Unit-V Detection of Radar Signals in Noise
Unit-V Detection of Radar Signals in Noise
In this unit some aspects of the problem of detecting radar signals in the presence of noise
will be considered. Noise ultimately limits the capability of any radar. The detection of
signals in the presence of clutter is always a challenging task for the design engineers.
The frequency-response function, denoted H(f), expresses the relative amplitude and phase
of the output of a network with respect to the input when the input is a pure sinusoid.
The magnitude I H(f )I of the frequency-response function is the receiver amplitude pass
band characteristic.
Case I: If the bandwidth of the receiver pass band is wide compared with that occupied
by the signal energy, extraneous noise is introduced by the excess bandwidth which lowers
the output signal-to-noise ratio.
Case-II: On the other hand, if the receiver bandwidth is narrower than the bandwidth
occupied by the signal, the noise energy is reduced along with a considerable part of the
signal energy. The net result is again a lowered signal-to-noise ratio.
Thus there is an optimum bandwidth at which the signal-to-noise ratio is a maximum. This
is well known to the radar receiver designer. The rule of thumb quoted in pulse radar
practice is that the receiver bandwidth B should be approximately equal to the reciprocal
of the pulse width T.
As we shall see later, this is a reasonable approximation for pulse radars with conventional
Super heterodyne receivers. It is not generally valid for other waveforms, however, and is
mentioned to illustrate in a qualitative manner the effect of the receiver characteristic on
signal-to-noise ratio. The exact specification of the optimum receiver characteristic
involves the frequency-response function and the shape of the received waveform.
Narrow banding is most conveniently accomplished in the IF. The bandwidths of the
RF and mixer stages of the normal super heterodyne receiver are usually large
compared with the IF bandwidth.
Therefore the frequency-response function of the portion of the receiver included
between the antenna terminals to the output of the IF amplifier is taken to be that of the IF
amplifier alone.
The IF amplifier may be considered as a filter with gain. The response of this filter as a
function of frequency is the property of interest.
For a received waveform S(t) with a given ratio of signal energy E to noise energy No (or
noise power per hertz of bandwidth), the frequency-response function of the linear, time-
invariant filter which maximizes the output peak-signal-to-mean-noise (power) ratio is
given by
where S(f) = ∫ S(t) exp (- j2πft1) dt = voltage spectrum (Fourier transform) of input signal
S*(f) = complex conjugate of S(f)= S(-f)
t1 = fixed value of time at which signal is observed to be maximum
Ga= constant equal to maximum filter gain (generally taken to be unity)
The noise that accompanies the signal is assumed to be stationary and to have a uniform
Spectrum (white noise). It need not be Gaussian.
If the noise is not white, Eq. (7.1) may be modified and will be discussed later in this
section. The filter whose frequency-response function is given by Eqn (7.1) has been called
the North filter, the conjugate filter, or more usually the matched filter.
The frequency-response function of the matched filter is the conjugate of the spectrum of
the received waveform except for the phase shift exp ( -j2πft 1). This phase shift varies
uniformly with frequency. Its effect is to cause a constant time delay. A time delay is
necessary in the specification of the filter for reasons of physical realizability since there
can be no output from the filter until the signal is applied.
The frequency spectrum of the received signal may be written as an amplitude spectrum |
S( f ) | and a phase spectrum exp [- jФ s(f) ]. The matched filter frequency-response function
may similarly be written in terms of its amplitude and phase
spectra | H( f ) | and exp [-jФm ( f )].
Ignoring the constant Ga, substituting Eqn (7.3) and Eqn(7.4) in Eqn (7.1) for the matched
filter may then be written as
Thus the amplitude spectrum of the matched filter is same as the amplitude
spectrum of input signal.
The phase spectrum of the matched filter is the negative of phase spectrum of input signal
plus a phase shift proportional to the frequency.
Let h(t) be the impulse response of the matched filter. Therefore h(t) is the inverse
Fourier transform of H(f). by definition
It can be seen that the impulse response of matched filter is the image of the
received signal run backwards in time starting from fixed time ‘t 1’
The frequency-response function of the matched filter has been derived by a number of
authors using either the calculi of variations or the Schwartz inequality. Here we shall
derive the matched-filter frequency response function using the Schwartz inequality.
Let H(f) be the frequency response function of the matched filter. By definition the
output signal of matched filter can be written as
Where No is the input noise power per unit bandwidth. The factor ½ appears before
the integral because of limits extended from – ∞to + ∞ where No is defined for positive
values only.
Schwartz's inequality states that if P and Q are two complex functions, then
∫ P *P dx . ∫ Q *Q dx ≥ |P * Q dx |2 (7.16)
Then ∫ P *P dx = ∫ |P|2 dx
∫ Q *Q dx = ∫ |H(f)|2 df (7.21)
∫ |S(f)|2 df ≤ Rf (7.23)
No/2
From Parseral’s Theorem we have
2E ≤ Rf (7.24)
No
Rf = 2 E (7.25)
No
The output of the matched filter is not a replica of the input signal. However, from the point
of view of detecting signals in noise, preserving the shape of the signal is of no importance.
If it is necessary to preserve the shape of the input pulse rather than maximize the output
signal-to-noise ratio, some other criterion must be employed.
The output of the matched filter may be shown to be proportional to the input signal cross-
correlated with a replica of the transmitted signal, except for the time delay t 1. The cross-
correlation function R(t) of two signals y(λ) and s(λ), each of finite duration, is defined as
∞
The output yo(t) of a filter with impulse response h(t) when the input is y in(t) = s(t) + n(t) is
∞
If the filter is a matched filter, then h(λ) = s(t1 - λ) and Eq. (7.28) becomes
∞
Thus the matched filter forms the cross correlation between the received signal corrupted
by noise and a replica of the transmitted signal. The replica of the transmitted signal is
"built in” to the matched filter via the frequency-response function. If the input signal y in(t)
were the same as the signal s(t) for which the matched filter was designed (that is, the
noise is assumed negligible), the output would be the autocorrelation function. The
autocorrelation function of a rectangular pulse of width τ is a triangle whose base is of
width 2 τ.
Equation (7.29) describes the output of the matched filter as the cross correlation between
the input signal and a delayed replica of the transmitted signal. This implies that the
matched-filter receiver can be replaced by a cross-correlation receiver that performs the
same mathematical operation as shown in Fig. 7.2. The input signal y(t) is multiplied by a
delayed replica of the transmitted signal s(t - T r), and the product is passed through a low-
pass filter to perform the integration. The cross-correlation receiver of Fig. 7.2 tests for the
presence of a target at only a single time delay T r Targets at other time delays, or ranges,
might be found by varying T r. However, this requires a longer search time. The search time
can be reduced by adding parallel channels, each containing a delay line corresponding to a
particular value of Tr as
well as a multiplier and low-pass filter. In some applications it may be possible to record
the signal on some storage medium, and at a higher playback speed perform the search
sequentially with different values of T r That is, the playback speed is increased in
proportion to the number of time-delay intervals Tr, that are to be tested.
Since the cross-correlation receiver and the matched-filter receiver are equivalent
mathematically, the choice as to which one to use in a particular radar application is
determined by which is more practical to implement. The matched-filter receiver, or an
approximation, has been generally preferred in the vast majority of applications.
b.
c.
d.
b.
c.
d.
3. The amplitude spectrum of the matched filter is
a. Obtained by its frequency response
b. Negative of the amplitude spectrum of signal
c. Same as the amplitude spectrum of signal
d. Depends on phase spectrum of signal
4.The noise power per hertz of bandwidth, N0 is equal to
a.
b.
c.
d.
5. A network whose frequency response function maximizes the output peak-
single-to mean noise ratio is called a
a. Envelope Detector b. Matched Detector
c. Matched Filter d. Optimum filter
6. If the band width of the receiver passband is wide compared with that occupied by
the signal energy
a. Extraneous noise is introduced b. Noise is reduced
c. Increases the signal to noise ratio d. Frequency response is
improved
7. If the receiver bandwidth is narrower than the bandwidth occupied by the signal
a. Extraneous noise is introduced b. Noise energy is reduced
c. Increases the signal-to-noise ratio d. Frequency response is improved
8. When there is optimum bandwidth
a. Signal to noise ratio is minimum b. Signal to noise ratio is maximum
c. Noise energy is maximum d. Noise energy is reduced
9. Phase spectrum of the matched filter is
a. Inversely proportional to frequency b. Negative of the phase spectrum of signal
c. Same as the phase spectrum of signal d. Proportional to amplitude
10. The Output of the matched filter is
a. Replica of the input signal b. Proportional to input signal to noise
ratio
c. Not a replica of the input signal d. Not preserving the shape of the input signal
11. The output of the matched filter proportional to
a. Input signal
b. Input signal correlated with a replica of transmitted signal
c. Input signal correlated with a replica of transmitted signal except for time delay t 1
d. Input signal cross correlated with a replica of the transmitted signal except for the
time delay t1
12. The auto correlation function of a rectangular pulse of width τ is a [12S03]
a. Square whose base is of width T b. Triangular whose base is of width T
c. Triangular whose base is of width 2T d. Square whose base is of width 2T
13. The matched filter forms the
a. Cross correlation between transmitted signals
b. Cross correlation between signal corrupted by noise and replica of transmitted
signal
c. Correlation between signal corrupted by noise and replica of transmitted signal
d. Cross correlation between received signal corrupted by noise and a replica of the
transmitted signal
14. If the input signal y in(t) were the same as the signal s(t) for which the matched
filter was designed, the output would be the
a. Correlation function b. Cross correlation function
c. Auto correlation function d. Replica of the transmitted signal
15. When the input signal s(t) is a rectangular sine wave pulse the output peak-
signal to mean noise ratio is
a. Same as signal to noise power ratio
b. Twice the signal to noise power ratio
c. Same as average signal to noise power ratio
d. Twice the average signal to noise power ratio
16. This equation describes the output y0(t) of the matched filter as the
a. Correlation between the input signal and transmitted signal
b. Cross correlation between the input signal and a delayed replica of the
transmitted signal
c. Frequency response function d. Correlation function
17. This requires a longer search time
a. Test for presence of a target at a single time delay
b. Test for presence of targets at time delays founds by varying Tr
c. Test for target at Tr d. Test for target at (t-Tr)
18. The cross correlation receiver tests for the presence of a target at
a. Only a single time delay b. Various time delays
c. Two time delays T1 and T 2 d. Two time delays by means of the mixer
19. In cross correlation detection the input signal y(t) is multiplied by a delayed
replica of the transmitted signal s(t-Tr) and the product is passed through
a. Mixer to get integrated output b. Delay Tr
c. Lowpass filter to perform the integration
d. High pass filter to perform the differentiation
20. The matched filter receiver can be replaced by this receiver that performs the
same mathematical operation
a. Correlation receiver b. Cross correlation receiver
c. Super Hetrodyne receiver d. Non matched filter receiver
21. By adding parallel channels search time can be
a. Increased b. Reduced c. Remains constant d. Zero
22. In correlation detection mixer produces
a. Integrated output of input
b. Product of input and delayed replica of transmitted signal
c. Delayed replica of input signal
d. Delayed replica of transmitted signal
23. In proportion to the number of time delay intervals Tr that are to be tested. The
play back speed is
a. Decreased b. Increased
c. Independent of time delay d. Twice that of Tr
Radar systems
24. Cross correlation receiver and the matched filter receiver are
a. Not equivalent b. Equivalent practically
c. Equivalent mathematically d. Not equivalent mathematically
25. The frequency response function of the linear time invariant filter
a. Minimizes that output peak signal to noise ratio
b. Maximizes the output peak signal to mean noise ratio
c. Doubles the output peak signal to noise ratio
d. Minimizes the output peak signal to mean noise ratio
26. The maximum efficiency of the single tuned filter occurs for
a. Bτ = 0.4 b. Bτ = 0.6 c. Bτ = 1.37 d. Bτ = 0.72
27. For Gaussian pulse input, the maximum efficiency of the Gaussian filter occurs
for
a. Bτ = 0.44 b. Bτ = 0.67 c. Bτ = 1.37 d. Bτ = 0.72
28. The maximum efficiency of the rectangular filter occurs (when input is
rectangular pulse) for
a. Bτ = 1.37 b. Bτ = 0.72 c. Bτ = 0.44 d. Bτ = 0.67
29. In Gaussian pulse input rectangular filter loss in SNR compared with matched
filter
a. 0.49Db b. 0.85dB c. 0dB d. 0.56dB
30. For rectangular pulse input Gaussian filter have loss in SNR compared with
matched filter
a. 0.49 dB b. 0.88 dB c. 0.56 dB d. 0.5 dB
31. The loss in SNR incurred by use of the non matched filter is
a. large b. Small c. Zero d. Same as matched filter
32. If filter consists of S cascaded single tuned stages with rectangular input, loss in
SNR compared with matched filter is
a. 0.88 dB b. 0.49 dB c. 0.5 dB d. 0.9 Db
33. The loss in SNR incurred by use of these filters is small
a. Matched filters b. Non matched filters
c. Single tuned filters d. Gaussian filters
34. If filters consisting of 2 cascaded single tuned stages with rectangular pulse
input loss in SNR compared with matched filter is
a. 0.88 dB b. 0.49 dB c. 0 dB d. 0.56 dB
35. white noise matched frequency response function reduces to
a. H(f) = Ga S*(f) exp (j2πft1) b. H(f) = G a S*(f) exp (-j2πft1 )
36. The non white noise matched filter can be considered as the
a. Cascade of whitening and non whitening filters
b. Cascade of whitening and matched filters
c. Cascade of non whitening filters
d. Cascade of matched, non matched filters
37. When NWN matched filter can be considered as cascade of two filters. The first
filter is
a. Whitening filter b. Non whitening filter
c. Gaussian filter d. Matched filter
38. When noise is non white, this filter maximizes output signal to noise ratio
a. Whitening filter b. NWN Matched filter
c. Gaussian filter d. Matched filter
39. If the input power spectrum of the interfering noise is given by [N i(f)]2 the
frequency response function of the filter which maximizes the output signal to noise
ratio is
a.
b.
c.
d.
40. When the noise is non white, non white noise matched filter
a. Minimizes the output SNR b. Maximizes the output SNR
c. Doubles the output SNR d. Doubles the output SNR divided by F 0
41. For white noise the input power spectrum of the interfering noise is
a. Constant b. Zero c. Increases d. Decreases
42. The whitening filter acts to make
a. Noise spectrum is zero b. Noise spectrum uniform
c. Noise spectrum non uniform d. Finite noise spectrum
43. When NWN matched filter can be considered as cascade of two filters. The
second filter is
a. Whitening filter b. Non whitening filter
Unit-VII: Detection of Radar Signals in Noise Page 91
Radar systems
Answers
Q A Q A Q A Q A Q A Q A Q A
1 C 2 B 3 C 4 C 5 C 6 A 7 B
8 B 9 B 1 C 11 D 12 C 13 C 14 C
15 D 16 B 17 B 18 A 19 C 20 B 21 B
22 B 23 B 24 C 25 B 26 A 27 A 28 A
29 A 30 A 31 B 32 C 33 B 34 D 35 B
36 B 37 A 38 B 39 A 40 B 41 A 42 B
43 D 44 B 45 A
*****