6.25 Electronic ignition system

Construction
This system consists of a battery, ignition switch, electronic
control module, magnetic pickup, reluctor or armature, ignition
coil, distributor and spark plugs. A number of metal tips are
provided on the reluctor according to the number of cylinders of
the engine. A permanent magnet is carried by the distributor. The
reluctor provides a path for the magnetic lines from this magnet.
Working principle
cranked. When the reluctor passes the pick up coil, an electric
pulse is generated and magnetic field is induced. This causes a
magnetic field in the primary winding. This small current
triggers the electronic control module. This control module stops
the flow of battery current to the ignition coil. The magnetic field
set up in the primary winding is collapsed suddenly. Due to this,
a high voltage is generated in the secondary winding. This high
voltage is supplied to the distributor. The distributor distributes
the high voltage to various spark plugs in the sequence of firing
order of the engine. When this high voltage tries to escape

6.25 Multi-Point Fuel Injection (MPFI) system
The Multi-Point Fuel Injection (MPFI) system is an
advanced version of carburettor engine. MPFI engine is having a
fuel injector for each cylinder. A computer is used to control each
and every fuel injector individually. The computerized system
consists of a microcontroller. This microcontroller monitors each
fuel injectors and keeps on telling each injector about the amount
of fuel to be injected to the cylinder so that the fuel wastage can
be reduced. Since there is a controlled fuel usage, the engine is
known for its fuel efficiency.

MPFI System consists of i) Sensors and ii) Engine Control
Unit (ECU). Sensors are used to detect the engine conditions. The
commonly used sensors are :
 Oxygen Sensor (O2)
 Intake Air temperature (IA) sensor
 Manifold Absolute Pressure (MAP) Sensor
 Throttle Position (TP) Sensor
 Engine Coolant Temperature (ECT) Sensor
 Transmission Oil Temperature (TOT) Sensor
ECU controls the system based on signals from the sensors,

and actuators which operate under the control of the ECU. It
carries out activities such as fuel injection control, idle air control,
and ignition timing control. In addition, the ECU is equipped with
a number of diagnostic test modes which simplify troubleshooting
when a problem develops.
Diagnostic Test Mode :

 When a fault is detected in one of the sensors or actuators
related to emission control or major engine control system, the
Check Engine Warning Lamp illuminates to warn the driver.
 When a fault is detected in one of the sensors or actuators, a
Diagnostic Trouble Code (DTC) corresponding to the fault is
stored in the ECU.
 The data inside the ECU that is related to the sensors and
actuators can be read with the diagnostic tool.
6.26 Common Rail Direct Injection (CRDI) System

CRDI stands for Common Rail Direct Injection. It is a
system used in diesel engines for direct injection of the fuel into
the cylinders of a diesel engine via a single, common line, called
the common rail which is connected to all the fuel injectors.
The Common Rail injection system is made up of the

following parts:

A Transfer Pump integrated into the High Pressure pump
housing.
A High Pressure Pump fed by fuel at transfer pressure. It
sends fuel to the rail under very high pressure.
A Low Pressure Actuator, which controls the amount the
fuel sent to the high pressure pump depending on engine
requirements.
A Rail, which forms a reserve of fuel under pressure.
Injectors, which spray the required quantity of fuel into the
combustion chamber at the desired moment.

Electronic Control Unit (ECU), that controls injection and
rail pressure as a function of engine operating conditions.
The ECU also controls associated functions such as the
exhaust gas recirculation rate (EGR), pre-heating and air
conditioning.
Sensors, which provide the needed information in real time
so that the injection process can be controlled. The
following sensors are provided in CRDI system.
 Rail pressure sensor.
 Fuel temperature sensor.
 Inlet air temperature sensor.
 Inlet air pressure sensor.
 Pedal sensor.
 Accelerometer sensor.
 Engine flywheel angular position sensor.
 Phase position sensor either on camshaft or on
pump pinion
The new common rail engines maintain constant pressure

regardless of the injection sequence. This pressure then remains
permanently available throughout the fuel line. The engine's
electronic timing regulates injection pressure according to engine
speed and load.
The electronic control unit (ECU) modifies injection

pressure precisely and as needed, based on data obtained from
sensors. In other words, compression and injection occur
independently of each other. This technique allows fuel to be
injected as needed, saving fuel and lowering emissions. More
accurately measured and timed mixture spray in the combustion
chamber significantly reducing unburned fuel gives CRDi the
potential to meet future emission guidelines.
6.27 Governing of internal combustion engine

Governing is the process of regulating the fuel supply
according to the load condition so that to run the engine almost at
constant speed. The device used to regulate the fuel supply is
known as governor. The following are the different methods of
governing an internal combustion engines:
a) Quantity governing
b) Quality governing
c) Hit and miss governing
a) Quantity governing : In this method, the quantity of

air−fuel mixture entering into the engine cylinder is varied. The
composition of the air−fuel mixture remains constant when the
load varies. In petrol engines, the control is obtained by a throttle
valve in the carburettor. In automobiles, the throttle valve is
operated by the accelerator pedal through links.
b) Quality governing : Quality governing is commonly

adopted in high speed diesel engines. In this type of governing,
the composition of air−fuel mixture is changed according to the
variation in load. The air flow rate remains constant. The
variation in fuel supply is obtained by the following methods:
(1) Adjusting the effective stroke of the fuel injection pump
(2) By−passing a part of the fuel to the reservoir
(3) Delaying the closure of the suction valve of the fuel
injection pump.
c) Hit and miss governing : In this method, an explosion
is omitted when the speed of the engine increases above the
normal speed i.e. one power stroke is missed. The strength of the
air−fuel mixture is not varied. In gas engines, the centrifugal
governor closes the inlet valve. In diesel engines, the governor
makes the fuel pump out of action. No fuel will be supplied and
hence there will be no power stroke.
6.28 Cooling system of I.C engines
The temperature of the burning gases in the engine
cylinder is about 2000 to 2500oC. This heat is absorbed by the
engine components like cylinder head, cylinder walls, piston and
valves. The heating of these parts may cause the following.
1. The strength of piston and cylinder body may be reduced.
2. The engine valves may twist due to overheating.
3. The lubricating oil may decompose and become gummy. It also
gives carbon deposits.
4. It causes thermal stresses in the engine parts, which may lead
to their distortion.
5. Pre–ignition may occur due to the over heating of spark plug.
6. It reduces the volumetric efficiency of the engine.
In order to avoid the effects of over heating, it is necessary to
provide a cooling system. However, a cooling system should remove
only about 30% of the heat generated by the combustion of fuel.
The following two methods of cooling are generally used in
internal combustion engines.
1) Air cooling or direct cooling
2) Water cooling or indirect cooling
6.28.1 Air cooling
Fins
Cylinder
Fig.6.28 Air cooling
Air cooling is used in small engines like, air craft engines,

engines used in scooters, motor cycles, etc. In air cooling system,
the air is allowed to circulate around the cylinder block and
cylinder head. Radiating fins are provided on the outer surface of
the cylinder block and cylinder head. This increases the heat
radiating surface. As more air comes in contact with the cylinder,
the heat is removed efficiently. The high velocity of air required

for cooling is obtained by the forward motion of the engine itself.
Air circulating fan is provided in stationary engines.
Advantages of air cooling

1) The design of air cooling system is much simpler.
2) Lighter in weight.
3) The system is free from leakage and freezing of water.
4) Less space is sufficient.
5) This is very much useful in water scarcity areas.
6) The amount of cooling air required is less.
Disadvantages
1) This system is limited to small engines.
2) The engine parts are not uniformly cooled.
3) Air cooled engine produces loud noise.
4) Separate circulating fan is needed in stationary engines.
6.28.2 Water cooling

Water cooling is used in light and heavy vehicles such as
automobiles, buses, lorries, trucks, etc. In water cooling system,
the water is allowed to circulate around the cylinder block and
cylinder head to carry the heat. It consists of radiator, fan, water
pump, water jacket, thermostat valve, radiator shutters, etc.
The water pump driven by the engine draws cold water

from the radiator. The cold water is forced to circulate through
water jackets of cylinder block and cylinder head. Thus, the
circulating water cools the engine parts by absorbing heat. Then
the water enters the radiator top and flows from top to bottom.
While flowing through radiator tubes, the heat of water is
transmitted to the air drawn by a fan through radiator. Then the
water is cooled and recirculated.
However, the temperature of the cooling water should not

fall below 75oC. A thermostat valve is provided between the
engine and the radiator top to control the temperature of the
cooling water. The valve remains open under normal operating
temperatures. When the temperature falls below normal, the
valve is closed to bypass the water. Thus cooling of water is
automatically ceased.
Filler cap
Thermostat valve
Water jacket
Impeller pump
Cylinder
Fan
Piston
Air
Drain tap
Fig.6.29 Water cooling system
When the heat of the engine is more, the radiator shutters

are opened to allow more air to flow through the radiator. Thus,
the rate of cooling is increased. A drain tap is provided at the
bottom of the radiator to remove the water periodically.
Advantages of water cooling

1) More efficient cooling can be obtained. Hence, efficiency of the
engine is more.
2) Higher compression ratio is permitted.
3) The engine parts are uniformly cooled.
4) Water cooled engines can be installed anywhere in the vehicle.
Disadvantages
1) Water cooling system is heavier in weight.
2) More maintenance is required.
3) A slight leakage of water may stop the engine.
4) Freezing of water causes trouble during cold weather.
5) Water circulating pump and radiator pump consume power.

6.29 Comparison of air cooling and water cooling system
Air cooling system Water cooling system
1. Engine design is simple Engine design is not much

simple
2. Weight is less Weight is more
3. No leakage problems Leakage of water may occurs
4. No risk of freezing of water in Freezing of water in cold
cold climates climate may cause trouble
5. Less maintenance is sufficient More maintenance is required
6. Requires less space More space is required
7. No danger occurs due to the A small damage in the cooling
damage in cooling system system may cause danger
8. The cost for cooling system is The cost for cooling system is
less more
9. Cooling is not so efficient Cooling is more efficient
10. Engine parts are not uniformly Engine parts are uniformly
heated heated
11. Higher compression ratio is Higher compression ratio is
not permitted permitted
12. It is used in light duty vehicles It is used in heavy duty
vehicles
6.30 Lubrication of I.C engines

In an internal combustion engine, moving parts and
rotating parts rub against each other and frictional force is
developed. Due to this frictional force, heat is generated and the
engine parts wear quickly. Also, power is lost due to friction.
Lubricants are introduced between moving and rotating parts to
reduce heat loss wear and tear.

6.30.1 Purposes of lubrication (or)
Functions of lubrication in I.C engines
1. To reduce friction between moving parts
2. To reduce wear and tear of the moving parts
3. To reduce the power loss due to friction
4. To dissipate the heat generated from the moving parts
5. To provide cushioning effect against the shocks of the engines
6. To clean the moving parts by dissolving the impurities during
its circulation
7. To provide an effective seal against high pressure gases in the
cylinder from leaking out
8. To reduce the noise while the moving parts rub against each other
9. To reduce the corrosion and erosion of moving parts
6.30.2 Properties of lubricants

The important properties of lubricants are explained below:
1) Viscosity : Viscosity is the resistance offered to the flow
of the lubricant. Viscosity of the oil decreases with the increase in
temperature. Viscosity of the lubricating oil should be within a
specified range even at the highest operating temperature of the
bearings. If too thick oil is used, it will lead to power loss, and
excessive wear and tear of the part. If the oil is too thin, it cannot
lubricate properly and lead to rapid wear of moving parts.
2) Oiliness: It is the property of an oil to spread and

adhere itself firmly with the bearing surfaces. Oiliness of the
lubricating oil should be high for better lubrication.
3) Flash and fire point : Flash point of an oil is the

minimum temperature at which it gives off enough vapour so that
a momentary flame is obtained when a flame is brought near the
oil surface. Fire point is the minimum temperature at which an
oil continuously burns. Fire point is always greater than the flash
point. The flash point of the lubricating oil should be higher than
the operating temperature of the bearing.

4) Delegency : The lubricating oil should carry away small
impurities to keep the interior of the engine clean. This property
of lubricating oil is known as delegency.
5) Demulsibility (water separation) : The lubricating oil
should not form an emulsion when brought in contact with water.
The property of resisting emulsification is known as
demulsibility.
6) Foaming : It is the condition in which small air bubbles
are present in the oil. This will reduce mass flow or oil and also
increase oxidation. Hence the lubricating oil should be free from
foaming problems.
7) Corrosiveness : The lubricating oil should prevent the
engine parts from corrosion and it should not contain sulphur.
6.31 Methods of lubrication
The following are the methods of lubrication systems are
used in internal combustion engines.
1. Petroil lubrication system or mist lubrication system.
2. Wet sump lubrication system
a) Gravity lubrication system
b) Splash lubrication system
c) Pressure lubrication system
d) Semi–pressure lubrication system
3. Dry sump lubrication system
6.31.1 Splash lubrication system

Connecting rod
Crank
Splashed oil Lubricating oil
Scoop
Fig.6.30 Splash lubrication system

This lubrication system is employed in single cylinder
stationary internal combustion engines. In this system, the
lubricating oil is filled in the sump at the bottom of the crank
case. Scoops are attached to the big end of the connecting rod.
When the piston is at the bottom of its stroke, the big end of
the connecting rod, crank pin and scoop dip into the oil. As the
crank shaft rotates, the scoop picks up the lubricating oil from the
sump and the surplus oil is splashed over the engine parts in the
form of droplets by centrifugal action. Splashed oil droplets settle
on the surface of the piston, cylinder walls, cam shaft and crank
shaft bearings, etc. and lubricate these parts. The splashed oil is
drained back to the sump after lubricating.
6.31.2 Pressure lubricating system (or) Forced lubrication system

Pressure Piston
gauge To valve assembly
Gears Connecting rod

Cam shaft
Crank
Oil gallery
Filter
Gear pump Oil sump
Strainer
Fig.6.31 Pressure lubrication system
This system is used in light engines like automobile

engines. In this method, the lubricating oil is forced under
pressure for efficient lubrication. The line diagram of pressure
lubrication system is shown in the figure. It consists of oil sump,
oil pump, oil gallery, oil filter, pressure relief valve, pressure
gauges and oil dip stick.

The oil pump (gear pump) is submerged in the lubricating
oil and it is driven by the cam shaft. The gear pump supplies oil
to the oil gallery with high pressure through filters. From the oil
gallery, the oil is distributed under pressure to the different parts
of the engine through oil tubes. Separate oil tubes carry oil for
lubricating big end bearings, timing gears, crank shaft, cam shaft,
valve assembly, etc. Oil from the gallery is supplied to the crank
shaft bearing. The oil flows to the connecting rod big end bearing
through the diagonally drilled hole in the crank shaft. A through
hole is drilled at the centre of the connecting rod. The oil from the
big end bearings flows to the small end bearings through the hole
and lubricate it.
The excess oil is drained back into the oil sump. The
delivery pressure of the oil is controlled by relief valve. A pressure
gauge indicates the oil pressure in the system. An oil dip stick is
provided to measure the oil level in the sump.
6.32 Oil pumps

The function of an oil pump is to supply lubricating oil
under pressure to the bearings and the various parts of the
engine to be lubricated. It is located inside the crankcase and
submerged in the oil sump. It is driven by the camshaft through
a worm or spiral gear. The commonly used oil pumps are :
1) Gear pump 2) Rotor pump.
6.32.1 Gear pump

Gear pump consists of two spur gears meshed together. The
driver gear is driven by the camshaft. The two gears have a small
clearance with the casing. The gears are adjusted so that they
form a fluid−tight joint when they mesh together.
Working principle
The gear pump is submerged in the oil in the crankcase.
When the gears rotate, the oil is tapped between their teeth and
discharged through the outlet. The gears gradually build up
sufficient pressure to force the oil through the delivery pipe.
Spging Adjusting screw
By-pass
Ball valve
Outlet Inlet
Fig.6.32 Gear pump

A pressure relief valve is provided to relieve excessive
pressure caused by high engine speeds. When the oil pressure
exceeds the specified limit, the ball in the relief valve is lifted off
its seat against the spring force and the oil is forced through the
by pass. An adjusting screw is provided to set the working
pressure of the pump.
6.32.2 Rotor pump

Outlet port Pump housing
Inlet port
Oil
Fig.6.33 Rotor pump
Rotor pump consists of inner rotor, outer rotor, inlet and outlet
ports. The two rotors mesh internally. The inner rotor has a number
of lobes (teeth) one less than that on the outer rotor. The inner rotor
is driven by the camshaft. The inner rotor rotates the outer rotor.
The two rotors are rotated with different axis of rotation. This causes
the variation in the space between these two rotors.
Working principle
When the inner rotor is rotated through the camshaft, the
outer rotor also rotates. The oil enters the pump through the inlet
and is filled and squeezed between the tooth spaces. The rotation
of the rotor reduces the clearance between the teeth and oil is
discharged under pressure through the outlet. This pump is
compact than the gear pump. The operation is smooth and
noiseless. Hence rotor pumps are widely used in automobiles.
6.33 Oil filters
The lubricating oil may contains impurities such as sand
particles, metal particles, etc. These impurities cause rapid wear
of the engine bearings and other parts. So, the oil should be
filtered before supplying to the engine parts. The following two
types of filtering systems are commonly used:
1) By−pass system 2) Full flow system
1) By−pass system : In this system, a small amount (10%)

of oil passes through the filter and filtered out. The filtered oil
goes to the pump. The remaining oil goes to the engine parts
without being filtered. A very fine filtering element is used in this
system. This system is not widely used because it is not possible
to filter the entire oil content of the system.
To engine
bearings, etc
Bearings Filter by-pass
valve Filter
Filter
Main relief valve
Oil pump
Sump
Strainer
(a) By-pass system (b) Full flow system
Fig.6.34 Oil filtering systems

2) Full flow system : In this system, the entire oil passes
through the filter before it is supplied to the engine part. A spring
loaded relief valve is provided in the filter in addition to the main
relief valve. when the filter is blocked, the by−pass valve diverts
the unfiltered oil to the engine parts. As the entire oil passes
through the filter, the faltering elements used are comparatively
coarser. The commonly used filtering elements are wire gauze,
cotton, felt, paper, plastic−impregnated paper, etc. This type of
system is widely used in automobiles nowadays.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. How the I.C engines are classified?

2. Draw a sketch of an I.C engine and indicates the main parts.
3. Write brief notes on the following: 1) Cylinder block, 2) Piston,
3) Piston rings 4) Connecting rods 5) Crankshaft.
4. Write short notes on : 1) Cylinder head, 2) Valves, 3) Crankshaft,
and 4) connecting rod.
5. What are the different types of piston rings? Explain the
functions of these rings in an I.C engine.
6. Describe the working of a four−stroke cycle petrol engine with
neat sketches.
7. Explain the working of a four−stroke cycle diesel engine with
neat sketches.
8. Describe the working of a two−stroke cycle petrol engine with
neat sketches.
9. Explain the working of a two−stroke cycle diesel engine with
neat sketches.
10. Discuss the merits and demerits of 4−stroke cycle engines over
2−stroke cycle engines.
11. Differentiate between two stroke and four stroke engine.
12. Compare the petrol engine with diesel engine.

13. Explain the valve operating mechanism in an I.C engine.
14. Draw a typical valve timing diagram of a four stroke cycle
petrol engine and indicate the various processes.
15. Draw a typical valve timing diagram of a four stroke cycle
diesel engine and indicate the various processes.
16. Draw and explain a typical port timing diagram of a two stroke
cycle petrol engine.
17. Draw and explain a typical port timing diagram of a two stroke
cycle diesel engine.
18. Explain with sketches the working of A.C mechanical fuel pump.
19. What is the function of a carburettor? Draw a line diagram of a
simple carburettor and explain the working principle.
20. Sketch and name the parts of a solex carburettor.
21. With a neat sketch explain the working of starting and
accelerating circuits of solex carburettor.
22. Sketch a fuel feed pump used in diesel engine and explain its
working principle.
23. Describe the fuel injection pump of a diesel engine with a neat sketch.
24. Draw a neat sketch of an injector of a diesel engine and
explain its working.
25. Explain the different types of nozzles used for diesel engines.
26. What is need of fuel filters? Explain the working of a fuel filter
for a petrol engine.
27. Explain the working of a primary filter used in diesel engine.
28. Explain the working of a secondary or micro−filter used in
diesel engine.
29. Describe with a line diagram a coil ignition system and explain
the working principle.
30. Explain the working of the magneto ignition system used in S.I
engines with a line diagram.
31. With a line diagram, explain the working of electronic ignition
system.
32. Explain MPFI system with a line diagram.
33. Briefly explain CRDI system with a sketch.
34. Briefly describe the various methods of governing employed in
I.C engines.
35. Explain the different types of cooling systems employed in I.C
engines.
36. Explain briefly the water cooling system used in I.C engines.
37. What are the desirable properties of a good lubricant?
38. What are the functions of lubrication in I.C engines?
39. Explain with a neat sketch the flash lubrication system.
40. Explain the pressure system of lubrication with a neat sketch.
41. What is the function of an oil pump? Explain the working of a
gear pump.
42. Explain the working of a rotor pump used in lubrication
system of I.C engines.
43. What is the purpose of oil filters? Briefly explain the various
types of oil filters.

Unit – IV
Chapter 7. FUELS AND COMBUSTION OF FUELS
7.1 Introduction
A fuel may be defined as a substance which produces a
large amount of heat when burning with oxygen in the
atmospheric air. The amount of heat generated is known as
calorific value of the fuel.
7.2 Classification of fuels

The fuels may be classified as follows:
1. Solid fuels
2. Liquid fuels
3. Gaseous fuels
Each of these fuels may be further subdivided into
(a) Natural fuels (b) Prepared fuels
1. Solid fuels
Natural solid fuels are readily available in nature.
Examples of such fuels include wood, peat (mixture of water and
decayed vegetable matter), lignite, bituminous coal, anthracite
coal, etc.
Wood consists of mainly carbon and hydrogen. It is

converted into coal when burnt in the absence of air. It is used in
places where large amount of waste wood is available. Peat is not
widely used because it has a large amount of water content.
Lignite is an intermediate variety between bituminous coal and
peat. It contains more moisture and lower calorific value.
Bituminous coal contains little moisture and higher carbon. This
is widely used for power generation in thermal power plants.
Anthracite coal is the final stage of coal formation. It is

mostly used for domestic purposes because of its smokeless
combustion. It has high calorific value.
The examples of prepared solid fuels include charcoal,

coke, briquetted coal, pulverized coal, etc.
Unit – IV  7.1
Charcoal is prepared by the dry distillation of wood. It is a
good prepared solid fuel and is used for various metallurgical
processes. Coke is produced when coal is strongly heated
continuously for 42 to 48 hours in the absence of air in a closed
vessel. It has high carbon content and has a higher calorific value
than coal. Briquetted coal is produced form the finely ground coal
by moulding under pressure. Pulverized coal is obtained by
pulverizing the low grade fuels.
2. Liquid fuels
Liquid fuels are obtained from natural petroleum or crude
oil. The liquid fuels consist of hydrocarbons. They are mostly used
in internal combustion engines. The important liquid fuels are
gasoline (petrol), paraffin, diesel, oil, etc.
Advantages of liquid fuels:

• Higher calorific value
• Lower storage space required
• Better control of consumption by using valves
• Better cleanliness and freedom from dust
• Easy handling and transportation
• Higher efficiency
Disadvantages
• Higher cost
• More risk of fire
• Requires costly containers for storage
3. Gaseous fuels
The natural gas is found in or near the petroleum fields,
under the earth’s surface. It consists of methane ( CH4 ), ethane
( C2 H6 ), carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and carbon monoxide (CO).
The important prepared gases are coal gas, producer gas,

water gas, mond gas, blast furnace gas, coke over gas, etc. Coal gas
is obtained by the carbonization of coal. It is largely used for
domestic lighting and heating. Producer gas is obtained by the
partial combustion of coal, coke, anthracite coal or charcoal in a
Unit – IV  7.2
mixed air−steam blast. It is used in furnaces and for power
generation. Water gas is a mixture of hydrogen and carbon
monoxide. It is produced by passing steam over incandescent
coke. The water gas is used in furnaces and for welding.
Mond gas is produced by passing air and a large amount

of steam over waste coal. It is used for power generation and
heating. Blast furnace gas is a by−product in the production of pig
iron in the blast furnace. It is used for power generation in gas
engines, foe steam raising in boilers and for preheating the blast
for furnace. Coke over gas is a by−product from coke oven. It is
obtained by the carbonization of bituminous coal. It is used for
industrial heating and power generation.
Advantages of gaseous fuels

• The gaseous fuels undergo complete combustion with
minimum air supply.
• They do not produce ash or smoke.
• They are free from solid and liquid impurities.
• The high temperature can be obtained at a moderate cost.
• The supply of gaseous fuel can be accurately controlled.
• Gas firing system is very clean.
Disadvantages
• Gaseous fuels are easily inflammable
• The require large storage capacity
7.3 Requirements of a good fuel

The following are the important requirements of a good fuel:
A good fuel should
• have high calorific value
• have a low ignition temperature
• not produce any harmful gases.
• burn freely with high efficiency, once it is ignited.
• produce less smoke and gases
• be economical
• be easily stored and transported
Unit – IV  7.3
7.4 Composition of fuels
Solid fuel consists of mainly carbon and hydrogen. They
also contain oxygen, nitrogen and mineral substances in various
compositions. The chemical composition of coal, coke, peat, etc can
be determined by proximate and ultimate analysis.
a) Proximate analysis
Proximate analysis is carried out to determine the following in
the fuel:
(1) Moisture content (2) Volatile matter
(3) Fixed carbon and (4) Ash
(1) To determine moisture content : A known mass of fuel

( mf ) is heated to about 120 o C to remove water by evaporation.
Final mass of the fuel ( me ) is estimated. The difference between
the initial and final mass gives the amount of moisture content.
Mass of moisture, mm = mf − me
The percentage of moisture in the fuel is calculated as:
m
mm % = m × 100
mf
(2) To determine the volatile matter : A known mass of
fuel ( mf ) is kept in an air tight crucible and heated for 7 minutes
at about 960 o C . The volatile matter along with moisture is
removed from the fuel. The final mass of the fuel ( me ) is
estimated. The mass of volatile matter is determined as follows:
Mass of volatile matter, mv = mf − me

The percentage of volatile matter in the fuel is calculated as:
m
mv % = v × 100
mf
(3) To determine the ash content : A known mass of
fuel ( mf ) is taken and is burnt at 730 o C in the presence of
oxygen. All combustible matter burns at this temperature leaving
the ash as residue. Final mass of the ash is ( mash ) is estimated.
Unit – IV  7.4
The percentage of ash contents is calculated as:
m
mash % = ash × 100
mf
(4) To determine the fixed carbon : The fixed carbon is
determined as follows:
Mass of carbon, mc = mf − mm − mv − mash
The percentage of fixed carbon is determined as follows:
mc % = 100 − mm % − mv % − mash %
b) Ultimate analysis
The ultimate analysis is carried out to determine the
percentages of the ultimate constituents of the following:
(1) Carbon (2) Hydrogen (3) Oxygen
(4) Sulphur (5) Nitrogen (6) Ash
(1) To determine carbon and hydrogen percentage :

A sample of fuel is burnt in a oxidised atmosphere. Carbon
dioxide and water vapours are produced by burning of fuel. The
masses of carbon dioxide are determined. The carbon dioxide is
absorbed in a solution of potassium hydroxide for estimating the
mass. Water vapours are collected in chloride tube.
(2) To determine ash percentage : A known sample of

fuel is burnt at 730 o C in the in the presence of oxygen. All
combustible matter burns at this temperature leaving the ash as
residue. The mass of the ash is estimated.
(3) To determine the nitrogen and sulphur percentage :

This is estimated by complex chemical analysis on different
samples of fuel.
(4) To determine the oxygen percentage : The

percentage of oxygen is determined as follows:
Percentage of oxygen = 100 − Sum of percentages of remaining
constituents in the fuel.
Unit – IV  7.5
7.5 Elements and compounds
An element is a basic substance which cannot be broken
to form another substance. The elements may be in solid, liquid or
gaseous state. A compound is a substance formed by chemically
combining two or more elements so that the properties of the
compound entirely differ from those of the individual elements.
Example: Sodium chloride (Common salt) is a compound

which is formed by the chemical combination of two elements
sodium and chlorine.
7.6 Atom and molecule
An atom is the smallest particle of an element. It retains the
properties of that element. The mass of an atom varies from element
to element. Atomic mass or atomic weight is the relative measure of
an atom.
A molecule is the smallest quantity of substance which

retains the properties of the compound. Molecular weight is the
relative measure of a molecule. The atomic weight and molecular
weight of some important substances are tabulated below:
Atomic weight Molecular

Substance Symbol
(Atomic mass) Weight
Elements
Carbon C 12 12
Hydrogen H2 1 (1.008) 2
Nitrogen N2 14 28
Oxygen O2 16 32
Sulphur S 32 32
Compounds
Carbon dioxide CO2 − 12 + 32 = 44
Carbon monoxide CO − 12 + 16 = 28
Water vapour H 2O − 2 + 16 = 18
Sulphur dioxide SO2 − 32 + 32 = 64
Methane CH4 − 12 + 4 = 16
Unit – IV  7.6
7.7 Combustion of solid fuels
The combustion process of fuels can be represented by
chemical equations.
Combustion of carbon: A complete combustion of carbon takes
place when carbon in the fuel combines with oxygen in the air and
produces carbon dioxide. During this combustion, a large amount
of heat (33,822 kJ) is released.
Carbon + Oxygen  Carbon dioxide
C + O2  CO2
Molecular weights : 12 + 32  44
8 11
Divided by 12 : 1 + 
3 3
8 11
i.e. 1 kg of C + kg of O2  kg of CO2
3 3
8
Thus, 1 kg of carbon requires kg of oxygen for
3
11
complete burning and produces kg of carbon dioxide.
3
If the air supplied is not sufficient, carbon in the fuel is
burnt into carbon monoxide. This is an incomplete combustion.
Carbon + Oxygen  Carbon monoxide
2C + O2  2 CO
Molecular weights : (2 × 12) + 32  (2 × 28)
4 7
Divided by 24 : 1 + 
3 3
4 7
i.e. 1 kg of C + 3 kg of O2  3
kg of CO
4
Thus, 1 kg of carbon burning with kg of oxygen
3
11
and produces kg of carbon monoxide.
3
Combustion of carbon monoxide: Carbon monoxide combines

with oxygen to form carbon dioxide.
2 CO + O2  2 CO2
4 11
Divided by 56 : 1 + 7  7
Unit – IV  7.7
4 11
i.e. 1 kg of CO + kg of O2 
kg of CO2
7 7
4
Thus, 1 kg of carbon monoxide requires kg of
7
11
oxygen to form kg of carbon dioxide.
7
Combustion of hydrogen : During combustion, hydrogen in the

fuel combines with oxygen in the air and produces water vapour.
Hydrogen + Oxygen  Water vapour
2 H2 + O2  2 H 2O
Divided by 4 : 1 + 8  9
i.e. 1 kg of H 2 + 8 kg of O2  9 kg of H 2O
Thus, 1 kg of hydrogen requires 8 kg of oxygen to
produce 9 kg of water vapour.
Combustion of sulphur: During combustion, sulphur in the fuel

combines with oxygen in the air and produces sulphur dioxide.
Sulphur + Oxygen  Sulphur dioxide
S + O2  SO2
Molecular weights : 32 + 32  64
Divided by 32 : 1 + 1  2
i.e. 1 kg of S + 1 kg of O2  2 kg of SO2
Thus, 1 kg of sulphur requires 1 kg of oxygen to
produce 2 kg of sulphur dioxide.
Combustion of methane : Methane burns with oxygen and

produces carbon dioxide and vapour.
Methane + Oxygen  Carbon dioxide + Water vapour
CH4 + 2 O2  CO2 + 2 H 2O
Molecular weights : 16 + (2 × 32)  44 + (2 × 18)
11 9
Divided by 16 : 1 + 4  +
4 4
i.e. 1 kg of CH4 +4 kg of O2  11 9
kg of CO2 + kg of H2O
4 4
Unit – IV  7.8
Thus, 1 kg of methane requires 4 kg of oxygen to
11 9
produce kg of carbon dioxide and kg of water vapour.
4 4
Combustion of ethylene: Ethylene burns with oxygen and

produces carbon dioxide and water vapour.
C2 H4 + 3 O2  2 CO2 + 2 H2O
Molecular weights : 28 + (3× 32)  (2 × 44) + (2 × 18)
24 22 9
Divided by 28 : 1 +  +
7 7 7
24 22 9
i.e. 1 kg of C2 H4 + kg of O2  kg of CO2 + kg of H2O
7 7 7
24
Thus, 1 kg of ethylene requires kg of oxygen to
7
22 9
produce kg of carbon dioxide and kg of water
7 7
vapour.
7.8 Combustion of gaseous fuels

Gaseous fuels are generally expressed in terms of volume.
Combustion of carbon monoxide gas :
2 CO + O2  2 CO2
3 3
2 m 3 of CO + 1 m of O2  2 m of CO2
3 3 3
Divided by 2 : 1 m of CO + 0.5 m of O2  1 m of CO2
Thus, 1 m 3 of carbon monoxide requires 0.5 m 3 of
oxygen to produce 1 m 3 of carbon dioxide.
Combustion of hydrogen gas:
2 H2 + O2  2 H2O
2 m 3 of H2 + 1 m 3 of O2  2 m 3 of H2O
3 3 3
Divided by 2 : 1 m of H2 + 0.5 m of O2  1 m of H2O
Thus, 1 m 3 of hydrogen requires 0.5 m 3 of oxygen to
produce 1 m 3 of water vapour.
Unit – IV  7.9
Combustion of methane :
CH4 + 2 O2  CO2 + 2 H2O
1 m 3 of CH4 + 2 m 3 of O2  1 m 3 of CO2 + 2 m 3 of H2O
Thus, 1 m 3 of methane requires 2 m 3 of oxygen to
produce 1 m 3 carbon dioxide and 2 m 3 of water vapour.
Combustion of ethylene :
C2 H4 + 3 O2  2 CO2 + 2 H2O
1 m 3 of C2 H4 + 3 m 3 of O2  2 m 3 of CO2 + 2 m 3 of H2O
Thus, 1 m 3 of ethylene requires 3 m 3 of oxygen to
produce 2 m 3 carbon dioxide and 2 m 3 of water vapour.
7.9 Atmospheric air

Oxygen is necessary for the combustion of any fuel. This
oxygen is obtained from atmospheric air. For all practical
purposes, the composition of air taken as follows:
Nitrogen = 77 % and Oxygen = 23 % (By weight or mass)
Nitrogen = 79 % and Oxygen = 21 % (By volume)
7.10 Stoichiometric (minimum) air required for complete

combustion of solid and liquid fuels
Consider 1 kg of a fuel. Let the fuel contains, Carbon = C kg,
Hydrogen = H2 kg, Oxygen = O2 kg, and Sulphur = S kg.
For the complete combustion of the fuel,

8
1 kg of carbon requires kg of O2
3
8
∴ C kg of carbon requires × C kg of O2
3
1 kg of hydrogen requires 8 kg of O2
∴ H2 kg of hydrogen requires 8 × H 2 kg of O2
1 kg of sulphur requires 1 kg of O2
∴ S kg of sulphur requires S kg of O2
Unit – IV  7.10
8
Total Oxygen required = C + 8 H2 + S kg
3
Oxygen available in the fuel = O2 kg.
∴ Net oxygen required for the combustion of the fuel

8
= C + 8 H 2 + S − O2 kg
3
Air required for 23 kg of oxygen = 100 kg
Air required for  C + 8 H 2 + S − O2  kg of oxygen
8
3 
100  8
mmin = C + 8 H 2 + S − O2  kg.
23  3 
7.11 Excess air

The theoretical air supplied may not be sufficient for the
complete combustion of the fuel. In actual practice, the amount of
air supplied is always in excess than the theoretical air required.
The amount of excess air supplied depends on the quantity of fuel
to be burnt, rate of combustion, method of firing, etc. Generally
25% to 50% excess air used. If excess air is supplied,
Total air supplied = Theoretical (minimum) air + Excess air

mtotal = mmin + mex
Mass of excess air : The mass of excess air supplied can

be determined by the mass of unused oxygen available in the flue
gases.
100
kg of air is required for 1 kg of oxygen.
23
100
∴ Excess air supplied, mex = × Mass of O2 in flue gases.
23
7.12 Product of combustion

The products of combustion during the combustion of a
fuel can be estimated if the percentage of constituents of the fuel
are known.
Unit – IV  7.11
Amount of products of Percentage
Products of combustion by mass
combustion Calculated m
Formula × 100%
mass, m(kg) m
11 m1
CO2 ×C m1 × 100
3 m
m2
H2O 9 H2 m2 × 100
m
m3
SO2 2S m3 × 100
m
O2 m4
0.23 × mex m4 × 100
in excess air m
N2 m5
0.77 × mtot m5 × 100
in total air m
m 100 %
7.13 Theoretical (minimum) volume of air required for

complete combustion
Consider 1 m 3 of a gaseous fuel. Let it contains the
following constituents: Carbon monoxide = CO m 3 , Hydrogen = H2
m 3 , Methane = CH4 m 3 , Ethylene = C2 H4 m 3 , Oxygen = O2 m 3 .
For the complete combustion of the gas,
1 m 3 of carbon monoxide requires 0.5 m 3 of O2
∴ CO m 3 of carbon monoxide requires 0.5 CO m 3 of O2
1 m 3 of hydrogen requires 0.5 m 3 of O2
∴ H2 m 3 of hydrogen requires 0.5 H 2 m 3 of O2
1 m 3 of methane requires 2 m 3 of O2
∴ CH4 m 3 of methane requires 2 CH 4 m 3 of O2
1 m 3 of ethylene requires 3 m 3 of O2
∴ C2 H4 m 3 of ethylene requires 3 C2 H 4 m 3 of O2
Total volume of O2 required = 0.5CO + 0.5 H2 + 3CH4 + 3C2 H4 m 3
O2 available in the fuel = O2 m 3
∴ Net volume of O2 required
= 0.5CO + 0.5 H 2 + 3CH 4 + 3C2 H 4 − O2 m 3
Unit – IV  7.12
Air required for 21 m 3 of oxygen = 100 m 3
Air required for [0.5CO + 0.5 H 2 + 3CH4 + 3C2 H 4 − O2 ] m 3 of oxygen
=
100
[0.5CO + 0.5 H2 + 3CH4 + 3C2 H4 − O2 ]
21
∴ Minimum volume of air required,
Vair =
100
21
[0.5CO + 0.5 H 2 + 3CH 4 + 3C2 H 4 − O2 ]
7.14 Volumetric and gravimetric analysis
The analysis of the composition of a mixture of gases
based on volume is known as volumetric analysis. This gives the
percentage by volume of each of the constituents of a gaseous fuel.
The analysis of a mixture of gases based on mass or
weight is known as gravimetric analysis. This gives percentage by
mass or weight of each of the constituents of a gaseous fuel.
7.15 Conversion of volumetric to gravimetric (mass) analysis
The conversion of volumetric to gravimetric analysis
involves the following steps:
(1) The percentage volume V and the molecular weight M of each
constituent are noted.
(2) The mass of each constituent is found out by multiplying the
volume and its molecular weight ( m = V × M )
(3) Total mass of the mixture of gases is found out by adding the
individual mass of each constituents. (  m = m1 + m2 + ... )
(4) The percentage by mass of each constituents is calculated by
dividing the mass of the constituent by total mass of the gas.
m
% mass =
m
7.16 Conversion of gravimetric (mass) analysis into
volumetric analysis
The conversion of gravimetric to volumetric analysis
involves the following steps:
(1) The percentage mass m and the molecular weight M of each
constituent are noted.
(2) The volume of each constituent is found out by dividing the
m
mass of the constituent by its molecular weight ( V = )
M
Unit – IV  7.13
(3) Total volume of the mixture of gases is found out by adding
the individual volume of each constituents. (  V = V1 + V2 + ... )
(4) The percentage by volume of each constituents is calculated
by dividing the volume of the constituent by total volume of
the gas.
V
% volume =
V
7.17 Mass of air actually supplied and air fuel ratio
The air−fuel ratio in volumetric analysis is given by,
Air  N2 
mtot = = 3.03C   kg / kg of fuel
Fuel  CO2 + CO 
where, C = Mass of carbon in 1 kg of fuel
N2 = Percentage by volume of N2 in flue gases
CO2 = Percentage by volume of CO2 in flue gases
CO = Percentage by volume of CO in flue gases
The air−fuel ratio in gravimetric analysis is given by,
Air 100 × N 2 × C
mtot = = kg / kg of fuel
Fuel 21CO2 + 33CO
where, C = Mass of carbon in 1 kg of fuel
N2 = Percentage by mass of N2 in flue gases
CO2 = Percentage by mass of CO2 in flue gases
CO = Percentage by mass of CO in flue gases
7.18 Calorific value (CV)

The calorific value of a fuel is defined as the amount of
heat liberated by the complete combustion of unit quantity (1 kg
in case of solid and liquid fuel, and 1 m 3 in case of gaseous fuels)
of a fuel. It is expressed as kJ/kg for liquid and solid fuels, and
kJ/ m 3 for gaseous fuels.
(a) Gross or Higher Calorific Value (HCV)
It is defined as the amount of heat obtained by the
complete combustion of unit mass (or unit volume) of a fuel, when
the products of combustion are cooled down to the temperature of
the air (15 o C ) supplied.
Unit – IV  7.14
Dulong's formula for HCV:
The higher calorific value (HCV) is given by the Dulong’s
formula
 O 
HCV = 33800C + 144000  H 2 − 2  + 9270 S kJ/kg
 8 
(b) Net or Lower Calorific Value (LCV)
Lower calorific value is defined as the amount of heat
obtained by the complete combustion of unit mass (or unit
volume) of a fuel, when the heat absorbed by the product of
combustion is not recovered.
The lower calorific value for solid and liquid fuels is given by:
LCV = [HCV − (9 H 2 + ms )]× 2466 kJ/kg
where, H2 = Mass of hydrogen (kg/kg of fuel)
ms = mass of moisture or steam (kg/kg of fuel)
In the case of gaseous fuels,
m 
LCV = HCV −  s × 2466  kJ/ m 3
V
 s 
where, ms = amount of steam condensed (kg)
Vs = Volume of gas used at S.T.P ( m 3 )
7.19 Water equivalent ( me )

The water equivalent of a substance (or an apparatus) is
defined as the quantity of water which requires the same amount
of heat as the substance to raise its temperature through 1 o C . It
is mathematically expressed as,
mc .C pc
me =
C pw
where, me = Water equivalent of apparatus
mc = Mass of apparatus
C pc = Specific heat of apparatus material
C pw = Specific heat of water (4.19 kJ/kg.K)
Unit – IV  7.15
7.20 Experimental determination of calorific value
Calorimeters are used to determine the calorific value of any
fuel. The generally used calorimeters are :
1) Bomb calorimeter (for solid and liquid fuels)
2) Junker’s calorimeter (for gaseous fuels)
3) Boy’s calorimeter (for gaseous fuels)
1) Bomb calorimeter
This calorimeter is used to determine the calorific value of
solid and liquid fuels.
Thermometer
Non return valve
Release valve
Copper vessel
Water bath
Bomb
Fuse wire
Crucible
To battery
Fig. 7.1 Bomb calorimeter

Construction:
The schematic arrangement of bomb calorimeter is shown in
the figure. It consists of a bomb made of thick walled stainless steel.
It is designed so as to withstand high pressure, heat and corrosion. A
crucible is provided inside the bomb to place the fuel. The oxygen
required to burn the fuel is supplied to the bomb through a
non−return valve. A pressure release valve is provided to discharge
the burnt gases. Two guide rods are provided at the bottom. The
crucible is supported by one of the guide rods. The guide rods are
connected with a fuse wire made of platinum of nichrome. The other
ends of fuse wire are connected to a battery. The fuel can be ignited
by the heat generated in the fuse wire when high voltage current is
passed through the wire. The bomb is placed in a water bath
containing a known quantity of water. A stirrer is also provided.
Unit – IV  7.16
Procedure:
A known mass of a fuel sample is placed in the crucible.
Oxygen is supplied through the non−return valve till the pressure
inside the bomb rises to 30 atm. Then, the bomb is completely
submerged in a known quantity ( mw ) of water in a large copper
vessel. The vessel is placed inside a large insulated copper vessel
to reduce the heat losses due to radiation. When a steady
temperature ( T1 ) is reached, the fuse wire is heated up by
passing electricity. The fuel is ignited and burnt completely. The
heat released during the combustion of the fuel is absorbed by the
surrounding water and apparatus. The final temperature of water
( T2 ) is noted.
Let,
mf = Mass of fuel burnt
mw = Mass of water in calorimeter
mc = Mass of calorimeter apparatus
HCV = Higher calorific value of the fuel
C pw = Specific heat capacity of water
C pc = Specific heat capacity of calorimeter
T1 = Initial temperature of water and calorimeter
T2 = Final temperature of water and calorimeter
H2 = Mass of hydrogen present in 1 kg of fuel
Heat liberated by the fuel, Qf = mf . HCV

Heat absorbed by the water, Qw = mw .C pw .(T2 − T1 )
Heat absorbed by the calorimeter, Qc = mc .C pc .(T2 − T1 )
Qf = Qw + Qc
mf . HCV = mw .C pw .(T2 − T1 ) + mc .C pc .(T2 − T1 )
mw .C pw .(T2 − T1 ) + mc .C pc .(T2 − T1 )
∴ HCV =
mf
mc .C pc
Water equivalent of apparatus, me =
C pw
( mw + me ).C pw .(T2 − T1 )
∴ HCV =
mf
Unit – IV  7.17
To compensate the loss of heat due to radiation, a cooling
correction is added to the observed temperature rise.
Corrected temp. rise = Observed temp. rise + Cooling correction.
(T2 − T1 ) c = (T1 − T1 ) + Tc
The corrected temperature rise is substituted in the above
expression to estimate the HCV of the fuel.
The lower calorific value (LCV) is calculated from the

amount of moisture ( mm ) and hydrogen present in the fuel.
LCV = HCV − (9 H 2 + mm ) × 2466
2) Junker’s gas calorimeter

This calorimeter is used to find out the calorific value of
gaseous fuels.
Construction:
It consists of a cylindrical chamber with vertical tubes. A
burner is provided at the bottom of the chamber to burn the gas.
The hot burnt gases pass to the top of the burner and then
descend through small metal tubes. These tubes are surrounded
by water. Water enters through bottom of the chamber and leaves
at the top. A pressure regulator is provided to control the
pressure of the gas entering the gas meter. A pressure gauge and
a thermometer are also provided.
Thermometer(T)
Water outlet
T
Cobmustion chamber
Over
flow T
Water
inlet Gas meter Pressure regulator
Gas outlet
Condensate
Fig.7.2 Junker’s gas calorimeter
Unit – IV  7.18
Procedure:
The gaseous fuel is passed through the burner. The gas is
burnt under steady uniform conditions until the equilibrium
condition is reached. The volume of the gas (V) passing through
the calorimeter is measure by the gas meter. The temperature of
the gas (T) is noted. The pressure of the gas ( pg ) and the
barometric pressure ( pb ) are noted. The inlet temperature ( T1 )
and outlet temperature ( T2 ) of the cooling water are noted. The
mass of the cooling water ( mw ) is measured. The amount of
condensate ( ms ) is measured by collecting it in a small graduated
vessel.
Let,
ps = Standard pressure
Ts = Standard temperature
Vs = Volume of the gas burnt reduced to S.T.P
The calorific value of gaseous fuels is generally expression
kJ/ m 3 of the gas at S.T.P conditions.
The volume of gas reduce to S.T.P conditions is calculated
using gas equation.
p .V p.V p.V Ts
By gas equation, s s = ; ∴ Vs = ×
Ts T T ps
Heat released by the fuel, Qf = HCV × Vs
Heat carried by the water, Qw = mw .C pw .(T2 − T1 )
Heat released by the fuel = Heat carried by the water
HCV × Vs = mw .C pw .(T2 − T1 )
mw .C pw .(T2 − T1 )
∴ HCV =
Vs
The lower calorific value is determined from the amount
of condensate collected.
 ms 
LCV = HCV −  
V
 s × 2466 
Unit – IV  7.19
7.21 Exhaust gas analyser - Orsat apparatus
The constituents of the flue (exhaust) gases are
determined for checking the combustion efficiency of boilers.
Orsat apparatus is used to carry out the flue gas analysis.
Aspirator bottle
d
c b a
C B A
Flasks
Eudiometer tube
Fig.7.3 Orsat apparatus

Construction:
Orsat apparatus consists of a graduate measuring glass
tube, called as eudiometer, and three flasks A, B and C. An
aspirator bottle containing water is connected to the bottom of the
eudiometer tube by means of rubber tube. It can be moved up and
down for producing a suction or pressure effect on the sample of
the flue gas.
The flask A contains caustic soda (NaOH) and is used to
absorb carbon dioxide in the sample of the flue gas. The flask B
contains caustic soda and pyrogallic acid, which absorbs oxygen
from the sample of the flue gas. The flask C contains a solution of
cuprous chloride ( Cu 2Cl 2 ) in hydrochloric acid (HCl). It is used to
absorb carbon monoxide (CO) from the sample of the flue gas.
Each of the three flasks has stop cock ‘a’, ‘b’, and ‘c’ respectively
and a three−way cock ‘d’ which can be opened to either
atmosphere or flue gas.
Procedure :
The stop cocks (a, b and c) are closed. The three−way cock
is opened and 100 c m 3 of flue gas is sucked into the measuring
glass. Then the three−way cock is closed. The level of the
aspirator bottle is adjusted and the flue gas is forced in to flask A
Unit – IV  7.20
by opening the cock ‘a’. The flue gas is allowed to remain in the
flask A for sometime. The chemical in the flask A absorbs carbon
dioxide. Then the flue gas is sucked back into the glass tube by
moving the aspirator flask. The contraction in the volume of the
flue gas is noted by reading the level of water in the measuring
glass. This gives the amount of carbon dioxide present in the
sample of the flue gas.
The procedure is repeated with the other two flasks B and

C to find the amount of oxygen and carbon monoxide present in
the sample of flue gas.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. How fuels are classified? List out the advantages and

disadvantages of each.
2. What are the requirements of good fuel?
3. Explain the ultimate and proximate analysis of fuel?
4. How the stoichiometric air requirement for a fuel is determined?
5. What is meant by excess air? Explain the significance of
excess air.
6. Explain how the volumetric analysis of a gas is converted into
gravimetric analysis.
7. What is calorific value of a fuel? What is the difference
between HCV and LCV?
8. Explain the procedure for finding the calorific value of a solid fuel.
9. Explain any one method of finding calorific value of a gaseous
fuel.
10. Explain the procedure for the analysis of exhaust gases uses
Orsat apparatus
Unit – IV  7.21
POINTS TO REMEMBER
1. Minimum (theoretical) air required,

100  8
mmin = C + 8 H2 + S − O2 
23  3 
2. Total air supplied, mtot = mmin + mex
3. Minimum volume of air required,
Vair =
100
[0.5CO + 0.5 H2 + 3CH4 + 3C2 H4 − O2 ]
21
4. Mass of actual air supplied and air−fuel ratio
Air  N2 
mtot = = 3.03C   kg/kg of fuel … Volumetric
Fuel  CO2 + CO 
Air 100 × N 2 × C
mtot = = kg/kg of fuel … Gravimetric
Fuel 21CO2 + 33CO
5. Dulong’s formula
 O 
HCV = 33800C + 144000  H2 − 2  + 9270 S kJ/kg
 8 
mc .C pc
6. Water equivalent of calorimeter, me =
C pw
7. Calorific value of solid fuel (bomb calorimeter)
mw .C pw .(T2 − T1 ) + mc .C pc .(T2 − T1 )
HCV =
mf
LCV = HCV − (9 H2 + mm ) × 2466
8. Calorific value of gaseous fuel (Junker’s calorimeter)
mw .C pw .(T2 − T1 ) m 
HCV = ; LCV = HCV −  s × 2466 
Vs  Vs 
Unit – IV  7.22
Unit – IV
Chapter 8. PERFORMANCE OF I.C ENGINES
8.1 Testing of I.C engines
An internal combustion (i.c) engine should be tested to
check the performance under various operating conditions. These
tests are generally classified as:
a) Commercial tests b) Thermodynamic tests.
The following are the important reasons for conducting

tests in i.c engines.
• To determine the power developed by the engine
• To determine the various efficiencies of the engine
• To determine the fuel consumption
• To ensure the design data
• To detect the sources of heat losses
• To prepare the heat balance sheet
a) Commercial tests: This test is conducted for the

following purposes:
• To determine the overload carrying capacity of the engine
• To determine the lubricating oil consumption
• To determine the amount of cooling water required
• To check the valve timings
• To check the stability of the engine at various load
condition
b) Thermodynamic tests: This test is conducted for

comparing the actual performance of the engine with the
theoretical performance.
The following observations are made during this test:

Indicated power, brake power, fuel consumption, heat carried
away by the exhaust gases, heat carried away by the cooling
water, etc. The performance of the engine is determined through
various efficiencies and heat balance sheet.
Unit – IV  8.1
8.2 Indicated power (IP)
Indicated power is the actual power developed inside an
engine cylinder. It is measured with the help of indicated mean
effective pressure.
Indicator diagram
3 + ve
p 5
6
1 - ve
2
V
Fig.8.1 Indicator diagram
An indicator diagram is the graphical representation of
pressure volume variations during the working cycle. It is drawn
by an instrument called indicator. The indicator diagram has a
positive loop and a negative loop. The work done during the cycle
is given by the area of positive loop. The pumping loss due to
suction and exhaust period is given by the area of the negative
loop. Therefore the net work done during the cycle is given by,
W= Are of positive loop − Area of negative loop.
W = (Area 3−4−5−6−7−3) − (Area 1−2−7−1)
The area of the indicator diagram is measured by a

planimeter or by counting the number of squares in the loops.
Mean height of the indicator diagram is given by,
Area of indicator diagram A
h= =
Lenght of indicator diagram L
Indicated mean effective pressure ( pmi )

It is the algebraic sum of the mean pressures acting on
the piston during each stroke in one complete working cycle. It is
measured from the actual indicator diagram.
The indicated mean effective pressure is given by,
Unit – IV  8.2
pmi = Mean height of indicator diagram × Spring number
A
pmi = h × S = ×S
L
Number of explosions: It is the number of power strokes or
working strokes of an engine in a given time. It is expressed by
the symbol ‘n’. The number of explosions per second is given by,
N
n= for four stroke cycle engines
2
n = N for two stroke cycle engines
where, N= Engine speed in r.p.s.
The indicated power of an engine is given by,

IP = pmi .l.a. n. k
where, pmi = Indicated mean effective pressure
l = Length of stroke of the piston
a = Area of cross−section of piston or cylinder
n = No. of explosions or working strokes per second
k = No. of cylinder.
8.3 Brake power
Brake power is the useful power available at the
crankshaft. This power is less than the actual power (indicated
power) developed inside the engine.
8.4 Brake power measurement

Torque is needed for determining the brake power.
Dynamometers are used to measure torque. Prony brake
dynamometers and rope brake dynamometers are widely used for
measuring brake power. Electrical dynamometers and hydraulic
dynamometers may also used to determine the brake power.
a) Prony brake dynamometer : It consists of a brake

arm, wooden blocks and weights. The principle of working is the
conversion of power into heat by dry friction. The wooden blocks
are mounted on a flexible rope or band. The weights are attached
to brake arm. Spring loaded blots are provided to loosen or
tighten the wooden blocks for varying the friction. A brake is
provided to stop the engine.
Unit – IV  8.3
Spring
Load bar
Flywheel
Tie bolt
Wooden block
W
Fig.8.2 Prony brake dynamometer

The wooden blocks are pressed against the rotating
drums. The wooden blocks absorb the engine torque and dissipate
it as frictional resistance. The entire power is absorbed and
converted into heat.
Let, W = Net load on brake (kN)

R= Effective radius of brake drum (m)
N = Speed of the engine (r.p.s)
Torque is given by, T = W . R
Brake power is given by, BP = 2. π. N .T = π. D. N .W ( Q 2 R = D )
b) Rope brake dynamometer: It consists of a number of

ropes wound around a rotating drum. The drum is driven by the
crankshaft of the engine. One end of the rope is connected to a
spring balance. The other end is connected to the load. The power
is absorbed due to the friction between the rope and the drum.
Let, D1 = Diameter of the brake drum (m)

d1 = Diameter of the rope or thickness of the band (m)
W1 = Weights applied (kN)
W2 = Spring balance reading (kN)
N = Speed of the engine (r.p.s)
Unit – IV  8.4
Flywheel
Rope
Spring
balance
Load
Chain
Fig.8.3 Rope brake dynamometer
Effective diameter of brake drum, D = D1 + d1

D + d1
Effective radius of brake drum, R = 1
2
Net brake load, W = W1 − W2
Brake torque , T = W . R
Brake power, BP = 2. π. N .T = π. D. N .W ( Q 2 R = D )
c) Brake power can also be calculated, if brake mean

effective pressure is given,
BP = pmb .l. a. n. k
where, pmb = Brake mean effective pressure
8.5 Friction power (FP)

Friction power is the power lost mainly due to the friction
in the moving parts. It also takes into account the follow losses:
• Mechanical losses in bearings
• Pumping loss due to suction and exhaust
• Air resistance flywheel
Frictional power is the difference between indicated
power and brake power.
FP = IP − BP
Unit – IV  8.5
8.6 Efficiencies of engines
a) Indicated thermal efficiency ( η I.T )
It is defined as the ratio of the actual power (indicated
power) developed to the heat energy supplied to the engine. It is
also called as actual thermal efficiency or thermal efficiency.
Indicated power
Indicated thermal efficiency =
Heat supplied
IP IP × 3600
η I .T = × 100 or η I . T = × 100
 FC  × CV FC × CV
 
 3600 
where, IP = Indicated power (kW)
FC = Fuel consumption (kg/hr or m 3 /hr)
CV = Calorific value of the fuel (kJ/kg or kJ/ m 3 )
b) Brake thermal efficiency ( η B.T )

It is defined as the ratio of heat converted into useful
work (BP) to the heat energy supplied to the engine. Brake
thermal efficiency is called as overall efficiency. It varies from
25% to 30%.
Brake power
Brake thermal efficiency =
Heat supplied
BP BP × 3600
η B. T = × 100 or η B. T = × 100
 FC  × CV FC × CV
 
 3600 
where, BP = Indicated power (kW)
c) Mechanical efficiency ( ηm )
It is defined as the ratio of brake power to indicated power
of an engine. Its value varies from 70% to 90%. It depends upon
the loading condition and design of the engine.
Brake power
Mechanical efficiency =
Indicated power
BP
ηm =
IP
Unit – IV  8.6
Mechanical efficiency is also given by,
Brake thermal efficiency η
ηm = = B.T
Indicated thermal efficiency η I .T
Brake mean effective pressure p
or, ηm = = mb
Indicated mean effective pressure pmi
d) Relative efficiency ( ηrel )

It is defined as the ratio of indicated (actual) thermal
efficiency to the theoretical (ideal) thermal efficiency. it value
varies from 60% to 80%. It is also called as efficiency ratio.
Relative efficiency or efficiency ratio,

Indicated (actual) thermal efficiency
=
Ideal thermal efficiency (Air standard efficiency)
η
ηrel = B. T
ηideal
e) Volumetric efficiency ( ηvol )

It is defined as the ratio of the actual volume (reduce to
N.T.P) of the charge admitted into the engine cylinder during the
suction stroke to the stroke volume of the engine.
Volume of the charge admitted during suction
ηvol =
Stroke volume of the piston
Vn
ηvol =
Vs
p.V Tn
The volume reduced to N.T.P is given by, Vn = ×
T pn
8.7 Specific fuel consumption (SFC)

Specific fuel consumption is defined as the amount of fuel
consumption to obtain one brake power−hour of work. It is also
called as brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC)
FC
BSFC =
BP
where, FC = mass of fuel consumed (kg/hr)
BP = Brake power (kW)
Unit – IV  8.7
Brake thermal efficiency is given by,
BP × 3600 3600 Q FC = BSFC 
η B.T = =  BP 
FC × CV BSFC × CV
3600
or, BSFC =
η B. T × CV
Specific fuel consumption may also be given on indicated

power basis. It is known as indicated specific fuel consumption
(ISFC).
FC 3600
ISFC = =
IP η I . T × CV
8.8 Morse test

Morse test is used to find out the indicated power of a
multicylinder i.c. engine. No indicator is used is used in this
method.
Procedure for Morse test:

1) The engine is coupled with a brake and the brake power is
determined (BP)
2) The first cylinder is now cut−off. This is done by shorting
out the spark plug of the first cylinder in the case of petrol
engine, and stopping the fuel supply to the first cylinder
in the case of diesel engine. The speed of the engine
reduces considerably.
3) Load is reduced until the engine attains normal speed.
4) Under this condition, the brake power is determined
( BP1 )
5) Then the first cylinder is operated. The second cylinder is
cut−off.
6) The engine speed is restored to the normal speed and the
brake power is determined ( BP2 )
7) The same procedure is repeated for each cylinder in
sequence. In each case, the brake power is determined
Let, IP1 , IP2 , IP3 ,and IP4 are the indicated power of the
cylinders 1, 2, 3, and 4 respectively.
Unit – IV  8.8
BP = Total brake power of all 4 cylinders
BP1 = Total brake power of cylinders with cylinder 1 cut−off.
FP1 , FP2 , FP3 and FP4 are the frictional power of each cylinder.
If all cylinders are working,

BP = ( IP1 − FP1 ) + ( IP2 − FP2 ) + ( IP3 − FP3 ) + ( IP4 − FP4 )
BP = ( IP1 + IP2 + IP3 + IP4 ) − ( FP1 + FP2 + FP3 + FP4 ) ..(1)
When the first cylinder is cut−off, the IP of the cylinder is cut off.
But BP of the cylinder exists. Therefore brake power of the other
3 cylinders is given by,
BP1 = ( IP2 + IP3 + IP4 ) − ( FP1 + FP2 + FP3 + FP4 ) ….. (2)
Subtracting equation(2) from (1), we get

BP − BP1 = IP1 (Indicated power of first cylinder)
Similarly,
BP − BP2 = IP2 (Indicated power of second cylinder)
BP − BP3 = IP3 (Indicated power of third cylinder)
BP − BP4 = IP4 (Indicated power of fourth cylinder)
The indicated power of the engine is given by,

IP = IP1 + IP2 + IP3 + IP4
8.9 Heat balance sheet

Heat energy is supplied in an internal combustion engine
by burning the fuel. A part of the heat supplied is converted into
useful mechanical work. It is available in the engine crankshaft.
The remaining heat energy is lost. The main sources of heat
losses are as follows:
1) Heat carried away by the cooling water ( Qw )
2) Heat carried away by exhaust gases ( Qg )
3) Heat lost due to radiation ( Qrad )
4) Heat lost due to incomplete combustion ( Qic )
Unit – IV  8.9
Accounted heat loses : The heat losses which can be
determined from the observed values during the test are known
as accounted heat losses.
Unaccounted heat losses : The heat losses which cannot

be determined accurately are known as unaccounted heat losses.
The unaccounted heat losses can be determined by subtracting
the accounted heat losses and heat converted into useful work
from the heat supplied to the engine.
Procedure for preparing heat balance sheet.

The procedure for preparing the heat balance sheet includes
the following:
1) The engine is made to run on constant load at constant speed.
2) The brake power of the engine is estimated.
3) The amount of fuel consumption (FC)is determined.
4) The inlet and outlet temperatures ( T1 and T2 ) of the cooling
water are noted.
5) The amount of cooling water ( mw ) circulate is noted.
6) The temperature of exhaust gas is ( Tg ) is noted
7) The amount of exhaust gases ( m g ) is noted.
8) The room temperature ( Ta ) is noted.
The heat balance sheet can be prepared on hour basis, or

minute basis or second (kW) basis.
1) Heat supplied by the fuel ( Qs )

Qs = FC × CV
where, FC = Fuel consumption (kg/hr or m 3 /hr)
CV = Calorific value of fuel (kJ/kg.K)
2) Heat equivalent of useful work (Brake power) ( QBP ):

QBP = BP × 3600
Percentage of heat used for brake power,
Q
QBP % = BP × 100
Qs
3) Heat lost due to cooling water:

Qw = mw .C pw .(T2 − T1 )
Unit – IV  8.10
where, mw = Mass of cooling water
C pw = Specific heat capacity of cooling water (4.19 kJ/kg.K)
T1 = Inlet temperature of cooling water
T2 = Outlet temperature of cooling water
Percentage of heat lose due to cooling water:

Q
Qw % = w × 100
Qs
4) Heat lost due to exhaust gases ( Q g )
Q g = m g .C pg .(Tg − Ta )
where, m g = Mass of exhaust gases
C pg = Specific heat capacity of exhaust gases (1.005 kJ/kg.K)
Tg = Temperature of exhaust gases
Ta = Ambient air temperature or room temperature
The mass of the exhaust gases is the sum of the fuel

consumption and air consumption.
m g = FC + ma
Percentage of heat lose due to cooling water:
Qg
Qg % = × 100
Qs
5) Unaccounted heat loss ( Qua )
The unaccounted heat losses may be calculated as follows:
Qua = Qs − [QBP + Qw + Qg + .......]
Percentage of unaccounted heat losses
Q
Qua % = ua × 100
Qs
Unit – IV  8.11
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What is the purpose of testing an i.c. engine? State the various

quantities that can be determined by thermodynamic tests.
2. What is mean effective pressure? How it is measured?
3. Define: (a) Indicated power; (b) Brake power; (c) Specific fuel
consumption.
4. Distinguish between brake power, indicated power and friction
power.
5. List out the various methods of determining brake power of
an i.c.engine and explain any one method.
6. Define: Indicated thermal efficiency and brake thermal efficiency.
7. Define: Mechanical efficiency and relative efficiency.
8. What is the purpose of conducting a Morse test in an i.c. engine.
10. Explain the Morse test for finding out the indicated power of a
multicylinder engine.
10. Why is the heat balance sheet prepared for an i.c. engine?
Discuss in detail the quantities to be determined in order to
complete the heat balance sheet?
11. State the procedure to be adopted for preparing the heat
balance sheet during an i.c. engine test.
Unit – IV  8.12
POINTS TO REMEMBER
A
1. Indicated mean effective pressure, pmi = h × S = ×S
L
2. No. of explosions, n = N for two stroke engines
N
n= for four stroke engines
2
3. Indicated power, IP = pmi .l.a.n.k
4. Brake torque, T = W . R
5. Brake power, BP = 2.π. N .T
= 2.π. N .W . R
= π. D. N .W
= pmb .l.a.n.k
6. Friction power, FP = IP − BP
IP × 3600
7. Indicated thermal efficiency, η IT =
FC × CV
BP × 3600
8. Brake thermal efficiency, η BT =
FC × CV
BP η BT p
9. Mechanical efficiency, ηm = = = mb
IP η IT pmi
η
10. Relative efficiency, ηrel = IT
ηideal
FC FC
11. BSFC = ; ISFC =
BP IP
12. Morse test : Indicated power of
First cylinder, IP1 = BP − BP1
Second cylinder, IP2 = BP − BP2
Third cylinder, IP3 = BP − BP3
Fourth cylinder, IP4 = BP − BP4
Indicated power of engine, IP = IP1 + IP2 + IP3 + IP4
13. Heat balance sheet :
Heat supplied, Qs = FC × CV
Heat equivalent of brake power, QBP = BP × 3600
Heat carried by cooling water, Qw = mw .C pw .(T2 − T1 )
Heat carried by exhaust gases, Qg = m g .C pg .(Tg − Ta )
Mass of exhaust gases, m g = FC + mair
Heat lost unaccounted, Qua = Qs − [QBP + Qw + Qg + .....]
Unit – IV  8.13
SOLVED PROBLEMS
Example 8.1
A gas engine has piston diameter of 150mm, length of
stroke 400mm and mean effective pressure 5.5 bar. The engine
makes 120 explosions per minute. Determine the mechanical
efficiency of the engine, if the brake power is 5kW.
Given data
Piston diameter, d = 150mm = 0.15m
Length of stroke, l = 3 % = 0.03 kg/kg of coal
Mean effective pressure, pmi = 5.5 bar = 550 kN/ m 2
120
No. of explosions, n = 120/min = = 2 /s
60
Brake power, BP = 5 kW
To find
Mechanical efficiency, ηm
Solution
π.d 2 π(0.5)2
Area of cross section, a = = =0.01767 m 2
4 4
Let, k = 1
Indicated power, IP = pmi .l.a.n.k
= 550 × 0.4 × 0.01767 × 2 × 1 = 7.7754 kW
Mechanical efficiency,
BP 5
ηm = = = 0.6431 = 64.31%
IP 7.7754
Result
Mechanical efficiency, ηm = 64.31%
Example 8.2
During a test on a four−stroke cycle oil engine, the
following data were obtained: Swept volume of the cylinder = 14
litres; Speed of the engine = 6.6 rev/s; Effective brake load = 77 kg;
Effective brake radius = 0.7 m; Indicated mean effective pressure =
567 kN/ m 2 ; Determine the indicated and brake power and the
mechanical efficiency.
Unit – IV  P8.1
Given data
Swept volume, Vs = l.a = 14 litres = 0.014 m 3
Speed, N = 6.6 rev/s
Effective brake load, W = 77 kg
Effective brake radius, R = 0.7 m
Indicated mean effective pressure, pmi != 567 kN/ m 2
To find
(1) Indicated power, IP
(2) Brake power, BP
(3) Mechanical efficiency, ηm
Solution
77 × 9.81
Effective brake load, W = =0.75537 kN
1000
N
No. of explosions, n = ( Q Four stroke)
2
6.6
n= = 3.3 /s; Let, k = 1
2
Indicated power, IP = pmi .l.a.n.k = pmi .Vs .n.k
= 567 × 0.014 × 3.3 × 1 = 26.1954 kW
Brake torque, T = W × R = 0.75537 × 0.7 = 0.528759 kN−m
Brake power, BP = 2.π. N .T = 2 × π × 6.6 × 0.528759 = 21.9271 kW
Mechanical efficiency,
BP 21.9271
ηm = = = 0.8371 = 83.71%
IP 26.1954
Result
(1) Indicated power, IP = 26.1954 kW
(2) Brake power, BP = 21.9271 kW
(3) Mechanical efficiency, ηm = 83.71 %
Example 8.3
In a test on diesel engine, the SFC was 260kg/kW−hr. The
calorific value of the fuel is 42000 kJ/kg. Determine the brake
thermal efficiency.
Given data
SFC = 260 g/kW−hr = 0.26 kg/kW−hr
Calorific value, CV = 42000 kJ/kg
To find
Brake thermal efficiency, η BT
Solution
Let, Brake power, BP = 1 kW.
BP × 3600 1 × 3600
Brake thermal efficiency, η BT = =
FC × CV 0.26 × 42000
= 0.3297 = 32.97 %
Result
Brake thermal efficiency, η BT = 32.97 %
Example 8.4
A six cylinder S.I engine works on 4 stroke cycle. The bore
of each cylinder is 70mm and the stroke 100 mm. The clearance
volume per cylinder is 67c.c. At a speed of 3300 rpm, the fuel
consumption is 18.5 kg/hr and the torque developed is 135 N−m.
Calculate the brake thermal efficiency, if the calorific value of the
fuel is 45000 kJ/kg. Take γ=1.4 for air.
Given data
No. of cylinders, k = 6; Four stroke cycle
Bore diameter, d = 70 mm = 0.07 m
Stroke, l = 100 mm = 0.1 m
Clearance volume, Vc = 67 c.c = 0.000067 m 3
3300
Speed, N = 3300 rpm = =55 rps
60
Fuel consumption, FC = 18.5 kg/hr
Torque, T = 135 N−m = 0.135 kN−m
Calorific value of fuel, CV = 45000 kJ/kg
γ = 1.4
To find
Brake thermal efficiency, η BT
Solution
Brake power, BP = 2.π. N .T = 2 × π × 55 × 0.135 = 46.535 kW
BP × 3600 1 × 3600
Brake thermal efficiency, η BT = =
FC × CV 0.26 × 42000
46.653 × 3600
= = 0.2017 = 20.17 %
18.5 × 45000
Result
Brake thermal efficiency, η BT = 20.17 %
Example 8.5
The following results were obtained during a test on a four
cylinder four stroke oil engine: Bore = 100mm; Stroke = 115mm;
Speed = 1650 rpm; Fuel used = 0.2 kg/min.; Calorific value of fuel
= 41900 kJ/kg; Net load on the brake drum = 390 N;
Circumference of the brake drum = 3.3m; Mechanical efficiency =
80%. Determine (1) Brake thermal efficiency, (2) Indicated thermal
efficiency and (3) indicated mean effective pressure.
Given data
No. of cylinders, k = 4; Four stroke cycle
Stroke, l = 115 mm = 0.115 m
1650
Speed, N = 1650 rpm = =27.5 rps
60
0.2 kg/min = 0.2×60=12
Fuel consumption, FC =
kg/hr
Net load on brake drum, W = 390 N = 0.39 kN
Circumference of brake drum,
= 3.3 m
π. D
Mechanical efficiency, ηm = 80 % = 0.8
To find
(1) Brake thermal efficiency, η BT
(2) Indicated thermal efficiency, η IT
(3) Indicated mean effective pressure, pmi
Solution
Brake power, BP = 2.π. N .T = π. D. N .W
= 3.3 × 27.5 × 0.39 = 35.3925 kW
BP × 3600
Brake thermal efficiency, η BT =
FC × CV
35.3925 × 3600
= = 0.2534 = 25.34 %
12 × 41900
Indicated thermal efficiency,
η 0.2534
η IT = BT = = 0.3168 = 31.68 %
ηm 0.8
BP 35.3925
Indicated power, IP = = = 44.24 kW
ηm 0.8
N 27.5
n= = ; IP = pmi .l.a.n.k
2 2
IP 44.24
pmi = = =890.56 kN/ m 2
l.a.n.k  π.(0.1)2   27.5 
0.115 × × ×4
 4   2 
Result
(1) Brake thermal efficiency, η BT = 25.34 %
(2) Indicated thermal efficiency, η IT = 31.68 %
(3) Indicated mean effective pressure, pmi =890.56 kN/ m 2
Example 8.6
An engine working on constant volume cycle is having
150mm bore and 165mm stroke and clearance volume is 0.51 litre.
The fuel used has a calorific value of 45350 kJ/kg and the
consumption is 0.334 kg/kW−hr. The mechanical efficiency of the
engine is 81%. Calculate (1) the indicated thermal efficiency and
(2) relative efficiency. Takeγ=1.4
Given data
Stroke, l = 165 mm = 0.165 m
Clearance volume, Vc = 0.51 litre = 0.00051 m 3
Fuel consumption, FC = 0.334 kg/kW−hr
To find
(2) Relative efficiency, ηrel
Solution
Let, BP = 1 kW
BP
Mechanical efficiency, ηm =
IP
BP 1
∴ Indicated power, IP = = =1.2346 kW
ηm 0.81
(1) Indicated thermal efficiency,
IP × 3600 1.2346 × 3600
η IT = = = 0.2934 = 29.34 %
FC × CV 0.334 × 45350
(2) Relative efficiency

η IT
Relative efficiency, ηrel =
ηideal
1
Ideal thermal efficiency, ηideal = 1 −
r γ −1
Vs + Vc
Compression ratio, r =
Vc
π π
Stroke volume, Vs = × d 2 × l = × 0.152 × 0.165 = 2.9158 × 10 − 3 m 3
4 4
2.9158 × 10 −3 + 0.00051
r= = 6.72
0.00051
1
Ideal thermal efficiency, ηideal = 1 − = 0.5332 = 53.32 %
6.721.4 −1
0.2934
Relative efficiency, ηrel = = 0.5502 = 55.02 %
0.5332
Result
(2) Relative efficiency, ηrel = 55.02 %
Example 8.7
A six cylinder, four stroke engine had a bore to stroke ratio
of 360:500. During the trial, following results were obtained: Mean
area of indicator diagram = 0.00073 m 2 ; Length of indicator
diagram = 0.075 m; Spring number = 70,000 kN/ m 2 per m of
compression; Brake torque = 14 kN−m; Speed = 500 rpm; Fuel
consumption = 240 kg/hr. Calculate (1) Total indicated power
developed, (2) Brake power, (3) Mechanical efficiency and
(4) Specific fuel consumption.
Given data
No. of cylinders, k =
6; Four stroke
Bore diameter, d 360 mm = 0.36 m
=
Stroke, l500 mm = 0.5 m
=
Area of indicator diagram, A =
0.00075 m 2
Length of indicator diagram, L =
0.075 m
Spring number, S =
70000 kN/ m 2 /m
Brake torque, T =
14 kN−m
500
Speed. N = 500 rpm = rps
60
Fuel consumption, FC = 240 kg/hr
To find
(2) Brake power, BP
(4) Specific fuel consumption, SFC
Solution
A
Indicated mean effective pressure, pmi = ×S
L
0.00075
= × 70000 = 700 kN/ m 2
0.075
π π
Stroke volume, Vs = × d 2 × l = × 0.36 2 × 0.5 = 0.0509 m 3
4 4
N 500
No. of explosions, n = =
2 60 × 2
Indicated power,
500
IP = pmi .l.a.n.k = 700 × 0.0509 × × 6 = 890.75 kW
60 × 2
500
Brake power, BP = 2.π. N .T = 2 × π × × 14 = 733.04 kW
2 × 60
BP 733.04
Mechanical efficiency, ηm = = = 0.823 = 82.3 %
IP 890.75
Specific fuel consumption,
FC 240
BSFC = = =0.3274 kg/kW−hr.
BP 733.04
Result
(2) Brake power, BP = 733.04 kW
(3) Mechanical efficiency, ηm = 82.3%
(4) Specific fuel consumption, BSFC = 0.3274 kg/kW−hr.
Example 8.8
The following results were obtained during a test on a
single cylinder four stroke cycle petrol engine: Brake power = 73.5
kW when running at 400 rpm; Brake mean effective pressure = 8.5
bar; Mechanical efficiency = 80%; Specific fuel consumption =
0.346 kg/kW−hr; Calorific value of fuel = 44100 kJ/kg;
Compression ratio = 6:1. Determine (1) Bore and stroke (assuming
them to be equal), (2) Brake thermal efficiency, (3) Indicated
thermal efficiency, (4) Air standard efficiency and (5) Relative
efficiency.
Given data
No. of cylinders, k = 1; Four stroke
Brake power, BP = 73.5 kW
400
Speed. N = 400 rpm = =6.667 rps
60
Brake mean effective pressure, pmb = 8.5 bar = 850 kN/ m 2
Specific fuel consumption, SFC = 0.346 kg/kW−hr
To find
(1) Bore diameter (d); Stroke length (l)
(4) Air standard efficiency, ηideal
Solution
(1) Bore diameter and stroke length
N 6.667
n= = = 3.3335
2 2
Brake power, BP = pmb .l.a.n.k
π
73.5 = 850 × l × × d 2 × 3.3335 × 1
4
π
73.5 = 850 × l × × l 2 × 3.3335 × 1 (Q d = l)
4
73.5 = 2225 .128 × l3
1
73.5
l3 = =0.033032; l = (0.033032) 3 = 0.321 m
2225 .128
Bore diameter, d = l = 0.321 m
FC
SFC = ; FC = SFC × BP = 0.346 × 73.5 = 24.431 kg/hr
BP
BP × 3600 73.5 × 3600
η BT = = = 0.2359 = 23.59%
FC × CV 25.431 × 44100
η BT 0.2359
η IT = = = 0.2949 = 29.49 %
ηm 0.8
1 1
ηideal = 1 − γ −1 = 1 − 1.4 −1 = 0.5116 = 51.16%
r 6
η IT 0.2949
ηrel = = = 0.5764 = 57.64 %
ηideal 0.5116
Result
(1) Bore diameter d = 321 mm; Stroke length l = 321 mm
(2) Brake thermal efficiency, η BT = 23.59 %
(4) Air standard efficiency, ηideal = 51.16 %
Example 8.9
A four stroke cycle, four cylinder petrol engine has 625 mm
cylinder diameter and 950mm stroke. On test, it develops a torque
of 64 Nm, when running at 3000 rpm. The clearance volume of
each cylinder is 63.5 c.c. The brake thermal efficiency ratio based
on air standard cycle is 0.5 and calorific value of petrol is 44800
kJ/kg. Determine the fuel consumption in litres per hour and
brake mean effective pressure. Take γ=1.4 for air.
Given data
No. of cylinders, k =4; Four stroke
Diameter of cylinder, d =625 mm = 0.0625 m
Stroke, l =950 mm = 0.095 m
Torque, T =64 N−m
3000
Speed. N = 3000 rpm = =50 rps
60
Clearance volume, Vc = 63.5 c.c= 0.0000635 m 3
Efficiency ratio, ηrel = 0.5
γ = 1.4
To find
(1) Fuel consumption, FC
(2) Brake mean effective pressure, pmb
Solution
π π
Stroke volume, Vs = l.a = l. ×× d 2 = 0.095 × (0.0625)2
4 4
= 0.000291456 m 3
V + Vs 0.0000635 + 0.000291456
Compression ratio, r = c = =5.59
Vc 0.0000635
1 1
ηideal = 1 − γ −1 = 1 − = 0.4976 = 49.76%
r 5.591.4 −1
Relative efficiency based on brake thermal efficiency is given by,
Brake thermal efficiency η B.T
ηrel = =
Air standard efficiency ηideal
Brake thermal efficiency, η B.T = ηrel × ηideal
= 0.5 × 0.4976 = 0.2488 = 24.88 %
Brake power, BP = 2.π. N .T = 2 × π × 50 × 0.064 = 20.106 kW
BP × 3600 BP × 3600
η B.T = ; ∴ FC =
FC × CV η B.T × CV
20.106 × 3600
= = 0.494 kg/hr
0.2488 × 44800
N 50
No. of working strokes per second, n = = =25
2 2
Brake power, BP = pmb .l.a.n.k = pmb .Vs .n.k
∴ Brake mean effective pressure,
BP 20.106
pmb = = = 689.85 kN/ m 2
Vs .n.k 0.000291456 × 25 × 4
Result
(1) Fuel consumption, FC = 0.494 kg/hr
(2) Brake mean effective pressure, pmb = 689.85 kN/ m 2
Example 8.10
A six cylinder four stroke petrol engine has a compression
ratio of 4.5:1. The clearance volume of each cylinder is 100 c.c. The
engine consumes 10 kg of fuel per hour whose calorific value is
42000 kJ/kg. The engine runs at 2400 rpm. Assume the relative
efficiency of 60%. Estimate the average indicated mean effective
pressure developed.
Given data
No. of cylinders, k =
6; Four stroke
Compression ratio, r =
4.5
Clearance volume, Vc =
100 c.c = 0.0001 m 3
10 kg/hr
Calorific value, CV =
42000 kJ/kg
2400
Engine speed. N = 2400 rpm = =40 rps
60
Relative efficiency, ηrel = 60 % = 0.6
To find
Indicated mean effective pressure, pmi
Solution
1 1
ηideal = 1 − γ −1 = 1 − = 0.4521 = 45.21 %
r 4.51.4 −1
Relative efficiency, ηrel = =
η IT = ηideal × ηrel = 0.4521 × 0.6 = 0.2712 = 27.12 %
IP × 3600
Indicated thermal efficiency, η IT =
FC × CV
η IT × FC × CV
∴ Indicated power, IP =
3600
0.2712 × 10 × 42000
= = 31.64 kW
3600
N 40
No. of explosions, n = = = 20
2 2
V + Vc Vs
Compression ratio, r = s = + 1 (or)
Vc Vc
Vs = (r − 1) × Vc
Stroke volume, Vs = (4.5 − 1) × 0.0001 = 0.00035 m 3
IP = pmi .l.a.n.k = pmi .Vs .n.k
IP 31.64
∴ pmi = = = 753.33 kN/ m 2
Vs .n.k 0.00035 × 20 × 6
Result
Indicated mean effective pressure, pmi = 753.33 kN/ m 2
Example 8.11
A four stroke cycle gas engine has a bore of 160mm and a
stroke of 240mm. The compression ratio is 4 to 1 and the effective
pressure is 350 kN/ m 2 . If the engine speed is 300 rpm and the
thermal efficiency is 30%, calculate the fuel consumption in m3
per IP hr. and the efficiency relative to the air standard cycle.
Calorific value of gas is 17375 kJ/ m3 .
Given data
No. of cylinders, k = 1; Four stroke
Diameter of bore, d = 160 mm = 0.16 m
Stroke, l = 240 mm = 0.24 m
Mean effective pressure, pmi = 350 kN/ m 2
Speed, N = 300 rpm = 5 rps
Indicated thermal efficiency, η IT = 30 % = 0.3
Calorific value, CV = 17375 kJ/ m 3
To find
(1) Specific fuel consumption on IP basis, ISFC
Solution
π 2 π
Area of cross section, a = d = × (0.16)2 m 2
4 4
N 5
No. of explosions, n = = = 2.5
2 2
π
= 350 × 0.24 × × (0.16)2 × 2.5 × 1 = 4.222 kW
4
Specific fuel consumption on IP basis,
3600 3600
ISFC = = = 0.69065 kg/IP−hr.
η IT × CV 0.3 × 17375
1 1
ηideal = 1 − γ −1 = 1 − 1.4 −1 = 0.4257 = 42.57 %
r 4.
0.3
ηrel = = 0.7047 = 70.47 %
0.4257
Result
(1) Specific fuel consumption on IP basis, ISFC = 0.69065 kg/IP−hr
Example 8.12
The following results were obtained during a Morse test on
a four stroke petrol engine.
BP with all cylinder working = 11.92 kW
BP with cylinder 1 cut off = 8.64 kW
Calculate the mechanical efficiency of the engine. If the
fuel consumption is 3.5 kg/hr, find the indicated thermal
efficiency. Calorific value of fuel is 42000 kJ/kg.
Given data
Brake power with all cylinders working, BP = 11.92 kW
Brake power with cylinder 1 cut off, BP1 = 8.46 kW
Fuel consumption, FC = 3.5 kg/hr
To find
Solution
Indicated power of first cylinder, IP1 = BP − BP1
= 11.92 − 8.46 = 3.46 kW
Indicated power of second cylinder, IP2 = BP − BP2
= 11.92 − 8.60 = 3.32 kW
Indicated power of third cylinder, IP3 = BP − BP3
= 11.92 − 8.54 = 3.38 kW
Indicated power of fourth cylinder, IP4 = BP − BP4
= 11.92 − 8.50 = 3.42 kW
= 3.46 + 3.32 + 3.38 + 3.42 = 13.58 kW
BP 11.92
Mechanical efficiency, ηm = = = 0.8778 = 87.78 %
IP 13.58
Indicated thermal efficiency,
IP × 3600 13.58 × 3600
η IT = = = 0.3326 = 33.26 %
FC × CV 3.5 × 42000
Result
(1) Mechanical efficiency, ηm = 87.78 %
Example 8.13
A four cylinder four stroke petrol engine has a bore of
65mm and a stroke of 90mm. It is at full throttle and constant
speed. The fuel supply is fixed at 0.064 kg/min and the plugs of
the cylinders are short circuited without change in speed and the
brake torque is adjusted correspondingly. The brake power
measurements are as follows:
BP with all cylinder working = 12.25 kW
Calculate the indicated power of the engine under these
conditions. Also calculate the indicated thermal efficiency of the
engine if the calorific value of the fuel is 44000 kJ/kg. Compare
this efficiency with air standard efficiency if the clearance volume
of one cylinder is 75 c m3 .
Given data
Stroke length, l = 90 mm = 0.09 m
0.064 kg/min =3.84
kg/hr.
Brake power with all cylinders working,
= 12.25 kW
BP
Brake power with cylinder 4 cut off,
= 8.80 kW
BP4
Clearance volume, Vc = 75c m 3 = 75 ×10 −6 m 3
To find
Solution
Indicated power of first cylinder, IP1 = BP − BP1
= 12.25 − 8.84 = 3.41 kW
Indicated power of second cylinder, IP2 = BP − BP2
= 12.25 − 8.73 = 3.52 kW
Indicated power of third cylinder, IP3 = BP − BP3
= 12.25 − 8.69 = 3.56 kW
Indicated power of fourth cylinder, IP4 = BP − BP4
= 12.25 − 8.80 = 3.45 kW
= 3.41 + 3.52 + 3.56 + 3.45 = 13.94 kW
IP × 3600
Indicated thermal efficiency, η IT =
FC × CV
13.94 × 3600
= = 0.2970 = 29.70 %
3.84 × 44000
Stroke volume,
π π
Vs = × d 2 × l = × (0.065)2 × 0.09 = 2.9865 × 10 −4 m 3
4 4
Vc + Vs 75 × 10 −6 + 2.9865 × 10 −4
Compression ratio, r = = =4.982
Vc 75 × 10 − 6
1 1
ηideal = 1 − γ −1 = 1 − = 0.4739 = 47.39 %
r (4.982)1.4 −1
0.2970
ηrel = = 0.6267 = 62.67 %
0.4739
Result
(3) Air standard efficiency, ηideal = 47.39 %
Example 8.14
During a test on a four stroke cycle diesel engine the
following data and results were obtained: Mean height of the
indicator diagram = 12mm; Spring index = 27 kN/ m 2 /mm;
Swept volume of the cylinder = 14 litres; Speed of the engine = 396
rpm; Net load on the brake = 0.7554 kN; Radius of the brake drum
= 0.7 m; Fuel consumption = 7.2 kg/hr; Calorific value of fuel =
44000 kJ/kg; Cooling water circulation = 540 kg/hr; Rise in
temperature of cooling water = 33 o C ; Specific heat of water = 4.18
kJ/kg.K; Energy to exhaust gas = 33.6 kJ/s. Determine (1)
Mechanical efficiency, (2) the heat balance sheet expressed as kJ/s
as percentage of heat supplied to engine.
Given data
Mean height of indicator diagram, h = 21 mm
Spring index, S = 27 kN/ m 2 /mm
Swept volume, Vs = l.a = 14 litres = 0.014 m 3
396
Speed, N = 396 rpm= =6.6rps
60
Load on brake, W = 0.7554 kN
Radius of brake drum, R = 0.7 m
Fuel consumption, FC = 7.2 kg/hr.
540
Cooling water circulation, mw = 540 kg/hr= kg/s
3600
Rise in temperature of
cooling water, ( t2 − t1 ) = 33 o C ; T1 − T2 = 33K
Specific heat of water, C pw = 4.18 kJ/kg.K
Energy to exhaust, Qg = 33.6 kJ/s
To find
(2) Heat balance sheet expressed as kJ/s and as percentage of Qs
Solution
Mean effective pressure,
pmi = h × S = 21 × 27 = 567 kN/ m 2
N 6.6
No. of working strokes, n = = = 3. 3
2 2
= 567 × 0.014 × 3.3 × 1 = 26.1954 kW
Brake torque, T = W × R = 0.7554 × 0.7 = 0.52878 kN−m
Brake power, BP = 2.π. N .T
= 2 × π × 6.6 × 0.52878 = 21.928 kW
BP 21.928
Mechanical efficiency, ηm = = = 0.8371 = 83.71%
IP 26.1954
Heat balance sheet [kJ/s (kW) basis or second basis]
(1) Heat supplied in fuel
FC 7.2
Qs = × CV = × 44000 = 88 kJ/s
3600 3600
(2) Heat equivalent of brake power, QBP = BP = 29.928 kJ/s
Percentage of heat converted into brake power,
Q 12.928
QBP % = BP × 100 = × 100 = 24.92 %
Qs 88
(3) Heat carried away by cooling water, Qw
540
Qw = m.C pw (T2 − T1 ) = × 4.18 × 33 = 20.691 kW
3600
Percentage of heat carried away by cooling water,
Q 20.691
Qw % = w × 100 = × 100 =23.51 %
Qs 88
(4) Heat lost due to exhaust gases, Qg = 33.6 kJ/s
Percentage of heat lost duet to exhaust gases,
Qg 33.6
Qg % = × 100 = × 100 = 38.18 %
Qs 88
(5) Heat loss unaccounted, Qua
Qua = Qs − [QBP + Qw + Q g ]
= 88 − [21.928 + 20.691 + 33.6] = 11.781 kJ/s
Percentage of heat loss unaccounted,
Q 11.781
Qua % = ua × 100 = × 100 =13.39 %
Qs 88
Sl. Heat
kJ/s % Heat spent kJ/s %
No supplied
Heat
1. supplied in 88 100 − − −
fuel
Heat equivalent
2. − − − of brake power 21.928 24.92
( QBP )
Heat carried by
3. − − − cooling water 20.691 23.51
( Qw )
Heat lost due to
4. − − − exhaust gases 33.600 38.18
( Qg )
Heat loss
5. − − − unaccounted 11.781 13.39
( Qua )
Total 88 100 Total 88.000 100.00
Example 8.15
A single cylinder oil engine working on four stroke cycle
has a bore of 110mm and stroke of 130 mm runs at 600 rpm. The
mean effective pressure is 6 bar. It consumes 10 c.c of oil in 28
seconds. The diesel oil used is having calorific value of 42000
kJ/kg and the specific gravity is 0.85. The engine cooling water
enters at a temperature of 18 o C and leaves at 60 o C . The quantity
of cooling water circulated is 1.5 litres per minute. The brake
wheel diameter is 850 mm and rope diameter is 20mm. The net
load on the brake is 0.11 kN. The exhaust gas temperature is
420 o C and its specific heat is 1.0 kJ/kg.K. The air fuel ratio is
22:1 by weight. Room temperature is 30 o C . Determine (a)
Indicated power, (b) Brake power, (c) Mechanical efficiency and (d)
Indicated thermal efficiency. Also draw up the heat balance sheet
on hour basis.
Given data
No. of cylinders, k = 1
Stroke length, l = 130 mm = 0.13 m
Speed, N = 600 rpm = 10 rps
Mean effective pressure, pmi = 6 bar = 600 kN/ m 2
Fuel consumption, FC = 10 c.c in 28 seconds
Specific gravity, s = 0.85
Inlet temperature of cooling water, t1 = 18 o C
Outlet temperature of cooling water, t2 = 60 o C
Mass of cooling water, mw = 1.5 lit/min
Diameter of brake, D1 = 850 mm = 0.85 m
Rope diameter, d1 = 20 mm =0.02 m
Net load, W = 0.11 kN
Exhaust gas temperature, Tg = 420 o C
Specific heat of exhaust gas, C pg = 1.0 kJ/kg.K
Air fuel ratio = 22:1
Room temperature, Ta = 30 o C
To find
(a) Indicated power, IP
(b) Brake power, BP
(c) Mechanical efficiency, ηm
(d) Indicated thermal efficiency, ηm
(e) Heat balance sheet on hour basis
Solution
(a) Indicated power, IP
π 2 π
Area of cross section, a = d = × (0.11)2 =
4 4
9.503 × 10 −3 m 2
N 10
No. of explosions, n = = =5
2 2
Indicated power, IP = 600 × 0.13 × 9.503 × 10 −3 × 5 × 1
= 3.706 kW = 3.706 × 3600 = 13341.6 kJ/hr.
(b) Brake power, BP

D + d 0.85 + 0.02
Effective radius, R = = = 0.435 m
2 2
Brake torque, T = W. R
Brake power, BP = 2.π. N .T = 2.π. N .W . R
= 2 × π × 10 × 0.11 × 0.435 = 3.007 kW = 10825.2 kJ/hr
(c) Mechanical efficiency, ηm

BP 3.007
ηm = = = 0.814 = 81.4%
IP 3.706
(d) Indicated thermal efficiency, η IT

10 × 10 −6
Fuel consumption / sec = = 3.571 × 10 − 7 m 3 /sec
26
Fuel consumption / hr = 3.571 × 10 −7 × 3600 = 1.286 × 10 −3 m 3 /hr.
FC in litres / hr = 1.286 × 10 −3 × 1000 =1.286 litres /hr
FC in kg/hr = FC in litres / hr × Sp. Gravity
= 1.286 × 1.286 = 1.093 kg /hr
IP × 3600 3.706 × 3600
η IT = = = 0.2906 = 29.06 %
FC × CV 1.093 × 42000
(e) Heat balance sheet
Qs = FC × CV = 1.093 × 42000 = 45906 kJ/hr
(2) Heat equivalent of brake power, QBP

QBP = BPE in kW × 3600 = 3.007 × 3600 = 10825.2 kJ/hr
Q 10825.2
QBP % = BP × 100 = × 100 = 23.58 %
Qs 45906

Qw = m.C pw (T2 − T1 ) = 90 × 4.19 × (60 − 18) = 15838.2 kJ/hr
Q 15838 .2
Qw % = w × 100 = × 100 = 34.50 %
Qs 45906
(4) Heat lost due to exhaust gases, Qg

Mass of exhaust gas, m g = Mass of air ( ma ) + mass of fuel
( mf )
Mass of air = 22 × Fuel consumption = 22 × 1.093 = 24.046 kg/hr

m g = ma + mf = 24.046 + 1.093 = 25.139 kg/hr
Qg = m gC pg .(Tg − Ta ) = 25.139 × 1 × (420 − 30) = 9804.21 kg/hr

Qg 9804.21
Qg % = × 100 = × 100 = 21.36 %
Qs 45906

= 45906 − [10825.2 + 15838.2 + 9804.21] = 9438.39 kJ/hr
Q 9438 .39
Qua % = ua × 100 = × 100 =20.56 %
Qs 45906
Sl. Heat
No supplied
Heat
1. supplied 45906 100 − − −
in fuel
Heat
equivalent of
2. − − − brake power
10825.2 23.58
( QBP )
Heat carried
3. − − − by cooling 15838.2 34.50
water ( Qw )
Heat lost due
4. − − − to exhaust 9804.2 21.36
gases ( Qg )
Heat loss
5. − − − unaccounted 9438.4 20.56
( Qua )
Total 45906 100 Total 45906 100.00
Example 8.16
In a trial of oil engine, the following data were obtained.
Duration of trial = 30 min.; Speed =1750 rpm; Brake torque = 300
Nm; Fuel consumption = 9.35 kg; Calorific value of fuel = 42300
kJ/kg; Jacket cooling water circulation = 483 kg; Inlet and outlet
temperatures = 17 o C and 77 o C respectively. Air consumption =
182 kg; Exhaust gas temperature = 486 o C ; Atmospheric
temperature = 17 o C . Calculate the brake power, indicated
thermal efficiency, specific fuel consumption on BP base, if
mechanical efficiency is 83%. Assume specific heat of exhaust
gases as 1.25 kJ/kg.K. Draw heat balance sheet on minute basis.
Given data
Duration of trial = 30 min.
Speed, N = 1759 rpm = 29.166 rps
Brake torque, T = 300 N−m = 0.3 kJ−m
Fuel consumption, FC = 9.35 kg/30 min
= 0.3117 kg/min
Mass of cooling water, mw = 483 kg/30 min = 16.1 kg/min
Inlet temperature of cooling water,
t1 = 17 o C
Outlet temperature of cooling
water, t2 = 77 o C
Mass of air, ma = 182 kg/30 min = 6.067 kg/min
Exhaust gas temperature, t g = 486 o C
Atmospheric temperature, ta = 17 o C
Sp. Heat of exhaust gases, C pg = 1.25 kJ/kg.K
To find
(a) Brake power, BP
(b) Indicated thermal efficiency, ηm
(c) Specific fuel consumption, SFC
(e) Heat balance sheet on minute basis
Solution
(a) brake power, BP
Brake power, BP = 2.π. N .T = 2.π. × 29.166 × 0.3 = 54.977 kW
= 54.977 × 60 = 3298.67 kJ/min.
(b) Indicated thermal efficiency, η IT

BP BP
ηm =  IP =
IP ηm
3298 .67
∴ IP = = 3874.3 kJ/min
0.83
IP 3974.3
η IT = = = 0.3014 = 30.14 %
FC × CV 0.3117 × 42300
(c) Specific fuel consumption, SFC

FC 0.3117 × 60
SFC = = =0.340 kg/kW.hr
BP 54.977
(d) Heat balance sheet
Qs = FC × CV = 0.3117 × 42300 = 13184.91 kJ/hr
(2) Heat equivalent of brake power, QBP = BP = 3298.67 kJ/min

Q 3298.67
QBP % = BP × 100 = × 100 = 25.02 %
Qs 13184 .91

Qw = m.C pw (T2 − T1 ) = 16.1 × 4.19 × (77 − 7) = 4047.54 kJ/min
Q 4047.54
Qw % = w × 100 = × 100 = 30.70 %
Qs 13184 .91
(4) Heat lost due to exhaust gases, Qg

Mass of exhaust gas, m g = Mass of air, ma + mass of fuel, mf
Mass of air = 12 × Fuel consumption = 12 × 0.3117 = 3.7404 kg/hr
m g = ma + mf = 3.7404 + 0;3117 = 4.0521 kg/min.
Qg = m gC pg .(Tg − Ta ) = 4.0521 × 1.25 × (200 − 17) = 926.918 kg/min

Qg 926.918
Qg % = × 100 = × 100 = 7.03 %
Qs 13184 .91

= 13184.91 − [3298.67 + 4047.54 + 926.918] = 49111.782
kJ/min.
Q 4911 .782
Qua % = ua × 100 = × 100 = 37.25 %
Qs 13184 .91
Sl. Heat
No supplied
Heat
1. supplied 13184.9 100 − − −
in fuel
Heat
equivalent
2. − − − of brake
3298.67 25.02
power ( QBP )
Heat carried
3. − − − by cooling 4047.54 30.7
water ( Qw )
Heat lost
due to
4. − − − exhaust 926.918 7.03
gases ( Qg )
Heat loss
5. − − − unaccounted 4911.782 37.25
( Qua )
Total 13184.9 100 Total 13184.9 100.00
1. A single cylinder internal combustion engine working on

4−stroke cycle has a cylinder bore of 100mm and diameter and
piston stroke of 150mm. Speed of the engine is 400 rpm. If the
mean effective pressure is 650 kN/ m 2 , calculate the indicated
power developed by the engine. [Ans: IP=2.553 kW]
2. A gas engine has a ratio of diameter piston to stroke as 0.66
and average mean effective pressure is 450 kN/ m 2 . Calculate
the size of a four stroke cycle engine if it has a brake power of
8kW at 250 rpm. Take mechanical efficiency as 75%.
[Ans: l=321.6mm, d=212.3mm]
3. The brake power developed by an oil engine is 37.5 kW. The
mean effective pressure is 6 bar. No. of explosions are 80 per
minute. The mechanical efficiency is 80%. Determine the
dimensions of the cylinder assuming the ratio of stroke to
diameter as 2. [Ans: l=670mm]
4. A four cylinder, two stroke engine had a bore to stroke ratio of
140:210 mm. during the trial, the following results were
obtained. Area of the indicator diagram = 700mm2, Length of
the indicator diagram = 70mm, Spring number =
6 × 10 −5 kN/m m 2 /mm; Brake torque = 1kN−m; Speed = 430
rpm; Fuel consumption = 200 kg/hr. Calculate the total
indicated power, brake power, mechanical efficiency and
specific fuel consumption; [Ans: IP=103.72, BP=65.97,
ηm =63.61%, SFC = 3.032 kg/kW−hr]
5. The following observations were made during a trial on two

stroke engine: Stroke = 400mm; Bore = 250mm; Indicated
mean effective pressure = 6bar; Speed of the engine = 300
rpm; Effective brake load = 250 kg; Mean circumference of
brake drum = 3.6m; Fuel consumed = 4.35 kg per half an hour;
Calorific value of the fuel = 42000 kJ/kg. Determine the
indicated power, brake power, mechanical efficiency and
thermal efficiencies. [Ans: IP=58.9kW, BP=44.15kW,
ηm =74.95%, η IT =58%, ηrel =43.5%]
6. An engine working on constant volume cycle is 150mm bore

by 165 mm stroke and its clearance volume is 0.51 litre. The
fuel used has a calorific value as 45350 kJ/kg and the
consumption is 0.334 kg/kW−hr. The mechanical efficiency of
the engine is 81%. Calculate (1)Indicated thermal efficiency
and (2) Relative efficiency. Take γ=1.4
[Ans: η IT =29.35%, ηrel =55.045%]
7. The following data refer to a four cylinder petrol engine. At

the beginning of compression, the pressure and temperature
are 1 bar and 15 o C ; Maximum cycle temperature = 1300 o C .
Calculate the air standard efficiency and the mean effective
pressure. [ ηideal =51.16%, pmi =5.24 bar]
8. A four stroke cycle gas engine has a bore of 160mm and a

stroke of 240mm. The compression ratio is 4 to 1 and the
engine speed is 300 rpm. The mean effective pressure is 350
kN/ m 2 . The thermal efficiency is 30%. Calorific value of the
gas is 17400 kJ/kg. Calculate the fuel consumption in
m 3 /IP−hr and the efficiency ratio.
[Ans: ISFC=0.6897 m 3 /IP−hr, ηrel =70.48%]
9. An engine working on constant volume cycle has a compression

ratio of 8. It uses petrol having a calorific value of 44000 kJ/kg. If
the brake thermal efficiency of the engine is 60% of the air
standard efficiency, determine the specific fuel consumption in
kg/kW−hr. Take γ = 1.4 [Ans: BSFC = 0.2415 kg/kW−hr]
10. The following results were obtained during a test on a single
cylinder, four stroke cycle gasoline engine: Brake power = 73.5
kW at a speed of 400 rpm; Brake mean effective pressure = 8.5
bar; Fuel consumption =0.346 kg/BP−hr of calorific value
44100 kJ/kg; Compression ratio =6; Mechanical efficiency =
0.8. Assume diameter of cylinder is equal to stroke of the
piston. Calculate (1) Bore and stroke (2) Brake thermal
efficiency (3) Indicated thermal efficiency (4) Air standard
efficiency and (5) Relative efficiency.
[Ans: d=l=320.8 mm; η BT =23.59%, η IT =29.49%,
ηideal =51.16%, ηrel =57.64%]
11. An ideal i.c engine works on four stroke Otto cycle. The
suction pressure is 1 bar. The pressure at the end of
compression is 2.75 bar. The total swept volume is 3000c.c.
Clearance volume is 100c.c per cylinder. Find the mean
effective pressure. [Ans: pmi =6.713 bar]
12. A six cylinder four stroke cycle petrol engine is to be designed

to develop a brake power of 302 kW at 2500 rpm. The bore to
stroke ratio is 1:1.25. Mechanical efficiency is 83%. Indicated
mean effective pressure is 950 kN/ m 2 . Compression ratio of
the engine is 6.5:1. Relative efficiency is 55%. Calorific value
of petrol is 44630 kJ/kg. Determine (a) Bore and stroke (b)
Fuel consumption in kg/hr and in kg/BP−hr.
[Ans: d=146.16mm, l=182.7mm, FC=101.3 kg/hr,
BSFC=0.335kg/BP−hr]
13. The mean effective pressure was measured as 3 bar.
Determine the power developed by a 4 cylinder four stroke
cycle engine of 80mm bore and 90mm stroke, if the speed is
2000 rpm. If the mechanical efficiency is 82% and the brake
thermal efficiency is 32.3%, determine the fuel consumption
per hour at this load. The calorific value of the fuel is 43500
kJ/kg. [Ans: IP=9.048kW, BP=7.419kW, FC=1.946 kg/hr]
14. In a test with a four cylinder, four stroke petrol engine
following results were obtained:
BP with all cylinders working = 23.54 kW
BP with No.1 cylinder cut−off = 15.88 kW
Estimate the indicated power of the engine and the
mechanical efficiency. [Ans: IP=28.41kW, ηm =82.86%]
15. A four cylinder petrol was tested at constant speed. The four
cylinder engine was supplied with fuel at 0.1 kg/min. and the
plugs were short circuited successively at constant speed for a
Morse test. The following data were obtained:
Power with all cylinders working = 14.86 kW
Power with cylinder 1 cut−off = 10.30 kW
Calorific value of petrol was 41868 kJ/kg. Determine (1)
Mechanical efficiency, (2) Brake thermal efficiency and
(3) Indicated thermal efficiency. [Ans: ηm =83.44%,
η B.T =21.3%, η IT =25.52%]
16. In a trial of an oil engine the following data were obtained:

Duration of trial = 30min; Speed = 1750 rpm; Brake torque = 330
N−m; Fuel consumption = 9.35 kg of calorific value of 42300
kJ/kg. Jacket cooling water circulation = 483 kg; Inlet and outlet
temperatures = 17 o C and 77 o C respectively. Air consumption =
182 kg; Exhaust gas temperature = 486 o C ; Atmospheric
temperature = 17 o C . Calculate the brake power, indicated
thermal efficiency, specific fuel consumption on BP basis, if
mechanical efficiency is 83%. Assume specific heat of exhaust
gases as 1.25 kJ/kg.K. Draw up an energy balance in kJ/min.
[Ans: BP=60.476 kW, η IT =33.16%, BSFC=0.309 kg/BP−hr,
Qs =12183.5 kJ/min (100%), QBP =3628.56 kJ/min (27.52%),
Qw =4047.54 kJ/min (30.70%), Qg =3739.28kJ/min (28.36%),
Qua =1768.12% kJ/min (13.42%)]
17. The following observations were obtained during the trial on
two stroke cycle oil engine. Brake=200mm; Stroke=250mm;
Speed=350rpm; Effective brake drum diameter=1.2m; Net
brake load = 450N; Mean effective pressure = 2.8 bar; Oil
consumed = 3.6 kg/hr; Calorific value of oil = 41800 kJ/kg;
Mass of cooling water circulated=455 kg/hr; Rise in
temperature of cooling water = 28 o C ; Temperature of exhaust
gases = 320 o C ; Mass of exhaust gases = 2.68 kg/min; Room
temperature = 20 o C ; Specific heat of the gases = 2.68 kg/min;
Determine the mechanical efficiency, indicated thermal
efficiency and brake thermal efficiency. draw up the heat
balance sheet on minute basis and also express each item as
the percentage of heat supplied.
[Ans: ηm =77.14%, η IT =30.69%, Qs =2508kJ/mon (100%),
QBP =593.76 kJ/min (23.67%), Qw =889.68 kJ/min (35.47%),
Qg =804.00 kJ/min (32.06%), Qua =220.56% kJ/min
(8.80%)]
Unit – V
Chapter 9. REFRIGERATION
9.1 Introduction
Refrigeration is the process of cooling a space and
maintaining its temperature below that of surrounding. In other
words refrigeration is artificial cooling.
9.2 Refrigerator and heat pumps

Refrigerator is a machine, which is used to maintain a
space at low temperature than the surrounding by continuously
extracting heat from the space to be cooled and rejecting it to
surrounding. It is the reverse of heat engine.
Warm space Tw
Qr - Heat rejected
Qe - Heat extracted
Qr
Work input Tw > Ta
W
Heat pump
Qe Atmospheric
Temperature
Ta
Qr
Work input Ta > Tc
W
Refrigerator
Qe
Cold space Tc
Fig.9.1 Heat pump and refrigerator
Heat pump is a machine, which is used to maintain a space

at high temperature than the surrounding by continuously pumping
heat into the space to be heated. It is the reverse of heat engine.
Both refrigerator and heat pumps are identical in

operation. One machine can simultaneously be used as both
refrigerator and heat pump.
Unit – V  9.1
9.4 Types of refrigerators
Refrigerators are classified as follows :
1) Ice refrigerator : The ice kept inside the cabinet of
refrigerator provides cooling effect.
2) Air refrigerator : Air is used as working fluid. It provide cooling
effect when it expands from high pressure to low pressure. It
works on reversed Carnot cycle or Bell-Coleman cycle.
3) Vapour refrigerator : Vapours like ammonia, carbon-dioxide,
sulphur di-oxide, freons, etc. are used as working substance.
It is further classified as :
i) Vapour compression refrigerator
ii) Vapour absorption refrigerator
9.5 Application of refrigeration system (Refrigerators)

The important applications of refrigerator are :
1) To produce ice
2) To liquify the gases in chemical industries
3) To cool the water
4) To preserve blood
5) To preserve food items
6) To preserve medicines
7) To provide comfort air-conditioning in hospitals, theatres, etc.
8) To control the humidity of air in textile and paper mills
9.6 Refrigerating effect (N)

Refrigerating effect is defined as the quantity of heat
extracted from a space to be cooled in a given time.
Heat extracted
N=
Time taken
Its unit is KJ/min or KJ/s
9.7 Capacity of a refrigeration unit

The quantity of heat extracted by a refrigerator machine
per unit time is known as its capacity. It is usually expressed as
ton of refrigeration.
Unit – V  9.2
One ton of refrigeration
One ton of refrigeration is defined as the quantity of heat to be
extracted from water at 0OC to form 1 ton (1000 kg) of ice in 24 hours.
Heat to be extracted from water to form 1 kg of ice
= Latent heat of ice = 336 KJ/kg
Heat to be extracted from water to form 1000 kg of ice in 24 hours,
336 × 1000 336 × 1000
= KJ/hr. = KJ/min.
24 24 × 60
∴ One ton of refrigeration = 233 .333 KJ/min.
For calculation purpose,
1 ton of refrigeration = 210 KJ/min = 3.5 KJ/s.
9.8 Coefficient of performance (C.O.P)

C.O.P of refrigerator :
Coefficient of performance of refrigerator is defined as the
ratio of heat extracted (refrigerating effect) to the work input.
Heat extracted in the evaporator
C.O. P of refrigerator =
Work input to compressor
Refrigerating effect N
C.O. Pref = =
Work input W
The C.O.P is always greater than 1. It is known as
theoretical coefficient of performance. The values of N and W are
obtained by applying laws of thermodynamics.
C.O.P of heat pump :

Coefficient of performance of heat pump is defined as the
ratio of heat rejected at higher temperature to the work input.
Heat rejected at high temperatur e
C.O. P of heat pump =
Work input
Heat extracted in the evaporator + Work input
=
Work input
Heat extracted in the evaporator Work input
= +
Work input Work input
= C.O.P of refrigerator + 1
∴ C .O. Php = 1 + C.O. Pref
C.O.P of heat pump is also called as reciprocal thermal efficiency (R.T.E).
Unit – V  9.3
Actual C.O.P
The C.O.P calculated using actual values of N and W is
known as actual C.O.P. In this case, the actual values of N and W
are calculated by conducting test.
Relative C.O.P
Relative C.O.P is defined as the ratio of actual C.O.P to
theoretical C.O.P.
Actual C.O. P
Rlative C.O. P =
Theoretica l C.O. P
9.9 Power required
We know that, C.O. P = =
Work input W
Work input per second is known as power required.
Refrigerating effect for 1 ton of refrigeration = 3.5 KJ/s
Refrigerating effect
Work input / sec =
C.O. P
3.5
∴ KW per ton of refrigerat ion =
C . O. P
9.10 Refrigeration cycles

Refrigerators using air as working fluid can operate on
1) Reversed Carnot cycle or
2) Bell – Coleman cycle ( Reversed Joule cycle)
1) Reversed Carnot cycle
The p−V and T−S diagram for a reversed Carnot cycle is
2−3 : Isothermal heat rejection to a hot body ( T2= T3)
4−1 : Isothermal heat extraction from a cold body ( T1 = T4 )
Heat is extracted during the isothermal process 4−1.
Heat extracted, Qe = T1.dS
Heat is rejected during the isothermal process 2−3.
Heat rejected, Qr = T2.dS
Unit – V  9.4
Work input, W = Qr − Qe = T2.dS− T1.dS = (T2 − T1).dS
3 Qr Isothermal
2 3 2
n Adibatic
Exp
sio
res
ans
mp
p
ion
Co
T
4
1 1
Qe=N 4
V S
Fig.9.2 Reversed Carnot cycle
Performance of the cycle

The main purpose of Carnot cycle is to extract heat from a
cold body and reject heat to a hot body. In this case, the
performance of cycle is called as Coefficient of Performance (COP).
In the case of refrigerator, we require a cooling effect. So,

COP is defined as the ratio of heat extracted to work input.
COPref = =
Work input W
Refrigerating effect = Heat extracted
Heat extracted Qe T1 .dS
∴ COPref = = =
T1 Tmin
∴ COPref = =
T2 − T1 Tmax − Tmin
T1 − Minimum temperatur e of the cycle
T2 − Maximum temperatur e of the cycle
In the case of heat pump, heating effect is required. So,

COP is defined as the ratio of heat rejected to the work input.
Heat rejected Qr T2 .dS
COPhp = = =
T2 Tmax
∴ COPhp = =
Unit – V  9.5
2) Bell – Coleman cycle (Air refrigeration system)
3 2
Condenser
3 2
Expander Compressor Motor
4 1
Evaporator
4 1
Fig.9.3 Bell – Coleman cycle (Air refrigeration system)
Air is used as refrigerator in Bell – Coleman cycle. It is

reversed Joule cycle. The system consists of the following :
 Compressor : Air at low pressure ( p1 ) from the refrigerating
chamber is compressed to a high pressure ( p2 ) . The work
developed during expansion process is used to drive the
compressor.
 Condenser : The condenser contains a number of pipes
immersed in circulating water. High pressure hot air form the
compressor enters the condenser. Heat is rejected form the air
to the water at constant pressure.
 Expander : Air at high pressure ( p3 ) expanded isentropically
in an expansion cylinder to a lower pressure ( p4 ) .
 Evaporator : Air leaving the expansion cylinder flow to the

evaporator. The air extracts heat from the space to be cooled
and produces required cooling effect at constant pressure.
Performance of the cycle
The p−V and T−S diagram for a Bell – Coleman cycle is

2−3 : Constant pressure heat rejection to a hot body ( p2 = p3 )
4−1 : Constant pressure heat extraction from a cold body ( p1 = p4 )
Unit – V  9.6
p2 = p3 3 Qr 2
2
Adiabatic
C
p= S=C
p 3 1
p1 = p4 S=C
T p=C
4 Qe 1 4
S1 = S2 S3=S4
V S
Fig.9.4(a) p-V and T-S diagram (Bell-Coleman cycle)
Heat is extracted during the constant pressure process 4−1.

Heat extracted, Qe = m.Cp.(T1 − T4 )
Heat is rejected during the constant pressure process 2−3
Heat rejected, Qr = m.C p .(T2 − T3 )
Work input during the cycle, W = Qr − Qe

W = m.C p .(T2 − T3 ) − m.C p (T1 − T4 )
COP = =
Work input W
Refrigerating effect = Heat extracted
Heat extracted m.C p .(T1 − T4 )

∴ C.O. P = =
Work input m.C p .(T2 − T3 ) − m.C p (T1 − T4 )
T1 − T4
∴ COP = − − − − − −(1)
(T2 − T3 ) − (T1 − T4 )
Case – 1 : Both compression and expansion are isentropic

Process 1–2 and 3 – 4 are isentropic, pV γ = C
γ −1 γ −1 γ −1
T1  p1  γ T4  p4  γ p  γ
=  ; = 
T3  p3 
= 1 (Q p4 = p1 ; p3 = p2 )
T2  p2   p2 
T1 T4 T
∴ =  T2 = 3 × T1
T2 T3 T4
Substitute the value of T2 in equation (1)
Unit – V  9.7
T1 − T4
COP =
 T3 
 T1 − T3  − (T1 − T4 )
T
 4 
T1 − T4
=
 T3T1 − T4T3 
  − (T1 − T4 )
 T4 
T1 − T4
=
T 
(T1 − T4 ) 3 − 1 
T
 4 
1 T4
= =
T3 T3 − T4
−1
T4
Where, T4 = Temperature of air leaving expander
T3 = Temperature of air entering expander
Temperature of air leaving expander
C.O. Pref =
 Temperatur e of air  Temperature of air 
−
 entering expander   leaving expander 
T4
C .O. Pref =
T3 − T4
p2 = p3 3 Qr 2 p2 = p3 3 Qr 2
n
n p.V =C
p.V =C
γ
p.V =C
p p
p1 = p4 p1 = p4
4 Qe 1 4 Qe 1
V V
Case - 2 : Both Compression & Case - 3 : Compression - Polytropic
Expansion polytropic Expansion - Adiabatic
Fig.9.4(b) Fig.9.4(c)
Case – 2 : Both compression and expansion are polytropic

Process 1–2 and 3 – 4 are polytropic, pV n = C
m R [ (T2 − T1 ) − (T3 − T4 ) ]
n
Work input, W =
n −1
C.O. P = =
Work input W
Unit – V  9.8
Case – 3 : When the compression is polytropic and expansion
is isentropic
Process 1–2  pV n = C ; Process 3 – 4  pV γ = C
γ
m R (T2 − T1 ) − m R (T3 − T4 )
n
Work input, W =
n −1 γ −1
C.O. P = =
Work input W
9.11 Vapour compression refrigeration system
Saturated
liquid
3 2
Condenser
Receiver
Super heated
vapour
3
Expansion
4 valve Evaporator
4 1 Dry vapour
Wet vapour 1 2
Compressor
Fig.9.5 Vapour compression refrigeration system
This system is widely used for all purpose of refrigeration.
In this type of refrigerator, the refrigerant undergoes the change of
phase from vapour to liquid and liquid to vapour during a cycle.
Construction
This system consists of the following main components :
1) Compressor : Reciprocating compressors are generally used.
Centrifugal compressors may be used for very big plants.
2) Condenser : It is a coil of tube made of copper. Air cooled
condensers are used in household refrigerators. Water or
liquid cooled condensers are used for big plants.
3) Expansion valve : It is a throttle valve. High pressure liquid
refrigerant flows through this valve at controlled rate.
4) Evaporator : It is the actual cooler. It is kept in the space to
be cooled. The evaporator is a coil of tubes made of copper.
Unit – V  9.9
Working
 The low pressure dry refrigerant vapour coming from the
evaporator flows into the compressor. During compression,
the pressure and temperature of refrigerant vapour increases.
The refrigerant leaves the compressor as superheated vapour.
 The superheated refrigerant vapour from the compressor
enters into the condenser. Vapour refrigerant condenses into
high pressure saturated liquid. This liquid refrigerant is
collected in a receiver.
 The high pressure liquid refrigerant then enters the
expansion valve. During expansion, the liquid refrigerant
partially evaporates and leaves the expansion valve as wet
vapour. This valve allows the liquid refrigerant to flow at a
controlled rate into the evaporator.
 Most of the refrigerant is vapourised in the evaporator at a
low pressure. In the evaporator, the liquid refrigerant absorbs
heat from the space to be cooled. Thus the refrigeration effect
is obtained.
 The refrigerant leaves the evaporator as low pressure dry
vapour. This vapour flows into the compressor and the cycle
is repeated.
9.12 Vapour absorption refrigeration system

In this system, the compression process of a vapour
compression refrigeration system is replaced by the following
process :
 Absorption of ammonia vapour into water in an absorber
 Pumping this solution using a liquid pump
 Producing ammonia vapours in a generator by heating
Construction
This system consists of the following main components :
1) Absorber 2) Pump 3) Heat exchanger
4) Heating coil 5) Generator 6) Analyser
7) Rectifier 8) Condenser 9) Expansion valve
10) Evaporator
Unit – V  9.10
(NH3 + H2 O) vapour
Generator
Weak solution
Steam in
Analyser Heating coils Absorber
Steam out
Pressure Heat
reducing exchanger
valve
Pump
Coolant
Rectifier
Expansion
Condenser valve Evaporator
NH3 vapour
Cooling
water Brine
Fig.9.6 Vapour absorption refrigeration system
Working
 Dry ammonia vapour at low pressure from the evaporator
passes in to the absorber. The dry ammonia vapour is
dissolved in cold water and a strong solution of ammonia is
formed.
 The highly concentrated ammonia solution is then pumped by
a pump to the generator though a heat exchanger. In the heat
exchanger, the strong ammonia solution is heated by the hot
weak solution returning from the generator. In the generator,
the warm solution is further heated by heating coils. Steam
heating coil is normally used. The weak ammonia solution left
in the generator is returned to the absorber through heat
exchanger.
 Ammonia vapours leaving the generator may contain some
water vapour. The ammonia vapour passes through a series
of trays in the analyser . The ammonia vapour is separated
from water vapour. The separated water vapour is returned to
the generator. Then the ammonia vapour passes through a
rectifier. It condenses the water vapour still present in
ammonia vapour.
Unit – V  9.11
 The pure ammonia vapour then passes through a condenser.
The ammonia vapour is condensed to liquid ammonia by the
cooling water circulated through the condenser.
 The high pressure liquid ammonia is throttled by an
expansion valve. The temperature and pressure of liquid
ammonia is reduced. It partly evaporates.
 The low temperature ammonia enters into the evaporator.
The liquid ammonia fully vapourises by absorbing the heat
from the space to be cooled. Thus the refrigerant effect is
obtained.
 The low pressure ammonia vapour from the evaporator again
enters the absorber and the cycle is repeated.
9.13 Comparison of Vapour compression and Vapour

absorption system of refrigeration
Vapour compression system Vapour absorption system
1) Electric power is needed to No need of electric power. Waste or
run the system. exhaust steam may be used.
2) Noisy operation. Quiet operation.
3) System has more wear and Subjected to little wear and tear.
tear.
4) The performance is poor at Performance is not affected at
partial load. partial load.
5) Mechanical energy is Heat energy from exhaust steam
supplied through compressor. is utilised.
6) Charging of refrigerant is Charging of refrigerant is difficult.
easy.
7) Energy supplied is ½ to ¼ of Energy supplied is 1½ times the
the refrigerating effect. refrigerating effect.
8) COP is high. COP is low.
9) Initial investment is high. Low.
10) Maintenance cost is low. High.
Unit – V  9.12
9.14 Refrigerants
Refrigerant is a substance in vapour state which is used as
a working fluid in refrigerators. The heat is transferred from the
cold body to the hot body through the refrigerant.
9.15 Desired properties of refrigerants

A good refrigerant should possess the following desirable
properties.
Chemical properties
1) It should be non-toxic
2) It should be non-flammable
3) It should be non-explosive
4) It should be non-corrosive
5) It should not react with lubricating oil
6) It should not contaminate the stored products
Physical and thermodynamic properties

1) It should have high latent heat of vapourisation
2) It should have low specific volume
3) It should have low specific heat
4) It should have low boiling and freezing point
5) It should have high critical temperature and pressure
6) It should have high thermal conductivity
7) It should have high electrical resistance
8) Leakage tendency should be low and leaks should be
readily detectable.
9.16 Common refrigerants

1) Ammonia ( NH 3 )
Properties
 Toxic
 Explosive at high temperature
 Burns when heated
 Irritating to eyes, nose and throat
 Non-corrosive to ferrous metals and corrosive to non-
ferrous metals
 It has high latent heat and critical temperature
Unit – V  9.13
 It has higher refrigerating effect
 Leaks can be easily detected
Uses : Large ice making and cold storages.
2) Sulphur Di-oxide ( SO 2 )
Properties
 Toxic
 Non- flammable and non-explosive
 It is not miscible with oil
 It is irritant to human body
 It had pungent odour
 It has low latent heat value
 Non-corrosive to metals
 Leaks can be easily detected
Uses : Domestic refrigerating machines
3) Carbon Di-oxide (CO2 )

Properties
 Non-toxic
 Non-inflammable and non-explosive
 Colourless and odourless
 Higher refrigerating effect
 Low critical temperature
 Leaks cannot be easily detected.
Uses : Production of solid CO2 (dry ice)
4) Freon – 12
Properties
 Non-toxic
 Non-irritant to human body
 No objectionable odour is produced.
Uses : Air-conditioning plants, refrigerators, frozen food and
ice cream cabinets, water coolers, window air-conditioner,
automobile air-conditioners, etc.
Unit – V  9.14
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Define the term refrigeration.

2. Distinguish between a refrigerator and heat pump.
3. List out the types of refrigerators.
4. State the applications of refrigerators.
5. Define the following terms.
(i) Refrigerating effect
(ii) Ton of refrigeration
(iii) Theoretical C.O.P
(iv) Actual C.O.P
(v) Relative C.O.P
6. Prove that C.O.P of heat pump = C..O.P of refrigerator + 1
7. Explain reversed Carnot cycle. Derive an expression for C.O.P
of refrigerator and heat pump.
8. Derive an expression for the coefficient of performance of Bell-
Coleman cycle for refrigeration .
9. Explain with a line diagram the construction and working of a
vapour compression system of refrigeration.
10. With a neat flow diagram, explain the working of a vapour
absorption refrigeration system.
11. Distinguish between vapour compression refrigeration and
vapour absorption refrigeration system.
12. What is refrigerant? List out the desirable properties of
refrigerants.
13. Name the common refrigerants used. List out their properties
and uses.
Unit – V  9.15
POINTS TO REMEMBER
1. C.O.P of refrigerator, C.O. Pref = =
Work input W
2. C.O.P of heat pump = 1 + C.O.P of refrigerator
Actual C.O. P
3. Rlative C.O. P =
Theoretical C.O. P
4. 1 ton of refrigeration (TR) = 210 KJ/min = 3.5 KJ/s.
Tmin
5. C.O.P of reversed Carnot cycle, COPref =
Tmax − Tmin
Tmax
6. C.O.P of heat pump, COPhp =
Tmax − Tmin
7. C.O.P of Bell-Coleman cycle,
C.O. Pref =
Temperature of air  − Temperature of air 
Unit – V  9.16
Unit – V
Chapter 10. PSYCHROMETRY AND
AIR-CONDITIONING
10.1 Introduction
Psychrometry is the study of the properties of moist air
(mixture of air and water vapour) together with their measurement
and control .
10.2 Psychrometric properties

1) Dry air
The dry air is considered to be a mixture of nitrogen and
oxygen. The other gases are present only in negligible amount in
air. The dry air contains :
• 79% nitrogen and 21% oxygen by volume.
• 77% nitrogen and 23% oxygen by weight.
2) Moist air
It is the mixture of dry air and water vapour. The amount
of water vapour increases with decrease in temperature and
decreases with increase in temperature.
3) Saturated air
When the mixture of air and water vapour at a given
temperature contains the maximum amount of water vapour, then
it is called saturated air.
4) Dry bulb temperature (DBT)

The temperature recorded by the ordinary thermometer is
called dry bulb temperature. This is not affected by moisture . It is
denoted by tdb or td .
5) Wet bulb temperature (WBT)

The temperature recorded by the thermometer when its
bulb is covered with wet cloth and is exposed to the moving air is
called wet bulb temperature. It id denoted by twb or tw .
Unit – V  10.1
6) Wet bulb depression (WBD)
The difference between dry bulb temperature and wet bulb
temperature is called as wet bulb depression.
WBD = DBT – WBT
7) Dew point temperature (DPT)

It is the temperature at which the moisture present in the
air begins to condense, when the air is continuously cooled. It is
denoted as tdp .
The dry bulb temperature, wet bulb temperature and dew

point temperature are equal at saturation point.
8) Dew point depression (DPD)

It is the difference between dry bulb temperature and dew
point temperature.
DPD = DBT – DPT
9) Humidity
The quantity of water vapour present in the air is known
as humidity.
10) Specific humidity or humidity ratio

It is defined as the mass of water vapour present in unit
mass of dry air. It is generally expressed in gm/kg of dry air. It is
denoted by ω .
mass of water vapour
ω=
mass of dry air
11) Relative humidity

It is defined as the ratio of mass of water vapour present in
the given volume of air to mass of water vapour present in the same
volume when air is fully saturated at same temperature. It is
denoted by φ .
Mass of water vapour in a given volume

φ=
Mass of water vapour in same volume, if air is
saturated at the same temperatue
Unit – V  10.2
10.3 Psychrometric chart
p.
t em
Vapour pressure in mm of Hg
on
Sp. humidity
r ati
a tu
no
fs
ti
o
l py
ra
th a
tu
En
sa
Specifif humidity
or
t
in nt
po w poi W
et
w De bu
, de En lb
y th
lb idit
Dry bulb temp.

al p te
bu um y L mp.
We t ve
h
lati i ne
Sp.
Re
v
ol u
me
Dry bulb temp.
Fig.10.1 Psychrometric chart
The graphical representation which shows the inter
relationship between the properties of moist air is known as
psychrometric chart. In this chart, the abscissa represents dry bulb
temperature in OC, and ordinate represents specific humidity in
gm/kg of air.
The saturation curve represents 100% relative humidity at

various dry bulb temperatures. All other properties are shown by
different lines. If any two properties are known, other properties
can be found using this chart.
The following are the various lines in psychrometric chart :

1) Dry bulb temperature lines
These are uniformly spaced vertical lines. Temperature
range of these line in psychrometric chart is from -6OC to 45OC.
These lines are drawn at an interval of 5OC and up to the
saturation curve.
2) Specific humidity lines
These are uniformly spaced horizontal lines. The range of
these lines in psychrometric chart is from 0 to 0.030 kg/kg of dry
air. These lines are drawn at an interval of 0.001 kg and up to the
saturation curve.
Unit – V  10.3
3) Dew point temperature lines
These lines are horizontal. They are not uniformly spaced.
The dry bulb temperature and dew point temperature are equal at
any point on saturation curve.
4) Wet bulb temperature lines

These are inclined straight lines. They are not uniformly
spaced. The dry bulb temperature and wet bulb temperature are
equal at any point on saturation curve.
5) Enthalpy lines
These are inclined straight lines. They are not uniformly
spaced. They are drawn parallel to wet bulb temperature lines up
to saturation curve.
6) Specific volume lines

These are uniformly spaced inclined straight lines. They
are drawn up to saturation curve.
7) Vapour pressure lines

These are uniformly spaced horizontal lines. Vapour
pressure lines are not drawn in the main chart. But a scale showing
a vapour pressure in mm of Hg is given on the extreme left side of
the chart.
8) Relative humidity lines

These are curved lines. They follow saturation curves.
Generally, these lines are drawn with values 10%, 20%, 30%, etc.
and up to 100%. The saturation curve represents 100% relative
humidity.
10.4 Psychrometric processes

The important psychrometric processes are :
1) Sensible heating process
2) Sensible cooling process
3) Humidification process
4) Dehumidification process
Unit – V  10.4
1) Sensible heating process
Heating coil
φ1 ω
φ2
Heating
ω1=ω2
1 2
Air in Air out
Steam DBT td1 td2
Fig. 10.2 Sensible heating process
The heating of air without addition of moisture is known

as sensible heating. The sensible heating is achieved by passing
the air over heating coils like electric resistance heating coils or
steam coils.
During this process, the specific humidity remains

constant and relative humidity of air decreases. Dry bulb
temperature increases. This process is represented on the
psychrometric chart by a horizontal line drawn from left to right.
Due to the inefficiency of the heating coil, the dry bulb

temperature of the air leaving the coil should not be equal to the
temperature of heating coil. This phenomenon is represented in
terms of bypass factor.
The bypass factor is given by,

t c − t d2
BPF =
tc − td1
Where, td1 − Dry bulb temperature of air before heating
td2 − Dry bulb temperature of air after heating
tc − Temperature of heating coil
The coil efficiency is given by, ηc = 1 − BPF
Sensible heating of air can be done to any desired temperature.
Unit – V  10.5
2) Sensible cooling process
Cooling coil
φ2 ω
φ1
Cooling
ω1=ω2
2 1
Air in Air out
Refrigerant DBT td2 t d1
Fig.10.3 Sensible cooling process
The cooling of air without change in its moisture content is

known as sensible cooling. The sensible cooling is achieved by
passing the air over cooling coils like refrigerant coils.
During this process, the specific humidity remains

constant and relative humidity of air increases. Dry bulb
temperature decreases. This process is represented on the
psychrometric chart by a horizontal line drawn from right to left.
Due to the inefficiency of the cooling coil, the dry bulb

temperature of the air leaving the coil should not be equal to the
temperature of cooling coil. This phenomenon is represented in
terms of bypass factor.
The bypass factor is given by,

td − tc
BPF = 2
td1 − tc
Where, td1 − Dry bulb temperature of air before cooling
td2 − Dry bulb temperature of air after cooling
tc − Temperature of cooling coil
The coil efficiency is given by, η c = 1 − BPF
Sensible cooling of air can be done only up to dew point

temperature. If the cooling is done below this dew point
temperature, the moisture in air will begin to condense.
Unit – V  10.6
3) Humidification
ω
φ2
Air in Air out
φ1 ω2
2
Nozzle
ω1
1
Water sump DBT t d1=td2

Pump
Fig.10.4 Humidification process
The addition of water vapour in to air without change in its

dry bulb temperature is called humidification. It increases the
moisture content of the air.
Various types of humidifiers are used based on the purpose

and size of space to be humidified. Spray mist type humidifiers are
commonly used. In this system, a small pump supplies water to
the spraying nozzle at high pressure. Water mist is sprayed
directly into the supply air. The mist is carried in to the space to be
conditioned by the air flow.
During this process, the specific humidity and relative

humidity of air increases. The dry bulb temperature remains
constant. This process is represented on the psychrometric chart
by a vertical line drawn upwards.
4) Dehumidification
Cooling coil Heating coil ω

φ1
φ2 ω1
1
Air out
ω2
Air in 2
Refrigerant DBT td1=td2
Fig.10.5 Dehumidification process
Unit – V  10.7
The removal of water vapour in to air without change in its
dry bulb temperature is called dehumidification. During this
process, the moisture content of the air decreases.
Dehumidification is achieved chemically, physically or

thermodynamically.
 The water vapour in air is removed using chemicals like

calcium oxide, calcium chloride and calcium sulphate.
 In physical method, water vapour is removed by absorption
using activated alumina and silica gel.
 Thermodynamically, water vapour is removed by cooling the
air below its dew point temperature. At this temperature, the
water vapour in air is condensed.
Electric refrigeration dehumidifiers are commonly used. In

this system, cold refrigerant is circulated through evaporator coil.
The water vapour in the entering air is condensed when passing
over the cooling coil. The water is collected and removed. Then the
air is reheated by a heating coil to maintain its dry bulb
temperature.
During this process, the specific humidity and relative

humidity of air decreases. The dry bulb temperature remains
constant. This process is represented on the psychrometric chart
by a vertical line drawn downwards.
10.5 Mixing of air stream

h1
2
ω
m h3
2, h
2, ω 1
2 3 ω1
m3,h3,ω3, h2
3
ω3
ω1
1 m 1,
h 1,
2 ω2
DBT td2 td3 td1
Fig.10.6 Mixing of air stream
Unit – V  10.8
Mixing of air stream is frequently used in air conditioning.
This mixing is normally takes without the addition or rejection of
heat or moisture content.
Let,
m1 = Mass of air entering at 1
h1 = Enthalpy of air entering at 1
w1 = Specific humidity of air entering at 1
m2 , h2 , w2 = Corresponding values of air entering at 1
m3 , h3 , w3 = Corresponding values of air mixture leaving at 3
Assuming no lose of enthalpy and specific humidity,

m1 + m2 = m3 ---------- (1)
m1h1 + m2 h2 = m3 h3 ---------- (2)
m1w1 + m2 w2 = m3 w3 ---------- (3)
From equations (1) and (2)
m1 h1 + m2 h2 = (m1 + m2 )h3
= m1h3 + m2h3
m1 h1 − m1h3 = m2 h3 − m2 h2
m1 (h1 − h3 ) = m2 (h3 − h2 )
m1 h3 − h2
= ---------- (4)
m2 h1 − h3
Similarly, from equations (1) and (3)

m1w1 + m2w2 = (m1 + m2 )w3
= m1 w3 + m2 w3
m1w1 − m1w3 = m2w3 − m2w2
m1 (w1 − w3 ) = m2 (w3 − w2 )
m1 w3 − w2
= ---------- (5)
m2 w1 − w3
From equations (4) and (5)
m1 h3 − h2 w3 − w2
= =
m2 h1 − h3 w1 − w3
On the psychrometric chart, the final state 3 lies on a

straight line connecting the initial states of the two streams before
mixing. The final state divides this line into two parts that are in
the same ratio as before mixing.
Unit – V  10.9
10.6 Air conditioning
Air conditioning is defined as the simultaneous control of
the temperature, humidity, motion and purity of air within an
enclosed space.
10.7 Classification of air conditioning system

The air conditioning system is classified as follows :
1) Based on the purpose
(a) Comfort air conditioning system
(b) Industrial air conditioning system
2) Based on the season

(a) Summer air conditioning system
(b) Winter air conditioning system
(c) Year round air conditioning system
3) Based on the arrangements of equipments

(a) Unitary air conditioning system
(b) Central air conditioning system
Comfort air conditioning

The comfort air conditioning is used to provide an
environment which is comfortable and healthy to the human
beings. The comfort conditions are :
 Dry bulb temperature (DBT) = 22OC to 27OC
 Relative humidity (RH) = 40% to 60%
Example : Air conditioning systems used in houses, offices,

theatres, hospitals, hostels, shopping malls, hotels, etc.
Industrial air conditioning

Industrial air conditioning is used to provide air at
required temperature and humidity to perform specific processes
in industries.
Example : Air conditioning in tool rooms, textile industries,

paper industries, printing industries, food processing industries, etc.
Unit – V  10.10
Summer air conditioning
This system is designed to use in summer. In this system,
 the sensible heat of air is reduced by cooling and
 the humidity of air reduced by dehumidification.
Winter air conditioning

This system is designed to use in winter. In this system,
 the sensible heat of air is increased by heating and
 the humidity of air increased by humidification.
Year round air conditioning

This system controls the temperature and humidity of air
throughout the year as per change in season.
Unitary air conditioning

A factory assembled unit is used in this system. It is
usually installed in the space to be air conditioned.
Central air conditioning

In this system, all the components are installed in one
central room. The conditioned air is circulated to the individual
rooms through ducts.
10.8 Applications of air conditioning
1) Industrial applications : Air conditioning is used in

industries to provide suitable environment for processes. It
includes air conditioning of industries such as,
 Textile industry.
 Printing industry.
 Medicine industry.
 Tool room
 Automotive industry
 Manufacturing industry.
 Electronics industry
 Plastic industry
 Power plants
Unit – V  10.11
 Agricultural and food industry
 Research and development
 Testing and inspection
2) Commercial applications : Comfort to human beings is

given much important in commercial air conditioning. It
includes air conditioning of
 Residences and offices
 Banks and ATMs
 Theatres
 Auditoriums
 Conference halls
 Hotels
 Show rooms
 Jewelleries
 Departmental stores, etc.
3) Transport air conditioning : Air conditioning is provided in

moving vehicles such as car, bus, truck, train, air craft, ship, etc.
4) Hospital air conditioning : Hospitals require hygienic

atmosphere so that bacteria emitted by one patient does not
affect the other persons. Hence air conditioning is provided in
the following :
 Intensive care units
 Diagnostic centres
 Operation theatres
 Testing labs
 Blood storage
 Medical stores, etc.
5) Other applications : It includes air conditioning of

 Computer centres and data centres
 Museum
 Library
Unit – V  10.12
10.9 Room air conditioning (Unitary air conditioning)
Room air conditioner cools a room. The common types of
room air conditioners are,
 Window type : In this type, all the components are
enclosed in a single box. This unit is fitted in a window.
 Split type : It consists of outdoor unit and indoor unit. The
outdoor unit is fitted outside the room and the indoor unit
is fitted on a wall inside the room. Nowadays, split type
room air conditioners are widely used.
Construction
Wall
Indoor Unit Outdoor Unit
Capillary tube
Evaporator coils
Cold air
Fan Fan
Condenser
Receiver
Dampers
Compressor
Room air
Air filter
Fig.10.7 Room air conditioner
1) Out door unit
It consists of the following parts :

 Compressor - to compress the refrigerant.
 Condenser coil - to reject heat from the refrigerant to the
outside air.
 Condenser fan - to move the air over the surface of the
condensing coil.
 Receiver - to collect the condensed refrigerant.
Unit – V  10.13
2) Indoor unit
It consists of the following parts :
 Capillary tube - used as an expansion device
 Evaporator coil - to absorb heat from the room
 Air filter - to remove impurities in air
 Fan and grills - to circulate air
 Control panel - to control the functions of the air conditioner.
Working
A copper connection pipe and electrical wiring connects the
indoor unit to the outdoor unit of the split air conditioning. The low
pressure refrigerant vapour from the evaporator is sucked into the
compressor through suction pipe. It is compressed to high pressure
and supplied to the condenser. It is condensed in to liquid by
passing the outdoor air over the condenser coil by a fan. The
condensed refrigerant is collected in a receiver.
The liquid refrigerant is passed through the capillary

tubes. The refrigerant partly evaporates and expands to evaporator
pressure. Then the refrigerant enters the evaporator. In the
evaporator, the refrigerant absorbs heat from evaporator surface
and gets fully vaporised. A motor driven fan draws air from the
room through the air filter. The air is cooled by losing its heat to
the low temperature refrigerant. Then the cooled air is circulated
back into the room. The vapour refrigerant from the evaporator
goes to the compressor and the cycle is repeated. Thus room is air
conditioned.
The quantity of air circulated can be controlled by dampers.

The moisture in the air passing over the evaporator coil is
dehumidified and collected in the trays. The unit automatically
stops when the required temperature is reached in the room. This
is done by the thermostat and control panel. The most
common refrigerant gases used in air conditioning systems include
R-410A, R-22 and R-290.
Unit – V  10.14
10.10 Central air conditioning
In central air conditioning system, all the components of

the system are grouped together and installed in one central room.
The conditioned air is distributed from this central room to the
rooms to be air conditioned through duct ways.
To space to be From conditioned

conditioned space
Supply duct
To atmosphere
Silencer Fan Reheater Preheater
Cooling coil Filter Air damper
Spray
nozzle Fresh air
Fig.10.8 Central air conditioning system
Construction
The central air conditioning plant consists of the following
components.
1) Filter – to remove impurities and harmful bacteria present in

the circulating air.
2) Heating coils – to heat the air during winter. Steam or hot
water may be used for heating.
3) Cooling coils – to cool and dehumidify the air during summer.
Refrigerant, chilled water or brine may be used for cooling.
4) Blower – to circulate the air through the duct and into the rooms.
5) Sprays – to cool and humidify the air.
6) Control panel – to control the working of the plant.
Unit – V  10.15
Working
The central air conditioning can be used both in summer
and winter air conditioning.
For summer air conditioning

The process involved in summer air conditioning is cooling
and dehumidification. Hence, heating coil is made inoperative. The
outside fresh air and recirculated air enters the plant through an
air filter. The filter removes impurities and harmful bacteria from
the air. Then air passes through the cooling coil.
The cooling coil is maintained at a temperature below the

dew point temperature of the air. Hence the water vapour present
in the air condenses. Thus the air is cooled and dehumidified. The
fan draws the conditioned air and sends it through the duct. The
air passes through the duct and enters the rooms to be air
conditioned through the grilled openings provided in the duct ways.
For winter air conditioning

The process involved in winter air conditioning is heating
and humidification. Hence, cooling coil is made inoperative. The
outside fresh air and recirculated air enters the plant through an
air filter. Then air passes through the heating coil.
The heating coil heats the air to the required temperature.

The spray type humidifier is used to humidify the air.
The fan draws the conditioned air and sends it through the duct.
The air passes through the duct and enters the rooms to be air
conditioned through the grilled openings provided in the duct ways.
A primary heater may be used to heat the air for better
humidification.
Applications : The central air conditioning system is

suitable for auditorium, departmental stores, hospitals, hotels,
multi-storey buildings, etc.
Unit – V  10.16
10.11 Room air conditioning system (Unitary air conditioning)
Vs Central air conditioning system
Room air conditioning

Central air conditioning
(Unitary air conditioning)
Advantages : Disadvantages :
1) Less installation charges. High installation charges.
2) Duct work is not needed. It requires duct work.
3) The conditions of air for each The air is supplied to all
room can be controlled rooms at same conditions.
individually.
4) Failure of one unit does not Failure of central plant puts
affect air conditioning in other off air conditioning in all
room. rooms.
5) The units are kept running in The entire plant is to be
the rooms only where the operated even if one room
cooling is required. Other units requires cooling.
can be stopped.
6) Occupies less space. Occupies more space.
Disadvantages : Advantages :
1) The initial cost and running The initial cost and running
cost are more per unit of cost are less per unit of
refrigeration. refrigeration.
2) The unit should be installed in The central plant can be
the room itself. installed away from the
rooms to be air conditioned.
3) Noise and vibration problems. No noise and vibration
problems.
4) Entire unit should be removed Better accessibility for repair
for repair and maintenance. and maintenance.
Unit – V  10.17
10.12 Comfort air conditioning Vs Industrial air
conditioning
Comfort air conditioning Industrial air conditioning

1) The main purpose is to provide The main purpose is to
comfort and healthy conditions provide an atmosphere
to the human beings. suitable for specific
processes.
2) Applications include homes, Applications include textile
offices, banks and ATMs, industry. printing industry,
theatres, auditoriums, hotels, tool room, automotive
departmental stores, etc. industry, manufacturing
industry, Electronics
industry, plastic industry,
etc.
10.13 Factors to be considered in air conditioning

The important factors to be considered in air conditioning
for providing human comfort are :
1) Temperature : A suitable indoor temperature should be
maintained by adding or removing heat to the conditioned
space. Desirable temperature for comfort is 22OC to 27OC.
2) Heat transfer from human body : A person with a high
metabolism rate will dissipate more heat. The heat should be
properly rejected to the surrounding. Otherwise, it leads to
health issues due to accumulation of heat.
3) Humidity of air : Moisture content of air decides the
psychological comfort of human. High moisture content
increases the relative humidity and increases sweat. The
relative humidity of air should be kept between 40% to 60% to
feel comfort.
4) Quality of air : The air in a closed space must be replaced by
fresh air periodically to provide comfort. The air should be clean
and free from odour, dust, toxic gases, bacteria and other
impurities.
Unit – V  10.18
5) Air motion : The air motion and distribution of air is very
important to maintain uniform temperate in the conditioned
space. The air velocity should not exceed 8 to 12m/min.
6) Cold and hot surfaces : The cold or hot objects in a conditioned
space may cause discomfort to humans.
10.14 Loads encountered in air conditioning systems

Heating and cooling load calculations are carried out to
estimate the required capacity of heating and cooling systems. The
following two types of loads are encountered in air conditioning system.
1) Sensible load 2) Latent load
1) Sensible load
Sensible load affects the dry bulb temperature. It includes
the following :
 Heat conduction through exterior walls and roofs.
 Heat conduction through ceilings, floors, doors, windows and
interior partitions.
 Heat received from solar radiation.
 Heat generated in the space by lights, motors and appliances.
 Heat liberated by occupants
 Heat carried out by outside air which leaks through the cracks
in doors, windows and through frequent openings
2) Latent load
Latent load affects the moisture content of the conditioned
space. It includes the following :
 Heat gain due to moisture in the outside air entering by
infiltration
 Heat gain due to condensation of moisture from occupants
 Heat gain due to condensation of moisture from any process
such as cooking foods etc.
 Heat gain due to moisture passing directly into the
conditioned space through permeable walls or partitions from
the outside region.
Unit – V  10.19
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What is meant by psychrometry?

2. Explain the following psychrometric properties :
(a) Dry air (b) Moist air (c) Saturated vapour
3. Define : (a) Dry bulb temperature (b) Wet bulb temperature
(c) Dew point temperature (d) Wet bulb depression
(e) Dew point depression
4. Explain the following terms :
a) Humidity (b) Specific humidity (c) Relative humidity
5. What is psychrometric chart? Explain the various lines in it.
6. Explain the processes, sensible heating and sensible cooling.
7. Define bypass factor.
8. What is meant by humidification. Explain the working of a
humidifier with a sketch.
9. What is de-humidification? Explain with sketch the working of
dehumidifier.
10. Explain the mixing of air stream.
11. Classify air conditioning systems.
12. List out the applications of air conditioning system.
13. With the help of a neat sketch, explain the working of a room
air conditioner.
14. With the help of a line diagram, explain the working of a
central air conditioning plant.
15. Differentiate between unitary and central air conditioning
systems.
16. Compare industrial air conditioning system with comfort air
conditioning system.
17. What are the factors to be considered in air conditioning for
human comfort?
18. Enumerate the various loads encountered in air conditioning
system.
Unit – V  10.20
POINTS TO REMEMBER
tc − td2
1. Bypass factor for heating coil, BPF =
tc − td1
Where, td1 − Dry bulb temperature of air before heating
td2 − Dry bulb temperature of air after heating
tc − Temperature of heating coil
td2 − tc
2. Bypass factor for cooling coil, BPF =
td1 − tc
Where, td1 − Dry bulb temperature of air before cooling
td2 − Dry bulb temperature of air after cooling
tc − Temperature of cooling coil
Unit – V  10.21
SOLVED PROBLEMS
Example 10.1
Atmospheric air has 25OC dry bulb temperature and 15OC
wet bulb temperature. Using psychrometric chart, find the relative
humidity, hymidity ratio, enthalpy and dew point temperature of
air.
Given data
Dry bulb temperature, td = 25OC
Wet bulb temperature, Tw = 15OC
To find
1) Relative humidity, φ 2) Humidity ratio, ω
3) Enthalpy, h 4) Dew point temperature, tdp
Solution
From the psychrometric chart,
1) Identify 25OC dry bulb temperature line
2) Identify 15OC wet bulb temperature line
3) Locate the intersection of above two lines (Point 1).
Relative humidity : 41
ω
B
The point 1 is in between 15°C
%
30% and 40% relative humidity lines.

34
C 0.0067
Using interpolation, the relative 8°C 1 A
humidity is notede as, φ = 34%. 8°C DBT 25°C
Fig.10.9
Enthalpy :
From point 1, draw a line parallel to enthalpy line. It meets
the specific enthalpy scale at point B. At this point, specific
enthalpy, h = 41 kJ/kg of dry air.
Dew point temperature :

Draw a horizontal line through point 1 to meet the
saturation temperature line at C. At this point, dew point
temperature, tdp = 8OC.
Unit – V  P10.1
Result
1) Relative humidity, φ = 34%
2) Humidity ratio, ω = 0.0067 kg/kg of dry air
3) Specific enthalpy, h = 41 kg/kg of dry air
4) Dew point temperature, tdp = 8OC.
Example 10.2
Atmospheric air at 760 mm of Hg barometric pressure has
25OC and 50% relative humidity. Using psychrometric chart,
determine dew point temperature, enthalpy, wet bulb temperature
and humidity ratio.
Given data
Dry bulb temperature, td = 25OC
Relative humidity, φ = 50 %
To find
1) Humidity ratio, ω 2) Enthalpy, h
3) Dew point temperature, tdp 4) Wet bulb temperature, tw
Solution
2) Identify 50% humidity ratio line
Humidity ratio : 51
ω
B
Draw a horizontal line from D
18°C
%
50
point 1 to meet the specific humidity C 0.01

14°C 1 A
line at point A. At this point,
humidity ratio, ω = 0.010 kg /kf og
DBT 14°C 25°C
dry air.
Fig.10.10
Enthalpy :
From point 1, draw a line parallel to enthalpy line. It meets
the specific enthalpy scale at point B. At this point, specific
enthalpy, h = 51 kJ/kg of dry air.
Unit – V  P10.2
Dew point temperature :
Draw a horizontal line through point 1 to meet the
saturation temperature line at C. At this point, dew point
temperature, tdp = 14OC.
Wet bulb temperature :

The value of wet bulb temperature line passing through
point 1, tw = 18OC.
Result
1) Humidity ratio, ω = 0.010 kg/kg of dry air
2) Specific enthalpy, h = 51 kg/kg of dry air
3) Dew point temperature, tdp = 14OC
4) Wet bulb temperature, tw = 18OC
Example 10.3
Atmospheric air with dry bulb temperature 30OC and wet
bulb temperature 18OC is cooled to 15OC with out changing its
moisture content. Find the original relative humidity, final
relative humidity, final wet bulb temperature and change in
enthalpy.
Given data
Initial dry bulb temperature, td1 = 30OC
Final dry bulb temperature, td2 = 15OC
Wet bulb temperature, tw = 18OC
To find
1) Original relative humidity, φ1 2) Final relative humidity, φ2
3) Final wet bulb temperature, tw2 4) Change in enthalpy, (h2 − h1 )
Solution
There is no change in moisture content during cooling.
Hence this is a sensible cooling process.

Unit – V  P10.3
4) Draw a horizontal from point 1 towards left.
5) Identify 15OC drb bulb temperature line.
6) locate the intersection of above two lines (Point 2)
Initial relative humidity :
At point 1, intitial relative humidity, φ1 = 30%.
Final relative humidity :
Point 2 lise in between 79% and 80% relative humidity
lines. By interpolation, final relative humidity, φ 2 = 74%
Final wet bulb temperature : 51
At point 2, draw a line .5
ω
35 18°C
%
74
paralle to wet bulb temperature
%
12.5°C
30
line to meet the saturation line. It 1
2
gives wet bulb temperature,
tw2 = 12.5OC . DBT 15°C 30°C
Fig.10.11
Change in enthalpy :
Extend the enthalpy line through points 1 and 2 to meet
enthalpy scale. It reads intial enthalpy, h1 = 51 kJ/kg of dry air,
h2 = 35.5 kJ/kg of dry air.
Change in enthalpy = h2 − h1 = 35 .5 − 51 = −15 .5 kJ/kg of dry air.

The negative sign indicates that the process is cooling.
Result
1) Original relative humidity, φ1 = 30%
2) Final relative humidity, φ2 = 74%
3) Final wet bulb temperature, tw2 = 12.5OC
4) Change in enthalpy, ∆h = 15.5 kJ/kg of dry air
Example 10.4
The atmospheric air at 760mm of Hg has a dry bulb
temperature of 17OC and wet bulb temperature of 10OC. This air
enters a heating coil whose temperature is 42OC. Assume the by-pass
factor for heating coil as 0.6. Determine dry bulb temperature, wet
bulb temperature and relative humidity of the air leaving the coil.
Also find out the sensible heat added to the air per kg of dry air.
Unit – V  P10.4
Given data
Initial dry bulb temperature, td1 = 17OC
Initial wet bulb temperature, tw1 = 10OC
Heating coil temperature, tc = 42OC
By pass factor of heating coil, BPF = 0.6
To find
1) Final dry bulb temperature, td2 2) Final relative humidity, φ 2
3) Heat added, h2 − h1
Solution
There is no change in moisture content during heating.
Hence this is a sensible heating process.
4) Draw a horizontal from point 1 towards right.
6) Locate the intersection of above two lines (Point A)
7) Final conditions (Point 2) of air lies in between this line 1 – A
Dry bulb temperature of the air leaving the coil, td 2 :
tc − td2
By passs factor, BPF = .2
5
ω
tc − td1 39
.5
29 14°C
42 − td2
0.6 = 10°C
%
42 − 17
21
1 A
2
42 − td2 = 0.6 × (42 − 17) =15
td2 = 42 − 15 = 27OC. DBT 17°C 42°C
Fig.10.12
Final wet bulb temperature :
At point 2, draw a line paralle to wet bulb temperature
line to meet the saturation line.
It gives wet bulb temperature, tw2 = 14OC .
Final relative humidity :
Point 2 lise just above 20% relative humidity line.
Hence, φ 2 = 21%
Unit – V  P10.5
Sensible heat added :
Extend the enthalpy line through points 1 and 2 to meet
enthalpy scale. It reads intial enthalpy, h1 = 29.5 kJ/kg of dry air,
h2 = 39.25 kJ/kg of dry air.
Sensible heat added = h2 − h1 = 39 .25 − 29.5 = 9.75 kJ/kg of dry

air. The negative sign indicates that the process is cooling.
Result
1) Final dry bulb temperature, td2 = 27OC.
2) Final wet bulb temperature, tw2 = 14OC
3) Final relative humidity, φ2 = 21%
4) Sensible heat added, ∆h = 9.75 kJ/kg of dry air
Example 10.5
One kg of air at 40OC DBT and 50% RH is mixed with 2
kg of air at 20OC DBT and 20OC DPT. Calculate the temperature,
specific humidity and enthalpy of mixture.
Given data
At point 1 : At point 2 :
m1 = 1 kg ; m2 = 2 kg ;
td1 = 40OC ; td2 = 20OC ;
φ1 = 50% tw2 = 20OC
To find
1) Dry bulb temperature of mixture, td 3 ;
2) Specific humidity of mixture, ω3
3) Enthalpy of mixture, h3
Solution
2) Identify 50 % relative humidity line
5) Identify 20OC dew point line
6) Locate the intersection of above two lines (Point 2)
Unit – V  P10.6
At point 1, h1
h3
ω1 = 0.0238 kg/.kg of air
%
50
h2 ω1
h1 = 105 kJ/kg of air 3 1 ω3
2
ω2
At point 2 20°C
ω
ω2 = 0.0148 kg/.kg of air
h2 = 58 kJ/kg of air DBT td3 40°C
20°C
Fig.10.13
We know that,
m1ω1 + m2 ω2 = m3ω3
m ω + m2ω2 (1 × 0.0238) + (2 × 0.0148)
∴ ω3 = 1 1 =
m3 (1 + 2)
ω 3 = 0.0178 kg/kg of air
Now locate point 3 corresponding to ω3 = 0.0178 kg/kg of

air on the line joining 1 and 2. It is the conditions of mixture.
At point 3,
td 3 = 26.8OC ; h3 = 74 kJ/kg
Result
1) Dry bulb temperature of mixture, td3 = 26.8OC.
2) Specific humidity of mixture, ω3 = 0.0178 kJ/kg of air
3) Enthalpy of mixture, h3 = 74 kJ/kg of air
Unit – V  P10.7
1 & 2 Marks – Q & A  Page : 1
1 & 2 MARKS QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
Unit – I
BASICS OF THERMODYNAMICS
1. Define : a) Density b) Specific weight
The density of a substance is defined as the mass per unit
volume of the substance.
mass m
Density, ρ = = ( kg / m3 )
volume V
Specific weight of a substance is defined as the weight per
unit volume of the substance.
weight W mg
Specific weight, w = = = (N/ m 3 )
volume V V
2. Define : (i) Specific volume (ii) Specific gravity
Specific volume of a substance is defined as the volume
occupied by unit mass of the substance.
volume V
Specific volume, v = = ( m 3 /kg)
mass m
Specific gravity of a substance is defined as the ratio of
the density (or specific weight) of that substance to the
density (or specific weight) of a standard substance.
Specific gravity,
density (or specific weight) of the given substance
s=
density (or specific weight) of the standard substance
3. Define : pressure. What is atmospheric pressure?
The pressure is defined as the normal force per unit area.
Force F
Pressure, p = = (N/ m 2 )
Area A
Atmospheric is the pressure exerted by the air on the
earth's surface. The value of atmospheric pressure at
Mean Sea Level is 1.03125 bar
4. What is absolute pressure and gauge pressure? Write
the relationship between them.
,
1 & 2 Marks – Q & A  Page : 2
The actual pressure in any system is known as absolute pressure.
Gauge pressure is the pressure recorded by the pressure gauge.
Absolute pressure = Atmospheric pressure + Gauge pressure
5. Define : Vacuum pressure. Write the relationship
between vacuum pressure and absolute pressure.
The pressure which is below the atmospheric pressure is
known as vacuum pressure or negative pressure.
Absolute pressure = Atmospheric pressure – Vacuum pressure
6. Define temperature? What are the two scales used for
measuring temperature?
Temperature is a thermodynamic property, which
determines the degree of hotness or the level of heat
intensity of a body.
1) Celsius or centigrade scale 2) Fahrenheit scale
7. What is Centigrade and Fahrenheit scale? Give the
relationship between them.
In centigrade scale, the freezing point of water is taken as
zero and the boiling point of water is taken as 100oC. The
space between these two points has divided into 100 equal
divisions and each division represents one degree Celsius.
In Fahrenheit scale, the freezing point of water is taken as
32oF and the boiling point of water is taken as 212oF. The
space between these two points has divided into 180 equal
divisions and each division represents one degree
Fahrenheit.
o
C = 5 ( F − 32)
9
8. What is absolute temperature?
Absolute zero temperature is the temperature below which
the temperature of any substance cannot fall.
9. Mention the S.T.P conditions.
The conditions of temperature and pressure of any gas under
standard atmospheric conditions are termed as Standard
Temperature and Pressure (S.T.P).
S.T.P Values are,
Standard temperature = 15 o C = 288K
Standard pressure = 760 mm of Hg = 101.325 kN/ m 2 .
1 & 2 Marks – Q & A  Page : 3

10. State the N.T.P conditions.
The conditions of temperature and pressure of any gas under
normal atmospheric conditions are termed as Normal
Temperature and Pressure (N.T.P). N.T.P Values are,
Normal temperature = 0oC = 273K
Normal pressure = 760 mm of Hg = 101.325 kN/ m 2 .
11. Define heat. Write the formula for heat transfer.
The heat is defined as the energy transferred across the
boundary of a system due to the temperature difference
between the system and the surroundings.
If m kg of substance is heated from an initial temperature
T1 to a final temperature T2 , then the heat transfer is
given by, Q = m.C.(T2 − T1 )
where, C = specific heat of the substance (J/kg.K)
12. Define specific heat capacity.
The specific heat capacity of a substance is defined as the quantity
of heat transfer required to raise or lower the temperature of the
unit mass of the substance through one degree.
13. Define specific heat capacity at constant volume.
It is defined as the quantity of heat transfer required to raise
or lower the temperature of the unit mass of the substance
through one degree when the pressure remains constant.
14. Define specific heat capacity at constant pressure.
It is defined as the quantity of heat transfer required to raise
or lower the temperature of the unit mass of the substance
through one degree when the pressure remains constant.
15. Why Cp is always greater than Cv?
When a gas is heated at constant pressure, the volume of the
gas increases. Thus work is done by the gas by expanding.
Hence heating in constant pressure gives a higher value for
the specific heat than heating in a constant volume.
16. Define : Adiabatic index.
The ratio of the two specific heat capacities remains constant
and is called as adiabatic index. It is represented by the
symbol γ .
,
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Cp
Adiabatic index, γ =
Cv
17. Define : Work
Work is defined as the product of force (F) and the
distance moved (x) in the direction of force.
For any process, the mechanical work done is given by,
2
W =  p.dV
1
(N - m or J)
18. Define : (a) System (b) Surroundings

System : The thermodynamic system may be defined as a
definite area or a space where some thermodynamic
process is taking place.
Surroundings : Anything outside the boundaries which
affects the behaviour of the system is known as surroundings.
19. Classify the thermodynamic systems.
1. Closed system 2. Open system and 3. Isolated system
20. What is closed system? Give example.
A closed system permits the transfer of heat and work
across its boundaries; but it does not permit the transfer
of mass. The mass of the working substance in a closed
system remains constant.
The piston and cylinder arrangement is an example of
closed system.
21. What is open system? Give an example.
In open system, the mass of the working substance crosses
the boundary of the system. Heat and work may also cross
the boundary. The mass within the system may not be
constant during the process.
The compressor unit is an example of open system.
22. What is isolated system? Give example.
A system which is not influenced by the surroundings is
called an isolated system. In an isolated system, there is
no mass, heat or work transfer takes place.
An open system with an universe as its surrounding is an
example of an isolated system.
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23. Define state of a system.
The state of a system is the condition of the system at any
particular moment which can be identified by the statement
of its properties.
24. What are extensive properties? Give examples.
The properties of system, whose value for the entire
system is equal to the sum of their values for the
individual parts of the system, are called extensive
properties. These are dependent on the mass of the
system.
Example : Total volume, total energy, total mass, etc.
25. What are intensive properties? Give examples.
The properties which are independent on mass of the
system. These properties remain same in all individual
parts of the system.
Example : Temperature, pressure, specific volume, etc.
26. List out the different thermodynamic processes.
Constant volume process
Constant pressure process
Constant temperature process
Isentropic or reversible adiabatic process
Polytropic process
Hyperbolic process
Free expansion process
Throttling process
27. What is cyclic process?
When a process or processes are performed on a system in
such a way that the final state is identical with the initial
state, then it is said to be thermodynamic cycle of cyclic
process.
28. Differentiate closed cycle and open cycle.
In a closed cycle system, the working substance is
recirculated again and again in the system.
In an open cycle system, the working substance is
exhausted to atmosphere after expansion.
,
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29. Define point function. Give example.
A function, whose value is independent of the path
followed by the system, is known as point function. The
values depend only on the initial and final state of the
system.
Example : Pressure, temperature, volume, etc.
30. Define path function. Give example.
A function, whose value depends on the path followed by
the system, is known as path function.
Example : Work done, heat transfer, etc.
31. State the law of conservation of energy.
It states that, energy can neither be created nor destroyed,
but it can be transferred from one form to another form i.e.
the total energy in any system remains constant.
32. State zeroth law of thermodynamics.
It states that, when two systems are each in thermal
equilibrium with a third system, then the two systems are
also in thermal equilibrium with one another.
33. State first law of thermodynamics.
It states that, when a system undergoes a thermodynamic
cycle, then the net heat supplied to the system is equal to
the net work done by the system.
34. State Kelvin-Blank’s statement
It is impossible to construct a heat engine working on cyclic
process, whose only purpose is to convert all the heat energy
supplied to it into an equal amount of work
35. State Clausius’s statement
Heat can flow from a hot body to a cold body without any
assistance. But heat cannot flow from a cold body to a hot
body without any external work.
36. What is a perfect gas?
A perfect gas may be defined as a state of substance, whose
evaporation from its liquid state is complete, and strictly
obey gas laws under all conditions of temperature and
pressures.
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37. State Boyle’s law.
Boyle's law states that, the absolute pressure of a given
mass of a perfect gas is inversely proportional to its
volume, when the temperature remains constant.
1
Mathematically, p ∝ or pV = Constant
V
38. State Charle’s law.
Charles’s law states that, the volume of a given mass of
perfect gas is directly proportional to its absolute
temperature, when the pressure remains constant.
Mathematically, V ∝ T (or) V = Constant
T
39. State Gay-Lussac’s law.
Gay-Lussac law states that, the absolute pressure of a
given mass of perfect gas is directly proportional to its
absolute temperature, when the volume of the gas
remains constant.
p
Mathematically, p ∝ T (or) = Constant
T
40. State Joule’s law.
Joule's law states that, the change of internal energy of a
perfect gas is directly proportional to the change in
temperature.
Mathematically, dE ∝ dT
41. Write the general gas equation.
p1V1 pV
= 2 2 = Constant
T1 T2
42. Write the characteristic gas equation.
p.V = m. R.T (or) p = ρRT
43. What is universal gas constant?
The product of molecular weight (M) and the
characteristic gas constant (R) is same for all gases. This
constant is known as universal gas constant. It is
expressed as Rmole or Ru.
M. R = Rmole = Ru
44. Write the relationship between C p and Cv
C p − Cv = R ; Cv = R
γ −1
,
1 & 2 Marks – Q & A  Page : 8
THERMODYNAMIC PROCESSES OF PERFECT GASES
45. Define enthalpy

Enthalpy is the sum of the internal energy and the
product of pressure and volume (p.V). It is represented by
the symbol H.
Mathematically, enthalpy, H = U + p.V
46. Write the expression for change in enthalpy during a
process.
∆H = Q = m.C p (T2 − T1 )
47. Define entropy.
Entropy is defined as a function of quantity of heat with
respect to temperature. Entropy of a substance increases
when heat is supplied to it and decreases when heat is
rejected from it.
48. Write the expression for change in entropy during a
process.
dQ
dS =
T
49. Draw the p-V and T-s diagram for constant volume
heating.
p2 2
2
Temperaturre (T)
Pressure
V=C
p1 1 1 Q
V1=V2 S1 S2
Volume Entropy (S)
50. Write the expression for change in entropy during

constant volume process.
T  p 
dS = m.Cv . ln 2  = m.Cv . ln 2 
T
 1  p1 
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51. Represent the constant pressure process on p-V and
T-s diagram.
2
Temperaturre (T)
1 p1=p2 2
Pressure
1 Q
W
V1 V2 S1 S2
Volume Entropy (S)
52. Write the expression for change in entropy during

constant pressure process.
T  V 
dS = m.C p . ln  2  = m.C p . ln 2 
T
 1  V1 
53. Show the isothermal process on p-V and T-s diagram.
p2 1
pV=C
Temperaturre (T)
1 T1=T2 2
Pressure
p1 W 2
Q
V1 V2 S1 S2
Volume Entropy (S)
54. Write the expression for work done during

isothermal process.
∴ W = p1 V1 . ln  2  (or) W = m. R.T1 . ln  2 
V V
 V1   V1 
55. What is isentropic process?
Reversible adiabatic process is known as isentropic process.
During the adiabatic process, there is no heat transfer
taking place between the system and surroundings.
56. Write the relationship between temperature, volume
and pressure during isentropic process.
γ γ −1
p1  V2  T2  V1 
=  = 
p2  V1  T1  V2 
,
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57. Draw the p-V and T-s diagram for isentropic process.
p2 1 T2 1
γ
pV =C
Temperaturre (T)
No heat
transfer
Pressure
p1 W 2 T1 2
V1 V2 S1 = S2
Volume Entropy (S)
58. Represent the polytropic process on p-V and T-s

diagram.
p2 1 2
n
pV =C
Temperaturre (T)
Pressure
p1 W 2 1 Q
V1 V2 S1 S2
Volume Entropy (S)
59. Write the expression for work done during polytropic

process.
p .V − p2 .V2 m. R.(T1 − T2 )
W = 1 1 =
n −1 n −1
60. What is throttling process.
When a gas or vapour expands and flows through a small
passage, the process is called throttling. During throttling
process, W = 0 ; Q = 0 ; ∆ U = 0 .
61. Write the expression for polytropic index.
p 
log 10  2 
Polytropic index, n =  p1 
V 
log 10  1 
 V2 
62. Write the expression for polytropic specific heat.
γ −n
Polytropic specific heat, Cn = Cv  
 n −1
1 & 2 Marks – Q & A  Page : 11

Unit – II
THERMODYNAMIC AIR CYCLES

1. What is air cycles and air standard efficiency?
The air in an engine cylinder may be subjected to series of
operations which cause the air to return to its original
state. This is called as air cycle.
The thermal efficiency obtained using air as working fluid
is known as air standard efficiency.
2. Define thermal efficiency.
Thermal efficiency,
Output Heat supplied − Heat rejected
η= = Work done =
Input Heat supplied Heat supplied
3. Define relative efficiency.
Relative efficiency (or) Efficiency ratio,
Indicated thermal efficiency (or)
Actual thermal efficiency
η rel =
Theoretica l (Ideal) theraml efficiency (or)
4. What are reversible and irreversible processes?
A thermodynamic process is said to be reversible, if the
system and surroundings are completely restored back to
their initial state when the process reversed.
When the system and surroundings are not completely
restored by reversing the process, then the process is
known as irreversible process.
5. List out the conditions for irreversibility.
There should be no loss of energy during the cycle of
operation
There should not be any free expansion process or
throttling process.
The pressure and temperature of the working substance
should be same as that of the surroundings.
The working substance must be a good conductor of heat.
,
1 & 2 Marks – Q & A  Page : 12
6. List out important thermodynamic cycles.
1) Carnot cycle [constant temperature cycle]
2) Otto cycle [constant volume cycle]
3) Diesel cycle
4) Joule or Brayton cycle [constant pressure cycle]
5) Dual combustion cycle
6) Rankine cycle
7) Stirling cycle
8) Ericsson cycle
7. Draw the p-v diagram of Carnot cycle and mention
the processes.
2 Qs Isothermal Isothermal
3 2 3
T2
W Q Adiabatic
p Adiabatic T
1 4
Qr T1 1 4
V S1= S2 S3=S4
S
Carnot cycle consists of two isothermal processes and two
isentropic (reversible adiabatic) processes.
8. Write the expression for efficiency of Carnot cycles.
(T2 − T1 ) T
ηcarnot = =1− 1
T2 T2
where, T1 = Minimum temperature of the cycle,
T2 = Maximum temperature of the cycle
9. Define COP of refrigerator.
T1
COPref = Heat extracted =
Work input T2 − T1
10. Define COP of heat pump.
Heat rejected T2
COPhp = =
Work input T2 − T1
11. Draw the p-V and T-S diagram of Otto cycle.
Otto cycle consists of two reversible adiabatic (isentropic)
processes and two constant volume processes.
1 & 2 Marks – Q & A  Page : 13

3
Qs Adiabatic 3
S=C
2 C
V=
4
4 2
p
Qr
T S=C C
1 V=
Vc Vs 1
V2=V3 V1=V4 S1 = S2 S3=S4

V S
12. Write the expression for efficiency of Otto cycle.

1
η otto = 1 −
r γ −1
V1 Total cylinder volume
where, r =compression ratio = =
V2 Clearance volume
13. Draw the p-V and T-S diagram for Joule’s cycle.
p2 = p3 2 Qs 3
3
Adiabatic
C
p= S=C
p 2 4
p1= p4 S=C
T p=C
1 Qr 4 1
S1= S2 S3=S4
V S
Joule’s consists of two adiabatic (isentropic) processes and

two constant pressure processes.
14. Write the expression for efficiency of Joule’s cycle.
1 1
η joule = 1 − =1−
( ) (r)γ −1
γ −1
Rp γ
Higher Pressure
where, Rp = Pressure ratio =
Lower Pressure
15. Draw the p-V and T-S diagram of Diesel cycle.
p2 = p3 2 Qs 3
Adiabatic 3
S=C
C
p=
4
4 2
p
Qr S=C
T C
1 V=
Vc Vs 1
V1=V4 S1 = S2 S3=S4
V S
,
1 & 2 Marks – Q & A  Page : 14
Diesel cycle consists of two adiabatic processes, one constant
volume process and one constant pressure process.
16. Define cut off ratio.
Cut−off ratio is defined as the ratio of volume at point of
cut−off to the clearance volume.
Cut- off volume
Cut−off ratio, ρ =
Clearance volume
17. Write the expression for efficiency of Diesel cycle.
γ
ηdiesel = 1 − 1  ρ − 1
 
γ .(r)γ −1  ρ − 1 
Cut - off volume = V3 = V3
where, ρ = Cut off ratio =
Clearance volume Vc V2
18. Draw the actual p-V diagram of Otto cycle.
p e
a b
Vc Vs
19. Define mean effective pressure.

The mean effective pressure of a cycle or heat engine is the
average pressure acting on the piston during the working stroke.
Work done during the cycle
pm =
Stroke volume
20. Draw the actual p-V diagram of Diesel cycle.
c d
Adiabatic
e
p a b
Vc Vs
V
1 & 2 Marks – Q & A  Page : 15
21. Write the expression for indicated mean effective
pressure and brake mean effective pressure.
Indicated mean effective pressure, pmi =

Indicated Power
n × Vs
Brake power
Brake mean effective pressure, pmb =
n × Vs
where, n = No. of strokes per second, Vs = Stroke volume
HEAT TRANSFER
22. State the modes of heat transfer.

1) Conduction 2) Convection 3) Radiation
23. Define conduction of heat transfer.
Conduction is the transfer of heat energy by microscopic
diffusion and collisions of particles within a body due to a
temperature gradient.
24. Differentiate between steady state and unsteady state
conduction.
Steady state conduction happens when the temperature
difference is constant.
Unsteady state conduction happens when the
temperature changes with respect to time.
25. What is transient conduction?
It is a special kind of unsteady process in which the system
is subjected to cyclic variations in the temperature of its
environment.
26. What is convection?
Convection is the transfer of thermal energy from one place to
another by the movement of fluids or gases.
27. Differentiate between natural convection and forced
convection.
In natural convection, fluid motion is not generated only
by density differences in the fluid occurring due to
temperature gradients.
In forced convection, fluid motion is generated by an
external source, like a pump, fan, suction device, etc.
,
1 & 2 Marks – Q & A  Page : 16
28. What is radiation?
Thermal radiation is electromagnetic radiation generated
by the thermal motion of charged particles in matter.
29. State Fourier’s law.
It states that the time rate of heat transfer through a
material is proportional to the negative gradient in the
temperature and to the area, through which the heat is
flowing. Mathematically,
dt
Q = −k A
dx
30. Define thermal conductivity.
It is defined as the quantity of heat Q) transmitted through
a unit thickness (dt) in a direction normal to a surface of
unit area (A) due to a unit temperature difference.
Q. dx
Mathematically, thermal conductivity, k =
A. dt
31. Write the expression for heat conduction through
plane wall.
k. A (t1 − t2 )
Q=
δ
δ = Thickness of wall; t1 − t2 = Temp. difference
32. Write the expression for heat conduction through
cylinder.
(t − t )
Q = 2πkl 1 2
log e r2 / r1
r2 = Outer radius; r1 = Inner radius ; l = Length
33. State Newton’s law of cooling.
It states that the rate of heat loss of a body is proportional
to the difference in temperatures between the body and its
surroundings. Mathematically,
Q = h A (ts - t f )
34. What is heat exchanger?
Heat exchanger is a an equipment designed for the effective
transfer of heat energy between two fluids.
35. State examples of heat exchanger.
Boilers, super heaters, condensers, automobile radiators,
evaporators, water heaters and coolers
1 & 2 Marks – Q & A  Page : 17

36. Name the types of heat exchangers.
Parallel flow heat exchangers
Counter flow heat exchangers
Cross flow heat exchangers
37. Differentiate between parallel flow and counter flow
heat exchangers.
In parallel flow arrangement, the fluid (hot and cold)
enter the unit from the same side, flow in the same
direction and subsequently leave from the same side.
In counter flow arrangement, the fluid (hot and cold)
enter the unit from opposite ends, travel in opposite
directions and subsequently leave from opposite ends.
38. What is overall heat transfer coefficient?
The heat transfer in heat exchanger is the combined effect
of conduction and convection. In this case an overall heat
transfer coefficient is used. Mathematically,
1
U =
1
+
δ +
1
hi k h0
39. Define LMTD.
Logarithmic mean temperature difference (LMTD) is an average
value of the temperature difference between the fluids.
∆t1 − ∆t2
Mathematically, LMTD, tm =
 ∆t 
loge 1 
 ∆t2 
where
∆t1 =Temperature difference between hot and cold fluid at entrance
∆t2 =Temperature difference between hot and cold fluid at exit
40. Define capacity ratio.
The capacity ratio (C) is defined as the ratio of the minimum
to maximum capacity rate.
m c
if mh ch > mc cc , then C = mc cc
h h
m c
if mh ch < mc cc , then C = mh ch
c c
,
1 & 2 Marks – Q & A  Page : 18
41. Define effectiveness of heat exchanger.
The effectiveness of a heat exchanger is defined as
the ratio of the energy actually transferred to the maximum
theoretical energy transfer.
Q actual heat trans fer
∈= act =
Qmax maximum possible heat trans fer
42. Define NTU.
The number of transfer units (NTU) is a measure of the size
of heat exchanger. It is defined as:
UA UA
NTU = =
(m c)min Cmin
43. Define emissivity.
It is the ratio of energy radiated by a particular material to
energy radiated by a black body at the same temperature.
E Energy emitted by the material
Mathematically, ε = E = Energy emitted by the block body
b
44. Define absorptivity.

It is the ratio of the radiation energy absorbed by the body
to the total incident radiation energy.
Q Energy absorbed by the body
Mathematically, α = Qa = Total incident energy
o
45. Define reflectivity.

It is the ratio of the radiation energy reflected from the body
surface to the total incident radiation energy.
Q Energy reflected from the body
Mathematically, ρ = Qr = Total incident energy
o
46. What is black body. Give example.

A black body is an physical body that absorbs all incident
electromagnetic radiation. Example : Snow with 0.985
absorptivity is nearly black to thermal radiations.
47. What is gray body.
When a surface absorbs a certain percentage of impinging
radiations, the surface is called the gray body. For a gray
body α, ρ and τ are uniform for all wavelengths.
1 & 2 Marks – Q & A  Page : 19

48. Define white body.
A body that reflects all the incident thermal radiations is
called an absolutely white body. For such bodies ρ = 1 and
α = τ = 0.
49. Differentiate transparent and opaque body.
A body that allows all the incident radiations to pass
through it is called transparent.
An opaque body is one that does not transmit any of the
radiation.
STEADY FLOW ENERGY EQUATION

50. What is steady flow system? Give examples.
In a steady flow system, the rates of flow of mass and
energy across the control surface are constant.
Example: The flow system in boiler, steam condenser,
steam nozzles and air compressors are examples of steady
flow system.
51. Write the general steady flow energy equation.
 C2   C2 
m g. Z1 + 1 + h1 + Q = m  g. Z2 + 2 + h2 + W 
 2   2 
52. List out the applications of steady flow energy
equation.
a) Steam generators ( Boilers) b) Steam condensers
c) Steam nozzles d) Air compressors
e) Steam or gas turbines f) Air heaters, etc.
53. Mention the steady flow energy equation for boiler
and steam condenser.
Boiler  Heat transfer, Q = h2 − h1 J/kg.
Steam condenser.  Heat transfer, Q = h2 − h1 J/kg.
54. Write the steady flow energy equation for nozzle.
C1 2 C 2
+ h1 = 2 + h2
2 2
where, C1 – Velocity at entry, C2 – Velocity at exit
h1 – Enthalpy at entry, h2 – Enthalpy of exit
,
1 & 2 Marks – Q & A  Page : 20
55. Write the expression for final velocity of steam in
steam nozzle.
γ −1
 
  p2  γ 
Final velocity, C2 = 2 × C p × T1 × 1 −   + C1
2
  p1  
 
56. Give the steady flow energy equation for rotary
compressor and reciprocating compressor.
Rotary compressor  Work input, W = h1 − h2
Reciprocating compressor  Work input, W = Q + (h1 − h2 )
57. What is non-flow energy equation.
In a closed system, there is no mass transfer across the
boundary. Hence the flow energy, kinetic energy and
potential energies are neglected. Therefore for a closed
system, the energy equation is written as,
Q = W + ∆u
It is known as non-flow energy equation.
Unit – III
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES
1. What is internal combustion engine? Give examples.
Internal combustion (I.C) engine is a heat engine in which
combustion of fuel takes place inside the engine cylinder.
Example: Petrol engine, diesel engine, gas engine, gas
turbine, etc.
2. Classify I.C engines by method of ignition.
a) Spark Ignition (S.I) engines
b) Compression Ignition (C.I) engines
3. Classify I.C engines by arrangement of cylinders.
a) Vertical engines b) Horizontal engines c) V-type engines
d) In-line engines e) Radial engines
1 & 2 Marks – Q & A  Page : 21

4. What are the two types of liners in I.C engines.
(a) Dry liners : Dry liners have metal−to−metal contact with
the cylinder block.
(b) Wet liners : These liners are surrounded or wetted by
cooling water.
5. What is the function of piston in I.C engine.
The main function of the piston is to transmit the force
exerted to the burning of fuel in the cylinder to crank shaft
through connecting rod.
6. What are the two types of piston rings?
(a) Compression rings provide an effective seal for the high
pressure gases inside the cylinder.
(b) Oil rings wipe off the excess oil from the cylinder walls.
7. What is the function of connecting rod in I.C engines?
It connects the piston and crank shaft. It transmits the force
exerted due to the burning of fuel during power stroke to the
crank shaft.
8. What is the use of crank shaft in I.C engines?
The main function of crank shaft is to convert the
reciprocating motion of the piston into rotary motion with
the help of connecting rod.
9. State the different valve actuating mechanism.
(1) Side valve mechanism (2) Overhead valve mechanism
(3) Overhead inlet and side exhaust valve mechanism
10. What are the four strokes in four stroke petrol engines.
(a) Suction stroke (b) Compression stroke
(c) Expansion stroke (d) Exhaust stroke
11. What is the basic difference between two stroke and
four stroke I.C engines.
In two stroke engine, one power stroke is obtained in one
revolution of the crank shaft.
In four stroke engine, one power stroke is obtained in two
revolution of the crank shaft.
12. What is valve timing and port timing diagram.
It is the graphical representation showing the timings of the
sequence of events in terms of crank angle from dead centre
position.
,
1 & 2 Marks – Q & A  Page : 22
13. Mention the fuel supply systems in petrol engines.
a) Gravity feed system
b) Pressure feed system or pump feed system
14. Name the important components in fuel supply
system in petrol engines.
1) Storage tank 2) Fuel pump 3) Fuel filter 4) Carburetor.
15. What is carburetor?
The process of atomizing and vaporizing the fuel and mixing
it with air is called carburetion. The device used for
carburetion is known as carburetor.
16. State the functions of a carburetor.
1) It atomizes and vaporizes the fuel.
2) It prepares a mixture of petrol and air in correct proportion.
3) It supplies the proper quantity of air–fuel mixture.
4) It maintains a small reserve of fuel at a constant head.
5) It provides easy starting of the engine in cold condition.
17. Name the main elements in the fuel supply system of
diesel engine.
1) Fuel tank 2) Fuel feed pump 3) Fuel filter
4) Fuel injection pump 5) Injectors.
18. What is the function of fuel injector?
The function of a fuel injector is to spray the fuel into the
engine cylinder in the form of fine particles at the end of
compression stroke.
19. What are types of injection nozzles used in diesel engine.
a) Single hole nozzles b) Multiple hole nozzles
c) Pintle nozzles d) Delay type nozzles
20. What are primary filter and secondary filter.
The primary filter is fitted in between fuel tank and the
suction side of the fuel feed pump.
The secondary filter is fitted in between the fuel feed pump
and fuel injection pump.
21. Name the different ignition system.
a) Compression ignition (for diesel engines)
b) Spark ignition (for petrol engines)
1 & 2 Marks – Q & A  Page : 23
22. Mention the ignition methods used in S.I engines.
1) Coil ignition system
2) Magneto ignition system
3) Electronic ignition system
23. What is MPFI?
The Multi-Point Fuel Injection (MPFI) system is an
advanced version of carburettor engine. MPFI engine is
having a fuel injector for each cylinder. A computer is used
to control each and every fuel injector individually.
24. What is CRDI?
CRDI stands for Common Rail Direct Injection. It is a
system used in diesel engines for direct injection of the fuel
into the cylinders of a diesel engine through a common rail
which is connected to all the fuel injectors.
25. List out the methods of governing of I.C engines.
a) Quantity governing
b) Quality governing
c) Hit and miss governing
26. What is quantity governing?
In this method, the quantity of air−fuel mixture entering
into the engine cylinder is varied. The composition of the
air−fuel mixture remains constant when the load varies.
27. What is quality governing?
In this type of governing, the composition of air−fuel
mixture is changed according to the variation in load. The
air flow rate remains constant.
28. What is hit and miss governing?
In this method, an explosion is omitted when the speed of
the engine increases above the normal speed i.e. one power
stroke is missed. The strength of the air−fuel mixture is not
varied.
29. What are the methods of cooling I.C engines?
1) Air cooling or direct cooling
2) Water cooling or indirect cooling
,
1 & 2 Marks – Q & A  Page : 24
30. Give the applications of air cooling system.
Air cooling is used in small engines like, air craft engines,
engines used in scooters, motor cycles, etc.
31. List out the components in water cooling system.
It consists of radiator, fan, water pump, water jacket,
thermostat valve, radiator shutters, etc.
32. What are the purposes of lubrication?
1. To reduce friction between moving parts
2. To reduce wear and tear of the moving parts
3. To reduce the power loss due to friction
4. To dissipate the heat generated from the moving parts
33. List out the properties of lubricant.
1) Viscosity 2) Oiliness 3) Flash and fire point
4) Delegency 5) Demulsibility 6) Foaming
7) Corrosiveness
34. Define flash and fire point.
Flash point of an oil is the minimum temperature at which
it gives off enough vapour so that a momentary flame is
obtained when a flame is brought near the oil surface.
Fire point is the minimum temperature at which an oil
continuously burns.
35. List out the methods of lubrication in I.C engines.
1. Petroil lubrication system or mist lubrication system.
2. Wet sump lubrication system
a) Gravity lubrication system
b) Splash lubrication system
c) Pressure lubrication system
d) Semi–pressure lubrication system
3. Dry sump lubrication system
36. What is the function of oil pumps in I.C engines?
The function of an oil pump is to supply lubricating oil under
pressure to the bearings and the various parts of the engine
to be lubricated.
37. Name the commonly used oil pumps in I.C engines.
1) Gear pump 2) Rotor pump.
1 & 2 Marks – Q & A  Page : 25
38. Differentiate by-pass system and full system of oil
filters used in I.C engines.
In by−pass system, a small amount (10%) of oil alone is
filtered and goes to the pump.
In full flow system, the entire oil passes through the filter
before it is supplied to the engine part.
Unit – IV
FUELS AND COMBUSTION OF FUELS
1. Define fuel. What are the types of fuels?

A fuel may be defined as a substance which produces a
large amount of heat when burning with oxygen in the
atmospheric air.
1) Solid fuels 2) Liquid fuels 3) Gaseous fuels
2. Give examples for solid fuels and liquid fuels.
Solid fuels : charcoal, coke, briquetted coal, pulverized coal, etc.
Liquid fuels : gasoline (petrol), paraffin, diesel, oil, etc.
3. What are the advantages of liquid fuels.
1) Higher calorific value
2) Lower storage space required
3) Better control of consumption by using valves
4) Better cleanliness and freedom from dust
5) Easy handling and transportation
4. List out the advantages of gaseous fuels.
1) The gaseous fuels undergo complete combustion with
minimum air supply.
2) They do not produce ash or smoke.
3) They are free from solid and liquid impurities.
4) The high temperature can be obtained at a moderate cost.
5) The supply of gaseous fuel can be accurately controlled.
,
1 & 2 Marks – Q & A  Page : 26
5. What are the requirements of a good fuel?
A good fuel should
1) have high calorific value
2) have a low ignition temperature
3) not produce any harmful gases.
4) burn freely with high efficiency, once it is ignited.
5) produce less smoke and gases
6) be economical
7) be easily stored and transported
6. What is proximate analysis?
Proximate analysis is a method used to determine the
percentage of following in the fuel:
(1) Moisture content (2) Volatile matter
(3) Fixed carbon and (4) Ash
7. What it ultimate analysis?
Ultimate analysis is a method used to determine the
percentages of the following in the fuel :
(1) Carbon (2) Hydrogen (3) Oxygen
(4) Sulphur (5) Nitrogen (6) Ash
8. Write the expression of stoichiometric (minimum) air
required for complete combustion of fuel.
mmin = 100  8 C + 8 H 2 + S − O2  kg.

23  3 
where, C – Mass of carbon (kg); H2 – Mass of hydrogen (k)g,
O2 – Mass of oxygen (kg); S– Mass of sulphur( kg.)
9. What is excess air?
The theoretical air supplied may not be sufficient for the
complete combustion of the fuel. The amount of air supplied
above the theoretical air required is known as excess air.
10. Write the expression of minimum volume of air
required for complete combustion of fuel.
Vair = 100 [0.5CO + 0.5 H2 + 3CH4 + 3C2 H4 − O2 ]
21
11. Differentiate : Volumetric analysis and gravimetric
analysis.
1 & 2 Marks – Q & A  Page : 27

The analysis of the composition of a mixture of gases
based on volume is known as volumetric analysis. This
gives the percentage by volume of each of the constituents
of a gaseous fuel.
The analysis of a mixture of gases based on mass or
weight is known as gravimetric analysis. This gives
percentage by mass or weight of each of the constituents
of a gaseous fuel.
12. Define calorific value of fuel.
The calorific value of a fuel is defined as the amount of heat
liberated by the complete combustion of unit quantity (1 kg
in case of solid and liquid fuel, and 1 m 3 in case of gaseous
fuels) of a fuel. It is expressed as kJ/kg for liquid and solid
fuels, and kJ/ m 3 for gaseous fuels.
13. What is Gross or Higher Calorific Value (HCV)?
It is defined as the amount of heat obtained by the complete
combustion of unit mass (or unit volume) of a fuel, when the
products of combustion are cooled down to the temperature
of the air (15 o C ) supplied.
14. Write Dulong’s formula for HCV.
 O 
HCV = 33800C + 144000 H2 − 2  + 9270S kJ/kg
 8 
O2 = Mass of oxygen (kg/kg of fuel)
15. What is Net or Lower Calorific Value?
Lower calorific value is defined as the amount of heat
obtained by the complete combustion of unit mass (or unit
volume) of a fuel, when the heat absorbed by the product of
combustion is not recovered.
16. Write the expression for LCV of solid and gaseous fuels.
For solid fuels : LCV = [HCV − (9 H2 + ms )]×2466 kJ/kg
ms = mass of moisture or steam (kg/kg of fuel)
m 
For gaseous fuels : LCV = HCV −  s ×2466 kJ/ m 3
 Vs 
,
1 & 2 Marks – Q & A  Page : 28
where, ms = amount of steam condensed (kg)
Vs = Volume of gas used at S.T.P ( m 3 )
17. Define water equivalent.
The water equivalent of a substance (or an apparatus) is
defined as the quantity of water which requires the same
amount of heat as the substance to raise its temperature
through 1 o C .
18. What is the use of calorimeters? List out the various
types of calorimeters.
Calorimeters are used to determine the calorific value of
any fuel. The generally used calorimeters are :
1) Bomb calorimeter (for solid and liquid fuels)
2) Junker’s calorimeter (for gaseous fuels)
3) Boy’s calorimeter (for gaseous fuels)
19. What is the use of Orsat apparatus?
The constituents of the flue gases are determined for
checking the combustion efficiency of boilers. Orsat
apparatus is used to carry out the flue gas analysis
PERFORMANCE OF I.C ENGINES

20. Give the reasons for testing of I.C engines.
To determine the power developed by the engine
To determine the various efficiencies of the engine
To determine the fuel consumption
To prepare the heat balance sheet
21. Define indicated power.
Indicated power is the actual power developed inside an
engine cylinder. It is measured with the help of indicated
mean effective pressure.
22. Define indicated mean effective pressure.
It is the algebraic sum of the mean pressures acting on the
piston during each stroke in one complete working cycle. It
is measured from the actual indicator diagram.
1 & 2 Marks – Q & A  Page : 29

23. Write an expression for indicated power.
Indicated power, IP = pmi .l. a.n. k
where, pmi = Indicated mean effective pressure
l = Length of stroke of the piston
a = Area of cross−section of piston or cylinder
n = No. of explosions or working strokes per second
k = No. of cylinder.
24. Define brake power.
Brake power is the useful power available at the crankshaft.
It is less than the indicated power.
25. What is dynamometer? Give its types.
Dynamometers are used to measure torque.
Types :
1) Prony brake dynamometers 2) Rope brake dynamometers
3) Electrical dynamometers 4) Hydraulic dynamometers
26. Define friction power.
Friction power is the power lost mainly due to the friction in
the moving parts. Frictional power is the difference between
indicated power and brake power.
FP = IP − BP
27. Define indicated thermal efficiency.
Indicated power
Indicated thermal efficiency =
Heat supplied
IP × 3600
ηI .T = × 100
FC × CV
Where, IP = Indicated power ; FC = Fuel consumption
CV = Calorific value of the fuel
28. Define brake thermal efficiency.
Brake power
Brake thermal efficiency =
Heat supplied
BP × 3600
η B. T = × 100 ; BP = Indicated power (kW)
FC × CV
29. Define mechanical efficiency
Brake power BP
Mechanical efficiency = ; ηm =
Indicated power IP
,
1 & 2 Marks – Q & A  Page : 30
30. Define relative efficiency or efficiency ratio.
Relative efficiency or efficiency ratio,
Indicated (actual) thermal efficiency
=
Ideal thermal efficiency (Air standard efficiency)
η
ηrel = B .T
ηideal
31. Define volumetric efficiency.
Volumetric efficiency,
Volume of the charge admitted during suction
ηvol =
Stroke volume of the piston
32. Define specific fuel consumption.
Specific fuel consumption is defined as the amount of fuel
consumption to obtain one brake power−hour of work. It is
also called as brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC)
FC
BSFC =
BP
33. What is the use of Morse test?
Morse test is used to find out the indicated power of a
multicylinder I.C. engine.
34. What is accounted and unaccounted heat losses?
The heat losses which can be determined from the observed
values during the test are known as accounted heat losses.
The heat losses which cannot be determined accurately are
known as unaccounted heat losses.
1 & 2 Marks – Q & A  Page : 31

Unit – V
REFRIGERATION
1. Define refrigeration.
Refrigeration is the process of cooling a space and
maintaining its temperature below that of surrounding.
2. Differentiate between refrigerator and heat pump.
Refrigerator is a machine, which is used to maintain a
space at low temperature than the surrounding by
continuously extracting heat from the space to be cooled
Heat pump is a machine, which is used to maintain a space
at high temperature than the surrounding by continuously
pumping heat into the space to be heated.
3. What are the types of refrigerators?
1) Ice refrigerator 2) Air refrigerator
3) Vapour refrigerator
i) Vapour compression refrigerator
ii) Vapour absorption refrigerator
4. List out the applications of refrigerators.
1) To produce ice
2) To liquify the gases
3) To cool the water
4) To preserve blood
5) To preserve food items and medicines
6) To provide comfort air-conditioning
5. Define refrigerating effect.
Refrigerating effect is defined as the quantity of heat
extracted from a space to be cooled in a given time.
6. Define tonne (ton) of refrigeration.
One ton of refrigeration is defined as the quantity of heat to
be extracted from water at 0OC to form 1 ton (1000 kg) of ice
in 24 hours.
7. What is the value of one ton of refrigeration?
1 ton of refrigeration = 210 KJ/min = 3.5 KJ/s.
,
1 & 2 Marks – Q & A  Page : 32
8. Define C.O.P of refrigerator.
Coefficient of performance of refrigerator is defined as the ratio
of heat extracted (refrigerating effect) to the work input.
9. Define C.O.P of heat pump.
Coefficient of performance of heat pump is defined as the ratio
of heat rejected at higher temperature to the work input.
C.O. Php = 1 + C.O. Pref
10. What is actual C.O.P and relative C.O.P?
The C.O.P calculated using actual values of N and W is
known as actual C.O.P.
Relative C.O.P is defined as the ratio of actual C.O.P to
theoretical C.O.P.
11. List out the air cycles used in refrigeration systems.

1) Reversed Carnot cycle or
2) Bell – Coleman cycle ( Reversed Joule cycle)
12. Write the expression for C.O.P of reversed Carnot
cycle.
T1 Tmin
∴ COPref = =
T2 Tmax
∴ COPhp = =
13. Write the expression for C.O.P of Bell -Coleman cycle.
C.O. Pref =
Temperature of air  − Temperature of air 
14. List out the processes in Bell-Coleman cycle.
1) Isentropic compression in a compressor
2) Constant pressure heat rejection to a hot body
3) Isentropic expansion in expansion valve
4) Constant pressure heat extraction from a cold body
15. List out the main components in vapour compression
refrigeration system.
1) Compressor 2) Condenser
3) Expansion valve 4) Evaporator
1 & 2 Marks – Q & A  Page : 33

16. List out the main components in vapour absorption
refrigeration system.
1) Absorber 2) Pump 3) Heat exchanger
4) Heating coil 5) Generator 6) Analyser
7) Rectifier 8) Condenser 9) Expansion valve
10) Evaporator
17. What is the use of analyser and rectifier?
Analyser is used to separate water from ammonia
vapour.
Rectifier condenses the water vapour present in
ammonia vapour.
18. Define refrigerant.
Refrigerant is a substance in vapour state which is used as
a working fluid in refrigerators. The heat is transform the
cold body to the hot body through the refrigerant.
19. List out the desirable properties of a good refrigerant.
1) Non-toxic 2) Non-flammable 3) Non-explosive
4) Non-corrosive 5) Low specific heat 6) Low specific volume
7) Low boiling point 8) High thermal conductivity
20. List out the common refrigerant.
1) Ammonia 2) Sulphur Di-oxide
3) Carbon Di-oxide 4) Freon – 12
21. List out the properties and uses of Freon – 12.
Properties
 Non-toxic
 Non-irritant to human body
 No objectionable odour is produced.
Uses : Air-conditioning plants, refrigerators, frozen food
and ice cream cabinets, water coolers, window air-
conditioner, automobile air-conditioners, etc.
,
1 & 2 Marks – Q & A  Page : 34
PSYCHROMETRY AND AIR COINDITIONING
22. What is psychrometry?
Psychrometry is the study of the properties of moist air
(mixture of air and water vapour) together with their
measurement and control .
23. Define dry air and moist air.
The dry air is considered to be a mixture of nitrogen and
oxygen. It contains 79% nitrogen and 21% oxygen by
volume.
Moist air is the mixture of dry air and water vapour. The
amount of water vapour increases with decrease.
24. Define saturated air.
When the mixture of air and water vapour at a given
temperature contains the maximum amount of water
vapour, then it is called saturated air.
25. Differentiate dry bulb temperature and wet bulb
temperature.
The temperature recorded by the ordinary thermometer is
called dry bulb temperature.
The temperature recorded by the thermometer when its
bulb is covered with wet cloth and is exposed to the moving
air is called wet bulb temperature.
26. Define dew point temperature.
It is the temperature at which the moisture present in the
air begins to condense, when the air is continuously cooled.
27. Define wet bulb depression and dew point depression.
The difference between dry bulb temperature and wet bulb
temperature is called as wet bulb depression.
The difference between dry bulb temperature and dew point
temperature is known as dew point depression.
28. Define humidity or humidity ratio.
It is defined as the mass of water vapour present in unit
mass of dry air.
1 & 2 Marks – Q & A  Page : 35
29. What is relative humidity?
It is defined as the ratio of mass of water vapour present in
the given volume of air to mass of water vapour present in
the same volume when air is fully saturated at same
temperature.
30. What is psychrometric chart?
The graphical representation which shows the inter
relationship between the properties of moist air is known as
psychrometric chart. In this chart, the abscissa represents
dry bulb temperature in OC, and ordinate represents specific
humidity in gm/kg of air.
31. List out psychrometric processes.
1) Sensible heating process 2) Sensible cooling process
3) Humidification process 4) Dehumidification process
32. What is sensible heating? How it is achieved?
The heating of air without addition of moisture is known as
sensible heating. It is achieved by passing the air over heating
coils like electric resistance heating coils or steam coils.
33. What is sensible cooling? How it is achieved?
The cooling of air without change in its moisture content is
known as sensible cooling. It is achieved by passing the air
over cooling coils like refrigerant coils.
34. Define bypass factor.
t c − t d2
For heating coil, BPF =
t c − t d1
td 2 − tc
For cooling coil, BPF =
td1 − tc
Where, td1 − DBT of air leaving the coil
td2 − DBT of air before entering coil
tc − Temperature of coil
35. What is humidification and dehumidification?
The addition of water vapour in to air without change in its
dry bulb temperature is called humidification.
,
1 & 2 Marks – Q & A  Page : 36
The removal of water vapour in to air without change in its
dry bulb temperature is called dehumidification.
36. Define air conditioning.
Air conditioning is defined as the simultaneous control of
the temperature, humidity, motion and purity of air within
an enclosed space.
37. Classify air conditioning systems.
1) Based on the purpose
(a) Comfort air conditioning system
(b) Industrial air conditioning system
2) Based on the season

(a) Summer air conditioning system
(b) Winter air conditioning system
(c) Year round air conditioning system
3) Based on the arrangements of equipments

(a) Unitary air conditioning system
(b) Central air conditioning system
38. State the conditions of air for human comfort.
 Dry bulb temperature (DBT) = 22OC to 27OC
 Relative humidity (RH) = 40% to 60%
39. Mention the two processes used in summer air
conditioning and winter air conditioning.
Summer air conditioning : Cooling and dehumidification
Winter air conditioning : Heating and humidification
40. Differentiate unitary and central air conditioning.
Unitary air conditioning : A factory assembled unit is used
in this system. It is usually installed in the space to be air
conditioned.
Central air conditioning : In this system, all the
components are installed in one central room. The conditioned
air is circulated to the individual rooms through ducts.
1 & 2 Marks – Q & A  Page : 37

41. Differentiate comfort and industrial air conditioning.
Comfort air conditioning : The main purpose is to provide
comfort and healthy conditions to the human beings.
Industrial air conditioning : The main purpose is to
provide an atmosphere suitable for specific processes.
42. List out the applications of air conditioning.
Textile industry, Printing industry, Residences and offices,
Banks and ATMs, Theatres, Hotels, Intensive care units,
Operation theatres, Computer centres, Museum, Library, etc.
43. List out the factors to be considered in air
conditioning.
1) Temperature 2) Heat transfer from human body
3) Humidity of air 3) Quality of air
4) Air motion 5) Cold and hot surfaces
44. What are types of load encountered in A/C?
1) Sensible load 2) Latent load
45. List out the sources of sensible load in A / C.
 Heat conduction through exterior walls and roofs.
 Heat conduction through ceilings, floors, doors, etc.
 Heat received from solar radiation.
 Heat generated by lights, motors and appliances.
 Heat liberated by occupants.
 Heat carried out by outside air.
46. List out the sources of latent load in A / C.
 Heat gain due to moisture in the outside air.
 Heat gain due to condensation of moisture from
occupants and any process
 Heat gain due to moisture passing directly into the
conditioned space.
 
,
1 & 2 Marks – Q & A  Page : 38
T HER M A L E N GI N E ER I N G - I
MODEL QUESTION PAPER
Time: 3 Hrs. Max Marks : 100
[N.B: (1) Answer all FIVE questions from PART – A. Each question
carries 1 mark.
(2) Answer any TEN questions from PART – B. Each question
carries 2 marks.
(3) Answer division (a) or division (b) of each question in
PART – C. Each question carries 15 marks.]
PART – A
(5 × 1 = 5 Marks)
1. State Boyle’s law.
2. Define LMTD.
3. What is MPFI?
4. Define Dulong’s formula.
5. State refrigerating effect.
PART – B
(10 × 2 = 20 Marks)
6. State the law of conservation of energy.
7. Define zeroth law of thermodynamics.
8. What is free expansion and throttling processes?
9. Define air standard efficiency.
10. State the modes of heat transfer.
11. Define control volume.
12. Draw the layout of fuel supply system in petrol engine.
13. What is primary filter and secondary filter?
14. State any two properties of lubricant.
15. What are the requirements of good fuels?
16. What is meant by excess air?
17. Define brake thermal efficiency.
18. State the types of refrigeration system.
19. What is dry bulb and wet bulb temperature?
20. What are the applications of an air conditioning system?
Question Papers  QP.1

PART – C
(5 × 15 = 75 Marks)
21.(a) (i) State and explain first and second law of (7)
thermodynamics.
(ii) A gas whose pressure, volume and temperature are (8)
5 bar, 0.23 m3 and 185 o C respectively has its state
changed at constant pressure until its temperature
becomes 70 o C . Determine (1) the work done, (2) the
change in internal energy and (3) the heat
transferred during the process. R=290 J/kg.K;
C p =1.005 kJ/kg.K
(Or)
(b) (i) 1 kg of gas expands isentropically and its temperature (7)
is observed to fall from 240 o C to 110 o C while its
volume is doubled. The work done by the gas is 90 kJ
in the process. Determine C p , Cv and R for the gas.
(ii) 5 kg of a gas was heated from a temperature of 100 o C (8)

at constant volume till its pressure become three times
its original pressure. For this process, calculate (1) the
heat transfer, (2) change in internal energy, (3) change
in enthalpy and (4) change in entropy. Assume C p
=1.00 kJ/kg.K and Cv =0.71kJ/kg.K
22.(a) (i) In an Otto cycle, the pressure and temperature of the (8)
air at the beginning of compression are 97 kN/ m 2 and
50 o C respectively. The ratio of compression is 5:1.
The heat supplied during the cycle is 970 kJ/kg of the
working fluid. Determine: (1) maximum temperature
of the cycle, (2) the thermal efficiency of the cycle and
(3) the work done during the cycle per kg of working
fluid. Assume γ=1.4 and Cv =0.717 kJ/kg.K
(ii) Explain the various types of heat exchangers. (7)

(Or)
(b) (i) Find the power output of a diesel engine working on (8)
a diesel cycle with a compression ratio of 16 and an
air flow rate of 0.25 kg/s. The initial condition of air
is at 1 bar absolute and 27 o C temperature. Heat
added per cycle is 2500 kJ/kg. Assume C p =1.00
kJ/kg.K and Cv =0.714 kJ/kg.K
(ii) Derive the steady flow energy equation and state the (7)
assumption made in the system analysis.
23.(a) (i) Explain the working of four stroke petrol engine with (7)
a neat sketch.
(ii) What are different types of nozzles used in diesel (8)
engines. Explain any one type.
(Or)
(b) (i) Describe with a line diagram of coil ignition system (8)
and explain its working.
(ii) Explain high pressure lubrication system with a line (7)
sketch.
24.(a) (i) With a neat sketch, explain the method of (7)
determining the calorific value of gaseous fuels using
Junker’s gas calorimeter.
(ii) During a test on a four stroke cycle diesel engine the (8)
following data and results were obtained: Mean
height of the indicator diagram = 12mm; Spring index
= 27 kN/ m 2 /mm; Swept volume of the cylinder = 14
litres; Speed of the engine = 396 rpm; Net load on the
brake = 0.7554 kN; Radius of the brake drum = 0.7 m;
Fuel consumption = 7.2 kg/hr; Calorific value of fuel
= 44000 kJ/kg; Cooling water circulation = 540 kg/hr;
Rise in temperature of cooling water = 33 o C ; Specific
heat of water = 4.18 kJ/kg.K; Energy to exhaust gas
= 33.6 kJ/s. Determine (1) Mechanical efficiency,
(2) the heat balance sheet expressed as kJ/s as
percentage of heat supplied to engine.
(Or)
(b) (i) The following results were obtained during a test on (8)
a four cylinder four stroke oil engine: Bore = 100mm;
Stroke = 115mm; Speed = 1650 rpm; Fuel used = 0.2
kg/min.; Calorific value of fuel = 41900 kJ/kg; Net
load on the brake drum = 390 N; Circumference of the
brake drum = 3.3m; Mechanical efficiency = 80%.
Determine (1) Brake thermal efficiency, (2) Indicated
thermal efficiency and (3) indicated mean effective
pressure.
(ii) Explain the Morse test for finding out the indicated (7)
power of a multi cylinder engine.
25(a) (i) With a neat flow diagram, explain the working of a (8)
vapour absorption refrigeration system.
(ii) Name the psychrometric processes and briefly explain (7)
any one process indicating the chart.
(Or)
(b) (i) Compare the vapour compression and vapour (7)
absorbtion refirigearation systems.
(ii) With the help of a line diagram, explain the working (8)
of a central air-conditioning plant.

PSYCHROMETRIC CHART
BAROMETRIC PRESSURE = 1.01325 bar

(SEA LEVEL) = 760 mm of Hg
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THERMAL

N. IYANARAPPAN, M.E., M.I.S.T.E.

Copy right © : Publishers

First Edition : November 2003

Price : 218.00 For Contact :

This book on THERMAL ENGINEERING – I has

While preparing this book, special care has been taken

I acknowledge my gratitude with thanks to

All the best...

Unit – I : BASICS OF THERMODYNAMICS AND

Thermodynamic Processes – Change in Internal Energy –

Unit – II : THERMODYNAMIC AIR CYCLES AND HEAT

Unit – III : INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

Governing of I.C. engines – quantity and quality governing

Unit – IV : FUELS & COMBUSTION OF FUELS AND

Unit – V : REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING

Air conditioning – classification and applications of air

1.2 Definitions and Units

b) Weight (W) : Weight is the amount of force acting on

c) Force (F): According to Newton's second law of motion,

Mathematically, Force, F ∝ ma or F = kma

Where, k is a constant of proportionality

For the sake of convenience, the unit of force adopted is such

e) Specific weight (w) : Specific weight of a substance is

f) Specific volume (v) : Specific volume of a substance is

g) Specific gravity (s) : Specific gravity of a substance is

Unit of pressure : The unit of pressure depends upon the

Gauge pressure Vacuum pressure

Fig.1.1 Pressure relationship

Absolute pressure (pabs) : The actual pressure in any

Gauge pressure (pg) : It is the pressure recorded by the

Fahrenheit scale : In this scale, the freezing point of water

The relationship between Celsius scale and Fahrenheit

1.5 Absolute temperature

Note : For thermodynamics calculations, all the temperature

1.6 Standard Temperature and Pressure (S.T.P)

1.7 Normal Temperature and Pressure (N.T.P)

If m kg of substance is heated from an initial temperature

Specific heat capacity at constant volume (Cv): It is

Specific heat capacity at constant pressure (Cp): It is

Note : C p is always greater than Cv . When a gas is heated at

Work done by the gas

Fig.1.2 Work done by the gas

Consider a piston and cylinder arrangement filled with a gas

Let, p – Intensity of pressure of the gas on the piston (N/ m 2 )

Force on the piston, F = p. A

• If W is positive, work is done by the system (gas) and the

Surroundings : Anything outside the boundaries which

Boundaries : The system and the surroundings are

1.13 Types of thermodynamic systems

System (Gas) Cylinder

As the piston moves, the boundary of the system moves. In

H.P Air in H.P Air out

System (Air Compressor) Work Motor

Example : An open system with an universe as its

1.14 State of a system

1.15 Properties of a system

b) Intensive properties : The properties which are

In fig.(a), 1-A-1 and 2-B-1 are processes whereas 1-A-2-B-1

Thermodynamic cycle may be classified as

(b) Open cycle : In an open cycle system, the working

1.18 Point function and path functions

Fig.1.7 Point and path functions

Path function : A function, whose value depends on the