UNIT - I

Q. What is journalism?
Journalism is a form of writing that tells people about things that really happened
but that they might not have known about already. It is the activity of gathering,
assessing, creating and presenting news and information. It is also the product of
these activities. The words 'journalist ‘, 'journal ‘and 'journalism ‘are derived
from the French 'journal‘, which in turn comes from the Latin term 'diurnalis‘or
'daily‘.
Journalism is the speculation and coverage of Incidents, Issues and current trends
happening in society towards a broad audience. The term connotes it’s meaning
in various senses but the actual comprehension lies in its objective to inform the
targeted audience about the issues ranging from Government and business
organizations to cultural perspectives of society like arts and entertainment. It
encompasses editing, photo journalism, documentary, etc.
Journalism can be distinguished from other activities and products by certain
identifiable characteristics and practices. These Elements not only separate
journalism from other forms of communication, they are what make it
indispensable to democratic societies. history reveals that the more democratic a
society, the more news and information it tends to have. In the contemporary
society, news media have attained major supplier of information and opinion
about public affairs.
The role and recognition of Journalism is experiencing changes because of the
increasing importance of internet. More shifts have been inclined towards E-
readers, smart phones and other electronic gadgets rather than focusing on print
media.
Journalism provides people with verified information which they can use to make
better decisions and its practices, the most important of which is a systematic
process “a discipline of verification” that journalist use to find not just the facts
but also the truth about the facts.
Journalism is the collection and editing of news for presentation through the
media, public press or academic study concerned with the collection and editing
of news, or the management of any news channel. It is any sort of writing drafted
for publication in a newspaper or magazine.
Various misconceptions:
1. It is not the medium or channel.
2. It does not require Any professional degree or training for its pure and
accurate deliverance.
3. Journalism is not bonded to any news organization.
Journalism is about telling and covering stories in an accurate and factual manner.
It is making the people understand the world around them through a
communication channel. It is more about going beyond the facts of the story to
find out the truth and present an unbiased picture. It incorporates public trust
within itself and attempts to speculate and expose the wrong-doings. It adds
meaning and strength to the facts. It is the part of the community, hence is a
universal reaction of citizenship.

Values of journalism
There are several predominant constituents of journalism that every journalist is
expected to follow:
1. The content should always be based on true facts. Truth and honesty are
the major beliefs of journalism.
2. A thorough allegiance to its citizens.
3. Everything should be verified.
4. The journalist should be independent and not obliged to anyone while
delivering the news.
5. Journalism should be an autonomous sphere without any supervision of
authority.
6. It should act as a platform for public criticism and compromise.
7. It should keep the news simple, understandable and comparative.
8. The journalist should be permitted to practice their personal conscious.

Nature of journalism
Observing the true functioning of journalism:
Journalism emphasizes on researching and covering proceedings, concerns and
tendencies. An honest and accountable journalism is the base of an autonomous
and liberal media that forms the pillar of strength in a democratic society. It has
a broader sense of understanding its activities are, not just limited to reporting.
Liaison Element:
The nature and extent of journalism has always been a contentious issue. It is the
most important connection between the public and the policy makers. It helps the
public in all the crucial matters affecting their life. It informs them about the
decision taken by the policy makers and also helps them to comprehend the
complicated issues.

Principles and Standards:

Journalism has become one of the most important fields, and the area of study in
present times. Hence it is significant for the journalist to maintain professional
ethics and standards. The instructing values that every journalist should intend to
follow are honesty in work, unbiased opinion, autonomy, consumer friendly news
coverage and respect and recognition for the rights of citizens.

Purpose of journalism
The purpose of journalism writes Bill Kovach and Tom Rosenstiel in the elements
of journalism, “is not defined by technology nor by journalist or the techniques
they employ. rather the principles and purpose of journalism are defined by
something more basic: the function that news plays in the lives of people.”
News is that part of communication that keeps us informed of the changing
events, issues and characters in the outside world. Though it may be interesting
or even entertaining, the foremost of news is as a utility to empower the informed.
The purpose of journalism is thus to provide citizens with the information they
need to make the best possible decisions about their lives, their communities, their
societies and their governments.

Objectives of journalism
Offering knowledgeable information to the public:
Many publications are interested in delivering information that is relevant to
public knowledge. Good news generally includes publishing stories that are more
informative.
Provide an honest description of news:
The media has always been alleged of delivering Biasness in news. Many
journalists hold the belief that if a publication is being lambasted for being liberal
by some and conservative by others, thus denoting two different points then it is
doing a good work. Hence every work needs to be reliable and objective in
content with accurate, balanced and informed facts.

More stress on the delivery of free speech:

The journalists have defined the freedom of speech, where they believe that no
restriction should be imposed on the free speech deliverance. The existence of
free speech and free press are necessary for journalism. It provides the journalist
the potential to criticize the government and conduct investigations.

Instigating people to action:

Journalism is a service-oriented profession as it does not involve, the provision
of raw information. Also, there is a welfare motive to improve the society
conditions.

Courage:
The major principle of journalism is objectivity that every journalist should
always strive to attain. This requires that the journalist should possess courage to
attempt to be objective. This means, the courage to be impartial and without
prejudice in delivering news.

Predicaments of journalism
Prejudiced exposure and treatment: It relate to partiality in treating the news
relating to politics, business and other spheres.

Sensationalism of news and issues: It holds the onus of sensationalizing and

exaggerating the exact information.
Discriminatory Coverage: This indicates that only partial news is delivered as
per the interest of a particular community.

Intervention policy: To sell their news and gain publicity, the journalist pursues
the public figure and overrun their solitude.

Dealing with issues related to national security: Many reporters tend to get
confused in the matters of national and security issues as what to report and to
what extent.

Obscuring the recognition of the source of information: The journalist in

speculating the news, develop their own sources of information and often
maintain an ambiguous situation over revealing the source of information.

Public decorum and morals: Different kinds of people have different cultures and
various acceptance levels hence; a journalist should keep in mind the concerns of
the communities and should demarcate the controversial issues.

Elements of journalism
In their book “The elements of journalism”, Bill Kovich and Tom Rosenstiel
identified the essential elements, principles and practices of journalism as
follows:
1. Journalisms first obligation: the truth:
a. Good decision making depends on people having reliable, accurate facts
put in a meaningful context. Journalism does not pursue truth in an
absolute or philosophical sense but in a capacity that is more down to
earth.
b. Journalistic truth is a process that begins with the professional discipline
of assembling and verifying facts. Journalist then try to convey a fair
and reliable account of their meaning, subject to further investigation.
c. Journalist should be as transparent as possible about the sources and
methods so audiences can make their own assessment of the
information. Even in a world of expanding voices, “getting it right” is
the foundation upon which everything else is built – context,
 interpretation, comment, criticism, analysis, debate, etc. The larger
truth, overtime, emerges from this forum.
d. As citizens encounter an ever-greater flow of data, they have more need
– not less – for suppliers of information dedicated to finding and
verifying the news and putting it in context.

2. Its first loyalty is to the citizens:

a. The publisher of journalism whether a media corporation answering to
advertisers and shareholders or a blogger with his own personal beliefs
and priorities must show an ultimate allegiance to citizens. They must
strive to put the public interest and the truth above their own self-
interest or assumptions.
b. A commitment to citizens is an implied covenant with the audience and
a foundation of the journalistic business model. Journalism provided
without fear or favor is perceived to be more valuable than content from
other information sources.
c. Commitment to citizens also means that journalism should seek to
present a representative picture of constituent groups in society.

3. Its practitioners must maintain an independence from those who cover:

a. Independence is a cornerstone of reliability.
b. On one level it means not becoming seduced by sources, intimidated by
power or compromised by self-interest. On a deeper level it speaks to
an independence of spirit and then open mindedness and intellectual
curiosity that helps the journalist see beyond his/her own class,
economic status, race, ethnicity, religion, gender, ego, etc.
c. Journalistic independence is not neutrality. While editors and
commentators are not neutral, the source of their credibility is still their
accuracy, intellectual fairness and ability to inform. Journalist however
must avoid straying into arrogance, elitism, isolationism or nihilism.

4. Its essence is a discipline of verification:

a. Journalists rely on a professional discipline for verifying information.
b. While there is no standardized code, every journalist uses certain
methods to assess and test information to get it right.
c. When the concept of objectivity originally evolved, it did not imply that
journalists were free of bias. It called, rather a consistent method of
 testing information – a transparent approach to evidence – precisely so
that personal and cultural biases would not undermine the accuracy of
the work

5. It must serve as an independent monitor of power.

a. Journalism has an unusual capacity to serve as watchdogs over those
whose power and position affect citizens the most. It may also offer
voice to the voiceless. Being an independent monitor of power means
“watching over the powerful few over the society on behalf of the many
to guard against tyranny.”
b. The watchdog role is often misunderstood, even by journalists, which
means “afflict the comfortable”. Rather it sought to redefine the role of
the journalist from being passive to a more curious observer who would
search out and discover the news.
c. The watchdog role also means more than simply monitoring
government. The earliest journalist, write Bill and Tom, “firmly
established as a core principle their responsibility to examine unseen
corners of society. The world they chronicled captured the imagination
of a largely uninformed society, creating an immediate and enthusiastic
popular following.”
d. The purpose of the watchdog extends beyond simply making the
management and execution of power transparent, to making known and
understood the effects of that power.

Functions of journalism
Inform: The fundamental and foremost function is to keep its citizens informed
and abreast about latest developments in various dimensions of the globe.

Educate: Journalism also entails the duty of educating its citizens by offering
them a variety of information on varied subjects.

Interpret: Another important function is to present its citizens not only the reports
on current happenings but also their conclusion and implications.
Entertain: The profession also undertakes to keep its citizens emotionally robust
by feeding them with soft, loveable and relishing stuff.

Mold opinion: It changes public attitudes, opinions, mindsets, tastes and

preferences by informing them about new and unknown facts.

Enable decision making: Journalism abridges the gap between the policy makers
and the public. Because it is the voice of people, it carries public opinions and
sentiments to the government thereby facilitating decision making.

Agent of change: The profession is the redeemer from the oppressions of the
ruling classes. It is aimed at bringing harmony in the society. It also voices out to
bring favorable changes in the society.

Q. Who is a journalist?
“Journalist has a position that is all his own. He alone has the privilege of molding
the opinion, touching the hearts and appealing to the reason of hundreds of
thousands every day. Here is the most fascinating of all professions.” – Joseph
Pulitzer.
A journalist is one who contributes in someway to the gathering, selection and
processing of news and current affairs. He is a professional writer, who informs
and educates people about the happenings to make them aware and informed. A
journalist faces various accountabilities and responsibilities while presenting his
writings to the public. They need to pursue standard of conduct and morals in
delivering their duties regarding the working of mass media and should also
consider the effects of the medium it uses.

Roles & duties of a journalist

1. Provide citizens with accurate and reliable information that they need to
function in a free society.
2. He should keep the masses abreast of the latest development and news of
varied regions.
3. He should imbibe a never-ending search for the truth.
 4. By the virtue of the exceptional knowledge, he can vow to make people
sensitive to burning issues.
5. He should be able to meet the needs of changing times instead of waiting
to be overtaken by them.
6. Journalists make people aware of the contemporary world, where they
make the people aware of the latest news and events.
7. Journalists inform people what their governments are doing for them and
make them aware of their rights.
8. They should determine a focused awareness of ethical conduct in
journalism and professional writing.
9. They should be an expert in presenting a particular body of information is
suitable editorial, visual, ethical and technical judgements to particular
audiences.
10.They should understand the essentials of press laws and ethics.
11.They should identify sources and collect information through primary and
secondary or quantitative and qualitative research.
12.They should show sensitivity to the craft of writing through knowledge of
history and traditions.

Responsibilities of a journalist
Social responsibility:
The press is the mirror of our society. It provides the society with various
important events making them aware and informed. Thus the manner in which
the information is provided is to be provided by the journalist matters the most.
It has to be just, impartial, balanced and inspiring to lay an effective impact on
the people as common consumers of news. The journalist should also bring the
covert areas into notice. He should highlight the unresolved issues of the society
through the power of journalism, He should initiate an environment of
understanding within the society and to perpetuate the same atmosphere in a
sustained manner. Development of any society depends on the imparting of
creative and objective journalistic activities.

Professional responsibility:
A Journalist should always have a deep sense of commitment and sincerity
towards the profession. The information should be delivered to the audience in a
clear and transparent way. The presentation of information should be honest and
unbiased in character. A journalist possesses the professional responsibility to
present accurate and exact information through portraying the incidents in an
actual manner rather than with the intention of gaining publicity.

Legal responsibility:
As a journalist, one must be aware of all the legal implications, which may
generate trouble. He must not intervene or inflict to someone’s privacy or
confidentiality. He must be aware of the law of slander (harmful statement in
transitory form especially speech) and libel (by written or printed words, pictures
or in any other form). A journalist must understand their legal responsibilities
before delivering the information.

Ethical responsibility:
The journalist is entitled to follow a code of ethics, so that he does not cross his
limits and realizes the restrictions of the society. He is accounted to provide
meaningful information to the society that is very balanced rather than too
influential and objective to gain bias or sensitise the audience.

Other responsibilities:
1. Towards the Firm/Organisation: Journalists working for private sector
firms or public sector agencies are responsible to their respective firms and
organisations. They must remain loyal to their employers. They must not
give news or information to the competitors of their firms for the sake of
money, materialistic assets, or other favours. Loyalty towards one’s
organisation determines the success in that organisation.
2. Gathering News or Data: Journalists must collect the data or news from the
place/spot from where they are supposed to collect it. They should rely
more on primary data and not secondary data. The latter could be biased.
Primary data must be collected personally. People must be interviewed at
the spot of the event, accident or mishap. Possible statistics released by the
government should be taken into consideration, but the journalist must rely
on his own judgement and inquisitive mind to collect vital data.
3. Getting News and Views from the Competition: The journalist should keep
on reading newspapers or magazines of the competitors of his
firm/organisation. He would be able to get an idea about what other
journalists are doing. He should not indulge in plagiarism. He must remain
 alert to the moves of the competitors but should not offend other journalists
in the process.
4. Responsibility Towards the Reader and Society: As a news reporter, you
have a duty to provide accurate, unbiased and objective information to the
reader. A social responsibility entailing obligations towards public opinion
and society as a whole
5. the government should be taken into consideration, but the journalist must
rely on his own judgement and inquisitive mind to collect vital data.
6. Getting News and Views from the Competition: The journalist should keep
on reading newspapers or magazines of the competitors of his
firm/organization. He would be able to get an idea about what other
journalists are doing. He should not indulge in plagiarism. He must remain
alert to the moves of the competitors but should not offend other journalists
in the process.
7. Responsibility Towards the Reader and Society: As a news reporter, you
have a duty to provide accurate, unbiased and objective information to the
reader. A social responsibility entailing obligations towards public opinion
and society as a whole.

Q. Write a note the evolution and growth of print journalism in India?

Introduction
The growth and development of print journalism in India has had a chequered
history. In India journalism has been a product of struggle against the continuing
repressive measures of the British rulers over a long period of time right from the
beginning in 1780. The first Indian newspaper was published on 29 th January
1780 by James Augustus Hicky. He was deported from India till the final phases
of the freedom movement – the quit India movement, when some of the leading
papers had got their printing machines confiscated and hefty security deposits
forfeited, repeatedly for defying the repressive laws against the press.

History of newspaper in India

James Augustus Hicky published the country’s first newspaper in 1780 by the
name of The Bengal Gazette from Calcutta. The publication was also called
Calcutta General Advertiser. He is regarded as the father of Indian press. It was
a weekly publication and used to be a strong critic of the then governor general,
Warren Hastings. In the year 1789, another newspaper called the Bombay Herald
was published from Bombay. In the very next year, another newspaper called
Bombay Courier was published and ultimately merged with the Times Of India
in 1861. At that point. Newspapers were mainly carrying the news related to the
British rule. The first newspaper published in an Indian language was Samachar
Darpan. The newspaper was written in Bengali and the first issue was published
in 1818. In the same year another newspaper was published by Ganga Kishore
Bhattacharya. It was known as Bengal Gazette. On first July 1822, a Gujarati
newspaper Bombay Samachar was published from Bombay. This newspaper is
the oldest, continuously published in India. In the year 1854, the first Hindi
newspaper Samachar Subha Varshan was published. India Gazette was the rival
newspaper was the rival paper by Messink and Reed which was established in the
year 1780 as a voice against The Bengal Gazette. It enjoyed the patronage of
Warren Hastings in the form of all facilities.

Golden era in newspaper of India

In the late 18th and early 19th century no reputed journalist or newspaper emerged.
Then some merchants of Calcutta in 1818 started Calcutta chronicle and the
editor was James silk Buckingham. He had introduced a new approach to
journalism in India. He initiated clear journalistic practices and covered the
problems of local people and their lives. It was a by weekly paper consisting of 8
pages. Buckingham paper was interested in discussing the act and policies of
Bengal government, postal service, police, the military establishment and
government attitude to various matters of public interest. He criticized The policy
of sati and denounced the government’s failure to put an end to this system.
Then Raja Ram Mohan Roy, a social reformer recognized the power of
newspapers and started a Bengali newspaper Sambad kaumadi in 1818/1819 and
a Persian paper Miratul akbar in 1822. He is known as the father of Indian
journalism.
1838 – The Times of India issued its first edition as Bombay Times. Its first editor
was Frank Morris. It was one of the earliest newspapers in the country which
subscribe to Reuters News Service.
1857 – Known as the year of the emergence of journalism in India. In 1857
newspapers owned by Indians and British were divided and the government
passed the vernacular press act in 1876.
1861 – The first edition of the Times of India was published by Robert Knight.
1868 – Amrit Bazaar Patrika was started by two brothers, Shishir Kumar Ghosh
and Motilal Ghosh. This was the time when social reformers and political leaders
had started contributing to the field of journalism.
1878 – The Hindu was started in English language by G Subramanyam which
was mainly distributed in Tamil Nadu and Karela.
In newspapers many changes took place after independence. News agency
services became available on a regular basis with the press trust of India which
was started in 1946. The missionary phase of newspaper was replaced with a
professional approach. It started providing employment to the public and hence
became profit oriented. Various technological developments took place and due
to rise of literacy levels the readership of the newspapers Increased. And by
1970s, newspapers acquired the status of an industry.

Role of newspaper during freedom struggle

Journalism in India was nurtured by some of the greatest men this country has
produced – freedom fighters, social reformers, intellectuals and men of letters
who gave their best to its development and growth. The tallest stalwarts of the
freedom movement – Mahatma Gandhi, Bal Gangadhar tilak, Raja Ram Mohan
Roy, Surendranath Banerjee and Gopal Krishna Gokhale were themselves either
editors or pioneers in establishing well known newspapers.
During the British rule Indian newspaper came into existence and played an
important role in the country’s freedom struggle. Newspaper worked as
mouthpieces of the freedom struggle whether at the national or regional level. Bal
Gangadhar Tilak started Kesari and Mahratta newspaper in 1881, Mahatma
Gandhi started Young India and Harijan and Jawahar Lal Nehru started The
National Herald. From the trials of tilak in 1897 and 1908, Mahatma Gandhi in
1922, Vernacular press act of 1878, the newspapers incitement to offences act of
1908, Indian press act 1931, the press objectionable matter act of 1951 and the
newspaper price and page act of 1956 bear testimony of the suppressive and
oppressive measures taken against the Indian newspapers.

Growth and impact of print media

The role of media and particularly of print media has been augmenting day by
day. It has been serving as a vigilant watchdog of India. It has been nicknamed
as newsmonger. The power and potential of news media has seen a growth even
after the emergence of electronic media with an increase in its circulation and
readership. It plays an important role in the working of any democracy and acts
as the voice of the people.

Q. Why is journalism regarded as the fourth estate?

The fourth estate or fourth power is a political force or institution whose
influences not consistently or officially recognized. Fourth estate most commonly
refers to the new media especially print journalism or the press. The fourth estate
is the public press referred to as a collective means and encompasses
photographers, journalist, television and radio broadcasters among others. It is
generally agreed that the fourth estate has immense political and social power
given the fact that the press can be used to shape societies.
The concept of the media or press as a fourth estate stems from the belief that the
news media’s responsibility to inform the populous is essential to the healthy
functioning of the democracy. Though media and press have a persuasive
authority yet its real ability is not a secret to the world. The existence of a free,
independent and powerful media is the cornerstone of a democracy, specially of
a highly mixed society like India. The pivotal role of the media is its ability to
mobilize the thinking process of millions. Technically a democracy stands on the
pillars of legislature, executive and judiciary. But with the rise of the press and
its power to reach people, it can be considered a fourth pillar of democracy.
The impact of press on the Indian democracy and Indian constitution lays stress
at whether considering press as fourth estates is correct. It can be understood by
– firstly, by analyzing the historical evolvement of press from an ordinary means
of mass communication to an instrument of revolution in democracy. Focus
would be on the role played by the media in various fields specially in a
heterogenous society like India. Secondly, by studying the impact of press on the
judiciary and till what extent press affects the constitution of India. It analyzes
the role of media on judicial trials and presenting problems which need to be
regulated.
Journalism has been seen as a fundamental part of the fourth estate. This is the
idea that the press and mass media hold other institutions to account by reporting
on their activities thereby becoming a political force for more pluralistic
governance. A necessary attribute of the fourth estate is its independence off other
institutions specially government. Independence allows it to investigate, report
and bring to public attention the activity of other institutions – including
governments and politicians.
The strength and importance of media in a democracy is well recognized through
article 19(1a) of the Indian constitution. This provides the freedom of speech and
expression and the whole idea of the media comes under the ambit of this
provision. Blackstonian concept of freedom of press which was expressed as
early as 1769 contained 4 basic points, which still form the crux of the concept of
press freedom. They are: -
1. Liberty of the press is essential to the state.
2. No restraints should be placed on the publications.
3. It does not mean that there is press freedom for doing what is prohibited
by law.
4. Media has the right to lay their sentiments before the public but if it
publishes what is improper, mischievous or illegal it must take the
consequence of its own temerity.
The practice which has become more of a daily occurrence now is that of media
trials. Something which was started to show to the public at large the truth about
cases has now become a practice interfering dangerously with the justice delivery
system. The freedom of speech and expression is important for an effective
democracy, as in a democracy all the rights of the people are vested in the hands
of the sovereign and to put forward the use and misuse of the authorities, an
effective media is essential. Examples of media trials: Aarushi murder case,
Bennet Coleman vs union of India, etc.
Article 19(2) of the constitution provides the guidelines that when restriction on
free speech and expression can be imposed: -
1. Decency and morality: Morality and decency are debatable topics since
these have different meanings for different people. These are defined using
the utilitarian concept. Vulgarity and strong erotic language are often
treated as interchangeable with obscenity. In the judgement concerning the
movie, “The Bandit Queen” the court ruled that neither nudity nor vulgarity
can necessarily be equated with obscenity.
2. Defamation: Defamation is to hurt the fame of the person. Section 499
deals with the punishments regarding Defamation. Media is generally
surrounded by allegations of defamation. No only a person, defamation of
a deceased person is also prohibited by law.
3. Contempt of court: Contempt is another head of restriction on freedom of
expression and freedom of the press. The supreme court has upheld the
constitutionality of the contempt of court act 1952 on the grounds that the
act did not impose unreasonable restriction on the right to freedom of
speech and is saved under article 19(2). Article 361(a) of the constitution
 also deals with contempt which was inserted after the 44 th amendment act
1978.
Media make democracy to function in its true spirit. Media to operate in an ideal
democratic framework needs to be free from governmental and private control.
The role of media in India is not merely disseminating information and
entertainment. In a democracy, media has a responsibility which is deeply
associated with the socio-economic conditions. Media organizations have to be
more accountable to the general public. It should be monitored so that
professional integrity and ethical standards are not sacrificed of sensational
practices. Media has immense power to influence the minds of the people. As an
instrument of social change, economic progress and moral development, it should
uphold certain values and principles. A citizen is largely dependent on the press
for the quality, proportion and the extent of news. In disseminating news, the
press therefore acts as a representative or more appropriately as the custodian of
the public. Press freedom embodies the principle of accountability and thus
enables the press to be an instrument of democratic control. Protection and
promotion of free press strengthens democracy. Joseph Pulitzer pointed out that
‘commercialism has a legitimate place in a newspaper’. According to him,
without high ethical idols a newspaper is not only stripped of its splendid
possibilities for public service but may become a danger to the community. The
public function which belongs to the press makes it an obligation to exercise this
function with the fullest sense of responsibility.

Q. What is citizen journalism?

Citizen journalism is defined as an alternative and activist form of news gathering
and reporting that functions outside mainstream media institutions, often as a
response to shortcomings in the professional journalistic field that uses similar
journalistic practices but is driven by different objectives and idols and relies on
alternative sources of legitimacy than traditional or mainstream journalism. The
concept of citizen journalism(also known as public, participatory, democratic,
collaborative media, street, personal publishing, networked, open sourced, citizen
media, grass roots media, bottom up, hyperlocal, stand-alone, distrubuted or
guerrilla journalism) is based upon public citizens “playing an active role in the
process of collecting, reporting, analyzing and disseminating news and info”.
Courtney C. Radsch argues that this term best describes a particular form of
online or digital journalism conducted by amateurs because it underscores the
link between the practice of journalism and its relation to the political and public
sphere.
Citizen journalism is a specific form of both citizen media and user generated
content by juxtaposing the term citizen with its attendant qualities of civic
mindedness and social responsibility with that of journalism which refers to a
particular profession, the media experts describe it in different forms. New media
technology have made citizen journalism more accessible to people worldwide.
Recent advances in new media have started to have a profound political impact.
Due to the availability of technology, citizens often can report breaking news
more quickly than traditional media reporters. Citizen journalism, as a form of
alternative media, presents a “radicle challenge” to the professionalized and
institutionalized practices of the mainstream media.
The concept of citizen journalism is based on citizen who plays a dynamic role
in the process of news collecting, reporting, editing and distributing it to other
public.
Citizen journalists:
1. Are not professionals but they produce and publish news.
2. Are people outside the mainstream media organizations.
3. Are people who were audience yesterday.
4. They simply write the news from their perspective.

History
With high quality cameras and the fastest internet facilities, citizen journalism
has become easier today. But it all started with 727 citizens in South Korea being
dissatisfied with the traditional media and their reporting, the Korean
entrepreneur, Oh Yeon Ho’s declared that “everybody is a reporter” in the year
2000. Unable to bear the cost of hiring reporters for a professional news medium,
‘OhmyNews’ a news website was started. On this website any person could write
and report the news. Gradually the count of the citizen reporters and the news
started to increase and it was noted that the reporters count touched to around 50k
in 2007. Citizen journalist from around 100 countries reported. Later this practice
was brought into existence in every country which had the growth of internet.
Citizen journalism is continuing to contribute to the aspect of receiving info from
every corner of the world.

Types of citizen journalists

There are two different way where a citizen journalist can work:
1. Working on their own: Citizen journalists working on there own means is
when they create something by themselves. Instead of adding to the
existing publications they create and publish on their own. Not being
affected or influenced by the traditional media. These people publish their
works with the help of new media. The ways in which new media can be
used includes social media or creating a blog, creating a website, etc.
2. Working with news organizations: In this citizen journalist publish news
with a proper source which can be:
a. Comment on the articles published: These journalist go to a news article
published on a website and comment on the articles. This helps in
getting more attention to the article. The readers or other journalists can
also comment on the articles as well as reply to the exiting comments.
Thereby giving a new perspective to the news.
b. Crowd source: Crowd sourcing means getting sources and information
from the crowd to complete an article. The citizen journalist check facts
analyze and resend it to the news organizations.
c. Live vloging: Citizen journalist use live video blogging in case of great
or unusual happenings. It becomes a major source of the news update
when added with additional photographs or audio recording.

Advantages of citizen journalism

1. They are first hand contributors during a critical instance.
2. Offers an opportunity for talented people who are not professional.
3. It offers a good amount of space for marginalized groups.
4. It talks about the problems that mainstream media tends to ignore.
5. Low cost and easy access to a large set of audience.
6. It empowers local communities.
7. Citizen journalists speak for the betterment of their community through
coverage of various kinds of news.

Disadvantages of citizen journalism

1. They sometimes tend to work unethically.
2. It confuses the audience on what to believe as there are a lot of opinions.
3. Sometimes the news reported are not trustworthy.
4. Conflict of interests and differences in opinion
Citizen journalist have started been taken more seriously as they have started
producing news with proper fact checking and the right sources. They cover a lot
of events and critical happenings in their day-to-day life they focus more on the
issue and then disseminate the information. This rise of participation can be
associated with the creation of the internet which introduced new ways of
communicating news. Due to this shift in technology, individuals are able to
access more news and at a much faster rate. Critics of the phenomena, including
professional journalists and new organizations, claim that citizen journalism is
unregulated, too subjective, amateur and hap hazard in quality and coverage.

Q. What is penny press?

The penny press was most famous for its low price, a penny per paper. The penny
press was the term used to describe the revolutionary business tactic of producing
newspapers. It became popular with the American public because while other
papers were priced around six cents, they were able to sell their paper for just a
penny. The low price made newspapers available to more than just upper-class
citizens for the first time. The penny press is generally considered to have started
in 1833 when Benjamin H. Day started The Sun, A New York city newspaper.
The Sun was the first popular penny paper. Penny press newspapers were cheap,
tabloid styled newspapers mass produced in the United States form 1830
onwards. Mass production of inexpensive news papers became possible
following the shift from hand crafted to steam-powered printing. Famous for
costing 1 cent while other newspapers cost around six cents, penny press papers
were revolutionary in making the news accessible to middle class citizens for a
reasonable price. Benjamin Day’s newspaper analysis touched upon a class divide
in society. Many working-class people were literate but were not newspaper
customers because no one had published a newspaper targeted to them.
Newspapers also began paying more attention to the public it served. They were
quick to realize that the same information and news that interested the 6 cent
public, did not interest the penny public. The heavy dependence on advertising as
a major source of revenue was a main reason that penny press was able to sell
papers for a lower price than anyone else. Other people relied heavily on
subscription and daily sales. The quality of the materials used to produce
newspapers also decreased making the production of the newspaper itself less
expensive.
The changes made to the newspaper during the penny press era set a precedent
for the way newspapers operate today. Newspapers still rely heavily on
advertising as a main source of income. And that is also the main reason they are
still being offered at relatively low prices today. They do not have to rely on
subscriptions or daily sales to make a profit. They also pay more attention to their
surrounding communities and report of important information more diligently
and objectively.

Q. Explain yellow journalism?

Yellow journalism is the pejorative reference to journalism that features scandal-
mongering, sensationalism, jingoism, or other unethical or unprofessional
practices by news media organizations or individual journalists. It is the use of
sensational headlines rather than factual news to capture a reader’s attention in
the hope that the reader will choose one publication over its competitor. Yellow
journalism is a term first coined during the famous newspaper war between
William Randolph Hearst and Joseph Pulitzer II. Pulitzer’s paper The New York
World and Hearst’s New York Journal changed the content of newspapers adding
more sensationalized stories and increasing the use of drawings and cartoons. As
more cartoons were being published in newspapers, Pulitzer began to publish a
cartoon of his own that he titled “the yellow kid” in 1896. The cartoon was created
by R.F. Outcault and became one of the many objects fought over between Hearst
and Pulitzer during their rivalry. Hearst later took Outcault and his cartoon from
Pulitzer by offering him an outrageous salary. Pulitzer published another version
of the cartoon very similar to the yellow kid to continue competing with Hearst.
With so much competition with newspapers, the news was overromanticized and
altered to fit story ideas that publishers and editors thought would sell the most
papers and stir the most interest for the public so that newsboys could sell more
papers on street corners. They often used the yellow kid to sensationalize stories
and discredit the stories of other newspapers. The yellow kid was also used to
sway public opinion on important issues such as the Spanish American war.
Newspapers of that era did not practice the objectivity that newspapers today
strive for. Many historians believe that Hearst in particular played a major role in
American involvement with Cuba during the Spanish American war. Hearst saw
the war as a prime opportunity to boost his newspaper sales. He published articles
of brutality, cruelty and inadequate care to sway public opinion regarding
America’s involvement in the war.
The term yellow journalism is partly credited to Pulitzer’s involvement in conflict
with Hearst. Pulitzer is now famous for his award for outstanding journalistic
achievement.
Q. What is news?
News is a report of various happenings and current events. News is timely report
of facts or opinions that hold interest or importance or both for considerable
number of people. News is what a journalist thinks is important or interesting for
their audiences. According to joseph Pulitzer new is “original, distinctive,
romantic, thrilling, unique, curious, quaint, humorous, odd and apt to be talked
about.” Charles A. Dana, Editor of New York Sun defined the news as “anything
that will make people talk.” News is usually stimulating information from which
human beings derives satisfaction or stimulation. News is the account of the
events written for people who did not witness it. News has the potential to cause
destruction. News gets less informative when it is already passed on to the people
hence it becomes a perishable commodity.

Elements of news
The qualifications or elements of news have been interpreted vividly by writers.
The intrinsic features are:

Conflict (tension, surprise): Most conflicts are news worthy to some degree.
Physical conflict is considered newsworthy because it may lead to injury or
damage. Violence arouses emotions, not only in the participants but also in the
spectators and can be of enormous and immediate importance. Wars, murders and
violent strikes are conflict of a more destructive nature and always receives space
on the front page, which leaves critics to complain that newspapers devote too
much space to violence.

Progress (triumph, Achievement): In conflict, one side usually wins and the other
loses. For the routine struggles in life, not generally newsworthy in themselves,
shining successes frequently emerge. Example, new inventions from remote
laboratory, new advances in science and medicine, new devices to improve
quality of life, etc.

Q. What are news values?

News values are the concepts used in making judgements about what events are
news and what events are not news. The factors on which a news report needs to
be tested upon are:
Timeliness
It is the most common news value. It is inherent in most news stories. An event
does not constitute as news unless it has occurred fairly recently. News events
will probably have the element of timeliness but they are unlikely to contain all
of the news values. Editors and news directors must decide whether or not enough
news values are present in an event and if they are present with enough impact to
make the event a news event. To make an event a news event news must interest
enough people to make it worth printing or make it worth broadcasting. The
answers to questions like ‘when did the event happen’ often helps him to
determine whether an event, idea or problem is timely enough to interest the
public. Also timeliness varies from publication to publication.
Proximity
“nearest and dearest” so runs an old German proverb. There is some truth in it so
far the news is concerned. Emphasis on local news will varie depending on where
the incident has took place. The potential readers maybe the same, but the actual
readers are different hence have a different pattern of interest so far the nearness
of the news is concerned. Proximity is of two types physical and emotional.

Prominence
The prominence also determines the magnitude of the story. A famous personality
undertaking any usual activity takes prominence and is covered by the
newspapers while a common man doing the same thing does not usually account
for news unless they achieve something big.

Impact
Impact of an event decides its newsworthiness. It depends upon the scale of the
event where it occurred.

Usefulness
News items help the public in various ways like issuing warnings against weather,
newspapers giving contact details in case of emergencies, etc.
What is hard and soft news?
News is an account of what is happening around us. It may involve current events,
public figures, ongoing projects, issues, etc. but newspapers publish more than
just the news of the day. They also provide background analysis opinions and
human-interest stories. The most pertinent classification of news is:

❖ Hard news: Generally, refers to the news which has to be disseminated

immediately. It cannot be concealed or supressed. It has an element of
urgency in it. Leads for hard news are straight, are based on hardcore facts
and contain the answers to all or few of five W’s and one H. Hard news
has a date value. No newspaper can afford to miss it or hold it. It is a
chronicle of current event of incidents and is the most common news style
on the front page of a typical newspaper. Hard news gives readers the
information they need. Hard news reporting used clean and uncluttered
writing. It is the narration of an event in a chronological order and has a
factual approach. The major thrust of a daily newspaper is hard news. It is
published with urgency and immediacy. Hard news is considered as
primary news as it is event centred. Hard news covers serious news like
fires, accidents, murders, disasters, deaths, result of elections, outcome of
wars, natural calamities, government formation, etc.

❖ Soft news: This is a term for news that is not necessarily time sensitive.
Soft news is the lighter stuff like features, human interest stories, news of
engagements and weddings, leisure activities, entertainment, etc. The less
important happenings of the day maybe published or left out by a
newspaper depending upon the space available on different pages. Soft
news can be delayed if something more important of hard news value
comes up. Soft news doesn’t have a date value in most of the cases because
it deals with the lighter side of life.

Knowing the difference between hard and soft news helps to develop a sense of
how news is covered and what sort of stories different news media tend to publish
or broadcast. One difference between hard and soft news is the tone of
presentation. Hard news focuses on questions like how, who, where and when,
whereas soft news deals with a relaxed approach.
Q. Differentiate news, articles, features and backgrounders?
Article
❖ An article is an elaborate piece of composition written on some broad subject,
well documented and expresses the opinion of the writer who has studied the
subject in all its aspects.
❖ Unlike features, the subject of article is not very narrow, specific or minute.
The article is generally written in a sober style, and the subject matter is
treated in a scholarly manner.
❖ It is a piece of writing usually intended for publication in a newspaper
magazine or journal.
❖ It is written for a wide audience, so it is essential to attract and retain the
reader’s attention.
❖ It may include amusing stories, reported speech or description.
❖ It should give opinions and thoughts as well as facts in a formal style.
❖ It can be formal or informal depending on the target audience.
❖ An article can describe an experience, event, person and place, present and
opinion or balanced argument, compare and contrast, provide information,
offer suggestion or advice, etc.
❖ It should contain an eye-catching title which attracts the reader’s attention
and suggest the theme of the article.
❖ An article is an introduction which clearly defines the topic to be covered.
❖ An article has a main body of 2-5 paragraphs in which the topic is further
developed in detail.
❖ Before writing an article, we have to consider where the article is going to
appear; who are going to be the intended readers and what is the aim of the
article.
❖ Style, language and level of formality are the deciding factors of an article.
❖ Over personal or Overemotional language should be avoided whereas linking
words and expressions and a variety of vocabulary make an article more
attractive.

Feature
❖ Both article and feature are considered as non-news forms of writing.
❖ A feature goes much beyond the scope of the news story.
❖ A feature examines and dissects news and throws light at different aspects.
❖ It tries to explore the background, probes in-depth an idea or an event.
❖ Feature is not just a narration of facts. The purpose is to inform and entertain
and arouse curiosity, sympathy, humour and other feelings amongst the
readers.
❖ A feature writer reacts to the people, situations, events and places and
provides a colourful background and explanatory matter to his feature story.
His scope is much wider than news writing.
❖ A feature writer would probe deeper into some aspects which are not taken
care of in the news.
❖ A feature is like a window into the human experience, giving more detail and
description than a hard news story, which typically relies on the inverted
pyramid style of writing.
❖ Features focus on event or individual, giving the reader a chance to fully
understand some interesting dimension of that subject.
❖ A feature is called the hybrid of the world of journalism – it is like a report
because it’s based on facts; it is like a story because it has action and style; it
is like an advertisement because it has a sales appeal. It is an umbrella term
for a large number of soft news that adds colour, entertains or illuminates the
readers.
❖ It is generally a news recap but with lots of new information of which the
reader has been ignorant about. It gives the background to the news with
explanations, analysis and viewpoints. They are colourful pieces that deal
with real happenings, innovations, trend issues and processes or placing an
emphasis on the people involved. Feature can be written on any topic
provided it has an element of human interest.
❖ Feature stories are human interest articles that focus on particular people,
places, events or incidents.
❖ Feature stories are journalistic, researched, descriptive, colourful, thoughtful,
reflective or a thorough writing about original ideas.
❖ Feature stories cover topics in depth, going further than mere hard news
coverage by amplifying and explaining the most interesting and important
elements of a situation or occurrence.
❖ Writers of feature have the space and time to evoke imagery in their stories
and fill in details of the circumstances and the atmosphere.
❖ A feature story is not meant to report the latest breaking news but rather an
in-depth look at a subject.
❖ Feature articles range from the news feature that provides background to a
current hard news story to a relatively timeless story that has natural human
interest.
 ❖ Features are generally longer than hard news articles because it penetrates
deeper into its subjects, expanding on the details rather then trying to
concentrate on a few important key points.
❖ In a feature story the writer sometimes postpone the main point until the end,
which means that the whole story does not have to be incapsulated in the
lead.
❖ Types of features:
i. News features: Also called news follow-ups, news in-depth or news
behind news.
ii. Personality features
iii. Experience features
iv. Photo features
v. Human interest features
vi. Historical features
vii. Seasonal features
viii. Behind the scenes features

Tips to write a feature

1. Brainstorm ideas.
2. Identify the purpose.
3. Research the topic.
4. Grab the reader’s attention.
5. Keep that attention.
6. Leave an impression.
A feature should include a headline, introduction, the main body and even a
leading paragraph.

Essential of features
❖ Explain: what is happening?
❖ Expand: on a news item an official statement.
❖ Explore: ideas, new concept.
❖ Investigate: issues, social problems, scandals, etc.
❖ Describe: events large and small, places, experiences, journeys, people, etc.
❖ Entertain: with humor or colorful descriptions.
❖ Campaign: for the rights, improvement of human conditions.
❖ Comment: usually in the form of column.
News
❖ News story deals with recent and current events. It is a perishable
commodity.
❖ News story has to meet certain deadlines.
❖ Brevity is the soul of news writing. News story has not such scope for
subsidiary or background material.
❖ News is an objective and factual account of events where the reporter sticks
to facts and tries to answer, as far as possible, the six basic questions which
makes a news story.
❖ The style followed in a news writing is generally an inverted pyramid. It is
concise, terse and related to matter of facts.
❖ It is important in a news story to be able to convey all the important
information in a limited word count.

Tips for writing a news story

1. It’s about people.
2. Have an angle.
3. Keep it objective.
4. Quote people.
5. Don’t get flowery.
6. Be direct and easy to understand.

News backgrounder
❖ It is an article in which they offer the background and details on people or
events which a newspaper might carry hard news or a story about a
particular event on its front page. A backgrounder in the inner pages offers
further insight and explanation on it.
❖ A backgrounder should contain added information and concise
repercussions – How the situation or the event has affected or will effect
people and way. A backgrounder height considers similar events.

Basic guidelines for writing a backgrounder

1. Start with a concise statement on the issue, subject, or the topic of the
accompanying news story.
 2. Follow the opening statement by tracing the issue, how it came to be and
the major events leading up to it.
3. Explain the importance of the issues as of today. State its significance and
back that statement up as appropriate.
4. Present the implication of the issue.

Q. Write a short note on news sources?

In journalism, a source is a person, publication, records or documents that gives
timely information. Sources include official records, publication or broadcasts,
organizations or corporations, witnesses of crime, evidences or people involved
with a news event or issue. Sources of information can be anything which
journalists can use to put a news story together. News sources become more
important when events or issues are finished before the journalists get there and
it is not possible for him to file a news story according to his own observation.
Journalists who only report can see what they see unless they have sources to tell
them of more details or other aspects which are out of site.

Attribution & its types

Attribution is stating who made the quote or gave the information. It simply
means telling your readers where the information in your story comes from as
well as who is being quoted. Generally, attribution uses a sources full name and
job title if that is relevant. Information from sources can be paraphrased or quoted
directly but, in both cases, it should be attributed. It means to tell your readers the
name and title of the person you interviewed or document collected. There are
three levels of attribution, depending on whether your source is happy about being
publicly identified or whether they want to keep some secrecy about what they
tell you.

1. On the record: In this, people will tell the details openly and allow you to
quote their names and titles. It is always best to get information on the record.
You can remain accurate by using the exact words people say. You can also
make story seem more human by using direct quotes. On the record
comments have an extra level of understanding for people because they know
who is speaking and what was said and basically what was said.
 2. Non – Attributable: Sometimes a source will give you the info on the
understanding that you can use the information but not attribute them. This
could be done for several reasons.
3. Off the records: In this the name of the source is not revealed and that you
should not even write about what they tell you. People usually give
information of the record when they want you to understand the background
to something which is too sensitive for them to talk publicly about.

Credibility & quotations

Credibility comprises the objective and subjective components of the
believability of a source or message. Credibility has two key components:
trustworthiness and expertise. Trustworthiness is based more on subjective
factors, but can include objective measurements such as established reliability.
Expertise can be similarly subjectively perceived, but also includes relatively
objective characteristics of the source or message (e.g., credentials, certification
or information quality). Secondary components of credibility include source
dynamism (charisma) and physical attractiveness.
According to the Society of Professional Journalists code of ethics, professional
integrity is the cornerstone of a journalist's credibility. A journalist's number one
obligation is to be honest.

Quotations
A quote is the written form of the words which people have spoken. Occasionally
it will also apply to words they have been written down, perhaps in a book or a
press release. In print journalism, quotes are shown surrounded by quotation
marks, either single (‘) or double ("). These are sometimes called inverted
commas. The alternative to using a quote is to rewrite the sentence into what we
call reported speech.

Why use quotes?

There are three main reasons why you should use quotes in print journalism:
❖ If you repeat the exact words which people themselves used, you will reduce
the risk of misreporting what they say.
❖ When we give a person's exact words, our readers can see both the ideas and
the way they were presented
 ❖ People often use lively language when they speak. Quotes allow you to put
that lively language directly into your story.
Remember too that, as a journalist, you are simply the channel through which
people with something to say speak to people who want to know what they said.
The best way of keeping the channel clear is to let people tell things in their own
way. One of the golden rules of journalism is: Let people speak for themselves.
Use quotes. In print we hear people's voices through quotes, in broadcasting the
voices are heard in the form of audio or actuality.

Byline
The byline on a newspaper or magazine article gives the name of the writer of the
article. Bylines are commonly placed between the headline and the text of the
article, although some magazines place bylines at the bottom of the page to leave
more room for graphical elements around the headline.
The dictionary defines a byline as "a printed line of text accompanying a news
story, article, or the like, giving the author's name."

Credit line
The line that acknowledges the source of a news report, photograph, chart, or
graphics is called the credit line.
A news report may be credited to PTI (Press Trust of India), AP (Associated
Press) or ANI depending on which news service has moved the story.
The moment you see the credit line you know the source of the news report. The
newspapers too are able to differentiate between news reports filed by their
reporters and agency reporters.
Besides giving credit to the rightful source, the credit line also gives newspapers
a fig leaf in case a question is raised about the veracity of the report. The
newspapers can always attribute the blame to the wire service that fed the report.
This way, the credibility of the newspapers stays intact.
News Embargo
In journalism, a news embargo or press embargo is a request or requirement by a
source that the information or news provided by that source may not be published
until a certain date or certain conditions have been met.
The media is given advance knowledge of details being held secret so that reports
can be prepared to coincide with the announcement date and yet still meet press
time. In theory, press embargoes reduce inaccuracy in the reporting of breaking
stories by reducing the incentive for journalists to cut corners by writing up
information quickly in hopes of "scooping" the competition.
The understanding is that if the embargo is broken by reporting before then, the
source will retaliate by restricting access to further information by that journalist
or their publication, giving them a long-term disadvantage relative to more
cooperative outlets. Embargoes are usually arranged in advance as "gentlemen's
agreements." However, sometimes publicists will send embargoed press releases
to newsrooms unsolicited in hopes that they will respect the embargo date without
having first agreed to do so—the phrase "For Immediate Release" often found at
the top of press releases indicates that the information in the release is not
embargoed.
News organizations sometimes break embargoes and report information before
the embargo expires, either accidentally (due to miscommunication in the
newsroom) or intentionally (to get the jump on their competitors). Breaking an
embargo is typically considered a serious breach of trust and can result in the
source barring the offending news outlet from receiving advance information for
a long period of time.
News embargoes are one of several ways a source can influence media
presentation of the information they provide; others include providing
information "on background" or "not for attribution," limiting or providing
"access," or even direct government or market intervention against the reporters
or media company. The manner in which journalists react to these and other
attempts to influence coverage are a matter of journalistic ethics.

END…