Brief April 2007

Problem-Based Learning and

Adult English Language Learners
Julie Mathews-Aydinli, Center for Adult English Language Acquisition, Center for Applied Linguistics

ing through solving real, open-ended problems to which

Background on Adult Learners
there are no fixed solutions (Ertmer, Lehman, Park, Cramer,
Adult education programs serve learners who are native & Grove, 2003). Students work alone or in groups first to
English speakers and those whose first, or native, lan- understand a particular problem and then to find possible
guage is not English. Native English speakers attend solutions to it.
adult basic education (ABE) classes to learn the skills This brief describes how problem-based learning aligns
needed to earn high school equivalency certificates or with research on second language acquisition, gives guide-
to achieve other goals related to job, family, or further lines for teachers and administrators on implementing
education. English language learners attend English as problem-based learning in classes or programs for adults
a second language (ESL) or ABE classes to improve their learning English as a second language (ESL), and outlines
oral and written skills in English and to achieve goals the benefits and challenges of a problem-based learning
similar to those of native English speakers. approach with adult English language learners.
Audience for This Brief
The Problem-Based Learning Process
This brief is written for adult ESL teachers and program
In problem-based learning classrooms, the roles and respon-
administrators, as well as educational researchers, policy­
sibilities of both teachers and learners are different from
makers, and stakeholders who work with adult English
those in more traditional types of school-based learning.
language students in ESL classes or in mixed ABE classes
Generally, in problem-based classrooms, the teacher acts as
(with native English speakers and English language
a coach for or facilitator of activities that students carry out
students).
themselves. The teacher does not simply present informa-
tion or directly control the progression of work. Instead,
Introduction the teacher provides students with appropriate problems
to work on, assists them in identifying and accessing the
Problem-based learning purposefully combines cognitive
materials and equipment necessary to solve the problems,
and metacognitive teaching and learning. It is an approach
gives necessary feedback and support during the problem-
that has been around since the late 1960s (Neufeld &
solving process, and evaluates students’ participation and
­Barrows, 1974) and engages language students in learn-
products, with the goal of helping them develop their
ing how to learn while they also learn language and con-
problem-solving as well as their language and literacy skills.
tent. Roschelle (1999) held that problem-based learning is
These activities are described below.
rooted in John Dewey’s project-based pedagogy of the early
20th century (e.g., Dewey, 1929, 1933, 1938). Within the Four steps in implementing problem-based learning
area of second language learning and teaching, problem- Many works have described the process of problem-based
based learning aligns with approaches in which students learning from the perspective of students (e.g., Albion &
learn the target language by using it, rather than being Gibson, 1998; Boud, 1985; Butler, 2003). This process gen-
presented with and then practicing predetermined lan- erally includes four main steps, which are illustrated in
guage structures. Approaches based on similar principles Figure 1 under “Process for Students”: (1) being introduced
include task-based learning (Ellis, 2003; Skehan, 1998; to the problem, (2) exploring what they do and do not know
Willis, 1996), content-based learning (Garner & Borg, 2005; about the problem, (3) generating possible solutions to the
­Rodgers, 2006), and project-based learning (Alan & Stoller, problem, and (4) considering the consequences of each
2005; Lee, 2002; Moss & Van Duzer, 1998). What makes solution and selecting the most viable solution. However,
problem-based learning unique is its core focus on learn- we have had little information about what actions each of

Center for Applied Linguistics

4646 40th Street NW
Washington, DC 20016-1859
these steps require from the teacher. What, for example, the teacher’s options after the process is complete? Figure 1
can teachers do to help introduce students to the problem also gives some guidelines to address these questions,
and explore what they know and do not know about it? developed by the author of this brief. Further details on the
What is the teacher’s role when students are generating teacher’s role as outlined in Figure 1 are then described in
possible solutions and choosing among them? What are the following section, “Considerations for Teachers.”

Process for Students Role of the Teacher

Preteach
q Make sure students understand the goals and benefits of a
problem‑based approach for language learning.
q Emphasize the importance of using English in problem-solving
activities.

Introduce Problem and Vocabulary

q Introduce students to the problem using pictures, video, texts.
q Introduce vocabulary related to the problem.
Meet the problem
q Ask students about previous personal experiences with the
problem.
q Provide prereading exercises about the problem.

Group Students, Provide Resources

q Make sure that students understand the problem and the
expectations of them.
q Emphasize that there is no single answer or solution, and that they
need to choose what appears to be the most viable solution to
Explore knowns and them and be prepared to explain why they chose that solution.
unknowns q Give students access to resources such as the Internet, books,
magazines, brochures, newspapers, television, and telephones.
q Make sure that students are aware of the range of resources
available and know how to use them.
q Group students, preferably in groups with different language
backgrounds and proficiency levels.
Generate possible solutions
Observe and Support
q Observe students and provide support as needed, but do not
attempt to direct their efforts or control their activity in solving
the problem.
Consider consequences and
choose the most viable q Observe, take notes, and provide feedback on student participation
solution in the activity and on language used during the activity.

Follow Up and Assess Progress

q Provide students with opportunities to present and share the results
of their work.
q Provide follow-up activities based on your observations; e.g.,
form‑focused instruction on grammar, pronunciation, or
pragmatic issues.
q Assess students’ participation and success in the activity.

Figure 1. Student and Teacher Roles in Problem-Based Learning


Considerations for Teachers levels might work on. Although it is teacher created, it
­mirrors the problems many refugees and other adult learn-
The teacher’s role in problem-based learning begins with
ers face when they arrive in the United States and need to
preteaching and continues through assessment of students’
support their families while learning English.
performance throughout the project. It includes the fol-
lowing steps:
Possible Problem Scenario and Question
• Preteach
You are a family of four looking for a place to live in
• Introduce the problem and the language needed to work
(name local city/area). The father has a job at (choose
on it
place) and earns (income). The mother has a job at
• Group students and provide resources
(choose place) and earns (income). You have a 14‑year-
• Observe and support
old son and a 7-year-old daughter who need to start
• Follow up and assess progress
school next week. You do not have a car. Where should
Preteach you live? To make the decision, you will need to con-
The teacher’s first responsibility is to teach students about sider information about local schools, costs of avail-
the rationale for and structure of a problem-based approach able housing, public transportation, and shopping
to language learning. For students who are accustomed to locations and prioritize your needs to make the best
more traditional, teacher-centered classrooms, it is criti- possible choice.
cal that they know they will be given direct, follow-up
instruction, but that during the problem-solving phase, the
Group students and provide resources
teacher’s role is to observe and support. Students also need
to understand that their goal is to work together to solve Teachers should group students carefully to increase their
a problem, but for the activity to benefit their language language learning opportunities in a problem-based activ-
learning, they must use only English in their groups. ity. In a multilevel class, problem-based learning provides
an opportunity to have students of different proficiency
Introduce the problem and the language needed to levels work together. If possible, teachers should group
work on it students from different language backgrounds together to
To maximize language learning outcomes, ESL teachers guarantee that students communicate in English.
need to prepare adult students for the language demands of Teachers should make available a variety of resources to
the problem-solving activity. Activities to prepare students help students work on the given problem. In the sample
vary according to their proficiency levels. (See Rhem, 1998, problem above, for example, information about local
for activities that can be done in small groups.) These may schools can be collected from the schools themselves as
include prereading or prewriting exercises, discussions to well as from Internet sites that rank public schools across
link the problem with the students’ knowledge and experi- the United States (e.g., www.greatschools.net). Classified
ences, or preteaching vocabulary and structures that will be ads on the Internet and in local newspapers can be searched
useful in finding solutions to the problem. for housing possibilities. Bus schedules and maps can usu-
For teachers, selecting problems for students to work on ally be obtained from transportation agencies or tourist
may be the most difficult part of problem-based learning. information centers, and local government offices and
Ideally, problems should public libraries are good sources for information—often
• be related to the students’ lives to increase interest and free—about local services and facilities. When providing
motivation, students with resources, teachers should make sure the
• require students to make decisions and judgments (the ­students understand how to use them and how these
problem they work on should be an actual problem, not resources may help in finding a solution to the problem.
just an information-gathering task), and Observe and support
• include a question or set of questions that are open- While the students are working in their groups—­gathering
ended and likely to generate diverse opinions. information, discussing it, considering and choosing the
Teachers might survey students for their ideas on prob- best solution for the problem—the teacher’s role is to
lems or conflicts that they face, or have faced, in their daily observe and support. Specifically, teachers should take
lives or that they are aware of in their community. Below notes on the language used, language problems encoun-
is a problem that students at the high-beginning or above tered, and individual students’ participation in the activity.


If asked, the teacher may provide linguistic or technical tion. They also need to consider how this approach can be
help to a group but should avoid directing the group’s aligned with the program’s content standards.
efforts or in any way controlling their activities to solve
Involve teachers in problem-based learning
the problem.
Administrators can provide opportunities for teachers to
Follow up and assess progress engage in problem-based learning themselves. For exam-
Teachers need to provide language-appropriate opportuni- ple, during inservice training workshops, they can present
ties for students to share the results of their work and follow- teachers with scenarios of challenges they might face in
up language activities that build on that work. Depending the classroom (e.g., multilevel classes, frequent rotation of
on the proficiency levels of the students, ­sharing their results students, lack of resources) and ask them to work on them
could include oral presentations or debates (with intermedi- together. Teachers can be given resources to explore (e.g.,
ate or advanced students), completing simple questionnaires the Internet, research articles) and work on addressing
about the process (with intermediate or high beginners), or the challenges. (See, e.g., www.public.iastate.edu/~nkerli/
creating posters that graphically display the steps taken in CI503/learning.html, a Web site that describes various
finding a solution to the problem (with beginners). Follow- adult ESL student profiles and challenges for teachers to
up activities should be based on the teacher’s observations work on.)
and notes taken during the ­problem-solving process. While
Provide training and resources for teachers
students are working to solve the problem, teachers should
In addition to holding workshops for teachers on ­problem-
try to observe whether students are experiencing difficulties
based learning, administrators might arrange a study circle
with particular ­grammar points, pronunciation, vocabulary,
for them based on a short text about problem-based learn-
reading strategies (e.g., skimming for information), or prag-
ing, such as this brief. In the study circle, teachers can
matic structures (e.g., telephone greetings, requesting infor-
read this brief and additional articles about ­­problem-based
mation, thanking). These difficulties should provide the
learning, discuss ways to use it in their classrooms, and
starting points for supplemental, focused instruction and
select problems they might introduce in their classes. (For
support. Finally, assessment should be carried out, focusing
information about conducting study circles, see Center for
on two primary areas: Teachers can assess students on the
Adult English Language Acquisition, in press; and study
basis of their participation in the activity, and the activity
circle guides from the National Center for the Study of
itself can be assessed for effectiveness.
Adult Learning and Literacy, 2005, 2006.) Two sources of
Information for Administrators possible problems to use in upper-level classes are TOEFL
Administrators can do a number of things to initiate ­problem- preparation materials and GED preparation materials, both
based learning in their program and ensure that it is success- of which include problem-based writing questions. (See,
ful. They can e.g., Cameron et al., 2002; Educational Testing ­ Service,
2006.) Sources for problems to use with beginning- and
• become informed about problem-based learning and
intermediate-level students include A Day in the Life of
consider the options for incorporating it into their pro-
the González Family (Van Duzer & Burt, 1999) and Engag-
gram’s curriculum,
ing Immigrant Seniors in Community Service and Employment
• involve teachers in problem-based learning, Programs (Senior Service America & Center for Applied Lin-
• provide training and resources for teachers, guistics, 2006).
• help teachers find resources for students to use in solv-
Help teachers identify resources
ing problems, and
• regularly evaluate the work in problem-based learning It is extremely important that administrators help teach-
classrooms. ers identify and locate resources to use for problem-based
learning in their classes. If the facilities exist for students
Determine the place of problem-based learning to access the Internet, this is a tremendous asset, although
in a program administrators should ensure that the teachers themselves
Administrators need to consider whether problem-based are comfortable using available technology. In many cases,
learning should be an overarching approach to teaching local community and government offices can offer useful
throughout the program, or should be treated as an activ- and free resources. Depending on the focus of the problems
ity to be used when desired or at specific points in instruc- used, sources such as local libraries, courthouses, Better
Business Bureaus, police departments, fire stations, schools,


community centers, local businesses, chambers of com- as a way to promote meaningful interaction in the second
merce, or transportation authorities may be able to provide language classroom. When there is a focus on real-world
text resources, guest speakers, or sites to visit—all of which issues and problems, the interactions that take place have
may serve as resources for problem-based learning. been found to be more meaningful and authentic than
interactions produced during activities such as assigned
Evaluate problem-based learning
role plays or repetition of dialogues, and the expectation
A crucial component of the process is ongoing evaluation.
is that such interactions promote second language acquisi-
However, regular evaluation should not be interpreted as
tion (Mackey, 1999; Nakahama, Tyler, & Van Lier, 2001).
an assessment of the teachers’ or students’ performances,
Because ­ problem-based learning shifts the emphasis on
but rather as a means for checking whether this approach
learning activity from teachers to students, it can also help
is meeting the students’ needs and is fitting well within
students become more autonomous learners who will trans-
the program. Administrators might use the following ques-
fer the skills learned in the classroom to their lives outside
tions to guide their evaluation of problem-based learning
of the classroom (James, 2006). For adult English language
in their programs:
learners in particular, carefully chosen problems directly
• Are students interacting with each other and sharing related to their everyday lives can be not only highly moti-
information? vating but also practical for them to work on.
• Are they working together in groups rather than relying
Challenges
on teacher guidance?
There are some challenges with problem-based learn-
• Are students speaking English?
ing. One challenge is that students who share a common
• Are all students engaged?
first language may use that language rather than English
• Is the teacher carefully observing the process and giving
when working in groups on the assigned problem. This
students meaningful feedback after the activities have
difficulty can be addressed by placing students of different
been completed?
language backgrounds in the same group. A second con-
• Is the teacher incorporating these observations into sub- cern is that problem-based learning may not be appropri-
sequent language lessons? ate for ­beginning- or literacy-level students whose English
A negative response to any of these questions may indi- oral and reading skills are minimal. One way to address
cate that students have not been given adequate informa- this concern is to place students with stronger and weaker
tion about problem-based learning and its benefits, or that language skills in the same group, thus allowing those with
the teachers have not been adequately trained. As part of weaker skills to hear the language and observe the learn-
the evaluation, administrators can also consider survey- ing strategies of the stronger students, while giving more
ing teachers and students about their experiences with proficient students opportunities to engage in interactions
and reactions to problem-based learning, and take these and negotiate meaning with their peers. Another way is
responses into consideration when deciding whether to to preteach challenging vocabulary through reading and
revise the way the approach is being used in the program. discussion. Teachers must carefully consider the problems
and activities that students are involved in to ensure that
Benefits and Challenges of Problem-Based the students with limited language and literacy understand
Learning in Second Language Acquisition and find solutions to the problems.

Benefits Teachers may face a different kind of challenge when they

allow students to negotiate meaning and solve the problem
Second language acquisition research and practice have
among themselves, without teacher intervention. Research
long recognized the value of classroom interactions—
at the Lab School in Portland, Oregon, on pair work in ESL
among learners, between learners and teachers, and
classes suggests that when teachers approach students work-
between learners and texts—for promoting language acqui-
ing in pairs, the nature of the students’ interaction changes
sition, particularly when these interactions involve nego-
(summarized in Smith, Harris, & Reder, 2005). Students may
tiation of meaning. (See Moss & Ross-Feldman, 2003, for a
stop negotiating, ask the teacher to solve their problem, or
summary of this research.) Such conclusions were reflected
start interacting with the teacher about unrelated topics.
in the major shift toward communicative approaches in
This change in interaction may keep students from trying
language teaching that began in earnest in the late 1970s
out linguistic strategies to solve the problem on their own.
(Brumfit & Johnson, 1979). More recently, some researchers
Discussing as a class why problem-solving activities are
and practitioners have turned to problem-based learning


useful for students to carry out without the teacher’s input aration for the new GED high school equivalency diploma
may help to keep both students and teachers on track. test. Piscataway, NJ: Research & Educational Association.
Center for Adult English Language Acquisition. (in press).
Conclusion
The CAELA guide for adult ESL trainers. Washington, DC:
Problem-based learning has much to offer in adult ESL Author.
instruction. As a teaching approach it has both linguistic
Dewey, J. (1929). Experience and nature. New York: Dover.
benefits, as shown in the research on the role of natural,
Dewey, J. (1933). How we think: A restatement of the relation
meaning-focused classroom interaction in language learn-
of reflective thinking to the educative process (Rev. ed.).
ing, and affective benefits in the form of raising student
­Boston: D.C. Heath.
motivation and promoting learner autonomy and transfer
of learning beyond the classroom. To achieve these bene- Dewey, J. (1938). Experience and education. New York: ­Collier
fits, teachers and administrators must ensure that students Books.
understand the principles behind problem-based learning Educational Testing Service. (2006). TOEFL sample writing
and recognize that they are participating in an effective topics. Retrieved December 22, 2006, from www.ets.org/
learning process, even if it is unfamiliar to them. Teach- Media/Tests/TOEFL/pdf/989563wt.pdf
ers need support from program administrators, from ini- Ellis, R. (2003). Task-based language learning and teaching.
tial training in how to conduct problem-based learning to Oxford: Oxford University Press.
help with making resources available to students. Finally, Ertmer, P. A., Lehman, J., Park, S. H., Cramer, J., & Grove, K.
administrators must consider the role that problem-based (2003). Barriers to teachers’ adoption and use of tech-
learning will play in their program. Will it constitute the nology in problem-based learning. Proceedings of the
primary philosophical and pedagogical thrust of the pro- Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education
gram, or will it serve as an alternative activity for teach- (AACE) Society for Information Technology and Teacher Edu-
ers to use in their classrooms? Careful consideration of cation (SITE) International Conference, 1761–1766.
these issues will increase the likelihood that problem-based Garner, M., & Borg, E. (2005). An ecological perspective on
learning will be successfully incorporated into an adult ESL content-based instruction. Journal of English for Academic
program with positive outcomes. Purposes, 4(2), 119–134.
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557–587.
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National Center for the Study of Adult Learning and Liter- Additional Resources
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Boston, MA: Author. Retrieved March 1, 2007, from Articles
http://www.ncsall.net/?id=891 Abdullah, M. H. (1998). Problem-based learning in language
National Center for the Study of Adult Learning and Literacy. instruction: A constructivist model. Bloomington, IN: ERIC
(2006). Adult student persistence. Boston, MA: Author. Clearinghouse on Reading, English, and Communica-
Retrieved March 1, 2007, from http://www.ncsall.net/ tion. Retrieved December 11, 2006, from http://www.
?id=896 ericdigests.org/1999-2/problem.htm
Neufeld, V. R., & Barrows, H. S. (1974). The McMaster phi- Esch, C. (1998). Project-based and problem-based: The same or
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Rodgers, D. M. (2006). Developing content and form: ing. Medical Education Online, 2(3). Retrieved December
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ing. Discourse Processes: A Multidisicplinary Journal, 27(2), .ca/medicine/problem-based_learning/problem-based
231–240. learninghome6.htm
Senior Service America & Center for Applied Linguistics. Web sites
(2006). Engaging immigrant seniors in community service Problem Based Learning for English as a Second ­Language
and employment programs: A guide for providers. Silver
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Spring, MD, & Washington, DC: Authors.
Skehan, P. (1998). Task-based instruction. Annual Review of
www.pblforesl.com

Applied Linguistics, 18, 268–286. Contains useful details on how to set up groups and
design problems.
Smith, C., Harris, K., & Reder, S. (2005). Applying research
findings to instruction for adult English language learners. Problem Based Learning (PBL)
Washington, DC: Center for Adult English Language http://coe.sdsu.edu/eet/articles/pbl/start.htm
Acquisition. Retrieved December 22, 2006, from http:// Gives an overview of the benefits of problem-based
www.cal.org/caela/esl_resources/briefs/research.html learning.
Van Duzer, C., & Burt, M. (1999). A day in the life of the Problem-Based Learning
González family. Washington, DC, & McHenry, IL: ­Center http://coe.sdsu.edu/eet/articles/problembl/start.htm
for Applied Linguistics and Delta Systems. Distinguishes between problem-based learning and
Willis, J. (1996). A framework for task-based learning. ­London: problem-stimulated learning. Also includes an animated
Longman. description of the roles taken by students and teachers
in a problem-based learning process.

This document was produced by the Center for Adult English Language Acquisition (CAELA) at the Center for Applied Linguistics (4646 40th Street, NW, Washington, DC 
20016, 202-362-0700) with funding from the U.S. Department of Education (ED), Office of Vocational and Adult Education (OVAE), under Contract No. ED-04-CO-0031/0001.
The opinions expressed do not necessarily reflect the positions or policies of ED. This document is in the public domain and may be reproduced without permission.
 Practitioner Toolkit for Working With
Adult English Language Learners

The Practitioner Toolkit for Working With Adult English Language Learners has been developed to lend
immediate support to adult education and family literacy instructors who are new to serving adults and
families learning English in rural, urban, community-based, and faith-based programs.

This user-friendly toolkit provides a variety of materials to help practitioners meet the language and literacy
development needs of the students they serve. It also includes some Spanish-language materials on learner
assessments and parent education.

The toolkit includes

 • Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)
 • Background information about English literacy learners and the unique challenges they face
 • Research-to-practice papers on English language and literacy learning
 • Sample “first day” intake forms, activities, assessments, and lesson plans
 • Information about assessments for English language learners
 • Information and activities for parents in English and Spanish
 • Readily accessible resources for teaching different ESL levels
 • Annotated list of assessment and instructional publications
 • Research-based strategies for meeting the literacy needs of adult English language learners

The complete toolkit can be downloaded for free from these Web sites:
OVAE www.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ovae/index.html
CAELA www.cal.org/caela
NCFL www.famlit.org

325 West Main Street, Suite 300, Louisville, KY 40202-4237 4646 40th Street NW, Washington, DC 20016-1859
502-584-1133 or 1-877-FAMLIT-1 202-362-0700

This toolkit was made possible by a grant from the Office of Vocational and Adult Education (OVAE), U.S. Department of Education, and was a
collaborative effort of the National Center for Family Literacy (NCFL) and the Center for Applied Linguistics (CAL). A limited number of toolkits
have been printed and disseminated to state adult education and family literacy directors.