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Australian Psychologist, December 2007; 42(4): 239 – 254

Evidence-based coaching: Flourishing or languishing?

ANTHONY M. GRANT & MICHAEL J. CAVANAGH

Coaching Psychology Unit, School of Psychology, University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia

Abstract
Coaching and coaching psychology offer a potential platform for an applied positive psychology and for facilitating
individual, organisational and social change. Experts from around the world were invited to comment on the emerging
discipline of coaching psychology and the commercial coaching industry. Several key themes emerged including the potential
of coaching to contribute to health promotion, social change and organisational development. There was unequivocal
consensus for the need for an evidence-based approach to coaching. A review of the psychological coaching outcome
literature found there have been a total of 69 outcome studies between 1980 and July 2007: 23 case studies, 34 within-subject
studies and 12 between-subject studies. Only eight randomised controlled studies have been conducted. This indicates that
coaching psychology is still in the early stages of development, and can be understood as an emerging or protoscientific
psychological discipline. A languishing – flourishing model of coaching is described. To flourish, coaching psychology needs
to remain clearly differentiated from the frequently sensationalistic and pseudoscientific facets of the personal development
industry while at the same time engaging in the development of the wider coaching industry.

When I was a graduate student in psychology . . . about half a Of course, to characterise the entire psychological
century ago, I thought of opening a storefront office in the enterprise in such a grossly dichotomous way does
South Side of Chicago, near the University, where I would not give due credit to the very real contributions of
advise people who walked in about how to get the most out of more than a century of skilled and gifted psycholo-
their lives. That dream has now been realised by the sudden gical scholars and practitioners. However, while at
growth of the coaching movement – especially its evidence-
one level such gross generalisations are odious,
based branch. I do think serious, empirically grounded life
nevertheless they hold a measure of truth. Has
coaching can be very helpful. The dangers consist, as with all
good ideas of this kind, in promising too much, in extending psychology tended to be more focussed on the
beyond the knowledge base, and in becoming rigid and overcoming of problematic behaviours, thoughts
territorial. and emotional states, than on identifying the
(Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi, personal communication, behaviours, thinking patterns and emotional func-
2007.) tioning that leads to positive wellbeing and goal
attainment? While both undertakings are important,
Many of us came to our studies in psychology with we think the balance to date has been lopsided.
aspirations similar to those expressed by Professor Our intention is not to mount an argument for
Csikszentmihalyi. We came with the expectation that positive psychology. That has been done eloquently
we would learn empirically validated ways to work elsewhere (e.g., Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi,
with people, to help them set and reach goals in their 2000). Rather, in this paper we contend that
personal and business lives, only to find that coaching psychology is a form of applied positive
psychology as taught in academic settings seemed psychology and it can be seen as an emerging
to be more focused on dealing with mental illness subdiscipline in psychology. Evidence-based coach-
than mental health, more about the amelioration of ing can be a useful real-life experimental methodol-
dysfunction rather than the identification and en- ogy for psychologists exploring the psycho-
hancement of healthy functioning. mechanics of goal attainment, the development of

Correspondence: Dr A. M. Grant, Coaching Psychology Unit, School of Psychology, Christopher Brennan Building, University of Sydney, NSW 2006,
Australia. E-mail: [email protected]
ISSN 0005-0067 print/ISSN 1742-9544 online Ó The Australian Psychological Society Ltd
Published by Taylor & Francis
DOI: 10.1080/00050060701648175
240 A. M. Grant & M. J. Cavanagh

resilience, wellbeing, hope and other personal a coaching-specific theory and research base is being
strengths. developed (Cavanagh, 2005, 2006; Grant, 2003a,
In this paper we ask world-renowned experts what 2006; Kilburg, 2004; Laske & Stewart, 2005; Stober
they consider to be the major challenges for this & Grant, 2006).
emerging sub-discipline, and review the state of the Second, it is becoming increasingly difficult to
empirical research in executive, workplace and sustain the notion that one of the major differentia-
personal coaching. We also present a new model of tors of coaching psychology is that it deals with a
flourishing and languishing for emerging disciplines, population unencumbered by psychological distress
and consider some of the opportunities and dangers or frank psychopathology (Cavanagh, 2005). Re-
faced by coaching as it develops. search conducted in Australia has shown significant
levels of psychological distress among significant
proportions of those presenting for coaching inter-
Coaching psychology: An applied positive
ventions (Green, Oades, & Grant, 2006; Spence &
psychology?
Grant, 2007). Research and practical experience
There has been a frustrating lack of a systematic suggests that coaching clients have at least the same
application of psychological knowledge beyond level of psychopathology as is found in the general
clinical populations, and this frustration has, in part, population, if not higher.
given impetus to the emergence of contemporary The real question is not whether coaching
coaching psychology (Grant & Cavanagh, 2007). Yet psychology clients have therapeutic needs. The
questions remain as to what exactly contemporary issue is how the task of coaching differs from
coaching psychology is and how it may be differ- the task of psychotherapy. In other words, what are
entiated from other forms of psychological practice the boundaries between the different forms of
and coaching that is not grounded in psychological applied psychology? We believe that this boundary
science. These are vexed questions, not least of all is not primarily found in the client. Rather it is
because coaching psychology is continuing to devel- found in the goals, or foci of the psychological
op, and its final relationship to other forms of interventions themselves.
psychological practice is yet to be seen.
In an attempt to answer the question of what is
Differentiating the foci of applied psychologies
coaching psychology, the Australian Psychological
Society Interest Group on Coaching Psychology If we are to differentiate coaching psychology from
(APS IGCP) defined coaching psychology as ‘‘an other forms of psychological practice we must return
applied positive psychology [which] draws on and to the core foci of the different areas of applied
develops established psychological approaches, and psychology. As mentioned above, the APS IGCP
can be understood as being the systematic applica- definition states that coaching psychology is the
tion of behavioural science, which is focused on the ‘‘systematic application of behavioural science,
enhancement of life experience, work performance which is focused on the enhancement of life
and wellbeing for individuals, groups and organisa- experience, work performance and wellbeing for
tions with no clinically significant mental heath individuals, groups and organisations’’.
issues or abnormal levels of distress’’ (APS IGCP, Many practitioners of other forms of applied
2003). psychology would assert, quite rightly, that this is
their focus also. Although we are not aware of any
research on the matter, it is probably safe to say that
A limp definition?
most psychologists intend their work to enhance the
As the field of coaching psychology has grown and lives of those they serve. The question is not
begun to mature, the above definition of coaching whether coaching or any other psychological prac-
psychology may not reflect current practice. Two tice is designed to make life better. The question is,
major issues present themselves. First, the notion ‘‘what explicit focal point or pathway do the
that coaching psychology simply draws on and different practice areas use in order to achieve this
develops previously established psychological ap- end?’’ These different foci necessarily highlight
proaches is beginning to appear somewhat thin. some features of the psychological enterprise and
Coaching psychology practitioners and researchers ‘‘target populations’’, while causing other features
are starting to develop and validate models of theory to recede. To illustrate this we will briefly contrast
and practice that do more than simply draw from what we believe to be the focus of coaching
existing psychological literature. Although coaching psychology with the stated goals and foci of clinical,
psychology clearly owes much of its theory and counselling, and industrial/organisational (I/O) psy-
evidence to pre-established psychological knowledge, chological practice.
Evidence-based coaching: Flourishing or languishing? 241

trained in atheoretical, proprietary models of coach-


Counselling, industrial/organisational and clinical
ing. In contrast, coaching psychologists are formally
practice
trained in psychology, and draw upon this knowledge
As stated by the APS College of Counselling base as a primary foundation for practice.
Psychologists, the goal of counselling psychology is All the same, it is also important to remember that
predominantly focused on the use of ‘‘therapeutic not all psychologists are equally familiar with all areas
techniques’’ in the amelioration of distress (APS, of psychology. Applied psychologists should be able
2007a). For example, the APS website states that to draw from a wide area of psychology. However,
‘‘individuals may seek assistance from a counselling of particular importance to the practice of coaching
psychologist to help them to . . . ‘‘manage stress and psychology are the goal-setting, change dynamics,
conflict at home and work, deal with grief, loss and wellbeing and self-regulation literature within
trauma, [and] overcome feelings of anxiety and fear’’. psychology.
The predominant focal point of I/O psychology is
the role of psychological dynamics in the service of
Coaching psychology: Multidisciplinary perspective
organisational level goals. I/O psychologists seek to
‘‘enhance organisational effectiveness, productivity An additional differentiation point between coaching
and individual wellbeing . . . [by applying] psycholo- and other areas of psychological practice is the
gical principles and methods to understand and multidisciplinary nature of coaching. While the
influence work behaviour and attitudes, and organi- behavioural sciences are a major source of knowledge
sational structures’’ (APS, 2007b). and practice in coaching, coaches also draw on
The primary focal point of clinical psychology is techniques and understanding developed in areas as
the cure of psychopathology. ‘‘Clinical psychologists diverse as business and economics, education,
are specialists in the assessment, diagnosis and philosophy and religion.
treatment of psychological problems and mental The field of coaching is young. Its ongoing
illness’’ (APS, 2007c). Clinical psychologists seek development is less than assured. Coaching is still
to enhance human functioning primarily via the at the stage of an emerging discipline, and the
identification and cure of psychopathological states. development of coaching-specific theory and evi-
If cure is not possible, then the clinical task is usually dence-based practice is a major challenge facing
to equip the patient to deal more adaptively and academics, researchers and practitioners.
successfully with their symptoms.
Comments from seasoned observers
Focal point of coaching psychology
To explore how experts viewed the present state of
The explicit focal point of coaching psychology coaching and coaching psychology, we invited eight
differs subtly but significantly from each of the above seasoned observers of clinical psychology, coaching,
foci. Coaches seek to assist their clients to articulate positive psychology, organisational development and
self-congruent goals and aspirations and to system- health psychology to comment on this developing
atically work toward their achievement. These goals field.
may be developmental in nature or at the level of Although this expert sample is small in terms of
performance or particular skills acquisition. participant numbers, the combined experience of these
This is not to say that the process of coaching does individuals is extraordinary. Between them they have
not often have therapeutic outcomes for the indivi- published over 1000 peer-reviewed scientific papers,
dual, or positive outcomes for organisations. In their over 130 books, many hundreds of professional
work, practitioners may draw on or borrow techniques articles, and have over 220 years of professional
such as cognitive restructuring and relaxation from experience (See Appendix 1 for further details).
clinical and counselling psychology. However, coach- A number of key themes emerged from their
ing is not intended to primarily address psychopathol- responses. All agreed that solid research and theore-
ogy or serious intrapersonal or interpersonal distress. tical development were a priority. Others warned that
Best practice in coaching encourages the referral of the commercial opportunities associated with the self-
clients for whom these are primary issues. This is help industry may encourage the misrepresentation of
particularly important for coaches not trained in coaching services and outcomes. Some commentators
clinical or counselling psychology. emphasised the importance of organisational and
It is important to remember that the majority of executive coaching being theoretically grounded,
coaches per se do not have any training in and others observed that coaching has considerable
psychological science (Grant & Zackon, 2004) and, potential in promoting health and social change. Their
if they do have training in coaching, they tend to be comments are presented here.
242 A. M. Grant & M. J. Cavanagh

ensure that the impact of coaching is more than simply


What is the magic in the magic bullets?
a result of engagement in a helping relationship.
Adrian Furnham commented that:
Research in psychotherapy has shown that the quality of the
. . . coaching, like ‘‘talent management’’, is all the relationship between psychotherapist and client (whatever the
rage . . . . There is an ever growing and unregulated coaching psychotherapeutic orientation may be) can have a consider-
industry in many Western countries with organisations able impact on the outcome of the process. A similar comment
spending large sums on ‘‘trophy’’ and ‘‘magic bullet’’ can be made about the quality of a coach – client interface.
coaches. Coaching seems to have replaced everything: Experience, however, has also shown us to be on guard for
training, mentoring and even training in business. miraculous ‘‘transference cures’’. Thus to establish the
The academics have now caught up with this trend and are effectiveness of a coaching intervention, it will be essential
beginning to ask some fundamental questions – mainly about to engage in rigorous follow-up studies. Given the demands of
theory and intervention efficacy. While there is some evidence our institutional clients, at INSEAD’s Global Leadership
of distinctive theory development in this field what is Centre we go at great length to identify the parameters that
immediately vital is evidenced-based evaluation of coaching. make for successful interventions to further the training,
To assess the efficacy of both coaching and therapy is a selection, and methodology used by our coaches.
difficult, expensive and all important task. (Manfred Kets de Vries,
Clinical psychologists have been doing this research for personal communication, 2007.)
years comparing the comparative efficacy of therapies for
various illnesses. At present coaching seems a bit like
alternative medicine: there are many practitioners of different Economic impact: Return on investment
types and many happy clients, but insufficient good evidence
that it is anything more than placebo. To demonstrate the Given that coaching in organisational setting is
efficacy of alternative medicine we need good science: double- expensive and sometimes time consuming, the
blind, randomised, controlled trials. financial return on investment from coaching is an
Coaching psychology is in the same position. To exist, important point for David Clutterbuck.
indeed thrive as a branch of applied psychology it required
evidence-based research of the highest quality. Only then can Given the increasing sums organisations are spending on
one begin to make honest and accurate claims about what it coaching and mentoring, it is becoming more and more
can offer. important to demonstrate return on investment. It is
(Adrian Furnham, personal communication, 2007.) unfortunate that most research and writing in coaching is
little more than a collection of anecdote. By contrast, most
research in mentoring is highly quantitative, yet often deeply
Empirical evidence: A compass in the sea of flawed by virtue of failure to define the precise phenomena
commercialism being measured. Gradually we are beginning to see research
in both fields, which is both qualitative and quantitative and
Ken Sheldon’s message echoes Adrian Furnham’s. which addresses the three critical reasons for measurement: to
Sheldon recognises the power of financial attractors, improve the quality of learning relationships, to improve the
and states that empirical research is essential if both quality of programmes and initiatives, and to demonstrate
coaching and applied positive psychology are to return on investment.
avoid the pitfalls that have captured some other (David Clutterbuck, personal communication, 2007.)
psychological interventions and the self-help industry
more generally.
Personal impact: Facilitating health and wellbeing
To me, the single most important thing for coaching (and For others, coaching psychology has the potential
positive psychology) to keep in mind is the necessity of to reinvigorate existing helping modalities. Stephen
collecting rigorous empirical evidence. This may be the only Palmer sees great potential for the use of coach-
thing that separates the field from earlier humanistic
ing psychology in the emerging field of health
psychology and from current non-validated self-help books,
coaching.
while also dealing with difficult scientific issues concerning
demand effects, placebo effects, and just plain wishful
I see coaching psychology impacting upon the development of
thinking. The emerging life-coaching profession, I believe, is
health coaching. We already know the limitations of
especially vulnerable to these problems because of the
behavioural and educational approaches to encourage change
commercial and money-making possibilities it presents.
in health behaviours. The research in the field of coaching
(Ken Sheldon, personal communication, 2007.)
psychology is very promising as it has found that a coaching
approach based on solution focused cognitive behavioural
principles can reduce stress and aid goal attainment. Unlike
Taking the long view: Evidence of efficacy over time health training, which is being promoted in the UK, health
coaching goes beyond just focusing on behavioural goals and
Manfred Kets de Vries extends the empirical theme health education. It will help clients to develop the cognitive,
suggesting that longitudinal research is needed to mental imagery and emotive skills and strategies needed to
Evidence-based coaching: Flourishing or languishing? 243

stick to a weight control plan, permanently stop smoking, save waste, and the Bigelow (1938) article on how
reduce alcohol consumption, manage stress and pain etc. best to implement a sales coaching program. To date
Thus the developing field of health coaching is more than just (July 2007) there are a total of 355 published
a marriage of convenience but a harmonious blend of scholarly papers or dissertations on coaching listed
evidence based health and coaching psychology.
in PsycINFO. This figure includes life (or personal
(Stephen Palmer, personal communication, 2007.)
coaching) and workplace and executive coaching,
and specifically excludes papers on sports coaching,
Social impact: Transforming our world
therapeutic work with clinical populations, educa-
Sir John Whitmore, one of the original pioneers of tional coaching or coaching for psychometric or
coaching and highly active in coaching for over 25 educational tests. Papers from International Coaching
years, sees coaching methodologies as having the Psychology Review, a joint APS and British Psycho-
potential to play a significant role in cultural and logical Society publication, are also included in this
social change. overview.
The number of published papers has escalated in
About 25 years from its inception, the coaching industry is recent years. In the 62 years between 1937 and 1999
maturing well. Attempts are in process to agree standards and only 93 papers were published. In contrast, in the 6½
ethics, the large coaching associations are in collaboration years between 2000 and July 2007 a total of 262
talks, the fast-food poor-quality coach trainings have (so far)
papers were published (Figure 1).
failed to hijack the industry, and it continues to expand in
However, quantity is not necessarily quality. Of
quantity and outreach. Given the potential problems of a
start-up, it has done well – so far. The danger now is that its the 355 published papers to date 167 have been
own best people may not realise how important it is and may articles, opinion papers, descriptive articles or
themselves sell it short. The global culture is entering a theoretical discussions, and there have been 60 PhDs
renaissance- type transformation from hierarchy to self- and 128 empirical studies. Many of the published
responsibility. Coaching methodologies are perfectly placed to empirical papers are surveys (e.g., Fanasheh, 2003)
act as the mid-wives for that transformation. The self- or descriptive studies into the nature of executive
directed, humanistic principles of coaching must permeate coaching (e.g., Schnell, 2005), investigations into
education, healthcare, management and leadership, religion organisations’ use of coaching (e.g., Douglas &
and other great social institutions if we are to overcome the McCauley, 1999; Vloeberghs, Pepermans, &
enormity of the twin crises of social injustice and environ-
Thielemans, 2005), or examinations of perceptions
mental degradation facing humanity. The coaching industry
of coaching (e.g., Garman, Whiston, & Zlatoper,
can and must expand and rise to the challenge . . .
(Sir John Whitmore, personal communication, 2007.) 2000; Olsen, 2006). That is to say, most of the
empirical literature is contextual or survey-based
research about coaching as a professional activity or
about the characteristics of coaches and coachees,
Two challenges
rather than outcome research into the effectiveness of
The comments above point to two challenges that coaching as a methodology for creating and sustain-
seem integral to the development of coaching as a ing human change. Figure 2 shows the relative
discipline. The first challenge is for coaching to prove numbers of types published articles, PhDs and
itself as a valid and reliable change methodology. empirical studies since 1980.
The coaching world is urged to gather solid evidence
as to the effectiveness of coaching through well-
Outcome studies
designed outcome studies.
The second challenge is for coaching leaders, Outcome research can be understood as research
researchers, and practitioners to look beyond the that is conducted to examine the effect of an
demands of this immediate research agenda, to intervention on specific variables. Such variables in
develop a vision of the role of coaching as an coaching outcome research can include goal attain-
emerging discipline in enhancing the lives of ment, performance, wellbeing, stress, resilience,
individuals, and the sustainability of organisations workplace engagement and satisfaction, organisa-
and the world as a whole. tional climate or quality of relationships.
The first published empirical outcome study in the
psychology literature was the Gershman (1967)
Research challenge: Making (rather slow) progress
dissertation on the effects of specific factors of the
What then is the current state of the coaching supervisor – subordinate coaching climate upon im-
psychology outcome literature? PsycINFO has jour- provement of attitude and performance of the
nal records on coaching dating back to the 1930s. subordinate. No other empirical outcome studies
The earliest papers are the Gorby (1937) report of related to coaching were published until the
senior staff coaching junior employees on how to Duffy (1984) dissertation on the effectiveness of a
244 A. M. Grant & M. J. Cavanagh

Figure 1. Total number of coaching citations: 1935 – July 2007 (N ¼ 355).

Figure 2. Types of coaching publications: 1980 – July 2007.

feedback-coaching intervention in executive driven evaluations. However, few case studies have
outplacement. incorporated established and validated quantitative
There have been 69 outcome studies that have measures and designs that robustly assess the impact
examined the effectiveness of coaching since 1980. of coaching. (One rare example is Libri & Kemp,
There have been a total of 23 case studies, 34 within- 2006).
subject studies and 12 between-subject studies. The 34 within-subject studies represent the largest
Figure 3 shows the distribution of the types of single methodological approach to coaching out-
outcome studies between 1980 and July 2007. come research. Within-subject studies have the
While case studies can be informative and can potential to provide useful quantitative data and
provide rich in-depth qualitative insights, many of allow for the use of inferential statistics, provided
the 23 case studies in the coaching literature are that the studies are well-designed and use validated
purely descriptive with an emphasis on practice- and reliable measures. Although there are a number
related issues rather than development of theory or of commentaries rightly drawing attention to the
the evaluation of coaching outcomes (Kilburg, deficits in much of the existing coaching research
2004). Single-case designs can provide useful data- (Fillery-Travis & Lane, 2006; Passmore & Gibbes,
Evidence-based coaching: Flourishing or languishing? 245

Figure 3. Types of outcome studies: 1980 – July 2007.

2007), it would appear that the coaching research reduce anxiety and stress (Grant, 2003a), enhance
is moving through the ‘‘natural’’ stages of psychological and subjective wellbeing (Green et al.,
research development, from case studies, through 2006; Spence & Grant, 2007) and resilience, while
to uncontrolled within-subject studies, and then on reducing depression, stress or anxiety (Green et al.,
to quasi-experimental and randomised controlled 2007).
between-subject designs. The 12 between-subject Only one randomised controlled study has been
studies are outlined in Table 1. conducted in the workplace, with Deviney (1994)
finding no changes in supervisors’ feedback skills
following a multiple-rater feedback intervention and
Randomised controlled studies
coaching from their managers over 9 weeks.
Only eight of the 12 between-subject outcome To the authors’ knowledge no randomised con-
studies used a randomised controlled design trolled studies of workplace or executive coaching by
(Deviney, 1994; Taylor, 1997; Grant, 2003a; professional external coaches have been published in
Miller, Yahne, Moyers, Martinez, & Pirritano, the psychological literature to date. (For recent
2004; Gattellari et al., 2005; Green et al., 2006; reviews of executive coaching see Joo, 2005 and
Green, Grant, & Rynsaardt, 2007; Spence & Grant, Passmore & Gibbes, 2007).
2007). Sue-Chan and Latham (2004) used random The dearth of randomised controlled studies is a
assignment to self, peer, or external coaching group, serious shortcoming in the coaching outcome litera-
but did not use a no-intervention or placebo ture. Rightly or wrongly, randomised controlled
intervention control group. quantitative studies have become an important
The eight randomised controlled studies of coach- benchmark for outcome research in many areas of
ing that have been conducted to date indicate that science. However, randomised allocation to inter-
coaching can indeed improve performance in various vention or control is often extremely difficult in real-
ways. Three of these eight studies have been in the life field research. In light of the challenges in using
medical or health areas. Taylor (1997) found that randomised designs, most coaching outcome studies
solution-focused coaching fostered resilience in have used single group, pre – post within-subject
medical students. Gattellari et al. (2005) found that designs (e.g., Grant, 2003b; Jones, Rafferty, &
peer coaching by general practitioners improved Griffin, 2006; Olivero, Bane, & Kopelman, 1997;
coachees’ ability to make informed decisions about Orenstein, 2006). There have been some published
prostate-specific antigen screening. Miller et al. quasi-experimental studies with pretest and post-test
(2004) found that coaching with feedback was comparisons and non-randomised allocation to an
superior to training-only conditions, in a program experimental or control group. Using such a design
designed to help clinicians learn motivational inter- Evers, Brouwers, and Tomic (2006) found that
viewing skills. executive coaching enhanced participants’ self-
Four outcome studies have been in the life (or efficacy beliefs in personal goal setting, but they did
personal) coaching domain with community samples not measure goal attainment itself. Miller (1990)
and students. These have indicated that life coaching examined the impact of coaching on transfer of
can improve, indeed facilitate goal attainment and training skills, but the drawing of conclusions was
246

Table 1. Outcome studies of executive, workplace and life coaching utilising between subjects designs

Study Intervention overview Type of study Key findings

Miller (1990) 33 employees. Some received coaching by their Quasi-experimental field study No significant differences in pre – post-test
managers over 4 weeks (a) Coaching group; (b) control group assessment for interpersonal communication skills
Deviney (1994){ 45 line supervisors at a nuclear power plant. Some Randomised controlled study No significant differences in pre – post-test feedback
received feedback and coaching from their managers (a) Feedback plus coaching, (b) feedback with no behaviour
over 9 weeks coaching, (c) control group
Taylor (1997){ Participants undergoing a Medical College Admission Randomised controlled study Coaching reduced stress more than training
Test preparation course (a) Training only, (b) coaching only, (c) training plus
coaching, (d) control group
Grant (2003a){ 62 trainee accountants received group coaching over Randomised controlled study Combined cognitive and behavioural coaching most
one semester (a) Cognitive coaching only, (b) behavioural coaching effective in increasing grade point average, study
only, (c) combined cognitive and behavioural skills, self-regulation, and mental health. GPA
A. M. Grant & M. J. Cavanagh

coaching, (d) control groups for each condition gains maintained in 6-month follow-up
Miller, Yahne, Moyers, Martinez & 140 licensed substance abuse professionals learnt Randomised controlled study Relative to controls, the four trained groups had gains
Pirritano (2004){ motivational interviewing via a range of methods (a) Workshop only, (b) workshop plus feedback in proficiency. Coaching and/or feedback increased
(c) workshop plus coaching, (d) workshop, feedback, post-training proficiency.
and coaching, or (e) waitlist control group
Sue-Chan & Latham (2004) 53 MBA students in two studies in Canada and Random assignment Study 1: External coaching associated with higher
Australia (a) External coach, (b) peer coach, or (c) self-coached teamplaying behaviour than peer coaching.
Study 2: External and self-coaching associated with
higher grades than peer coaching
Gattellari et al. (2005){ 277 GPs in total. Some received two phone-based Randomised controlled study Compared to controls, peer coaching increased
peer coaching sessions integrated with educational (a) Peer coaching and educational resources, (b) control GPs ability to make informed decisions about
resources group prostate-specific antigen screening
Gyllensten & Palmer (2005) 31 participants from UK finance organisation Quasi-experimental field study Anxiety and stress decreased more in the coaching
(a) Coaching group, (b) control group group compared to control group.
Evers, Brouwers, & Tomic (2006) 60 managers of the federal government: Quasi-experimental field study Coaching increased outcome expectancies’ and
(a) Coaching group, (b) control group self-efficacy
Green, Oades, & Grant (2006){ 56 adults (community sample) took part in SF-CB life Randomised controlled study Coaching increased goal attainment, wellbeing,
coaching program (a) Group-based life coaching, (b) waitlist control and hope. 30-week follow-up found gains were
maintained
Green, Grant, & Rynsaardt (2007){ 56 female high school students took part in SF-CB life Randomised controlled study Coaching increased cognitive hardiness, mental
coaching program for 10 individual coaching sessions (a) Coaching group, (b) waitlist control group health and hope.
over two school terms
Spence & Grant (2007){ 63 adults (community sample) took part in SF-CB life Randomised controlled study Professional coaching more effective in increasing
coaching program (a) Professional coaching group, (b) peer coaching goal commitment, goal attainment and
group, (c) waitlist control group environmental mastery.

Notes: GP ¼ general practitioner; GPA ¼ grade point average; MBA ¼ Master’s of Business Administration; SF-CB ¼ Solution-focused cognitive behavioural.
Findings from these studies are only brief summaries; see actual publications for full details.
{
Randomised controlled study.
Evidence-based coaching: Flourishing or languishing? 247

restricted by a high rate of participant drop-out: 91 only, behavioural only, and combined cognitive and
participants began the study but only 33 completed behavioural coaching, and found that only the gains
the final measures. Barrett (2007) used a quasi- from the combined cognitive – behavioural coaching
experimental, modified post-test-only control group were maintained at a 6-month follow-up. In a 12-
design, finding that group coaching reduced burn- month follow-up Miller et al. (2004) found that
out but did not improve productivity. Gyllensten coaching with feedback was superior to training-only
and Palmer (2005) found that, compared with a no- conditions in maintaining clinicians’ interviewing
coaching control group, coaching was associated with skills. Investigating the long-term effects of a
lower levels of anxiety and stress, but not depression. randomised waitlist controlled program Green
et al. (2006) found that gains from participation in
a 10-week solution-focused cognitive – behavioural
Developing a common knowledge base of
life coaching were maintained at a 30-week follow-
outcomes
up. Libri and Kemp (2006) provide a refreshing
The total of 46 within-subject or between-subjects example of a well-designed case study of cognitive –
outcome studies conducted to date is a significant behavioural executive coaching. Using an A-B-A-B
start to the foundations for knowledge base on the design with an 18-month follow-up, they found that
effectiveness of coaching. Furthermore, the amount cognitive – behavioural coaching enhanced the coa-
of research is increasing over time. chees’ sales performance and core self-evaluations.
However, a key problem in comparing the results
between outcome studies is that there has been little
Coaching: Science, protoscience or
consistency in the use of outcome measures. Many
pseudoscience?
researchers develop their own idiosyncratic self-
report measures, and these tend to be simplistic Science can be understood as a system for acquiring
‘‘satisfaction with coaching’’ surveys. Such measures and developing knowledge, and applied science is the
are uncertain as regards their validity and reliability. application of scientific knowledge to human needs
Few studies have used well-validated measures of or problems. Science studies, and offers explanations
mental health and wellbeing or constructs such as for, naturally occurring events. Scientific data must
resilience, despite the fact that there are a wide, be consistent, observable, predictable, and testable,
readily available range of such measures designed for and any conclusions, explanations or theories must
use in the general population. For example, the be tentative and open to modification as new
Depression, Anxiety and Stress Scale (Lovibond & information becomes available (Chalmers, 1976).
Lovibond, 1995), the Psychological Wellbeing Scale A protoscience can be understood as an emerging
(Ryff & Keyes, 1996) and the Cognitive Hardiness science. It differs from established science in that it
Scale (Nowack, 1990) fit such a description. fails to meet all the criteria that delineate established
Because coaching is a goal-focused process, goal science. For example, an emerging discipline may be
attainment is an important outcome measure. Yet, classed as protoscience because consistent observa-
most outcome studies have not measured the impact tions and predictions, although theoretically possi-
of coaching on goal attainment in a way that allows ble, have yet to be undertaken due to the youth of the
comparison between studies. Goal attainment scal- field and/or practical or technological limitations.
ing (GAS) techniques offer a useful means of A pseudoscience, on the other hand, is a collection
measuring goal progression and can link coaching of ideas, beliefs, methodologies, or practices that
success to predetermined objective success bench- claims to be scientific, or is presented as being
marks (Fillery-Travis & Lane, 2006). Well- ‘‘scientific’’ but does not adhere to the basic tenants
conducted GAS would also help address the serious of the scientific method. Pseudo-science is charac-
limitations of the few studies that have examined terised by the use of vague language, exaggerated or
return on investment in coaching using subjective untestable claims, and the misuse of highly technical
post-coaching ratings of success (e.g., McGovern jargon. Pseudoscientific claims are often used to
et al., 2001). (See Spence, 2007 for a comprehensive promote proprietary commercial products or estab-
discussion of the use of GAS in coaching). lish credibility where such credibility would not
normally be warranted (Lilienfeld, Lynn, & Lohr,
2003).
Longitudinal studies
The distinctions between pseudoscience, proto-
In addition, to determine the real efficacy of science and normal science is important in the
coaching, longitudinal studies are needed. The few emerging field of coaching due to coaching’s roots
follow-up studies that have been conducted indicate in the self-help and actualisation movement that
that coaching can indeed produce sustained change. emerged from the human potential movement of the
Grant (2003a) investigated the effects of cognitive 1960s (Spence, 2007). A key characteristic of the
248 A. M. Grant & M. J. Cavanagh

self-help and actualisation movement is the uncritical I see happening now (and this is a warning) is that
embracing of new ideas, and reluctance to put those we are moving from pop psychology to pop
ideas to scientific testing or peer review. Hyperbole is neuroscience . . . the tendency is to learn it at the
commonplace in such settings, where unqualified surface and therefore misuse most of the principles
self-declared ‘‘international thought leaders’’ and while doing coaching’’ (Jay, 2006, p. 76).
aspiring gurus frequently walk a fine line between
calculated misrepresentations of the truth and
Hyperbole
complete fabrications (see Frankfurt, 2005 for a
discussion of these issues). The field of coaching is a broad one. One does not
have to look far to see the hallmarks of hyperbole,
faddism, and blind belief. It is not hard to find
Case in point: Use of neuroscience to create a
coaching books or websites that make sensationalistic
pseudoscience
claims that would be unheard of among the more
A case in point is the current popularity for attaching mature industries, claims that would lead to serious
neuroscientific attributions to events that can be reprimand by governing bodies in any regulated
adequately and satisfactorily explained via existing industry or genuine profession. An excerpt from the
behavioural or psychological explanations. introductory chapter of a book on coaching, pub-
Research by Deena Weisberg and colleagues at lished only last year (2006), illustrates this point.
Yale University suggests that the use of neuroscien-
tific jargon can give greater credence and credibility ‘‘What you are about to read is the very first coaching
to what would otherwise be judged inadequate or process that’s been defined in significant detail. In fact,
trivial explanations of common psychological phe- it’s the only real process available. Backed by the
nomena. They found that gratuitous neuroscience executive education program of a major university, the
references made poor or illogical explanations appear Sherpa process has held up to close scrutiny by seasoned
more credible. Weisberg and colleagues warn that veterans of adult education and received their unequi-
their findings could have serious implications for the vocal endorsement. Since there’s no significant compe-
application of neuroscience to a range of social and tition, the Sherpa process is the only credible standard
organisational issues, and caution that people can be for executive coaching.’’ (Corbett & Coleman, 2006).
easily mislead by neuroscientific jargon and intri-
guing colourful pictures of brain activity. Further- Corbett and Coleman’s book purports to be
more, physiological brain imaging analysis, although designed to train professional executive coaches to
irrelevant, can give the impression that the explana- coach in a professional, honest and ethical fashion. It
tion is connected with a wider, more insightful, is perhaps not surprising, given the calibre of the
scientific explanatory system (Weisberg et al. in above quote, that the book contains absolutely no
press; as cited in Jarrett, 2007, p. 461). references whatsoever to any scientifically derived
It may well be that the next wave of pseudoscience evidence in support of their claims of efficacy.
in coaching will be marked by workplace trainers and Yet despite the ready availability of such ill-
business consultants who are completely unqualified considered and unsubstantiated hyperbole in the
in neuroscience using neuroscientific jargon and coaching world, our foregoing analysis of the
neurological images as pseudo-explanatory frame- academic coaching literature does demonstrate that
works for simplistic proprietary coaching systems. the hallmarks of a rapidly growing protoscience exist
Indeed, recognised leadership experts such as Uni- in coaching. These hallmarks are more obvious in
versity of Southern California’s Professor Warren some sectors of the industry than others (e.g.,
Bennis have described such approaches as being coaching psychologists seem to be leading the way
‘‘filled with banalities’’, and commented that ‘‘what in terms of developing a research base). Still, there is
worries me is people being taken in by the language a considerable way to go before we could confidently
of it and ending up with stuff we’ve known all along’’ assert that coaching (or even coaching psychology)
(Bennis cited in McGregor, 2007, p. 61). had earned the status of normal science.
Other seasoned commentators of the coaching
industry have warned that some sections of the
Towards a flourishing – languishing model
coaching and leadership industry may simply shift
of coaching psychology
from a self-help, pop-psychology basis to a pop-
neuroscience basis, and in doing so diminish the Given these issues, can we say if coaching psychology
standing of coaching and undo much of the positive is flourishing or languishing? Anderson, Herriot,
work that has been achieved to date. ‘‘Most and Hodgkinson (2001) conceptualise science
coaches . . . have no real understanding of the psy- within a 2 6 2 model along the dimensions of
chological theories underpinning their work . . . what relevance and rigour, in which four cells are
Evidence-based coaching: Flourishing or languishing? 249

occupied by Popularist Science (high relevance, between focus on self and others in their commu-
low rigour), Pragmatic Science (high relevance, nication. Together these three dimensions were
high rigour), Pedantic Science (low relevance, high important in forming an expansive emotional space
rigour), and Puerile Science (low relevance, low that enables human exploration and connection.
rigour). Although it is a useful model, we contend These findings mirror those found in other settings
that the Anderson et al. approach does not quite such as marriage (Gottman, 1994), therapy
capture the element of openness to new perspectives (Schwarz, 1997), and within organisations generally
that is central to development in science generally, (Sutcliffe & Vogus, 2003). These findings suggest
and the creation of new paradigms in particular. that such expansive emotional spaces engender
The Keyes (2003) conceptualisation of flourishing broader information processing strategies, greater
and languishing may be of more help in answering resilience and greater variability in perspective.
the flourishing or languishing question. Keyes (2003)
proposed a mental health model with two orthogonal
Disciplines can flourish or languish
dimensions: the mental health continuum and the
mental illness (depression) continuum. Keyes con- It is possible that a discipline or domain of pure or
ceptualises mental health and mental illness as being applied science can flourish or languish in ways
separate dimensions, with mental health being more similar to teams and individuals (Seligman, 2003).
than the mere absence of mental illness symptoms. But how might one conceptualise the health or illness
Individuals high in mental health and low in mental of an applied science?
illness are designated as flourishing in life, whereas Central to the scientific method is the notion of
those low in mental health are designated as rigour. Sciences need to be able to clearly delineate
languishing, either with or without depression de- theories and articulate testable hypotheses. For our
pending on their level of mental illness (Keyes, 2003). purposes, a scientific work can be classified as being
In Keyes’ conceptualisation, languishing can be rigorous if the research methodology is able to test
understood as a state in which an individual lacks the hypothesis under investigation, the design does
positive emotions toward life, is not fulfilling their not lead to experimental biases, there is sufficient
potential, nor realising their aspirations or goals. information for others to replicate the study, it has
Flourishing can be understood as a state in which an undergone critical peer review, and the conclusions
individual feels positive emotions towards life and is are supported by the data and the data are not over-
fulfilling their potential and purposefully attaining interpreted (Diamandis, 2006).
their aspirations or goals. The use of reason, logic and critical thinking are
The Fredrickson (1998) ‘‘broaden and build’’ fundamental in this endeavour (Chalmers, 1976).
model of positive emotions also incorporates However, when overindulged, critical thinking can
the notions of languishing and flourishing. In become an attitude or habit of criticism (and a poor
Fredrickson’s work, languishing is characterised by substitute for rigorous thought). This habitual
avoidance, feelings of hollowness and emptiness, and criticism can easily constrict the emotional space
the narrowing of thought – action repertoires. It is available for human action. Indeed, academia has
said to occur in the context of prolonged negative often mistaken opposition for discussion, criticism
emotions. Human flourishing, on the other hand, is for critical thinking, and rigidity for rigour.
characterised by exploration, creativity, use of intui- The balance to critical thinking is openness to new
tion, building social connections, enhanced coping ideas. Like rigorous disciplined thought, this is also
strategies, resilience and the building of a connected fundamental to the scientific endeavour. Openness
environmental knowledge base (Fredrickson, 1998; to new ideas and directions implies a readiness to
Fredrickson & Losada, 2005). seek new understanding and new ways of doing. It is
Examining the functioning of high-performing a willingness to push the boundaries of our current
teams, Losada and Heaphy (2004) found that understanding and practice, or even to look beyond
conditions for human flourishing were generated our current perspectives and consider new para-
when team communication was characterised by digms that may help us understand more fully
positivity (support, encouragement and apprecia- ourselves, others and the world.
tion) rather than negativity (disapproval, sarcasm, Thus, instead of mental illness and mental health,
cynicism). The optimal positivity/negativity ratio was rigorous thought and openness to novelty might
found to fall between approximately 3:1 and 11:1 serve as the key dimensions for our model. Figure 4
(Losada & Heaphy, 2004). Too little or too much presents a flourishing – languishing model of coach-
positivity caused a constriction of behaviour toward ing psychology.
languishing. Furthermore, high-performing teams The upper left quadrant of the model is the place
were characterised by a balance between advocacy occupied by pseudoscience. Of course, the extreme
of their position and enquiry, and by a balance position of uncritical acceptance of new ideas is
250 A. M. Grant & M. J. Cavanagh

Figure 4. Languishing – flourishing model of coaching psychology.

faddism. Here rigor is abandoned in favour of Flourishing is found in the upper right quadrant.
fervour. Ultimately, one would expect that a disci- This quadrant is characterised by a tension between
pline whose main thrust was found in this quadrant rigour and openness to new directions. It is this
would languish. As the first flush of excitement fades, tension that is creative of growth. It is not un-
the lack of substance reveals that the emperor bounded growth, as in faddism or pseudoscience,
actually has no clothes, and pseudoscientific expla- but growth grounded in evidence. In complex
nations actually add little that is new or useful. systems terms this is the place of bounded instability,
The lower left quadrant is also a place of or the edge of chaos (Cavanagh, 2006; Stacey, 2000).
languishing. Here rigorous thinking and exploration The openness to new perspectives and ways of doing
give way to conventional thinking, or the blind makes it unpredictable. The commitment to rigor
acceptance of past ways of understanding and doing; harnesses that unpredictability creativity to ensure it
science that merely regurgitates past ideas. While for is not simply self-indulgence.
the proponents of these belief systems this is a place New disciplines need to find this upper right
of comfort, the self-sealed and repetitive nature of quadrant if they are to emerge and grow beyond the
thinking in this quadrant leaves no room for growth level of an interesting idea or fad, toward a
or discovery. This quadrant is the fate of systems that protoscience and finally attain the status of normal
prematurely canonise their theories and techniques science. It is the blend of vigour and rigour, openness
and fail to develop a solid research agenda that tests and discipline that makes this journey possible.
their assumptions and extends their understanding.
In the lower right quadrant rigor is present, but it
Is coaching flourishing?
is predominantly enlisted in the service of maintain-
ing the status quo, or scientific orthodoxy. In relation The present review suggests that coaching is an
to the Anderson et al. (2001) framework is the area of emerging discipline. But is it flourishing? In the past
pedantic science. There is little openness to alter- it has been very easy to look at the vigorous growth of
native perspectives and therefore no possibility of the industry, the fervour of its practitioners and the
paradigm change (Kuhn, 1996). Here criticism is rapid acceptance of coaching as an intervention
mistaken for critical thinking, and rigidity for rigor. among consumers, and conclude that coaching was
This is the quadrant of professional arrogance. The indeed flourishing. Much of the youthful vigour of
rigidities of both the lower quadrants in this model coaching remains, but not all that grows is truly
indicate that these quadrants represent thinking that flourishing. According to our model, coaching as a
creates closed systems. When any system becomes scientific discipline could be said to be flourishing to
closed, the consequence is stultification and ulti- the extent that the literature and practice are both
mately death (Stacey, 2000). rigorous and open to new directions – creative and
Evidence-based coaching: Flourishing or languishing? 251

disciplined. So the question remains, how well do we It is perhaps deceptively easy for those in the
manage this tension between openness and rigour? coaching industry who come from professional
How well do we surf the edge of chaos? backgrounds such as psychology, or who are engaged
We would assert that some elements of the industry in academic research, to focus narrowly on the
are indeed flourishing while others are deeply scientific undertaking, and to forget that health of
languishing due to a lack of rigorous examination. coaching as a discipline is an industry-wide issue.
On the side of flourishing, we have seen a small The current penetration of coaching psychologists
explosion of writing and research that seeks to within the industry is low. One study has shown that
develop new ideas and make novel connections only 14% of coaches report formal training in
between existing ideas, and a willingness to begin psychology (Spence, Cavanagh, & Grant, 2006). So
to put these ideas to the test. This is an excellent while coaching psychology may ‘‘punch above its
start. The outcome literature only really started to weight’’ in the field, its fate is still very much linked
emerge in any quantity in 2000, but it shows a with the wider coaching industry.
promising progression in rigour from case studies, to At an individual level, for those of us involved in
group studies, toward randomised controlled stu- the education of coaches and the conduct of
dies. Such a progression is to be expected in the early research, the danger is that we will engage in
stages of an emerging discipline. discussion primarily within our own closed group.
On the side of languishing, there appears to be a That the industry has developed to this point with so
worrying lack of rigour in many of the claims and little input from academia suggests that it may well
much of the published work in coaching. A great deal be doing at least some things right. To limit the
of it appears to be more akin to the self-help literature. conversation to those who are research savvy runs the
That this is the case is not necessarily to be too risk of leaving behind the bulk of practising coaches,
strongly bemoaned given the emergent status of the and in the process losing the important contribution
field. Youth tends to vigour rather than rigour. of their expertise and experience. Increasingly
However, perhaps more worrying than these ill- sophisticated theory and research require increas-
advised unsupported and pseudoscientific claims, is ingly sophisticated consumers of that research and
what appears to be a lack of capability or even desire increasingly strong connections between consumers
to rigorously evaluate coaching claims among many and researchers if it is to remain relevant. This is
coaching practitioners. This is a consequence of the both a significant educative task for the industry and
fact that, as an industry, coaching has no barriers to a challenge to the vision of researchers.
entry, or recognised standards of education. An ability Fortunately there appears to be a growing, industry-
to be rigorous, and a respect for this aspect of practice wide, recognition of the need to improve standards
are yet to become a part of the culture of coaching. and education in coaching. There have been, and are,
This leaves a challenging tension for those who multiple efforts to develop competency frameworks,
would see the industry flourish and grow as a codes of ethics, training guidelines and accreditation
scientific enterprise. They need to be clearly differ- systems. One current initiative, the Global Conven-
entiated from the frequently sensationalistic and tion on Coaching (GCC), shows promise in creating a
pseudoscientific facets of the industry, while at the genuine, industry-wide, international dialogue aimed
same time resist falling into the type of scientific at developing common frameworks of understanding
arrogance that alienates. Such arrogance is more and solutions to the challenges faced by this emerging
likely to create the conditions of languishing in the discipline (GCC, 2007). What this dialogue will
field than to encourage a more informed approach to produce is yet to be seen. However, psychologists’
coaching practice. This leads us to consider the engagement with the non-psychological sections of
second challenge facing coaching: that of vision. the coaching industry and with dialogue processes
such as the GCC, will be important for the successful
emergence of the field as a profession and a science.
Maintaining a positive vision for the field
To enter into this dialogue effectively we need to
As mentioned earlier in this paper, coaching faces foster a vision within coaching psychology that
two major challenges. The first is developing a understands the present state of the industry as a step
theoretically sound and empirically grounded knowl- in a greater journey. Ultimately, this vision needs to
edge base. We have spoken of this at length. The encompass something of what the industry might
second challenge is for coaching leaders, researchers, become and what it might contribute to the world.
and practitioners to look beyond the demands of this
immediate research agenda, to develop a vision of the
Concluding comments
role of coaching in enhancing the lives of individuals,
and the sustainability of organisations and the world The quantity of coaching research is indeed
as a whole. developing, and the knowledge base is expanding.
252 A. M. Grant & M. J. Cavanagh

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Sue-Chan, C., & Latham, G. P. (2004). The relative effectiveness opment, Clinical Professor of Leadership Develop-
of external, peer, and self-coaches. Applied Psychology, 53, ment and Director, INSEAD Global Leadership
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In K. S. Cameron, J. E. Dutton, & R. E. Quinn (Eds.), Positive organisational design/transformation and strategic
organizational scholarship: Foundations of a new discipline human resource management. He has published
(pp. 94 – 110). San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler. more than 24 books and 250 scientific papers.
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coping skills training, and perceived stress during a career-
threatening milestone. Dissertation Abstracts International Alex Linley
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High-potential development policies: An empirical study Centre for Applied Positive Psychology. He is a
among Belgian companies. Journal of Management Development, leading advocate of positive psychology, and edited
24, 546 – 558.
the book Positive psychology in practice. Alex’s
research is based on the applications of positive
psychology, specifically including coaching and
psychological strengths.
Appendix 1. Contributors to invited comments
for this paper
Stephen Palmer
Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi
Dr Stephen Palmer is an Honorary Professor of
Professor Csikszentmihalyi is the director of the Psychology at City University London and Director
Quality of Life Research Centre (QLRC) at the of the Coaching Psychology Unit, City University
Drucker School. The QLRC is a non-profit research London. A past Chair of the British Psychological
institute that studies positive psychology. Perhaps Society Special Group for Coaching Psychology, he
best known for his work on creativity and flow, he has has authored or edited 25 books and. He demon-
devoted his life’s work to the study of what makes strated the benefits of cognitive coaching in his
people truly happy, satisfied and fulfilled. recent BBC 1 television series, The stress test.

David Clutterbuck Ken Sheldon


Professor David Clutterbuck is principal of Clutter- Ken Sheldon is Professor of Psychology at the
buck Associates, and heads the UK research University of Missouri-Columbia. He has extensively
committee of the European Mentoring and Coach- published in the area of personal goals, self-
ing Council. He has written more than 40 books and determination and wellbeing. Among his published
hundreds of articles management themes, including, works are Optimal human being: An integrated multi-
Everyone needs a mentor, Mentoring in action and level perspective, Self-determination theory in the clinic:
Making coaching work. Motivating physical and mental health, and Life goals
and wellbeing: Towards a positive psychology of human
striving.
Adrian Furnham
Adrian Furnham is Professor of Psychology at
Sir John Whitmore
University College London. Adrian is a distinguished
academic, consultant on organisational behaviour, Sir John Whitmore is a pioneer of coaching world-
writer and broadcaster. He is the author of 46 books wide and the creator of the Be the Change move-
including Culture shock, The economic mind and The ment. He has written five books on sports,
protestant work ethic. leadership, and coaching, of which Coaching for
performance is the best known, having sold one
quarter of a million copies in 17 languages.
Manfred F. R. Kets De Vries
Manfred Kets De Vries is the Raoul de Vitry
d’Avaucourt Chaired Professor of Leadership Devel-

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