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Bina Agarwal
Bina Agarwal
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Feminist Studies
BINA AGARWAL
Feminist Studies 18, no. 1 (Spring 1992). ? 1992 by Feminist Studies, Inc.
119
honey, and spices.17 Although all rural households use the village
commons in some degree, for the poor they are of critical signifi-
cance given the skewedness of privatized land distribution in the
subcontinent.18 Data for the early 1980s from twelve semiarid dis-
tricts in seven Indian states indicate that for poor rural households
(the landless and those with less than two hectares dryland equi-
valent) village commons account for at least 9 percent of total in-
come, and in most cases 20 percent or more, but contribute only 1
to 4 percent of the incomes of the nonpoor (table 1). The depen-
dence of the poor is especially high for fuel and fodder: village
commons supply more than 91 percent of firewood and more than
69 percent of their grazing needs, compared with the relative self-
Table 1
Average Annual Income from Village Commons in Selected Districts of India
(1982-85)
State' and Per household annual average income from Village Commons
Districts
Andhra Pradesh
Mahbubnagar 534 17 171 1
Gujarat
Mehsana 730 16 162 1
Sabarkantha 818 21 208 1
Karataka
Mysore 649 20 170 3
Madhya Pradesh
Mandsaur 685 18 303 1
Raisen 780 26 468 4
Maharashtra
Akola 447 9 134 1
Aurangabad 584 13 163 1
Sholapur 641 20 235 2
Rajasthan
Jalore 709 21 387 2
Nagaur 831 23 438 3
Tamil Nadu
Dharmapuri 738 22 164 2
Table 2
Distribution of Privatized Village Commons in Selected Districts of India
State and VCs as Percent Percent of Percent of Per household area owned
Districts percent of decline in land to: recipients (ha)
village VC area, among:
area, 1950-84
1982-84 Poor Others Poor Others Poor Others
Before1 After2 Before After
Andhra Pradesh
Mahbubnagar 9 43 50 50 76 24 0.3 0.9 3.0 5.1
Medak 11 45 51 49 59 41 1.0 2.2 3.1 4.6
Gujarat
Banaskantha 9 49 18 82 38 62 0.8 2.0 5.4 8.8
Mehsana 11 37 20 80 36 64 1.0 1.7 8.0 9.8
Sabarkantha 12 46 28 72 55 45 0.5 1.1 7.0 9.8
Karataka
Bidar 12 41 39 61 64 36 1.0 2.0 6.4 9.2
Gulbarga 9 43 43 57 60 40 0.8 2.4 4.5 7.7
Mysore 18 32 44 56 67 33 0.9 1.9 4.1 11.6
Madhya Pradesh
Mandsaur 22 34 45 55 75 25 1.2 2.5 7.7 12.4
Raisen 23 47 42 58 68 32 1.3 2.2 6.2 9.0
Vidisha 28 32 38 62 48 52 1.3 2.5 4.9 6.8
Maharashtra
Akola 11 42 39 61 58 42 1.0 1.6 3.1 4.6
Aurangabad 15 30 30 70 42 58 1.1 2.2 6.4 6.3
Sholapur 19 26 42 58 53 47 0.7 2.2 3.4 5.6
Rajasthan
Jalore 18 37 14 86 37 63 0.3 1.7 7.2 12.5
Jodhpur 16 58 24 76 35 65 0.4 1.3 2.3 3.8
Nagaur 15 63 21 79 41 59 1.3 2.5 2.4 5.2
Tamil Nadu
Coimbatore 9 47 50 50 75 25 0.8 2.5 3.8 5.8
Dharmapuri 12 52 49 51 55 45 1.0 1.9 4.6 7.5
erated and applied and how the fruits of that application are dis-
tributed. Within the hierarchy of knowledge, that acquired via
traditional forms of interacting with nature tends to be deemed
less valuable.42 And the people who use this knowledge in their
daily lives-farmers and forest dwellers and especially women of
these communities-tend to be excluded from the institutions
which create what is seen as scientific knowledge. These boun-
daries are not inevitable. In Meiji Japan, the farmer's knowledge
and innovative skills were incorporated in the broader body of
scientific knowledge by a systematized interaction between the
farmer, the village extension worker, and the scientist. This en-
abled a two-way flow of information from the farmer to the scien-
tist and vice-versa: "Intimate knowledge of the best of traditional
farming methods was thus the starting point for agricultural
research and extension activities.43
Such attempts contrast sharply with the more typical top-down
flow of information from those deemed experts (the scientists/
professionals) to those deemed ignorant (the village users). The
problem here is only partly one of class differences. Underlying
the divide between the scientists/professionals (usually urban-
based) and the rural users of innovations (including user-innova-
tors) whose knowledge comes more from field experience than
from formal education, are also usually the divides between intel-
lectual and physical labor, between city and countryside, and be-
tween women and men.
CLASS-GENDER EFFECTS
Table 3
Time Taken and Distance Travelled for Firewood Collection
India
Chamoli (hills)
(a) Dwing }1982 5 hr/day@ over 5 km }Swaminathan
(b) Pakhi } 4 hr/day }(1984)
Gujarat (plains)
(a) Forested } once every 4 days n.a.
(b) Depleted }1980 once every 2 days 4-5 km }Nagbrahman &
(c) Severely depleted } 4-5 hr/day n.a. }Sambrani (1983)
Madhya Pradesh (plains) 1980 1-2 times/week 5 km Chand & Bezboruah (1
Kumaon (hills) 1982 3 days/week 5-7 km Folger & Dewan (1983)
Karnataka (plains) n.a. 1 hr/day 5.4 km/trip Batliwala (1983)
Garhwal (hills) n.a. 5 hr/day 10 km Agarwal (1983)
Bihar (plains) c. 1972 n.a. 1-2 km/day }Bhaduri & Surin (1980)
1980 n.a. 8-10 km/day }
Rajasthan (plains) 1988 5 hr/day (winter) 4 km personal observation
Nepal
Tinan (hills) 1978 3 hr/day n.a. Stone (1982)
Pangua (hills) late 1970s 4-5 hr/bundle n.a. Bajracharya (1983)
WDA** (lowlands)
(a) low deforestation } 1982-83 1.5 hr/day n.a. }Kumar & Hotchkiss (1988)
(b) high deforestation } 3 hr/day n.a. }
But in their choice of trees the priorities of women and men don't
always coincide-women typically prefer trees that provide fuel,
fodder, and daily needs, the men prefer commercially profitable
ones.74 Once again this points to the association between gendered
responsibility for providing a family's subsistence needs and gen-
dered responses to threats against the resources that fulfill those
needs.
Fourth, Chipko today is more than an ecology movement and
has the potential for becoming a wider movement against gender-
related inequalities. For instance, there has been large-scale mobil-
ization against male alcoholism and associated domestic violence
and wasteful expenditure. There is also a shift in self-perception. I
have seen women stand up in public meetings of the movement
and forcefully address the gathering. Many of them are also ask-
ing: Why aren't we members of the village councils?
Fifth, implicit in the movement is a holistic understanding of the
environment in general and forests in particular. The women, for
instance, have constructed a poetic dialogue illustrating the dif-
ference between their own perspective and that of the foresters.75
Foresters: What do the forests bear?
Profits, resin and timber.
Women (Chorus): What do the forests bear?
Soil, water and pure air.
Soil, water and pure air,
Sustain the earth and all she bears.
CONCLUSION
The Indian experience offers several insights and lessons. F
the processes of environmental degradation and appropriatio
natural resources by a few have specific class-gender as wel
locational implications-it is women of poor, rural househ
who are most adversely affected and who have participated
tively in ecology movements. "Women" therefore cannot be
ited (as the ecofeminist discourse has typically done) as a uni
category, even within a country, let alone across the Third W
or globally. Second, the adverse class-gender effects of these
cesses are manifest in the erosion of both the livelihood sys
and the knowledge systems on which poor rural women depe
Third, the nature and impact of these processes are rooted in
actively, on the one hand, in ideology- (in notions about dev
ment, scientific knowledge, the appropriate gender division
labor, and so on) and, on the other hand, in the economic ad
tage and political power predicated especially, but by no m
only, on property differentials between households and betw
women and men. Fourth, there is a spreading grassroots resistan
to such inequality and environmental destruction-to the
cesses, products, people, property, power, and profit-orient
that underlie them. Although the voices of this resistance ar
scattered and localized, their message is a vital one, even fro
purely growth and productivity concern and more so if our
NOTES
1. See especially Ynestra King, "Feminism and the Revolt," Heresies, no. 13, "Spec
Issue on Feminism and Ecology" (1981): 12-16, "The Ecology of Feminism and the Fem
nism of Ecology," in Healing the Wounds: The Promise of Ecofeminism, ed. Judith Pl
(Philadelphia: New Society Publishers, 1989), 18-28, "Healing the Wounds: Feminis
Ecology, and the Nature/Culture Dualism," in Reweaving the World: The Emergenc
Ecofeminism, ed. Irene Diamond and Gloria Orenstein (San Francisco: Sierra C
Books, 1990), 98-112; Ariel Kay Salleh, "Deeper Than Deep Ecology: The Eco-Femin
Connection," Environmental Ethics 16 (Winter 1984): 339-45; Carolyn Merchant,
Death of Nature: Women, Ecology, and the Scientific Revolution (San Francisco: Harpe
Row, 1980); and Susan Griffin, Women and Nature: The Roaring within Her (New Yo
Harper & Row, 1978). Also see discussions and critiques by Michael E. Zimmerm
"Feminism, Deep Ecology, and Environmental Ethics" (pp. 21-44) and Karen J. Warr
"Feminism and Ecology: Making Connections" (pp. 3-20), both in Environmental Ethic
(Spring 1987); Jim Cheney, "Ecofeminism and Deep Ecology," Environmental Ethics 9
(Summer 1987): 115-45; and Helen E. Longino's review of Merchant in Environmental
Ethics 3 (Winter 1981): 365-69.
2. King, "Ecology of Feminism," 18.
3. Sherry Ortner, "Is Male to Female As Nature Is to Culture?" in Women, Culture, and
Society, ed. Michelle Z. Rosaldo and Louise Lamphere (Stanford: Stanford University
Press, 1974), quotes on pp. 72, 73.
4. See the case studies, and especially Carol P. MacCormack's introductory essay in
Nature, Culture, and Gender, ed. Carol P. MacCormack and Marilyn Strathern (Cam-
bridge: Cambridge University Press, 1980), 13. Also see Henrietta L. Moore, Feminism
and Anthropology (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1989).
5. Salleh, 340.
6. See Merchant, 144.
7. Ibid., 2, 3.
8. For this and the previous quote see ibid., xx-xxi, xix.
9. King in "Feminism and the Revolt" (unlike in her earlier work) does mention the
necessity of such a differentiation but does not discuss how a recognition of this dif-
ference would affect her basic analysis.
10. For an illuminating discussion of the debate on essentialism and constructionism
within feminist theory, see Diane Fuss, Essentially Speaking (New York: Routledge,
1989).
11. See case studies in Nature, Culture, and Gender.
12. Vandana Shiva, Staying Alive: Women, Ecology, and Survival (London: Zed Books,
1988), quotes on pp. 39, 42.
13. Ibid., 14-15.
14. Also see the discussion by Gabrielle Dietrich, "Plea for Survival: Book Review," Eco-
nomic and Political Weekly, 18 Feb. 1989, 353-54. Apart from the religion-specificity of
the discourse on the feminine principle, an interesting example of the relationship be-
tween different religious traditions and the environment is that of sacred groves. These
groves, dedicated to local deities and sometimes spread over 100 acres, were traditional-
ly preserved by local Hindu and tribal communities and could be found in several parts
of the country. Entry into them was severely restricted and tree cutting usually forbid-
den. (See Madhav Gadgil and V.D. Vartak, "Sacred Groves of India: A Plea for Con-
tinued Conservation," Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 72, no. 2 [1975].)
These groves are now disappearing. Among the Khasi tribe of northeast India, elderly
non-Christian Khasis I spoke to identify the main cause of this destruction to be the
large-scale conversion of Khasis to Christianity which undermined traditional beliefs in
deities and so removed the main obstacle to the exploitation of these groves for personal
gain.
15. For instance, the Rig-Veda, the collection of sacred Sanskirt hymns preserved orally
for over 3,000 years, which constitutes the roots of Brahmanic Hinduism, is said to
have been traditionally inaccessible to women and untouchable castes, both of whom
were forbidden to recite the hymns on the ground that they would defile the magic
power of the words (for elaboration see Wendy O. Flaherty's Other People's Myths [New
York and London: Macmillan, 1990]). In contrast, the Bhakti movement, which began
around the sixth century, sought to establish a direct relationship between God and the
individual (without the mediation of Brahmin priests) irrespective of sex or caste and
gave rise to numerous devotional songs and poems in the vernacular languages. Many
women are associated with the movement, one of the best-known being the sixteenth-
century poet-saint, Mirabai. Today the Bhakti tradition coexists with the more ritualistic
and rigid Brahmanic tradition. In fact a significant dimension of the growing Hindu fun-
damentalism in India in recent years is precisely the attempt by some to give promi-
25. See, for instance, Jayanta Bandyopadhyay, "A Case Study of Environmental
Degradation in Karnataka." (Paper presented at a workshop on Drought and Desertifica-
tion, India International Center, 17-18 May 1986); and B.D. Dhawan, Development of
Tubewell Irrigation in India (Delhi: Agricole Publishing Academy, 1982).
26. Center for Science and Environment, The State of India's Environment: A Citizen's
Report, 1985-86 (Delhi: Center for Science and Environment, 1986).
27. See especially, Ramachandra Guha, "Forestry in British and Post-British India: A
Historical Analysis," Economic and Political Weekly, 29 Oct. 1983, 1882-96.
28. See Malini Chand and Rita Bezboruah, "Employment Opportunities for Women in
Forestry," in Community Forestry and People's Participation-Seminar Report (Ranchi Con-
sortium for Community Forestry, 20-22 Nov. 1980); and Srilata Swaminathan, "Environ-
ment: Tree versus Man," India International Center Quarterly 9, nos. 3 and 4 (1982).
29. However, the degree to which the village community acted as a cohesive group and
the extent of control it exercised over communal lands varied across undivided India: it
was much greater in the northwest than elsewhere (see B.H. Baden-Powell, The Indian
Village Community [New Haven, Conn.: HRAF Press, 1957]).
30. For a detailed discussion on these causes, see Jodha.
31. Bandyopadhyay.
32. On traditional systems of community water management see Nirmal Sengupta, "Ir-
rigation: Traditional vs. Modern," Economic and Political Weekly, Special Number
(November 1985): 1919-38; Edmund R. Leach, Pul Eliya-A Village in Ceylon: A Study of
Land Tenure and Kinship (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1967); and David
Seklar, "The New Era of Irrigation Management in India" (photocopy, Ford Foundation,
Delhi, 1981). On communal management of forests and village commons, see
Ramachandra Guha, "Scientific Forestry and Social Change in Uttarakhand" (pp.
1939-52), and Madhav Gadgil, "Towards an Ecological History of India" (pp. 1909-38),
both in Economic and Political Weekly, Special Number (November 1985); and M.
Moench, 'Turf and Forest Management in a Garhwal Hill Village," in Whose Trees?
Proprietary Dimensions of Forestry, ed. Louise Fortmann and John W. Bruce (Boulder,
Colo.: Westview Press, 1988). On firewood gathering practices, see Bina Agarwal,
"Under the Cooking Pot: The Political Economy of the Domestic Fuel Crisis in Rural
South Asia," IDS Bulletin 18, no. 1 (1987): 11-22. Firewood for domestic use in rural
households was customarily collected in the form of twigs and fallen branches, which
did not destroy the trees. Even today, 75 percent of firewood used as domestic fuel in
northern India (and 100 percent in some other areas) is in this form.
33. The preservation of sacred groves described in note 14 is one such example.
34. Also see discussion in Partha Dasgupta and Karl-Goran Maler, "The Environment
and Emerging Development Issues." (Paper presented at a conference on Environment
and Development, Wider, Helsinki, September 1990).
35. Daniel W. Bromley and Michael M. Cernea, "The Management of Common Proper-
ty Natural Resources," World Bank Discussion Paper no. 57 (Washington, D.C.: World
Bank, 1989), 25.
36. Ibid.
37. Paul Shaw, "Population, Environment, and Women: An Analytical Framework."
(Paper prepared for the United Nations Fund for Population Activities [UNFPA], Inter-
Agency Consultative Meeting, New York, 6 Mar. 1989), 7.
38. Mark Rosenzweig and Kenneth I. Wolpin, "Specific Experience, Household Struc-
ture, and Intergenerational Transfers: Farm Family Land and Labor Arrangements in
Developing Countries," Quarterly Journal of Economics 100, supp. (1985): 961-87.
39. Under some large-scale irrigation works, crop yields are lower than in the period
immediately prior to the project Joshi and Agnihotri).
40. C.H. Hanumantha Rao, S.K. Ray, and K. Subbarao, Unstable Agriculture and
Drought (Delhi: Vikas Publishing, 1988).
41. Bernhard Glaeser, ed. Learning From China? Development and Environment in Third
World Countries (London: Allen & Unwin, 1987).
42. Also see Stephen A. Marglin, "Losing Touch: The Cultural Conditions of Worker
Accommodation and Resistance," in Knowledge and Power, ed. Frederique A. Marglin
and Stephen A. Marglin (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988).
43. See Bruce F. Johnston, 'The Japanese Model of Agricultural Development: Its Rele-
vance to Developing Nations," in Agriculture and Economic Growth-Japan's Experience,
ed. Kazushi Ohkawa, Bruce F. Johnston, and Hiromitsu Kaneda (Princeton: Princeton
University Press, 1969), 61.
44. For a review of issues and literature on this question, see Bina Agarwal, "Women,
Poverty, and Agricultural Growth in India," Journal of Peasant Studies 13 (July 1986):
165-220.
45. These sex ratios are particularly female-adverse in the agriculturally prosperous
northwestern regions of Punjab and Haryana where these figures are, respectively, 88
and 87 females per 100 males. For a discussion on the causes of this regional variation
see Agarwal, "Women, Poverty, and Agricultural Growth in India" and Barbara Miller,
The Endangered Sex: Neglect of Female Children in North-West India (Ithaca: Cornell
University Press, 1981).
46. Women in India rarely own land, and in most areas also have limited access to per-
sonal assets such as cash and jewelry. See Bina Agarwal, "Who Sows? Who Reaps?
Women and Land Rights in India," Journal of Peasant Studies 15 July 1988): 531-81.
47. See discussions in Agarwal, "Women, Poverty, and Agricultural Growth in India";
Bina Agarwal, "Rural Women and the High Yielding Variety Rice Technology in India,"
Economic and Political Weekly, 31 Mar. 1984, A39-A52; and Kalpana Bardhan, "Rural
Employment, Welfare, and Status: Forces of Tradition and Change in India," Economic
and Political Weekly, 25 June 1977, A34-A48; 2 July 1977, 1062-74; 9 July 1977, 1101-18.
48. See Agarwal, "Rural Women and the High Yielding Variety Rice Technology"; and
James G. Ryan and R.D. Ghodake, "Labour Market Behaviour in Rural Villages in South
India: Effects of Season, Sex, and Socio-Economic Status," Progress Report, Economic
Programme 14, International Crop Research Institute for Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT),
Hyderbad (1980).
49. See Bina Agarwal, "Women, Land, and Ideology in India," in Women, Poverty, and
Ideology: Contradictory Pressures, Uneasy Resolutions, ed. Haleh Afshar and Bina Agarwal
(London: Macmillan, 1989); and Ursula Sharma, Women, Work, and Property in North-
West India (London: Tavistock, 1980).
50. For a detailed cross-regional mapping of some of these variables in the context of
women's land rights in South Asia, see Bina Agarwal, Who Sows? Who Reaps? Gender and
Land Rights in South Asia, forthcoming (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press).
51. Quoted in Sundarlal Bahuguna, "Women's Non-violent Power in the Chipko Move-
ment," in In Search of Answers: Indian Women's Voices in "Manushi," ed. Madhu Kishwar
and Ruth Vanita (London: Zed Books, 1984), 132.
52. Personal communication, Chitra Sundaram, Danish International Development
Agency (DANIDA), Delhi, 1981.
53. Bina Agarwal, "Women and Water Resource Development," photocopy, Institute of
Economic Growth, Delhi, 1981.
54. Bahuguna.
55. Shubh Kumar and David Hotchkiss, "Consequences of Deforestation for Women's
Time Allocation, Agricultural Production, and Nutrition in Hill Areas of Nepal,"
Research Report 69 (Washington, D.C.: International Food Policy Research Institute,
1988).
56. See T. Bhaduri and V. Surin, "Community Forestry and Women Headloaders," in
Community Forestry and People's Participation Seminar Report (Ranchi Consortium for
Community Forestry, 20-22 Nov. 1980).
57. Michael Howes and M.A. Jabbar, "Rural Fuel Shortages in Bangladesh: The
Evidence from Four Villages," Discussion Paper 213 (Sussex, England: Institute of
Development Studies, 1986).
58. Agarwal, "Women and Water Resource Development."
59. Joan P. Mencher and K. Saradamoni, "Muddy Feet and Dirty Hands: Rice Produc-
tion and Female Agricultural Labour," Economic and Political Weekly, 25 Dec. 1982,
A149-A167; and United Nations Development Program, Rural Women's Participation in
Development, Evaluation Study, no. 3, UNDP, New York June 1979).