CANDITATE’S DECLERATION

I hereby declare that the report titled “3D PRINTING TECHNOLOGY” submitted
towards completion of Technical Report in IV Year 2nd Semester of B.Tech (ECE) at
the Rajeev
Gandhi Memorial College of Engineering & Technology, Nandyal. Is an authentic
record of
my original report and is prepared by me.
I have not submitted the matter embodied in this report for the award of any other
degree
in any other institutions.
Place: Nandyal
Date:
By
H.BABA AFRID
Regd.No. 18091A0416INDEX
Name of Topics:
Page No:
1. Introduction
1
2. Types of 3D Printing
2
2.1.
Binder Jetting
2
2.2.
Directed Energy Deposition
3
2.3.
Material Extrusion
4
2.4.
Material Jetting
4
2.5.
Powder Bed Fusion
5
2.6.
Sheet Lamination
6
2.7.
Vat Photopolymerization

1
7
3. Materials Used for 3D Printing Technology
8
3.1.
Metals
8
3.2.
Polymers
8
3.3.
Ceramics
9
3.4.
Composites
10
3.5.
Smart Materials
11
3.6.
Special Materials
12
4. The Applications of 3D Printing Technology
12
4.1.
Aerospace Industry
12
4.2.
Automotive Industry
13
4.3.
Food Industry
14
4.4.
Healthcare and Medical Industry
15
4.5.
Architecture, Building and Construction
16
4.6.
Fabric and Fashion Industry
17

2
4.7.
Electric and Electronic Industry
18
5. Conclusion
203D Printing Technology
1. INTRODUCTION
3D printing can create physical objects from a geometrical representation by
successive addition of material. This 3D process had many experienced a phenomenal
expansion in recent years. First commercialised of the 3D printing processes in year
1980 by
Charles Hull. Currently, 3D printing primarily used for producing artificial heart pump,
3D
printed cornea, PGA rocket engine, steel bridge in Amsterdam and other products
related to
the aviation industry as well as the food industry. 3D printing technology has originated
from
the layer by layer fabrication technology of three-dimensional (3D) structures directly
from
computer-aided design (CAD) drawing. 3D printing technology is a truly innovative
and has
emerged as a versatile technology stage. It opens new opportunities and gives hope to
many
possibilities for companies looking to improve manufacturing efficiency. Conventional
thermoplastics, ceramics, graphene-based materials, and metal are the materials that can
be
printed now by using 3D printing technology.
3D printing technology has the potential to revolutionize industries and change the
production line. The adoption of 3D printing technology will increase the production
speed
while reducing costs. At the same time, the demand of the consumer will have more
influence
over production. Consumers have greater input in the final product and can request to
have it
produced to fit their specifications. At the meantime, the facilities of 3D printing
technology
will be located closer to the consumer, allowing for a more flexible and responsive
manufacturing process, as well as greater quality control. Furthermore, when using 3D
printing
technology, the need for global transportation is significantly decreased. This is
because, when
manufacturing sites located nearer to the end destination, all distribution could be done
with
fleet tracking technology that saves energy and time. Lastly, the adoption of 3D printing
technology can change the logistics of the company. The logistics of the companies can
manage
the entire process, offer more comprehensive and start-to-finish services.
Nowadays, 3D printing is widely used in the world. 3D printing technology

3
increasingly used for the mass customization, production of any types of open source
designs
in the field of agriculture, in healthcare, automotive industry, and aerospace industries.
At the
same time, there are several disadvantages the adoption of 3D printing technology in
manufacturing industry. For instance, the effect of the use of 3D printing technology is
will
reduce the use of manufacturing labour so automatically will greatly affect the economy
of
1 |P a g e3D Printing Technology
countries that rely on a large number of low skill jobs. Furthermore, by using 3D
printing
technology, users can print many different types of objects such as knives, guns and
dangerous
items. Therefore, the use of 3D printing should be limited to only certain people to
prevent
terrorists and criminals bring guns without detected. At the same time, the people who
get a
hold of a blueprint will be able to counterfeit products easily. This is because, the use of
3D
printing technology is simple, just sketching, and set the data in the machine-printed so
3D
objects can generate. To sum up, 3D printing technology has emerged during recent
years as a
flexible and powerful technique in advance manufacturing industry.
This technology has been widespread used in many countries, especially in the
manufacturing industry. Therefore, this paper presents the overview of the types of 3D
printing
technologies, the application of 3D printing technology and lastly, the materials used for
3D
printing technology in manufacturing industry.
2. TYPES OF 3D PRINTING
Varieties of 3D printing technologies have been developed with the different function.
According to ASTM Standard F2792, ASTM catalogued 3D printing technologies into
seven
groups, including the binding jetting, directed energy deposition, material extrusion,
material
jetting, powder bed fusion, sheet lamination and vat photopolymerization. There are no
debates
about which machine or technology function better because each of them has its
targeted
applications. Nowadays, 3D printing technologies are no longer limited to prototyping
usage
but are increasingly also being used for making variety of products .
2.1. Binder jetting
Binder jetting is a rapid prototyping and 3D printing process in which a liquid binding
agent is selectively deposited to join powder particles. The binder jetting technology
uses jet

4
chemical binder onto the spread powder to form the layer . The application of the binder
jetting
is would be producing the casting patterns, raw sintered products or similar large-
volume
products from sand. Binder jetting can print a variety of materials including metals,
sands,
polymers, hybrid and ceramics. Some materials like sand not required additional
processing.
Moreover, the process of binder jetting is simple, fast and cheap as powder particles are
glued
together. Lastly, binder jetting also has the ability to print very large products.
2 |P a g e3D Printing Technology
2.2. Directed energy deposition
Directed energy deposition is a more complex printing process commonly used to repair
or add additional material to existing components. Directed energy deposition has the
high
degree control of grain structure can produce the good quality of the object. The process
of
directed energy deposition is similar in principle to material extrusion, but the nozzle
not fixed
to a specific axis and can move in multiple directions.
Furthermore, the process can be used with ceramics, polymers but is typically used with
metals and metal-based hybrids, in the form of either wire or powder. The example of
this
technology is laser deposition and laser engineered net shaping (LENS) . Laser
deposition is
the emerging technology and can be used to produce or repair parts measured in
milimeter to
meters. Laser deposition technology is gaining attraction in the tooling, transportation,
3 |P a g e3D Printing Technology
aerospace, and oil and gas sectors because it can provide scalability and the diverse
capabilities
in the single system. Meanwhile, laser LENS can exploit thermal energy for melting
during the
casting and parts are accomplished subsequently.
2.3. Materials extrusion
Material extrusion-based 3D printing technology can be used to print multi-materials
and
multi-colour printing of plastics, food or living cells. This process has been widely used
and
the costs are very low. Moreover, this process can build fully functional parts of product
. Fused
deposition modelling (FDM) is the first example of a material extrusion system. FDM
was
developed in early 1990 and this method uses polymer as the main material.
FDM builds parts layer-by-layer from the bottom to the top by heating and extruding
thermoplastic filament. The operations of FDM are as follows: I. Thermoplastic heated
to a
5
semi-liquid state and deposits it in ultra-fine beads along the extrusion path. II. Where
support
or buffering needed, the 3D printer deposits a removable material that acts as
scaffolding. For
example, FDM uses hard plastic material during the process to produce 3D bone model.
2.4. Materials jetting
According to ASTM Standards, material jetting is a 3D printing process in which drop
by drop of build material are selectively deposited. In material jetting, a printhead
dispenses
4 |P a g e3D Printing Technology
droplets of a photosensitive material that solidifies, building a part layer-by-layer under
ultraviolet (UV) light. At the same time, material jetting creates parts with a very
smooth
surface finish and high dimensional accuracy. Multi-material printing and a wide range
of
materials such as polymers, ceramics, composite, biologicals and hybrid are available in
material jetting.
2.5. Powder bed fusion
The powder bed fusion process includes the electron beam melting (EBM), selective
laser sintering (SLS) and selective heat sintering (SHS) printing technique. This method
uses
either an electron beam or laser to melt or fuse the material powder together. The
example of
the materials used in this process are metals, ceramics, polymers, composite and hybrid.
Selective laser sintering (SLS) are the main example of powder based 3D printing
technology.
Carl Deckard developed SLS technology in 1987. SLS is 3D printing technology that’s
functionally in fast speed, has high accuracy, and varies surface finish. Selective laser
sintering
can used to create metal, plastic, and ceramic objects. SLS used a high power laser to
sinter
polymer powders to generate a 3D product. Meanwhile, SHS technology is another part
of 3D
Printing technology uses a head thermal print in the process to melt the thermoplastic
powder
to create 3D printed object. Lastly electron beam melting enhances an energy source to
heat up
the material.
5 |P a g e3D Printing Technology
2.6. Sheet lamination
According to ASTM definition, sheet lamination is the 3D printing process in which
sheet of materials are bond together to produce a part of object. The example of 3D
printing
technology that uses this process are laminated object manufacturing (LOM) and
ultrasound
additive manufacturing (UAM).

6
The advantages of this process are sheet lamination can do full-colour prints, it
relatively
inexpensive, easy of material handling and excess material can be recycled. Laminated
object
6 |P a g e3D Printing Technology
manufacturing (LOM) is capable to manufacture complicated geometrical with lower
cost of
fabrication and less operational time. Ultrasound additive manufacturing (UAM) is an
innovative process technology that uses sound to merge layers of metal drawn from
featureless
foil stock.
2.7. Vat Photopolymerization
The main 3D printing technique that frequently used is photopolymerization, which in
general refers to the curing of photo-reactive polymers by using a laser, light or
ultraviolet
(UV). The example of 3D printing technologies by using photopolymerization is
stereolithography (SLA) and digital light processing (DLP). In the SLA, it was
influenced by
the photo initiator and the irradiate exposure particular conditions as well as any dyes,
pigments, or other added UV absorbers.
Meanwhile, digital light processing is a similar process to Stereolithography that works
with photopolymers. Light source is the major difference. Digital Light Process uses a
more
conventional light source, such as an arc lamp with a liquid crystal display panel. It can
apply
to the whole surface of the vat of photopolymer resin in a single pass, generally making
it faster
than Stereolithography. The important parameters of Vat Photopolymerization are the
time of
exposure, wavelength, and the amount of power supply. The materials used initially are
liquid
and it will harden when the liquid exposed to ultraviolet light. Photopolymerization
issuitable
for making a premium product with the good details and a high quality of surface.
7 |P a g e3D Printing Technology
3. Materials Used for 3D Printing Technology
in Manufacturing Industry
Like any manufacturing process, 3D printing needs high quality materials that meet
consistent specifications to build consistent high-quality devices. To ensure this,
procedures,
requirements, and agreements of material controls are established between the suppliers,
purchasers, and end-users of the material. 3D printing technology is capable to produce
fully
functional parts in a wide range of materials including ceramic, metallic, polymers and
their
combinations in form of hybrid, composites or functionally graded materials (FGMs).
3.1. Metals

7
3D printing technology gain many attentions in aerospace, automobile, medical
application and manufacturing industry because the advantages existing by this process.
The
materials of metal have the excellent physical properties and this material can be used to
complex manufacturer from printing human organs to aerospace parts. The examples of
this
materials are aluminium alloys, cobalt-based alloys, nickel-based alloys, stainless steels,
and
titanium alloys. Cobalt-based alloy is suitable to use in the 3D printed dental
application. This
is because, it has high specific stiffness, resilience, high recovery capacity, elongation
and heat
treated conditions. Furthermore, 3D printing technology has capability to produce
aerospace
parts by using nickel base alloys. 3D-printed object produces using nickel base alloys
can be
used in dangerous environments. This is because, it has high corrosion resistance and
the heat
temperature can resistant up to 1200°C. Lastly, 3D printing technology also can print
out the
object by using titanium alloys. Titanium alloy with have very exclusive properties,
such as
ductility, good corrosion, oxidation resistance and low density. It is used in high stresses
and
high operating temperatures and high stresses, for example in aerospace components
and
biomedical industry.
3.2. Polymers
3D printing technologies are widely used for the production of polymer components
from prototypes to functional structures with difficult geometries. By using fused
deposition
modelling (FDM), it can form a 3D printed through the deposition of successive layers
of
extruded thermoplastic filament, such as polylactic acid (PLA), acrylonitrile butadiene
styrene
(ABS), polypropylene (PP) or polyethylene (PE). Lately, thermoplastics filaments with
higher
melting temperatures such as PEEK and PMMA can already be used as materials for 3D
8 |P a g e3D Printing Technology
printing technology.
3D printing polymer materials in liquid state or with low melting point are widely used
in 3D printing industry due to their low cost, low weight and processing flexibility.
Mostly, the
materials of polymers played important role in biomaterials and medical device
products often
asinert materials, by contributing to the efficient functioning of the devices as well as
providing
mechanical support in many orthopaedic implants

8
3.3. Ceramics
Nowadays, 3D printing technology can produce 3D printed object by using ceramics
and
concrete without large pores or any cracks through optimization of the parameters and
setup
the good mechanical properties. Ceramic is strong, durable and fire resistant. Due to its
fluid
state before setting, ceramics can be applied in practically any geometry and shape and
very
suitable on the creation of future construction and building.
According to, they said ceramics materials is useful in the dental and aerospace
9 |P a g e3D Printing Technology
application. The examples of this materials are alumina, bioactive glasses and zirconia.
Alumina powder for instance has the potential to be processes by 3D Printing
technology.
Alumina is an excellent ceramic oxide with a very wide range of applications, including
catalyst, adsorbents, microelectronics, chemicals, aerospace industry and another high
technology industry. Alumina has great curing complexity . By using 3D printing
technology,
complex-shaped alumina parts with has a high density after sintering and also has high
green
density can be printed. Furthermore, in successive experiment, Stereolithographic
(SLA)
machine was used to process glass-ceramic and bioactive glass into dance part. It
significantly
improving the bending strength of this materials.
The increasing of the mechanical strength will open up the potential for apply bioactive
glass in relevant clinical structure such as scaffolds and bone. By using
Stereolithographic
Ceramic Manufacturing (SLCM), it is probable to produce solid bulk ceramics with
high
densities, very homogeneous microstructure, high compression strength and bending.
Meanwhile, zirconia are the main construction materials in nuclear power sectors, using
for
element tubing. Hafnium-free zirconium is very suitable for this application because it
has low
susceptibility to radiation and also has low thermal neutron absorption.
3.4. Composites
Composite materials with the exceptional versatility, low weight, and tailorable
properties have been revolutionizing high-performance industries. The examples
ofcomposite
materials are carbon fibers reinforced polymer composites and glass fibers reinforced
polymer
composite. Carbon fiber reinforced polymers composite structures are widely used in
aerospace
industry because of their high specific stiffness, strength, good corrosion resistance and
good

9
fatigue performance. At the same time, glass fibers reinforced polymer composites are
widely
used for various applications in 3D printing application and has great potential
applications due
to the cost effectiveness and high-performance. Fiberglass have a high thermal
conductivity
and relatively low coefficient of thermal expansion. Furthermore, fiberglass cannot
burn, and
it not affected by curing temperatures used in manufacturing processes, therefore, it is
very
suitable for use in the 3D printing applicant.
10 |P a g e3D Printing Technology
3.5. Smart materials
Smart materials are defined as this material have the potential to alter the geometry and
shape of object, influence by external condition such as heat and water. The example of
3D
printed object produces by using smart materials are self-evolving structure and soft
robotics
system. Smart materials also can be classified as 4D printing materials. The examples of
group
smart materials are shape memory alloys and shape memory polymers. Some shape-
memory
alloys like nickel-titanium can be used in biomedical implants to
microelectromechanical
devices application.
In the production of 3D printed products by using nickel-titanium, transformation
temperatures, reproducibility of microstructure and density is the important issue.
Meanwhile,
11 |P a g e3D Printing Technology
Shape memory polymer (SMP) is a kind of functional material that responds to a
stimulus like
light, electricity heat, some types of chemical and so on. By using 3D printing
technology, the
complicated shape of shape memory polymer could be easily and conveniently to
produce. The
quality evaluation of this material is performed based on the dimensional accuracy,
surface
roughness and part density.
3.6. Specials materials
The examples of special materials are:
• Food 3D printing technology can process and produce the desired shape and geometry
by
using food materials like the chocolate, meat, candy, pizza, spaghetti, sauce and so on.
3D-food
printing can produce healthy food because this process allows customers to adjust the
ingredients of materials without reducing the nutrients and taste of the ingredients.
• Lumar dust 3D printing process has the capability to directly produce multi-layered
partsout

10
of lunar dust, which has potential applicability to future moon colonization.
• Textile With 3D printing technology, jewellery and clothing industry will be shine
with the
development on 3D textile printing. Some advantage of 3D printing technology in
fashion
industry are short processing time to make the product, reduced costs related with the
packaging and reduce supply chain cost.
4. The Applications of 3D Printing in Manufacturing Technology
4.1. Aerospace industry
3D printing technology provides unparallel freedom design in component and
production. In aerospace industry, 3D printing technology has potential to make
lightweight
parts, improved and complex geometries, which can reduce energy requirement and
resources.
At the same time, by using 3D printing technology, it can lead to fuel savings because it
can
reduce the material used to produce aerospace’s parts.
Furthermore, 3D printing technology has been widely applied to produce the spare parts
of some aerospace components such as engines. The engine’s part is easily damaged,
which
require regular replacement. Therefore, 3D printing technology is a good solution to the
procurement of such spare parts. In aerospace
12 |P a g e3D Printing Technology
industry, nickel-based alloysis more preferred due to the tensile properties,
oxidation/corrosion
resistance and damage tolerance.
4.2. Automotive industry
Nowadays, 3D printing technology have rapidly changed our industry to design,
develop
and manufacture new things. In the automotive industry, 3D Printing technique have
made
phenomena to bring new shines, allowing for lighter and more complex structures in the
fast
time. For instance, Local Motor had printed the first 3D-printed electric car in 2014. Not
only
cars, Local Motors also extended the wide range application of 3D printing technology
by
manufacturer a 3D-printed bus called OLLI. OLLI is a driverless, electric, recyclable
and
extremely smart 3D printed bus.
Furthermore, Ford is the leader in the use of 3D printing technology also apply 3D
printing technology to produce prototype and engine parts. In addition, BMW uses 3D
printing
technology to produce hand-tools for automotive testing and assembly. Meanwhile, in
2017,
AUDI was collaborated with SLM Solution Group AG to produce spare parts and
prototypes.

11
Consequently, by using 3D printing technology in automotive industry enable company
to try
various alternatives and emphasize right in the improvement stages, prompting ideal
and
effective automotive design. At the same time, 3D printing technology can reduce the
wastage
13 |P a g e3D Printing Technology
and consumption of the materials. Moreover, 3D printing technology can reduce costs
and time,
therefore, it allows to test new designs in a very fast time.
4.3. Food industry
3D printing technology open the doors not only for aerospace industry, but also for food
industry. At present, there is a growing demand for the development of customized food
for
specialized dietary needs, such as athletes, children, pregnant woman, patient and so
onwhich
requires a different amount of nutrients by reducing the amount of unnecessary
ingredients and
enhancing the presence of healthy ingredients.
However, the development of customized foods must be conducted in a very detailed
and inventive way, which is where the adoption of 3D-food printing appears. Food layer
manufacture also known as 3D-food printing fabricated through the deposition of
successive
layers by layer derived directly from computer-aided design data. By using 3D printing
technology, specific materials can be mixed and processes into various complicated
structures
and shape. Sugar, chocolate, pureed food and flat food such as pasta, pizza and crackers
can be
used to create new food items with complex and interesting designs and shape.
3D printing technology is a high-energy efficiency technology for food production with
environmentally friendly, good quality control and low cost. 3D-food printing can be
healthy
and give benefit for human because it creates new process for food customization and
can
adjust with individual preferences and needs. By allowing food preparation and
ingredients to
be automatically adjusted to the consumer’s information, it would be possible to have
diets
14 |P a g e3D Printing Technology
which enforce themselves without need to exercise.
4.4. Healthcare and medical industry
3D printing technology can used to print 3D skin, drug and pharmaceutical research,
bone and cartilage, replacement tissues, organ, printing for cancer research and lastly
models
for visualization, education, and communication. There are several advantages of 3D
Printing
technology for biomedical products which are:

12
• 3D printing technology can replicate the natural structure of the skin with the lower
cost. 3D
printed skin can be used to test pharmaceutical, cosmetics, and chemical products.
Therefore,
it is unnecessary to use the animal skin to test the products. Consequently, it will help
the
researcher to get accurate result by using replicate the skin.
15 |P a g e3D Printing Technology
• By using 3D printing technology to print drug can increase efficiency, accurate control
of
dropped size and dose, high reproducibility and able to produce dosage form with
complex
drug-release profiles.
• 3D printing technology is able to print cartilage and bone to replace bony voids in the
cartilage
or bone that caused by trauma or disease. This treatment is different options from using
auto
grafts and allografts because this treatment focuses on to generate bone, maintain, or
improve
its function by using in vivo.
• 3D printing technology also can be used to replace, restore, maintain, or improve the
tissues
function. The replacement tissues produced by 3D printing technology have the
interconnected
pore network, biocompatible, appropriate surface chemistry and has good mechanical
properties.
• 3D printing technology also can be used to print out similar organ failure caused by
critical
problems such as disease, accidents, and birth defects.
• 3D printing technologies are able to form highly controllable cancer tissues model and
shows
great potential to accelerate cancer research. By using 3D printing technology, the
patients can
get more reliable and accurate data.
• 3D printout models can use in the learning process to help neurosurgeons practicing
surgical
techniques. By using 3D model, it can improve accuracy, can take the short time to the
trainer
when performing clinical procedure, and provides opportunities for training surgeons
hands
on, as the 3D model is a simulation of a real patient’s pathological condition
4.5. Architecture, building, and construction industry
3D printing technology can be considered as environmentally friendly derivative and it
give unlimited possibilities for geometric complexity realization. In the construction
industry,
3D printing technology can be used to print entire building or can create construction
components. The emergence of the Building Information Modelling (BIM) will
facilitate better

13
use of 3D printing technology. Building Information Modelling is a digital
representation of
functional and physical characteristics, can share an information and knowledge about
3D
building. It can form a reliable source for decision during its life cycle, from initial
conception
to demolition for construct or design the building.
16 |P a g e3D Printing Technology
This innovative and collaborative technology will support more efficient method to
designing, creating and maintaining the built environment. With 3D printing
technology,
companies can design and create the visual of the building in the fast time and
inexpensively
as well as avoid delays and help pinpoint problem areas. At the same time, with 3D
printing
technology, construction-engineer and their clients can communicate more efficiently
and
clearly. Much of a customer's expectations come from an idea, and 3D printing makes it
simple
to appear that idea beyond the dated method of paper and pencil. The examples of 3D
printed
building are Apis Cor Printed House in Russia and Canal House in Amsterdam.
4.6. Fabric and Fashion Industry
When 3D printing technology enters the retail industry, 3D printed shoes, jewellery,
consumer goods and clothing are emergence into the market. The combination of
fashion and
3D printing may not seem like the most natural fit, but it is starting to become an
everyday
reality all over the world. For instance, big companies like Nike, New Balance and
Adidas are
striving to development the mass production of 3D printed shoes. Nowadays, 3D
printed shoes
are produced for athlete's shoes, custom-made shoes and sneakers. Besides, 3D printing
technology can spread creative possibilities for fashion design.
Indeed, it makes it possible to makes shapes without moulds. In fashion industry, by
using 3D printing technology, it can design and produce garments by using mesh
system and
also can print ornaments for traditional textile. Moreover, the application of 3D printing
technology not limited to the fashion industry, but also can print leather goods and
accessories.
For instances, jewellery, watchmaking, accessories and so on. The retailers and
designers
believe the purpose of creating fashion products by using 3D printing technology is not
to
17 |P a g e3D Printing Technology
duplicate current products, but to improve product design by offering personalised and
unique
products to customers.

14
The advantages of the product development by using 3D printing technology are the
product is on demand custom fit and styling. At the meantime, by using 3D printing
technology,
it can reduce the supply chain cost. Lastly, 3D printing technology can create and
deliver
products in small quantities in the fast time.
4.7. Electric and Electronic Industry
As 3D printing becomes more and more accessible to sciences, technology and
manufacturing fields, the manufacturers are starting to see its potential realized in all
sorts of
interesting ways. Nowadays, various 3D printing technologies have already been used
broadly
for structural electronic devices like active electronic materials, electrode and devices
with
mass customization and adaptive design through embedding the conductors into 3D
printed
devices. The production process for the 3D electrode by utilizing the Fused Deposition
Modelling of 3D printing technique provides low-cost and a time efficient approach to
mass
producing electrode materials. Compared to commercial electrodes such as aluminium,
copper
and carbon electrodes, the design and surface area of the 3D electrode can be easily
customized
to suit a particular application.
18 |P a g e3D Printing Technology
Furthermore, 3D printing process for the 3D electrode is fully automated, with a high
degree of precision, made it possible to complete the printing process for eight 8
electrodes in
just 30 minutes. In addition, active electronic components are any electronic devices or
components capable of amplifying and controlling the flow charges of electric. Besides,
active
devices also include those that can generate power. Examples of active electronic
components
include silicon-controlled rectifiers, transistors, diodes, operational amplifiers, light-
emitting
diodes (LEDs), batteries and so on. These components normally require highly
elaborate
fabrication processes compared to those used for passive components due to their
complex
functionalities.
3D printing technology provides advantages for processing of product along with its
electronics. With multi-material printing technology, the efficiency of electronic system
may
possibly be adopted in Industry Revolution 4.0, enabling more innovative designs created in
just
one process. The development of a green electronic device with low-manufacturing cost, good
safety,

15
high reliability and rapid production, is urgently in demand to address environment pollutionsin
today’s
society.
19 |P a g e3D Printing Technology
5. Conclusion
In this review, there are rich landscape of 3D printing in manufacturing industry. At
present, 3D printing technology is beginning in the manufacturing industries, it offers
many
benefits to the people, company and government.
Therefore, more information is needed to progress on ways to enhance the adoption of
3D printing technology. The more information about 3D printing technology will help
the
company and government to upgrade and improve the infrastructure of 3D printing
technology.
20 |P a g e3D Printing Technology
21 |P a g e

16
 INTRODUCTION

High speed smart pixel arrays (SPAs) hold great promise as an enabling
technology for board-to-board interconnections in digital systems. SPAs may be
considered an extension of a class of optoelectronic components that have existed
for over a decade, that of optoelectronic integrated circuits (OEICs). The vast
majority of development in OEICs has involved the integration of electronic
receivers with optical detectors and electronic drivers with optical sources or
modulators. In addition, very little of this development has involved more than a
single optical channel. But OEICs have underpinned much of the advancement in
serial fiber links. SPAs encompass an extension of these optoelectronic
components into arrays in which each element of the array has a signal
processing capability. Thus, a SPA may be described as an array of
optoelectronic circuits for which each circuit possesses the property of signal
processing and, at a minimum, optical input or optical output (most SPAs will
have both optical input and output).

The name smart pixel is combination of two ideas, "pixel" is an image

processing term denoting a small part, or quantized fragment of an image, the
word "smart" is coined from standard electronics and reflects the presence of
logic circuits. Together they describe a myriad of devices. These smart pixels can
be almost entirely optical in nature, perhaps using the non-linear optical
properties of a material to manipulate optical data, or they can be mainly
electronic, for instance a photoreceiver coupled with some electronic switching.

Smart pixel arrays for board-to-board optical interconnects may be used

for either backplane communications or for distributed board-to-board
communications, the latter known as 3-D packaging. The former is seen as the
more near-term of the two,

17
 Figure 1
employing free-space optical beams connecting SPAs located on the ends of
printed circuit boards in place of the current state-of-the-art, multi-level electrical
interconnected boards. 3-D systems, on the other hand, are distributed board-to-
board optical interconnects, exploiting the third dimension and possibly
employing holographic interconnect elements to achieve global connectivity
(very difficult with electrical interconnects).

Most work in high speed SPAs has involved the use of either multiple-
quantum-well (MQW) modulators or vertical-cavity surface-emitting lasers
(VCSELs) as the optical source, and each of these has taken one of two
approaches, monolithic and hybrid (e.g., monolithic VCSELs/GaAs and hybrid
VCSELs/Si). The hybrid approaches are rapidly gaining popularity since they
can take advantage of mainstream silicon microelectronics for the pixel logic
circuitry, thereby leveraging the 30 billion dollar silicon semiconductor industry.

18
 LIGHT SOURCE MODULATION USING VCSELs

Figure 2

The figure shows a very simple depiction of a VCSEL showing the substrate,
layers of GaAs and AlAs that form the Bragg planes, the quantum well region
where gain occurs, the p and n doped regions that make the p.n. diode junction

In a discussion of light source modulated smart pixels, it is necessary to

understand the devices that produce the light. The Vertical Cavity Surface
Emitting Laser (VCSEL) is a very important and useful light source.

VCSELS utilize a quantum well structure to confine charges to an active

region much like edge emitting lasers. The main difference between VCSELS
and other semiconductor lasers is the vertical structure. Most semiconductor
lasers are planar and emit out of the edge facet on all sides. This configuration
allows more active region than in VCSELS. The vertical lasers are constructed

19
from the same planar epitaxy method as the edge emitting lasers, then etch back
is used to produce a cylindrical structure. Because the light spends a relatively
small amount of time in the gain region, it is necessary to optimize the cavity.
Layers are grown such that they form Bragg planes so that light with the desired
wavelength is preferentially propagated. This structure is illustrated in figure.
The VCSEL is crucial to smart pixel applications because of the ability of
VCSELS to form two dimensional arrays. They are constructed out of material
that is convenient for fabrication of photodetectors and in some cases logic, so,
devices like VCSELS and FCSELS can be utilized in monolithic smart pixels.

The VCSEL/Si Smart Pixel Arrays

The VCSEL-based SPAs that will be discussed are hybrid components

involving GaAs optoelectronic chips and Si electronic chips. Creating a hybrid
Si/GaAs structure involves epitaxially growing GaAs on Si or bonding the two
together. Although the former is likely to lead to faster SPAs, it has proven to be
a low yield process because of the large lattice mismatch that exists between
GaAs and Si, leading to unacceptable GaAs defect levels for fabricating laser
diodes. One way to combine the GaAs and Si chips is to mount both onto a
common base substrate which can support electrical microstrips between the two
chips.

The conventional way of doing this is to bond both to the base substrate
with their device sides up and then to electrically connect them by wire bonding
both chips to the microstrips and their associated bonding pads on the base
substrate. For large array sizes, an unrealistic amount of space on the chips and
on the base substrate will be devoted to bonding pads, and the length of the
electrical connections between the chips will defeat much, if not all, of the
advantage of the optical interconnects. Borrowing a technique from the emerging
technology of multi-chip module (MCM) fabrication, the chips can be placed
20
device-side down (called flip-chip) and bump bonded to the carrier. Bump
bonding has the distinct advantage that chip connections can be made anywhere
on the surface of the chip rather than being confined to the chip's periphery as is
the case for wire bonding. This most often leads to a shortening of interconnect
lengths, thereby enabling higher speed operation. Furthermore, bump bonding
can establish all chip connections in parallel, thus reducing production time for
large arrays. Flip-chip bonding of the optoelectronic chip to the base substrate
leads to an important constraint on this substrate. Since the optical sources now
face the substrate, it must be transparent to permit the optical beams to pass
through to the outside of the hybrid structure.

Figure 3.

Glass is the material that can be used due to cost considerations, but the
superior thermal properties of sapphire make it very appealing from all but the
cost viewpoint. A packaged SPA based on the flip-chip bonding of both the
VCSEL array and the electronic array (containing the detectors, processing
elements and laser drivers) to a transparent base substrate is shown in figure 3. A
hole is drilled in the well of a conventional ceramic package to allow passage of
both the incoming and outgoing light beams. Note that the transparent substrate
provides a convenient base on which to mount both refractive and diffractive

21
optical devices. Although only shown in the path of the outgoing beams, such
beam forming and directing devices could be used in the path of the incoming
beams also (e.g., to focus the beams onto the detectors).

SMART PIXEL ARRAY COMPONENTS

The VCSEL chip contains an 8x8 array of top-emitting VCSELs with a

250 µm pitch grown on a GaAs substrate. Each VCSEL consists of a single
quantum well active region surrounded by distributed Bragg reflectors, and has
been ion implanted for current confinement in the active region. The threshold
currents of the VCSELs are between 2.5 and 3.0 mA, the operating currents are
less than 8 mA at 2 V, and the output powers are approximately 1 mW. 90 µm
square bonding pads for attachment of the flip-chip bonds are evenly interspersed
amongst the VCSELs, each pad located a distance of 125 µm (center-to-center)
from its associated laser element. The silicon (CMOS) chip contains an 8x8
processing element (PE) array, an 8x8 photoreceiver array, an 8x8 VCSEL driver
array, and a 9x15 bonding pad array. Details of the three 8x8 arrays are given in
the following paragraphs.

Figure 4.

22
 Each PE is a 1-bit wide processor that can operate at 20 MHz and consists
of an arithmetic logic unit, a logic circuit which can perform 16 logic functions, a
full adder, a 32-bit shift-register, 6 static registers, and some control circuits.
Although the PEs are capable of general purpose processing, they were designed
with FFT processing in mind. The PEs are electrically connected to their nearest
neighbors to facilitate localized processing. Each PE also has 4 Kbits of RAM
memory that is located off-chip due to on-chip space restrictions. The chip was
fabricated through MOSIS using the 2 µm CMOS process.

Each photoreceiver consists of a p-n junction photodiode, a current mirror

amplifier, and two voltage comparators. The first comparator converts the current
signal to a voltage signal, while the second comparator is used to boost the
voltage to 5 volts when the incident optical signal is modulated higher than 10
MHz. The photoreceiver can respond to an incident optical power of 100 µW at
14 MHz modulation. Each VCSEL driver consists of two logic inverters and a
pass gate, and can operate at 20 MHz. The drive current passing through the gate
and on to the VCSEL can be varied by adjusting the gate voltage, thereby
affording an independent current adjustment for each VCSEL. The circuit was
designed so as not to dissipate power in the OFF state.
The transparent substrate that is used is glass, as opposed to sapphire, due to cost
considerations and the lack of severe thermal dissipation requirements at array
sizes of only 8x8. Sapphire may need to replace glass for large size arrays. The
transparent substrate is patterned with the electrical interconnects that provide
connectivity between the chips and the package and between the VCSEL and
CMOS chips themselves. The thickness of the substrate was selected so as to
position the microlenses (lenslet array) at the correct focal length.
The lenslet array is a standard product of Nippon Sheet Glass. Its purpose is to
collimate the VCSEL beams prior to their diffraction by the holographic optical
interconnect element (HOIE). The center-to-center spacing of the microlenses in

23
the array is 250 µm to match the pitch of the VCSEL array.
The holographic optical interconnect element (HOIE) contains 64 individual
phase holograms (one per VCSEL) that diffract the VCSEL beams so as to
implement a non-separable perfect shuffle interconnection between two identical
SPAs). The HOIE was custom designed as a four-level diffractive optical
element using special CAD tools.

SPA PACKAGING

Thermosonic flip-chip bonding to mount both the VCSEL chip and the
CMOS chip to the glass substrate. The principles of thermosonic flip-chip
bonding are the same as those for conventional ultrasonic wire bonding except
that all of the bonds must be made simultaneously. This new flip-chip technique
was developed in place of the conventional techniques used in multi-chip module
(MCM) fabrication because of the different environment that exists in working
with optoelectronic chips. For example, solder reflow involves "dirty" processes
such as solder deposition and flux during reflow, and it is very difficult to deposit
solder on a chip once it has been diced. Also, the aluminum pads usually found
on CMOS chips are incompatible with most solder technologies used in MCM
fabrication. Conductive epoxy attachment is not feasible since the conductive
particles interfere with the optical paths. Finally, thermocompression bonding
involves higher temperatures and pressures, which could possibly damage the
mechanical stress sensitive VCSEL chip. Thermosonic bonding uses ultrasonic
energy to help "soften" the bonding material, thereby achieving bonding at lower
temperature and pressure than thermo-compression bonding. For the fabrication
of our smart pixel arrays, the VCSEL chips are flip-chip bonded to the base
substrates by first plating gold bumps (30 µm diameter by 20 µm high) onto the
gold surface contact pads of the VCSEL array. These plated contacts are then
accurately positioned relative to the contacts on the substrate. The parts are then
joined by a combination of heat, normal force, and ultrasonic energy.
24
Since the CMOS chips are received already diced, plating the bumps is not
feasible. Gold balls are bonded to the aluminum contacts by a conventional wire
bonding process, and the wires are subsequently removed. The remainder of the
bonding process is the same as for the VCSEL chips.
The glass substrates with their bonded CMOS and VCSEL chips are then
mounted in ceramic packages which have had holes drilled in their bottoms in
order to provide optical access to and from the photodetectors and VCSELs,
respectively, The package is then closed by adding the heat-sink/ground-plate (in
contact with the back-side of the VCSEL chip through a thermally conducting
grease). After closure, the lenslet arrays are glued to the exposed side of the
substrate (opposite side from the bonded chips), and the hologram arrays are
glued to the top of the lenslet arrays.

Figure 5

The figure is of one of SPAs as viewed through the hole in the ceramic
package. The small square is the 8x8 VCSEL array, and the large rectangle is the
CMOS chip (top sides of both chips visible through the glass substrate). Intra-
package electrical interconnect traces on the glass are also visible. This picture
was taken before the lenslet and hologram arrays were added.

25
 OPTOELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION

Figure 6

Applications requiring the communication of digital data on the order of a

trillion bits per second (terabits/second) will require the high rates achievable
with optical channels. There are two applications that are driving current
developments in free-space optical interconnection: telecommunication-
datacommunication switching networks (e.g., ATM switches) and fine-grained
parallel computers. For the former, customer access to multimedia is projected to
require the switching of hundreds of thousands of subscriber lines, each running
at over 500 Mb/s. This results in throughputs that are three to four orders of
magnitude beyond the capacity of existing telecommunication networks, and one
to two orders of magnitude beyond the projections for current electrical
interconnect technology. In the case of fine-grained parallel computers, the need
for tight coupling between tens of thousands of processing elements, each
running near Gb/s data rates, also exceeds the projected capabilities of electrical
interconnects.

An example of a fine-grained parallel system is illustrated in figure 6.

This real-time graphics engine was designed to handle 1280x1024 pixels at 10
26
samples/pixel with 48 bits per sample for operation at 30 frames/second.
Although such a performance sounds impressive, it falls more than two orders of
magnitude short of rendering the number of polygons per second needed for true
realism in most virtual reality applications. The desirable bandwidth would
accommodate 1800x1100 pixels (HDTV) at 16 samples/pixel with 256
bits/sample for operation at 72 frames/second. This requires a board-to-board
throughput of 580 Gbits/second, well in excess of the Semiconductor Industry
Association (SIA) roadmap projection of a 100 Gbit/second throughput for a
256-bit wide bus by the year 2010. Many of these datacommunication switching
network and parallel computer applications involve multiple boards with very
high interboard throughput rates. As noted, the system above could use 580
Gbits/second. Over a bus 256 bits wide, this would require each line rate to be in
excess of 2 Gbits/second. If the 128x128 SIMD array were to be replaced by a
128x128 smart pixel array (same functionality but optical I/O associated with
each pixel), the line rate would have to be only 35.4 Mbits/second, a very
reasonable rate.

Figure 7

The backplane of the figure 6 would be replaced by what is called a 3-D

system as illustrated in figure 7 in which the board-to-board interconnects are
light beams that fill much of the area vertical to the boards. The 3-D system that
is assembled for FFT processing consists of just two smart pixel arrays, but the

27
optical interconnects are bi-directional so that data are passed back and forth
between the SPAs. The system's 128 PEs run at a 10 MHz clock, yielding an
interconnect throughput of 160 MBytes/sec. Control of the 3-D computer is
performed by a host computer through the host interface unit. Software and data
are down-loaded to the interface at run time, and results are retrieved after
completion.

Figure 8.

The 3-D computer is designed to operate in the Single-Instruction stream,

Multiple-Data stream (SIMD) mode. Separate data are loaded into the local
memory of each processor. A single instruction bus, driven by a sequencer in the
host interface, simultaneously controls all the processors. Although the system is
capable of general purpose processing, it was designed for FFT processing. With
this in mind, the holograms were designed to implement the non-separable
perfect shuffle. Details of the optics for the system are shown in figure 9. The
laser beam from each VCSEL is first collimated by a microlens and then directed
to a designated photodetector on the opposing SPA by a Fourier-transform type
computer generated hologram and a Fourier transform lens. The system is
symmetrical around the Fourier transform lens.

28
 Figure 9.

Although microlenses and holograms could be used with the

photodetectors to help focus the light, but not use them in this demonstration.
Instead, it was fabricated relatively large photodetectors (175 µm square). Tools
were developed for optical system design and optical crosstalk estimation. The
crosstalk estimation for the FFT processor is only 30db.

OPTOMECHANICS

A unique optomechanical structure is fabricated featuring a portable and

modular design concept. The custom optomechanical system allows and aids
various optical tests and precision alignment of the 3-D system, and it allows for
the replacement of malfunctioning SPAs. It was designed to decouple the
alignment procedures of all motion parameters (x,y,z,[alpha],[beta],[phi]) as
much as possible.

29
 Figure 10.

There are three system modules that are integrated and aligned by the
optomechanics: the Fourier transform lens and the two SPAs. The lens is held
tightly by the ring and lens housing. The lens housing is screwed into the inner
cylinder at an appropriate "z" position so that the focal length of the lens falls on
to the detector plane. In a similar fashion, the outer cylinder is installed. This
assembly forms the lens module with a defined "z" position for location of the
two SPA substrates. This lens module is then integrated with the two SPAs
through connection plates which are glued to the ceramic packages of the SPAs
and through the lens module connectors as shown in the figure. The modules are
glued following an active alignment procedure that will not be described here.
This optomechanics has a volume of less than 12 cm3

30
 FUTURE DIRECTIONS

The major goals will be to achieve more compact packaging and to scale
the SPAs to larger array dimensions. The former not only leads to smaller
components, but shortens electrical connections within the SPA, thereby leading
to higher potential speeds. It also supports the second goal since scaling can lead
to excessively long electrical connections within the SPA for the current
packaging methodology.

More compact VCSEL/Si smart pixel arrays

Future development will enable tighter coupling between the VCSEL and
the Si chips than is possible with the transparent substrate scheme currently used.
If the VCSEL chip is made to emit light in the opposite direction (i.e., in the
direction of its substrate), it becomes possible to flip-chip this chip directly onto
the Si chip, thereby minimizing the length of the electrical connections between
the processing elements and the VCSELs (the two device surfaces are now facing
one another). This is necessary if large-dimension high-speed (GHz) SPAs are to
be realized. Since high-speed operation also necessitates a higher performance
photodetector array than is possible in CMOS, it will be necessary to bond this
photodetector array as well as the VCSEL array to the CMOS chip. The figure 11
illustrates such a smart pixel array. There are at least three possible ways to
realize backside-emitting VCSEL arrays. First, the VCSELs can be made to emit
in the wavelength region in which GaAs is transparent. This is the case for
wavelengths longer than approximately 940 nanometers (nm) (most VCSELs are
now being fabricated for wavelengths in the region of 830 to 840 nm). Second,
the common wavelength VCSELs (830-840 nm) may be able to be grown on a
substrate that is transparent at those wavelengths. Third, following the flip-chip

31
bonding process, it may be possible to either remove or sufficiently thin the
GaAs substrate to prevent significant absorption. These are all fertile areas for
research and development.

Figure 11.

Once substrate-emission VCSEL arrays are available, another problem

remains to be solved before these arrays can be flip-chip bonded to silicon chips,
that of heat removal from such a hybrid structure. Since light must exit from the
backside of the VCSEL chip, a heatsink must either be transparent (e.g., diamond
film) or must be attached to the silicon substrate and the VCSEL heat drawn to
the silicon through the bonds. Until diamond films with close to 100%
transparency are available, the latter approach is more acceptable. Initial
estimates are that an 8x8 array of bump bonds will be capable of removing
several watts of power from a VCSEL chip. At present, we are experiencing
power dissipation levels for 8x8 VCSEL arrays in excess of 2 watts, but this is
expected to decrease by at least an order of magnitude over the next few years.
However, the 2 watt figure is probably a realistic goal for SPAs since increased
efficiencies will likely be accompanied by increased array dimensions (e.g.,
32x32 arrays). Another design problem must address whether heat sinks can
adequately remove the combined heat of the VCSEL and silicon chips, including

32
the VCSEL drivers. Our silicon-based VCSEL drivers are running at 10 MHz
and dissipating about 15 milliwatts each.

The flip-chip bonding of two separate chips onto the CMOS chip still
leads to the separation of devices within each pixel. The ultimate goal is to co-
locate the VCSEL, photodetector, and logic circuitry for each pixel. This can be
accomplished by integrating each VCSEL with a photodetector and providing a
bonding pad for each. An array of these integrated VCSELs and photodetectors is
then flip-chip bonded on to the CMOS chip as shown below such that the
circuitry associated with each VCSEL/detector pair is located directly beneath
the pair on the CMOS chip.

Figure 12.

The optical input, optical output, and pixel circuitry are in a single
location, thereby minimizing the electrical connections between the three. Future
smart pixel array development should consider one other aspect of integration,
that of integrating the lenslet arrays, either with the glass substrate (original
scheme) or with the GaAs substrate (future scheme). At present, commercial
lenslet arrays are used which are poorly matched to the VCSEL beam profiles
and which are difficult to align. Smaller alignment errors will allow smaller
photodetectors, resulting in faster systems.

33
Scaling VCSEL/Si smart pixel arrays

Understanding the manufacturing cost minimization issues involved in

scaling to larger array sizes is important in meeting market place demands for
SPAs. Since smaller VCSEL arrays are more reliable and less expensive, it may
be more cost effective to partition large dimensional SPAs into smaller units. A
scaling model needs to be realized in order to characterize packaging effects on
the assembly yield. This model should provide quantitative guidelines to transfer
one system design to another. This can then provide the system designer the
option of building N x N arrays from 4 N/2 x N/2 arrays, 16 N/4 x N/4 arrays,
etc. It is critical to guide the designs of these novel SPA-based systems so as to
enhance reliability and reduce manufacturing cost. The scaling model should
predict assembly yields for different options.

34
 CONCLUSIONS

A major bottleneck in today's computing systems is the mostly serial

communications used between the processing elements and long term memory
(e.g., CDs and Zips). This bottleneck is particularly noticeable when fetching (or
writing in the case of writable media) high resolution images. If large 2-D data
fields, such as images, could be stored as a 2-D pattern of digits on a storage
media, a 2-D smart pixel array could fetch these fields in parallel blocks rather
than one or a few bits at a time. Data retrieval rates could improve by orders of
magnitude, depending on the size of the smart pixel arrays and the ability to
develop techniques for parallel error detection and correction.

Thus Smart pixels, the integration of photodetector arrays and processing

electronics on a single semiconductor chip, have been driven by its capability to
perform parallel processing of large pixelated images and in real-time reduce a
complex image into a manageable stream of signals that can be brought off-chip.

35
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. ‘Progress and prospects of long wavelength VCSELs’

Connie J. Chang-Hasnain ,University of California,
IEEE Optical Communication ,February 2003.

2. www.sandialabs.gov
3. www.Lightreading.com
4. www.Colorado.edu
5. http://physics.montana.edu
6. www.optoelectronics.com

36
 CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION 1

2. LIGHT SOURCE MODULATION USING VCSELs 3

3. THE VCSEL/Si SMART PIXEL ARRAY 4

4. SMART PIXEL ARRAY COMPONENTS 6

5. SMART PIXEL ARRAY PACKAGING 8

6. OPTOELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION 10

7. OPTOMECHANICS 13

8. FUTURE DIRECTIONS 15

9. CONCLUSIONS 19

10. BIBLIOGRAPHY 20

37
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I extend my sincere gratitude towards Prof. P. Sukumaran

Head of Department for giving us his invaluable knowledge and
wonderful technical guidance

I express my thanks to Mr. Muhammed Kutty our group

tutor and also to our staff advisor Ms. Biji Paul for their kind co-
operation and guidance for preparing and presenting this seminar.

I also thank all the other faculty members of AEI department

and my friends for their help and support.

38
 ABSTRACT

Smart pixels, the integration of photodetector arrays and processing

electronics on a single semiconductor chip, have been driven by its capability to
perform parallel processing of large pixelated images and in real-time reduce a
complex image into a manageable stream of signals that can be brought off-chip.
In recent years, optical modulators and emitters have been integrated with
photodetectors and on-chip electronics. The potential uses for smart pixels are
almost as varied as are the designs. They can be used for image processing, data
processing, communications, and that special sub-niche of communications,
computer networking. While no immediate commercial use for smart pixels has
risen to the forefront, smart pixels systems are utilizing technology developed for
a wide variety of other commercial applications. As lasers, video displays,
optoelectronics and other related technologies continue to progress, it is
inevitable that smart pixels will continue to integrate along with these
commercially successful technologies.

39
40