● EXOGENIC PROCESS - A gradiational process that

EARTH SCIENCE happens on earth surface. (Ex. Weathering, erosion,

climate, and deposition.)
ROCK - is any naturally occurring solid mass or aggregate of □ DEGRADATION is the wearing down of rocks by
minerals or mineraloid material. A rock is made of quartz disintegration.
(silicon + oxygen), feldspar and biotite. □ AGGRADATION is the deposition of material by a
flow of water or wind.
MAGMA - molten rocks found inside the earth.
WEATHERING - is the physical disintegration or chemical
CRYSTALLIZATION – is a chemical solid –liquid separation alternation of rocks.
technique in which mass transfer occurs from the liquid
solution to a pure solid crystalline phase. TYPES OF WEATHERING
 PHYSICAL WEATHERING - break down and decaying of
WEATHERING – breaking down of rocks at the earth’s rocks due to weather. It does not change any chemical
surface. composition of rocks. (ex. Frost wedging)
► ABRASION - when rocks collide against each other
SEDIMENTS – particles and dissolved substances while they are transported by water, glacial ice,
wind and gravitational force. The constant collision
LITHIFICATION – compaction of sediments to solid rocks or gravitational falling of rocks causes them to
slowly break apart into progressively smaller
TYPES OF ROCKS particles.
● IGNEOUS ROCK - Forms when hit, molten rock  CHEMICAL WEATHERING - Decomposition of rocks due
crystallizes (cools down) and solidifies. to chemical change in its minerals.

□ EXTRUSIVE IGNEOUS ROCK - Form in earth surface. ► CARBONATION - When carbonic acid (forms when
Cools down quickly and resulting to rock having carbon dioxide reacts with water) reacted with
fine grained or lack of crystal growth. carbonate minerals on rock, it will simultaneously
□ INTRUSIVE IGNEOUS ROCK - Form inside the Earth. weaken it.
cools down slowly resulting in coarse grained ► HYDROLYSIS - It is a chemical process between H+
texture. and OH- found in water and minerals found in rock.
ions of water produce weak acid that softens and
● SEDIMENTARY ROCK - Formed when sediments is weaken the rocks, commonly affects igneous rock
deposited out of air, ice, wind, gravity, or water flows due to its content, silicate minerals.
carrying the particles in suspension. ► HYDRATION - a process where mineral structure in
the rock forms a weak bond with water. The
SOURCES OF SEDIMENTS process makes the mineral structure expand,
● DETRITUS - DETRITAL (debris) SEDIMENTARY creating fracture inside the rock which led to
is a rock-solid particles from weathered rocks disintegration.
that is composed of solid sediments grains. ► OXIDATION - when oxygen and water react with
● CHEMICAL SEDIMENTARY is a rock soluble iron-rich minerals and weaken the structure of the
material from chemical weathering. mineral. Resulting to a rusty reddish-orange color .
This eventually lead to rocks decaying.
● METAMORPHIC ROCK - Form when rocks are are ► SOLUTION - Solution occurs when minerals in rock
subjected to high heat, pressure and not mineral-rich dissolve directly into the water (ex. rock rich in
fluids. halite, rock salt)
□ CONTACT METAMORPHISM - formed when
magma intrudes/forces magma into existing rocks - BIOLOGICAL WEATHERING - Breaks due to living things.
changes are minor. ► Lichens, Algae and decaying plants
□ REGIONAL METAMORPHISM - formed during ► Plant roots
mountain building process with major changes. ► Organism Activity (ex. Tunneling and acid
secretion)
GEOMORPHOLOGY - Study of landform, processes and
sediments. This explains Geomorphism. (Earth’s processes) CONTINENTAL DRIFT THEORY - theory that the continents
have moved and was drifted across the ocean. The first
GEOMORPHIC PROCESS speculation is by Abraham Ortelius in 1596.
● ENDOGENIC PROCESS - Process driven by the Earth’s
internal heat that happens inside the earth. ALFRED WEGENER - A meteorologist and astronomer who
(Ex. Volcanims, earthquake and Plate tectonics) and proposed continental drift theory and super continent
deep within the earth’s core, heat is generated by active (pangaea) that breaks apart 200 million years ago.
decay of elements like uranium, thorium and potassium.
CONVECTION CURRENT - Hot materials rises while cooler
material sinks making the mantle to circulate and move the
plates above.
 ● Lateral continuity - rock strata extend outward
horizontally. They may thin at their farthest edges,
but they generally do not terminate abruptly
unless cut by a younger rock unit.
CONTINENTAL THEORY EVIDENCE
● JIGSAW PUZZLE - similarities of coastlines of South UNCONFORMITY - gaps in the geologic record that may
America and Africa. indicate episodes of crustal deformation, erosion, and sea-
● MATCHING FOSSILS - same fossil evidence in South level variations. There are three types of this:
America and Africa ● NON-CONFORMITY - The break is developed in
● ROCK TYPES AND STRUCTURE MATCH - Continuous of that it separates older metamorphic or intrusive
rock types and mountain belts in Appalachian mountain igneous rock from younger sedimentary strata.
in northeastward of North America and Caledonian ● ANGULAR UNCOMFORMITY - consists of folded
mountains in British isle and Scandinavia. sedimentary rocks that are overlain by younger,
● ANCIENT CLIMATES - Paleoclimate data that shows more flat strata.
glacial deposits in Antarctica, South America, Africa, ● DISCONFORMITY - minor irregular surface
India and Australia. separating parallel strata on the opposite side of
the surface
PLATE TECTONICS - a theory that shows the giant pieces of
crust are seemingly fit to one another. This also explains the HISTORY OF EARTH
major land formations as a result of plate movements. EON ERA PERIOD
HADEAN ~ ~
PLATE BOUNDARY - are the edges where two plates meet. ARCHEAN ~ ~
This is an imaginary lines that separate one plate from PROTEROZOIC ~ ~
another plate. CAMBRIAN
● CONVERGENT - Destructive margins. This is when ORDOVICIAN
plates collides against each other. There are 3 SILURIAN
types of convergent. (C vs. C, C vs. O and O vs O) DEVONIAN
► Subduction - process of pulling down PALEOZOIC
CARBON PENNSYLVANIAN
lithospheric plate. I MISSISSIPPIAN
FEROUS
● DIVERGENT - Constructive margins. This is when PHANEROZOIC
PERMIAN
plates move apart, resulting to upwelling of
TRIASSIC
material from mantle creating new sea floor. There
MESOZOIC JURASSIC
are 2 types of divergent. (C vs C and O vs O)
CRETACEOUS
PALEOGENE
● TRANSFORM BOUNDARY - conservative margins.
This is when two plates slide past each other. This CENOZOIC NEOGENE
creates fault lines. QUATERNARY

DATING - technique used to determine the age of rocks, HADEAN EON

minerals, fossils and artifacts. ● Chaotic period of Earth.
● RELATIVE DATING - determines the relative order ● Atmosphere reduction (methane, ammonia, carbon
of the geological formations without determining dioxide)
their accurate age. ● Start of the hydrologic cycle and the formation of the
● RELATIVE DATING - dating that uses chronological world oceans.
measurements such as calendar, radiocarbon
dates, and historical investigation to obtain the age ARCHEAN EON
of the deposit. (accurate and specific) ● Anaerobic (lack of oxygen).
● No ozone.
STRATIGRAPHY - This involves the study of rock layers. ● Photosynthetic prokaryotes (blue-green algae) emerged
Stratification of rocks occurs in sedimentary rocks as they and started releasing oxygen into the atmosphere.
build up through time which shows the historical events of ● Life forms are still limited to single-celled organisms
the Earth. without nuclei (prokaryotes) until 2.7 Ga when
eukaryotes emerged.
PRINCIPLES OF STRATIGRAPHY
● Superposition - Younger rocks are on top, older PROTEROZOIC EON
rocks are on the bottom. ● 2.5 Ga – 540 Ma
● Original horizontality - layers of sediment are ● Oxygen level reaches 3% of the atmosphere.
generally deposited in a horizontal position. ● Rise of multicellular organisms (Red algae’s ancestors)
● Cross-cutting relationship - rock is younger than ● Formation of the protective ozone layer.
any rock through which it cuts. The surrounding
rock will be older than the cutting magma. PHANEROZOIC EON
● 540 Ma – PRESENT
● Eon of “visible life.”
● Diversification of life.
● Many life are represented in fossil records.

PALEOZOIC ERA (540 – 245 Ma)

● Age of ancient life
● Dominance of marine invertebrates
● Plants colonized land by 480 Ma
● Animals colonized land by 450 Ma
● Oxygen level approaches present-day concentration
● Massive extinction at the end due to climate change and
low sea level.

MESOZOIC ERA (245 – 65 Ma)

● Age of reptiles.
● Dominance of reptiles and dinosaurs.
● Pangaea starts to break apart by 200 Ma, during the
Jurassic period.
● Early mammals (220 Ma).
● First flowering plants (130 Ma).
● Mass extinction at the end of Cretaceous (65 Ma).

CENOZOIC ERA (65 Ma – Present)

● Age of mammals.
● Radiation of modern birds.
● Early primates (60 Ma).
● Continents near present day positions (40 Ma).
● First hominids (5.2 Ma).
● Modern human (0.2 Ma).
● Global ice ages begins (2 Ma).

FOSSIL - remains or traces of once living organism and are

important inclusion in sediments and sedimentary rocks. This
is important time indicators that includes footprint, cast,
mineralized bones and shells.

► BODY FOSSILS - parts of an organism like

untouched bones, shells and leaf imprints.
► TRACE FOSSIL - refers to the burrows, cast, and
tracks that are evidence of life.
► TRACKS - animal footprints in soft sediments
► BURROWS - refers to the wood, tubes or rock
made by an animal wherein the holes are filled
with minerals.
► COPROLITES - fossils of stomach content which
shows food habit of an animal
► CASTROLITHS the stones in the stomach of the
extinct reptiles

FOSSIL ASSEMBLAGES - composed of different species

occurring together in a layer of rock. Also used in correlating
rock.

INDEX FOSSILS - represents the organism that lives with the

span of geologic time which can be used for fossils
correlation.