PET 331: DRILLING FLUID TECHNOLOGY (3 UNITS)

Pre-requisite; PET 222 Introduction to Petroleum Engineering

Composition, Functions and Properties of drilling fluids. Mud properties testing, classification
and chemical analysis. Mud Composition;Clay chemistry, Mud benefitiation and Control of mud
properties. Drilling mud calculations.Well completion fluids. Drilling mud performance.
Laboratory Experiments
1. Determination of mud density using Mud Balance
2. Determination of Mud viscosity using
(a) Marsh funnel Viscometer
(b) Baroid Rheometer
(c) Bariod Rotary Viscometer
(d) Fann Viscometer
3. Determination of Shear or Gel Strength of Mud Using Shearometer
4. Filtration Tests with LTLP or HTHP Filter Press
5. Hydrogen -ion (pH) determination Using;
(a) Modified Calorimetric method (such as phydrion Dispenser)
(b) Electronic Methods using glass-electrode Instruments (such as the Beckman or
Analytical pH meter)
6. Determination of the Sand Content Using Sand Content kit
7. Determination of oil, water, solids and Clay Content Using Oil and water Retort
Kit.
8. Estimation of cation Exchange Capacity of clays-mud filtrate Alkalinities & Lime content.
9. Chloride content Determination
10. Calcium ion Content Determination
11. Total Hardness in Mud Filtrate Determination
12. CO3 Sulfate, Magnesium & Sulfide Determination.
List of Equipment
Balance, Marsh Funnel Viscometer and graduated cup, stop watch. Viscometer, Fann Viscometer,
Ph Meter, Sand Content Set. Oil and water Retort, Kit, - Bariod- Pressure High Temperature
Filter Press, Standard Filter Press, Shearomenter

Different types of drilling fluid and selection of these; driling fluid rheology, density and filter
properties, clay mineralogy and the clay's reaction with water, polymers, oil-based drilling fluid,
chemical and mechanical hole stability; laminar and turbulent pressure loss in pipes and annuli;
hydraulic optimization.

Learning outcome

Knowledge:
- Composition of different drilling fluids.
- The physical properties of muds, like density, rheology and filter building.
- Mud additives to adjust physical properties.
- Cleaning of the mud.
- Chemical and mechanical borehole stability.
- Hydraulic friction during circulation.

Skills:
- Design of drilling fluids for different purposes.
- How to adjust and optimize drilling fluid properties.
- Design of flow rate and rheology to optimize the mud pumps hydraulic energy.

General competence:
- Design and evaluate a drilling program with respect to drilling fluid and its hydraulics.
COURSE OUTLINE
a. Functions of drilling fluids, Compositions of Water based muds, Mud types(WBMs,
OBMs, and SBM/Polymer muds, High performance WBMs)
b. Clay chemistry and Rheology.
c. Mud properties, and additives
d. Hole problems; lost circulation, stuck pipes, HPHT challenges and applications.
e. Mud Calculations and Modelling: density, rheology, mud hydraulics
f. Mud cleaning (Solids control equipment) and disposal
a. Introduction
b. Mud Functions
c. Mud Composition
d. Mud types
e. Clay Chemistry
f. Rheology

PET 331: DRILLING FLUID TECHNOLOGY (3 UNITS)

DRILLING FLUIDS
Drilling fluid refers to all fluid types used throughout the entire drilling and completion processes
(Mud, cement, spacers, brine, fracking fluid, fluid for gravel packing, fluid mixtures for acidizing,
etc.). But the most important of them all is the drilling mud. Drilling mud is an integral part of the
rotary drilling process. It is called ‘mud’ because of the thick/ viscose consistency of the fluid
after preparation by the addition of the various components and additives. Most hole problems
can be directly or indirectly linked to the mud, therefore mud selection and design are essential to
a successful drilling program. Mud costs can be as high as 10 to 15% of the total drilling cost, but
not maintaining good mud properties can result in hole problems that may be more expensive to
solve.
The drilling mud is a part of the circulating system on the rig. Other rig systems include; power
systems, hoisting system, well control system, rotary system, etc. Below is a schematic of a rotary
rig showing the circulating system in place.
Fig 1 Circulating System
Functions of Mud
 Transports cuttings from the wellbore (Wellbore cleaning)
 clean the drilling face of newly made cuttings and the bit (Wellbore cleaning)
 suspend the cuttings during periods without circulation (Wellbore cleaning)
 Release the carried cuttings before recirculation into the hole (Wellbore cleaning)
 Prevent formation fluid flowing into the wellbore (Primary well control)
 Maintain well bore stability (Sensitivity of Lithology)
 Cool and Lubricate the bit (Heat exchange and preventing stuck pipe)
 Transmit hydraulic horsepower (Optimizing impact force of bit)
 Protect the producing formation with an impermeable filter cake (Formation protection)
 Means of acquiring information about the formation being drilled (data aquisition).
 Drive any down hole motors or tubines. (Optimizing impact force of bit).

Fig 2 Functions of drilling mud

WELLBORE CLEANING
The primary function of drilling fluid is to ensure that the rock cuttings generated by the drill bit
are continuously removed from the wellbore. If these cuttings are not removed from the bit face
the drilling efficiency will decrease. It these cuttings are not transported up the annulus between
the drill string and wellbore efficiently the drill string will become stuck in the wellbore. The mud
must be designed such that it can:
 Wash off debris by its jet action from the bit nozzle from the freshly drilled rock surface
 Carry the cuttings away from the bottom hole to surface while circulating
 Suspend the cuttings while not circulating (eg. In between trips)
 Drop the cuttings out of suspension at surface.
The rheological properties of the mud must be carefully engineered to fulfil these requirements.
The carrying capacity of the mud depends on the annular velocity, density and viscosity of the
mud. The ability to suspend the cuttings depends on the gelling (thixotropic) properties of the
mud. This gel forms when circulation is stopped and the mud is static. The drilled solids are
removed from the mud at surface by mechanical devices such as shale shakers, desanders and
desilters. It is not economically feasible to remove all the drilled solids before re-circulating the
mud. However, if the drilled solids are not removed the mud may require a lot of chemical
treatment and dilution to control the rheological properties of the mud.

Balancing Formation Pressures

The use of Mud to balance formation pressures is known as primary well control. Well control
involves restricting formation pressure to the formation, thus preventing formation fluids from
coming into the well and more dangerously coming out of the well unto the surface. When
formation fluid come into the well it is called a kick and this could lead to a blow out which is
highly undesirable.
Generally, there are two methods of drilling when considering hydrostatic pressure balance. They
are underbalanced and overbalanced drilling. The more common is overbalanced drilling, in
which the Mud hydrostatic column is calculated to be a little greater that formation pressure, but
not so much to fracture it. This way, it will be sufficient to prevent an influx of formation fluids
into the wellbore. In overbalanced drilling, the hydrostatic pressure is calculated to be a little
lower than formation pressure allowing little amounts of influx, but mainly to prevent formation
damage especially in lithologically sensitive formations. The pressure due to the mud hydrostatic
column is given by;
HP = 0.052 x MW x TVD
Where,
HP = Hydrostatic pressure (psi)
MW = Mud weight (ppg)
TVD = True vertical weight (ft)
For a given vertical depth, the mud density/weight is the variable to consider/manipulate. By
increasing the mud weight however the risk of formation breakdown(fracture) and consequently,
lost circulation increases, and also, rate of penetration will decrease. The mud weight must be
selected very carefully to meet specific requirements. These are calculated during well planning,
but adjustments are usually made during actual drilling. If the hydrostatic pressure is too low
(except by design in underbalanced drilling) formation fluid will flow in to the well causing a
kick which if uncontrolled could lead to a blowout. Common mud weighting material are Barite
(S.G 4.2) and Haemitite (S.G 5.6) due to their high specific gravities
The density of the mud may be expressed in either of the following units:
To obtain the following Units of density multiply the Units in the first colom by:
S.G. psi/ft ppg
S.G. 1.0 0.433 8.33
psi/ft 2.31 1.0 19.23
ppg 0.12 0.052 1.0
Table on Conversion of Commonly used Units of Density

PROTECTING THE FORMATION

In the course of drilling, various lithologies are encountered, some permeable like sandstones,
others impermeable like shales. The drilling mud will initially lose some fluid to the permeable
zone to thicken while depositing a filter cake on the walls of the well. The cake prevents further
fluid loss into the formation. Thus protecting the formation from damage. The filter cake is
formed by the hydrostatic pressure forcing the liquid part of the mud filtrate into the formation,
leaving some solid material on the side of the borehole. A good filter cake must be thin (Within
1mm), slick and impermeable. In a permeable zone (e.g. sand), the fluid loss must be controlled,
otherwise;
i) The filter cake will become so thick it may cause stuck pipe, reduce drilling efficiency, etc.
ii) Filtrate entering productive zones may cause damage which will reduce the formation’s
productivity.
Weather it is fluid loss or lost circulation, the formation can become damaged as a result in the
following ways;
• Solids/Clay from mud can become deposited within the formation plugging pore spaces or
fluid flow path.
• Lost fluid can hydrate formation clay causing swelling, or shale sloughing which makes
that zone/formation unstable and can cause loss of well, caving in, casing collapse, etc.

MAINTAINING WELLBORE STABILITY

When a new hole section is drilled, the mud in the hole provides the pressure to keep the hole
open until a casing can be cemented. This is not a simple task as the mud has interactions with the
formation which could result in fluid loss or lost circulation. While a new hole section is being
drilled, some of the fluid from the mud will seep into the open pores of the newly drilled section.
If the lithology of the section is clayey or shaley, it would readily absolve water and swell, may
even begin to creep destabilizing the well.
Lost circulation is the loss of whole mud not just the fluid portion of the mud and this is very
dangerous. When lost circulation occur, the mud volume in the hole is reduced, hence;
 It will no longer balance formation pressure and a kick could occur.
 If the bit encountered a theft zone like an underground cavern tools may also be lost in the
hole
 Weather it is fluid loss or lost circulation, the formation can become damaged by lost fluid
hydrating formation clay causing swelling, or shale sloughing which makes that
zone/formation unstable and can cause loss of well, caving in, casing collapse,etc.
Well bore instability problems can be prevented/overcome with the use of specially designed mud
systems like inhibited muds, polymer muds or even oil based muds etc.

COOLING AND LUBRICATION OF BIT

The rock cutting process will generate heat at the bit as well as cause substantial wear on the bit.
These greatly reduces the bit life, hence mud’s role in cooling as well as lubricating the bit are
vital in prolonging bit life. Also, lubricating the bit prevents stuck bit. The presence of mud in the
annulus too, helps prevent pipe sticking to the hole walls. Even when pipe sticking occurs,
lubricating especially with oil and jarring are fishing techniques for freeing stuck pipes.

DATA ACQUISITION
Formation Evaluation starts during exploration and continues well into drilling. Mud enables
some logs to be taken/run during drilling, hence helping to gather information about the various
formations encountered. Also, the cuttings removed by the mud from the hole are also analysed
for data/information about the various sections drilled.

OPTIMIZING BIT IMPACT FORCE

It is the impact force of the bit that pierces formation rocks as drilling progresses. Optimizing this
forces will mean faster drilling (higher ROP) and lower drilling costs. As fluid is circulated
through the drillstring, across the bit and up the annulus of the wellbore the power of the mud
pumps will be expended in frictional pressure losses. The efficiency of the drilling process can be
significantly enhanced if approximately. 65% of this power is expended at the bit. The pressure
losses in the system are a function of the geometry of the system and the mud properties such as viscosity,
yield point and mud weight. The distribution of these pressure losses can be controlled by altering
the size of the nozzles in the bit and the flowrate through the system.
Also, orientating the bit force achieves directional drilling. This can be achieved with downhole
motors or turbines. As mud is pumped through the positive displacement motor, it converts the
hydraulic power of the fluid into mechanical power to cause the bit to rotate or the pumped mud
will drive the turbine which then rotates the bit.
In all cases, Bit force is optimized to both drill faster and drill directionally.

ADDITIONAL FUNCTIONS
 REDUCING CORROSION; when drilling through acid gas bearing sands, equipment are
more at risk of corrosion. This can be greatly reduced with the right mud additive and at
the optimal dosage. Additives that counter corrosion are corrosion inhibitors and oxygen
scavengers depending on the nature and type of corrosion.


MUD TYPES
Most of the times, liquid based muds are used in drilling operations. However, when the risk of
formation damage is too high in well compacted formations, pneumatic muds may be used.
Pneumatic drilling fluids are used to drill in areas where loss of circulation and low reservoir
pressures restrict the use of conventional drilling fluids. Pneumatic fluids also find application to
minimize formation damage caused by:
 Invasion of mud filtrate and solid particulates into reservoir pore spaces,
 Flushing of hydrocarbons,
 Hydration of clays within the reservoir,
 Emulsion blocking, or
 Formation of chemical precipitates within the reservoir.
These damage problems are all caused by having a large overbalance of pressure resulting from a
high hydrostatic pressure of the mud column and from chemical incompatibility between the
invading filtrate and the reservoir fluid. Cause of damage is eliminated, or at least diminished, by
reducing the hydrostatic pressure of the drilling fluid column and by selecting a fluid that will not
hydrate clays and will not form precipitates in the pore space.
The major equipment required for pneumatic drilling that is not used for conventional mud
drilling are; gas/air compressors and boosters, rotating head, and chemical injection pumps.
Fig 3A Drilling Mud classification
Fig 3B Mud types

Pneumatic drilling fluids may require one or more of three basic chemicals, but simple air drilling
may not need any of these:
• Surfactants, as detergents or foaming agents
• Corrosion Inhibitors
• Drying Agents

Surfactants as Detergents and Foaming Agents - Surface active agents (surfactants) are
injected into the inlet air stream when formation water is encountered. These foaming
agents also help clean the hole and keep the bit and drill string free of sticky solids. Surfactants
prevent the cuttings from sticking together and from forming mud rings which can plug off the
annulus. Surfactats when added in adequate amounts, may be with water, builds a homogenous
mixture of ample consistency to clean up the hole lifting both cuttings and water.

Corrosion Inhibitors - Corrosion during pneumatic drilling can be “disastrous” unless the drill
string is properly protected by corrosion inhibitors and scavengers. Oxygen, carbon dioxide and
hydrogen sulfide in the presence of water are extremely corrosive in pneumatic drilling. The rate
of corrosion can be minimized depending on the type of pneumatic fluid being used, by:
 maintaining a high pH (10 or above) with NaOH or KOH if water is being injected or
 injecting corrosion inhibitors into the gas or air. Sulfide scavengers such as zinc carbonate,
zinc oxide or zinc chelate are used to react with hydrogen sulfide to form inert zinc sulfide.

Drying Agents - A wellbore which contains only a minor amount of water may be dried simply by
discontinuing drilling and circulating air for a short time. Another method, which may prove to be
more economical, is to add slug treatments of drying agents such as CMC or silicate powders.
These additives require the use of a dry chemical injector.
When deciding if a pneumatic drilling fluid is applicable, one must consider pore pressures, rock
types,porosity and permeability, reservoir fluids, economics, and location. Common pneumatic
drilling fluids are:
• Dry Gas (air or natural gas)
• Mist
• Foam
• Gasified (Aerated) Mud

DRY GAS
Dry gas drilling is applied in hard formations where water or oil flows are not likely to be
encountered and areas where drill water is scarce. Dry-gas drilling (also called “dusting”) uses
compressed air or natural gas to cool and to lubricate the bit, to remove the cuttings from around
the bit and to carry them to the surface. Dry gas is injected down the drill pipe while drilling and
the cuttings are returned to the surface as fine particles. The returns are vented away from the rig
in order to minimize the noise and dust. Cuttings are caught by a specially designed screen at the
end of the blooey line. In dry-gas drilling operations, the bottomhole pressure consists of the
weight of the gas column, plus the annular pressure losses, plus the blooey-line pressure losses.
The sum of these pressures will usually be far less than the formation pressure. Thus, the rate of
penetration can be very rapid due to the low hydrostatic pressure. Chip-hold-down is also
eliminated, making cuttings release from the bottom of the hole much more efficient. Overall,
dry-gas drilling offers economic advantages in high ROP, lower operational costs per foot of hole,
lower fluid cost, longer bit life, less damage to sensitive formations, and little or no fluid disposal
problems, compared to mud drilling. There are also no incidences of lost circulation and
formation fluids can be quickly detected and identified. Dry-gas drilling operations require special
and careful planning. Gas compressibility is a significant engineering consideration during both
planning and drilling phases. Other equally important considerations are annular velocity
requirements and logging suite selections. Fluid annular velocity, rather than fluid rheology, is the
primary factor for cuttings transport when drilling with dry gas. The annular velocity necessary to
lift cuttings determines the volume of gas that must be circulated. These annular velocities are
such that turbulent flow always exists.
Logging is an important factor to consider when drilling with dry gas. Wellbores containing no
fluid other than air or gas can be surveyed only with devices that need no liquid to establish
contact with the formation. The Induction Log is the only tool which can measure formation
resistivities in such holes. The Gamma Ray Log can distinguish shales from non-shales. The
Gamma-Gamma Density Log shows porosity even in gas-bearing zones where the Neutron Log
indicates low apparent porosity. If both Gamma Ray and Gamma-Gamma Density Logs are run,
the percent gas saturation may be computed in clean formations. In flowing gas wells, the
Temperature Log detects the producing zones by showing the cooling effects of the gas as it
expands into the hole. Also, in multiple-zone production, the Temperature Log indicates the
relative volumes of gas coming from each zone. The Noise Log may be used to record zones of
liquid or gas influx as well as zones of severe loss. A relative amplitude log is recorded and the
noise may be monitored at the surface.
Water-bearing formations are the greatest limiting factor to air or gas drilling. Small amounts of
watercan be tolerated by adding drying agents such as CMC to the dry gas to absorb the water.
However, if the cuttings become too moist they will stick together to form mud rings which can
block the annulus. If this occurs, loss of circulation, stuck pipe, or even a downhole fire may
result.

AIR
Air drilling is commonly used in areas where loss of circulation with liquid type muds is a major
problem. Air is also used to drill hard, extremely low permeability rock or formations. When
drilling gas-bearing formations the risk of downhole fires can be high. The chance of a downhole
fire, when gas is present, is increased if the annulus becomes restricted, thus increasing the
pressure below the obstruction. Mud rings can cause this type of problem. The standpipe pressure
must be continually monitored in order to detect and prevent an excess pressure build-up. Even an
increase in pressure of about 15 psi can cause combustion to occur.

Natural Gas
Gas, rather than air, is used as the circulating medium when reservoirs contain appreciable
quantities of gas. Air cannot be used because of the danger of downhole fires. The gas is
compressed in the same manner as air, but the return gas must either be flared or collected to be
put into a pipe line. Recycling of the gas is not recommended because of the abrasive particles in
the used gas which would tend to damage the compressors. Fire and explosion hazards around the
rigsite, due to gas leaks, are a constant danger when drilling with gas.

Mist Drilling Fluids

Misting may be used after drilling zones which produce more water than can adequately be
absorbed by adding drying agents. In situations where the downhole influx of water is too much
for dry-gas drilling, but too little for mist drilling, it is possible to inject water at the surface to
allow mist drilling. The quantity of water for mist drilling will depend on the hole size, type of
formation, rate of penetration, etc.
A high-volume water flow presents a different set of problems. The intrusion of large volumes of
water requires converting to a foam-type fluid and possibly other additives in order to
successfully remove the water.
In mist drilling, air lifts the cuttings, but water wets the hole. Mist drilling requires at least 30%
more air than with dry air or gas and higher injection pressures to adequately clean the hole.
Increased air volume is necessary due to the weight of the heavier fluid-wet column, the higher
frictional losses caused by the wet cuttings adhering to the drill string and the wall of the hole,
and the higher slip velocities of the larger wet cuttings.

Foam drilling
Foam generally, is gas dispersed in liquid while mist is liquid droplets dispersed in gas. The
difference is in the gas- liquid ratios. In drilling fluids, foam is differentiated from “mist” by the
fact that foams may contain a blend of water, polymers, clays, surfactants and corrosion
inhibitors. Transition from mist to foam may be necessary when difficulties are encountered while
using dry gas or mist. Some of these problems are hole erosion, inadequate hole cleaning, loss of
returns and water flows. Foam quality is defined as the ratio of gas volume to total foam volume.
This is the major factor which affects flow behavior. Apparent viscosity of the foam increases
rapidly as the foam quality increases. Foam quality and foam stability will vary depending on the
foaming agent used. The composition of the injection water and the type of fluids entering the
wellbore also affect foam properties. Selection of the right foaming agent can determine the
success or failure of a foam drilling operation.
Aerated Mud
Air or gas can be used to reduce mud density and the resulting hydrostatic pressure of any mud.
Gasified mud may be used for a drilling fluid when downhole drilling conditions prohibit the use
of dry gas, mist or foams. It may also be used when drilling into low pressure reservoirs.
Gasification can be beneficial as a way to reduce the hydrostatic pressure of shallow zones while
maintaining adequate hydrostatic pressure at the deeper zone. Two of the most common gases to
reduce the hydrostatic pressure of the mud column are air and nitrogen.

WATER BASED MUDS

Water based muds are those muds in which the continuous phase is water; salt water or fresh
water. WBMs are the most commonly used muds worldwide. They are cheap because of the ready
supply of water. WBMs are made up of solids (clays), liquids and chemicals. The solids are either
active (react with the liquid, or chemicals) or inert. WBMs are non-ihibitive, inhibitive a d
polymer muds.
Non-inhibitive Muds do not suppress clay swelling. They are prepared with native clays or
commercial bentonites with some caustic soda or lime. They may also contain deflocculants
and/or dispersants such as: lignites, lignosulfonates, or phosphates. Non-inhibitive fluids are
generally used as spud muds. Native solids are allowed to disperse into the system until
rheological properties can no longer be controlled by water dilution.
Inhibitive Muds appreciably retard clay swelling. The hydration of clays is severely reduced if the
water used to make up the mud contains a high salt concentration. If a shale zone is being drilled
with a freshwater mud the clays in the formation will tend to expand and the wellbore becomes
unstable (sloughing shale). By using a mud containing salt or calcium there will be less tendency
for this problem to occur. Another advantage is that the water normally used in hydration is
available to carry more solids. Inhibitive muds are principally used to drill shale and clay
formations, and are characterized by:
• Low viscosity
• Low gel strength
• Greater solids tolerance
• Greater resistance to contaminants
Muds can be inhibited by calcium treatment. When Ca2+ ions are added to a clay-water mud the
mud begins to thicken due to flocculation. At the same time a cation exchange reaction begins
whereby Ca2+ replaces Na2+ on the clay plates. Calcium montmorillonite does not hydrate as
extensively as sodium montmorillonite, and the plates begin to aggregate. As the reaction
proceeds the mud begins to thin and viscosity reduces.
An inhibited mud can also be formed by adding large amounts (12 lb/bbl) of
lignosulphanate to a clay-water system. Chrome lignosulphanate is commonly used
since it is relatively cheap and has a high tolerance for salt and calcium.
Polymer Fluids
Polymer Muds rely on macromolecules, either with or without clay interactions to provide mud
properties, and are very diversified in their application. These fluids can be inhibitive or non-
inhibitive depending upon whether an inhibitive cation is used, as in the case of KCl-Polymer
system, a commonly used inhibitive mud for drilling through shale formations. Polymers can be
used to viscosify fluids, control filtration properties, deflocculate solids, or encapsulate solids.
The thermal stability of polymer systems can range upwards to 400°F. In spite of their diversity,
polymer fluids have limitations. Solids are amajor threat to successfully running a cost-effective
polymer mud system.

Special Muds
Mixed-metal hydroxide (MMH) mud
MMH mud has a low environmental impact and has been used extensively around the world in
many situations: horizontal and short-radius wells, unconsolidated or depleted sandstone, high-
temperature, unstable shales, and wells with severe lost circulation. Its principal benefit is its
excellent hole-cleaning properties.
OIL BASED MUDS (OBM)
An oil base fluid can be defined as a drilling fluid which has oil as its continuous or external
phase and the water, if present, is the dispersed or internal phase. The common applications of
OBMs include;
 To drill and core pay zones
 To drill troublesome formations
 To add lubricity in directional drilling esp to prevent stuck pipe.
 To reduce corrosion
  As a completion fluid (perforation and workover)
Some of its demerits include;
 High initial cost
 More stringent pollution control required
 Reduces effectiveness of some logging tools like resistivity logging.
 Makes detection of kicks more difficult as gas is soluble in oil.

Like WBMs, OBMs are comprised of solids, liquids and chemicals. The solids in an oil base fluid
are oil wet, all additives/ chemicals are oil dispersible and the filtrate of the mud is oil. The water,
if present, is emulsified in the oil phase.
There are two basic classifications of oil-based fluids; invert emulsions and all-oil muds. The
amount of water present will describe the type of oil base fluid. The oil used in these types of oil
base fluids can range from crude oil, refined oils such as diesel or mineral oils, or the non-
petroleum organic fluids that are currently available. The latter type fluids - variously called inert
fluids, pseudo oils, non-aqueous fluids and synthetic fluids - are now considered more
environmentally acceptable than diesel or mineral oils.
Conventional all-oil muds are designed to be free of water, hence asphaltic materials are used to
control properties like viscosity and fluid loss. All-oil muds can withstand small quantities of
water; however, if the water becomes a contaminating effect, the mud should be converted to an
invert emulsion. If the water is not quickly emulsified, the solids in the mud can become water
wet and will cause stability problems. The water wet solids will blind the shaker screens and loss
of whole mud will occur. Invert emulsions are oil muds that are formulated to contain moderate to
high concentrations of water. Water is an integral part of the invert emulsion and can contain a
salt such as calcium or sodium chloride. An invert emulsion can contain as much as 60% of the
liquid phase as water. Special emulsifiers are added to tightly emulsify the water as the internal
phase and prevent the water from breaking out and coalescing into larger water droplets. These
water droplets, if not tightly emulsified, can water wet the already oil wet solids and seriously
affect the emulsion stability. Special lignite derivatives or asphaltites are used as the fluid loss
control agents, and bentonite derivatives are used to increase the viscosity and suspension
properties of the system. Invert emulsions are usually tightly emulsified, low fluid loss oil muds.

Oil Muds Applications

Oil muds offer many advantages over water based muds. The high initial cost of the oil based
mud can be a factor in not selecting this type of mud system. However, if the overall drilling costs
are considered, the costs accompanying the use of an oil mud are usually less than that for a water
mud. Some of the applications of oil-based muds will be described below.

Shale Stability- Oil muds are most suited for drilling water sensitive shales. Formulated with the
proper salinity, oil muds can prevent water movement from the mud into the shale. In some cases,
water can actually be drawn from the shale and could result in strengthening. However, it is also
possible to draw too much water from the shale (with too high a salinity) and cause a shale to be
less stable. It is desirable to have enough salinity to prevent water migration into the shale but not
to allow dehydration of the shale. This is the “balanced activity” concept. The required salinity is
usually determined through field experience. Shale cores that have not been altered by the oil mud
are necessary to accurately determine the salinity requirements.

Penetration Rates- Oil-mud formulations can usually drill faster than water muds and still
provide excellent shale stability. Relaxed filtrate invert emulsions usually have a high oil to water
content and some of the additives used to control fluid loss are omitted. These systems do not use
the primary emulsifiers, which have been shown to reduce drilling rate, and they do not have the
same temperature stability as conventional invert oil muds. The relaxed type oil muds are
especially suited to drilling with PCD bits.

High Temperatures- Oil muds have the ability to drill formations where bottom hole
temperatures exceed water base mud tolerances, especially in the presence of contaminants. Oil
muds have been used at temperatures approaching 550°F. Oil muds can be formulated to
withstand high temperatures over long periods of time, unlike water muds, which can break down
and lead to loss of viscosity and fluid loss control, as well as corrosion.

Drilling Salts- Invert oil muds will provide gauge hole and do not leach out salt. The addition of
salt to the water phase will prevent the salt from dissolving into the emulsified water phase.
Water-based mud, even up to saturation and over saturation does not assure that the salts will not
be leached out.

Coring Fluids- Special oil muds provide a native state coring fluid with minimum wettability
changes. These fluids are usually water-free and thus require only a minimal content of
emulsifiers. Oil mud emulsifiers are very strong oil-wetting agents and can cause oil-wetting of
the formation. Oil-based coring fluids will not introduce any water into the core, so determination
of water saturation can be more accurately determined.

Packer Fluids- Oil mud packer fluids are designed to be stable over long periods of time and
when exposed to high temperatures. Oil muds provide long term stable packer fluids under
conditions of high temperature since the additives are extremely temperature stable. Since oil is
the continuous phase, corrosion is almost negligible compared to water muds under the same
conditions. Properly formulated, oil mud packer fluids can suspend weighting material over long
periods of time.

Lubricity- The high lubricity offered by oil muds makes them especially suited for highly
deviated and horizontal wells. Along with the higher lubricity, the risk of differential sticking is
minimized when using oil muds. An oil mud has a thin filter cake and the friction between the
pipe and the wellbore is minimized, thus reducing the risk of differential sticking.

Low Pore Pressure Formations-The ability to drill low pore pressure formations is easily
accomplished with oil muds since the mud weight can be maintained at a weight less than that of
water. Mud weights as low as 7.5 lb/gal can be achieved.

Corrosion Control- Corrosion of pipe is controlled since oil is the external phase and coats the
pipe. Oil muds offer exceptional corrosion protection due to the non-conductive nature of the oil,
and corrosion cells cannot develop since the metal surfaces are oil wet. The products used in oil
mud are very thermally stable and do not degrade to produce corrosive products. Also, bacteria do
not thrive in oil muds.

Re-Use- Oil muds are well suited to be used over and over again. The oil mud can be stored for
long periods of time, since bacterial growth is suppressed. The oil mud can be conditioned before
beingused again by reducing the drill solids content with mechanical removal equipment instead
of relying on dilution.

Disadvantages of Oil Muds

• The initial cost of oil mud is high, especially formulations based on mineral or synthetic fluids.
The high cost can be offset by oil mud buy-back or leasing from the mud service company.
• Kick detection is reduced when using oil muds (compared to that of water-based muds) due
to high gas solubility in oil muds.
• Oil muds are costly when lost circulation occurs.
• Greater emphasis is placed on environmental concerns when using oil muds as related to
discharge of cuttings, loss of whole mud and disposal of the oil mud.
• Special precautions should be taken to avoid skin contact which may promote allergic reactions.
Inhalation of fumes from oil muds can be irritating.
• Oil muds can be damaging to the rubber parts of the circulating system and preclude the
use of special oil resistant rubber.
• Oil muds pose potential fire hazards due to low flash points of vapors coming off the oil
mud. Mineral oils and the synthetic fluids have higher flash points than diesel and crude oils.
Crude oils should be “weathered” before using in oil muds.
• Additional rig equipment and modifications are necessary to minimize the loss of oil muds.
• Electric logging must be modified for use in oil-based muds. Oil muds are non-conductive
therefore resistivity measuring logs will not work in oil muds (SP, resistivity, Dipmeters).
• Oil muds require emulsifiers that are very powerful oil-wetting materials, which can also
change the wettability of the rock to an oil-wet condition.
• Oil based muds are more compressible than water muds, and, therefore, the downhole
density may vary considerably from that measured at the surface.
CLAY CHEMISTRY

Clays play a central role in drilling fluid technology. They can be classified chemically as
aluminum silicates, and physically as heterogeneous mixtures of finely divided minerals of 2
microns or less ( e.g. such as quartz, feldspar, calcite, pyrite, and other sedimentary materials
composed of silica, alumina, and water ).

Since the elements that constitute clays account for over 80% of the earth’s mass (aluminum
8.1%, silicon 27.7%, and oxygen 46.6%), it is clear that most drilled formations contain clay
minerals. The type and quantity of these clays is one of the most important factors in the chemical
and mechanical properties of the rock. Drilling fluid selection should be based in part on the
possible reactions between the fluid and the rock, because these reactions affect the borehole
stability.

Clay minerals are present in most reservoir sandstones. These may react with the fluids that
contact them in such a way as to completely block the formation. Therefore, knowledge of clay
structures and chemical reactions is important in designing fluids that may be in contact with the
producing zone.

Formation clays are naturally incorporated into the drilling fluid during drilling, and are a
principal source of viscosity. In addition, commercial clays such as bentonite and attapulgite are
purposely added to the fluid to attain desired viscous flow properties. However, since the
combination of formation clays and commercial clays frequently leads to excessive viscosity,
chemicals often must be added to control the fluid's flow properties. An understanding of the
chemistry of these chemicals and the clays is necessary to fully grasp the measures taken to
control the fluid properties.

Clay minerals are crystalline in nature, and the atomic structure of their crystals is the prime
factor that determines their properties. Most clays have a mica-type structure i.e., thin crystal
platelets stacked face to face. A single platelet is called a unit layer, and is composed of atoms in
a close packed octahedral or tetrahedral configuration that may alternate in different layers or
sheets to form the unit layer or crystal platelet. In the octahedral arrangement, the oxygen or
hydroxyls form two closely packed rows coordinated to aluminum, iron, or magnesium ions
located at the octahedral center
Fig 2.1.1 Octahedral structure with Oxygen at the vertices

In the tetrahedral arrangement, a silicon atom is located equidistant from four oxygen atoms, or
hydroxyls, to electrically balance the structure if necessary. The position of the oxygens or
hydroxyls can be described as being at the corners of a geometric tetrahedron

Fig 2.1.2 (a)Single Silica tetrahedron (b)Network of Silica tetrahedrons

Alumina has an octahedral structure consisting of an aluminum atom with six oxygen atoms
arranged in an octahedron around it. These alumina octahedra are then joined in a structure which
is replicated to form a sheet or layer. The structure is the same as the mineral gibbsite [AL2(OH)6].
These sheets of alumina and silica alternate to form the various clays.

Different combinations of these crystal networks forming sheets and modifications of the basic
structure give rise to a range of clay minerals with different properties. The two basic structural
units are the alumina octahedral sheet and the silica tetrahedral sheet. For instance, Smectites
which are a family of three-layer clays of which montmorillonites are members. They consist of
an alumina octahedral layer sandwiched between two silica tetrahedral layers. The aluminum
atoms in the central layer may be replaced by magnesium or iron atoms causing a charge
imbalance. This imbalance is countered by the association of positive cations at the particle
surface. These cations may be monovalent, sodium for example, or divalent such as
calcium. The character of the exchangeable cation influences the extent to which the
montmorillonites will swell. The divalent cations, because of the extra charge, tend to associate
with adjacent particles and consequently, restrict swelling of the clay. For this reason calcium
montmorillonite is a poorer viscosifier than sodium montmorillonite. Due to their structure, the
bonds between particles are weaker than other clays which adds to the ability of the
montmorillonite to hydrate. This is the principal reason sodium montmorillonite is the most
common commercial clay. The cation exchange capacity for smectites is 60-150 meq/100g.
Fig Structure of Smectites, family of which Montmorllonites are members.

Fig Structure of Sodium Montmorillonite; Bentonite.

Attapulgite and sepiolite are two commercial clays that are used where bentonite will not perform.
They differ in structure from the more common clays in that they are elongated rod-shaped
particles. Although there is water associated with these clays, they do not hydrate. These clays
viscosify by shearing which causes fracturing along the axis of the rods and exposes charges
which cause the rods to attract each other. Since these clays are shear dependent, they are as
effective in saltwater as in freshwater. Sepiolite has the added advantage of being very
temperature stable. Because they yield through shearing, little or no viscosity increase will be
seen in the pits since the shearing of the hopper and mixers is usually insufficient to cause the clay
to yield. It may take several trips through the bit before maximum benefit is obtained from the
clay. For this reason, it is easy to overtreat with these clays in an effort to raise the viscosity of the
mud. These clays provide little filtration control because of their shape. It is usually necessary to
add filtration control agents when using these clays

Below is a table of the clay minerals of most importance and interest to drilling fluid engineering.

Table 2.1.1 Summary of the properties of clay minerals

Property Kaolin Mica Montmorillonite Attapulgite Chlorite
Sheet Type 1:1 2:1 2:1 2:1 2:1
Crystal Structure Sheet Sheet Sheet Sheet Sheet
Hexagonal Extensive
Particle Shape Flake Needle Plate
Plate Plates
Large sheets to
Particle Size microns 5-0.5 2-0.1 1-0.1 5-0.1
0.5
Surface Area
  BET-N2-m2g 15-25 50-110 30-80 200 140

  BET-H2O-m2g ___  ___  200-800 ___  ___ 

Cation Exchange 3-15 10-40 80-150 15-25 10-40

Capacity, meq/100g

Viscosity in water Low Low High High Low

Little or
Effect of salts Flocculates Flocculates Flocculates Flocculates
None

In the ideal combination of tetrahedral and octahedral sheets, a structure is formed in which the
metal atoms in the octahedron are all of one kind and those in the tetrahedron are all of another
kind. Where this is in fact the case, the mineral structure is balanced and electrostatically neutral.
Structures of this type are considered prototypes for clay minerals, but are not themselves clay
minerals. True clay mineral crystals carry a charge arising from the presence of a few metal atoms
in the structure that are different from the predominant type and carry a different ionic charge.
This isomorphous substitution occurs during the formation of the clay mineral. For example, if
where an Al3+ atom would be found in the ideal structure a Mg2+ atom is found instead, a charge
deficiency in the crystal of one results. This produces a negative potential at the crystal basal
surface, which is neutralized by the adsorption of a cation, such as Na+, from the environment. In
the presence of water, the cat ions adsorbed naturally can exchange with cat ions of another
species in the water, and they are therefore known as exchangeable cations. The actual capacity of
a clay to exchange ions is a function of the isomorphous substitutions in the crystal lattice. The
cation-exchange capacity ( CEC ) is an important characteristic of clays and varies from mineral
to mineral as shown

The pattern of isomorphous substitution causes variations in the resulting minerals, depending on:

 tetrahedral or octahedral substitution;

 the extent of substitution;
 the nature of the exchanged cations i.e., Na+, K+, or Ca2+

The extent to which any adsorbed cation will be exchanged depends on factors such as:
 the effect of concentration

 the population of exchange sites

 the nature of anion
 the nature of cation
 the nature of clay mineral.

This large number of variables creates a complex system to analyze. Different ions have different
attractive forces for the exchange sites. The relative replacing power of cations is generally
Li+<Na+<K+<Mg2+<Ca2+<H+. Thus, at equal concentrations, calcium displaces more sodium than
sodium displaces calcium.

If the concentration of the replacing cation is increased, then the exchanging power of that cation
is also increased. For example, high concentrations of potassium can replace calcium. Also, in
some minerals such as mica, potassium is particularly strongly adsorbed and not easily replaced,
except by hydrogen ions, which can be easily derived from acids.

In the presence of water, the cat ions adsorbed naturally can exchange with cat ions of another
species in the water, and they are therefore known as exchangeable cations. The actual capacity of
a clay to exchange ions is a function of the isomorphous substitutions in the crystal lattice. The
cation-exchange capacity ( CEC ) is an important characteristic of clays and varies from mineral
to mineral Locally mined clay for use in oil well drilling have been found to fall short of
expectations on many grounds.

Local Nigerian clays are calcium based. Hence, there is a need for the improvement i.e
beneficiation of our local bentonite from the calcium-based clay to a sodium-based clay.
Sodium based clays are the swelling bentonite while the predominant calcium type is the non-
swelling bentonite (Asad et al., 2013; Ahmed et al., 2012; Tijen, 2010; Ahonen et al., 2008;
RMRDC, 2007).
Clay deposits and clay minerals generally vary in nature, no two or more deposits can have
exactly same clay minerals and frequently different samples of clay from the same deposits differ
(Abdullahi and Audu 2017). Their physical and chemical properties (swelling ability, plasticity,
cation exchange capacity etc) vary typically within and between deposits due to the differences in
the degree of chemical substitution within the smectite structure and nature of exchangeable
cations present. (Trauger,1994; James et al., 2008; Asad et al., 2013).
Structure of clay particles is perceived in layers where each layer is composed of two types of
structural sheets: octahedral and tetrahedral. The layers present in MMT(Montmorillionitte) are
composed of a 2:1 structure i.e two tetrahedral silica sheets sandwiching a central octahedral
alumina sheet (TO- T). Due to an isomorphic substitution within the layers (e.g., Al3+ for Si4+ in
the tetrahedral sheet and Fe2+or Mg2+ for Al3+ in the octahedral sheet) the clay layers have
negative crystal charge which is balanced by exchangeable cations such as Na+, K+, Ca2+ in the
interlayer together with water molecules bonded by ion-dipole forces. The hydration of these
inorganic cations causes the clay mineral surface to be hydrophilic (Xi et al., 2007; Banik et al.,
2015; Rodriguez et al., 2015).
The peculiar characteristics of bentonite clays; thixotropic, swelling and absorption/adsorption
properties, have accounted for their demand for different industrial applications such as its use in
drilling muds.

MUD PROPERTIES, TESTS AND ADDITIVES

The American Petroleum Institute has presented a recommended practice for testing liquid
drilling fluids. These tests were devised to help the Mud engineer determine whether the drilling
fluid is performing its functions properly. By running these tests regularly, it’s often possible to
identify and correct potential drilling problems early and prevent a serious loss of rig time.
Mud tests assess mud properties and if these properties are optimal, then the mud will perform its
functions properly. Below is a list of mud properties and the functions they affect.

Functions Properties
Well bore cleaning Yield point, Apparent viscosity, annular
velocity and gel strenght
Primary well control Density
 Well bore stability Density, Reactivity with clay
Cooling and Lubricating the bit Density, velocity
Transmiting Hydraulic Horsepower to the bit Velocity, Density, Viscosity
Mud density
Mud Density is used to control subsurface pressures and stabilize the wellbore.
Mud density is commonly measured with a mud balance capable of ±0.1 lb/gal accuracy. A mud
balance calibrated with fresh water at 70° ±5°should give a reading of 8.3 lb/gal. Mud densities
are reported in ppg, Ib/ft3, psi/ft, psi/1000ft, kg/l or S.G. Common mud density additives are
Barite (4.2 SG),

Steps for determining Mud Density after equipment calibration.

1. Measure and record the temperature of the sample of mud to be tested.
2. Place the mud balance base on a flat, level surface.
3. Fill the clean, dry, mud balance cup with the sample of mud to be tested. Rotate cap until
it is firmly seated. Ensure that some mud is expelled through the hole in the cap to remove
any trapped air or gas.
4. Place thumb over hole in cap and hold the cap firmly on the cup. Wash or wipe the
outside of the cup, and dry.
5. Place balance arm on the support base and balance it by moving the rider along the
graduated scale until the level bubble is centered under the center line.
6. Read the density (weight) of the mud shown at the left-hand edge of the rider and report to
nearest 0.1 lb/gal.
 Mud balance for Mud density measurement

Marsh Funnel Viscosity

Marsh Funnel viscosity is used to indicate relative mud consistency or thickness. Marsh Funnel
viscosity is the time required (seconds) for a quart of mud to flow through a 2-in. long, 3/16-in.
diameter tube at the bottom of the Marsh Funnel. This viscosity measurement is used to
periodically report mud consistency. One quart of water should flow through a Marsh Funnel in
26 ± 0.5 seconds.
Step to determine Marsh Funnel viscosity after equipment calibration.
1. Hold one finger over the orifice at the tip of the funnel. Pour the mud sample through the
funnel screen until mud reaches the bottom of the screen (1500 cm3). Place viscosity cup
beneath funnel tip. Remove finger and start stop watch.
2. Stop the watch when the mud level reaches the 1-qt mark on the viscosity cup.
3. Record the number of seconds required to outflow 1-qt of mud. Enter on Drilling Mud
Report as Funnel Viscosity (sec/qt) API.
4. Measure and record temperature of mud sample to ±1°F.
 Marsh Funnel and cup for fluid consistency and thickness.

RHEOLOGY
Rheological properties measured with a rotational viscometer are commonly used to indicate
solids buildups flocculation or deflocculating of solids, lifting and suspension capabilities, and to
calculate hydraulics of a drilling fluid.
A rotational viscometer is used to measure shear rate/shear stress of a drilling fluid - from which
the Bingham Plastic parameters, PV and YP, are calculated directly. Other rheological models can
be applied using the same data. The instrument is also used to measure thixotropic properties, gel
strengths. The following procedure applies to a Fann Model 35, 6-speed VG Meter.

Plastic Viscosity (PV) and Yield Point (YP)

Step to determine PV & YP with Fann VG Meter
1. Obtain a sample of the mud to be tested. Record place of sampling. Measurements should be
made with minimum delay.
2. Fill thermal cup approximately 2/3 full with mud sample. Place thermal cup on viscometer
stand. Raise cup and stand until rotary sleeve is immersed to scribe lie on sleeve. Lock into place
by turning locking mechanism
3. Place thermometer in thermal cup containing sample. Heat or cool sample to desired test
temperature of 115° ±2°F.
4. Flip VG meter toggle switch, located on right rear side of VG meter, to high position by pulling
forward.
5. Position red knob on top of VG meter to the 600-rpm speed. When the red knob is in the
bottom position and the toggle switch is in the forward (high) position -this is the 600-rpm speed
6. With the sleeve rotating at 600-rpm, wait for dial reading in the top window of VG meter to
stabilize (minimum 10 seconds). Record 600-rpm dial reading.
7. With red knob in bottom position, flip the VG meter toggle switch to low position by pushing
the toggle switch away from you. Wait for dial reading to stabilize (minimum 10 seconds).
Records 300-rpm dial reading.
8. The Plastic Viscosity and Yield Point are calculated from the 600-rpm and 300-rpm dial
readings as follows:
PV (in centipoise) = 600rpm dial reading – 300rpm dial reading
YP (in Ib/100ft )
2
= 300rpm dial reading – PV

Fann Model 35 6-speed Viscometer used for fluid rheology

GEL STRENGH (10 SECONDS AND 10 MINUTES)
Gel strength is the ability of the mud to gel up when the pump is down and thus keep cuttings
suspended (instead of settling at the bottom) until circulation resumes to continue flowing fluid
and cuttings out of the hole. This is important since there are occasions that might require the mud
pump to be shut down for a while. For example during tripping operations, when installing
casings, etc. The cuttings settling out of the mud to the bottom of the hole can cause hole
problems when drilling resumes. Normally, gel strength is determine at 10 seconds (initial gel
strength) and at 10 minutes (final gel strength). Below are steps for determining gel strength with
the rotational viscometer.
1. With red knob in bottom position, flip toggle switch to 600-rpm position (forward
position). Stir mud sample for 10 seconds.
2. Position red knob to the 3-rpm speed. When the red knob is in the middle position and the
toggle switch is in low (rear) position - this is the 3-rpm speed. Flip toggle switch to off
position. Allow mud to stand undisturbed for 10 seconds.
3. After 10 seconds, flip toggle switch to low (rear) position and note the maximum dial
reading. This maximum dial deflection is the 10-second (initial) gel strength in lb/100 ft2
4. Pull toggle switch to high and position red knob to 600-rpm speed. Stir mud for 10
seconds.
5. After 10 seconds, and while mud is still stirring, position red knob to the 3-rpm speed. Flip
toggle switch to off position and allow mud to stand undisturbed for 10 minutes.
 6. After 10 minutes, flip toggle switch to low (rear) position and note the maximum dial
reading. This maximum dial deflection is the 10-minute gel strength in lb/100 ft2.

FILTERATION TESTS
Filtration is the gradual or rapid loss of fluid from a mixture through a permeable membrane.
Control of filtration properties in a drilling fluid can be useful in reducing tight hole conditions
and fluid loss to formations. Several materials are used to reduce filtration rate and improve mud
cake characteristics. Since filtration problems are related to flocculation of active clay particles,
the deflocculants also aid filtration control. When clay cannot be used effectively for filtration
control, water soluble polymers are used. Common ones used are starch, CMC, and sodium
polyacrylate. They reduce water loss by increasing water viscosity. Most fluid loss control
additives are temperature sensitive, some polymers denature at high temperatures.
Laboratory filtration tests are also called static filtration tests as they do not simulate dynamic
flow conditions, but can represent conditions when pump is shut down. Static filtration tests are
used to indicate filter cake quality, and filtrate volume loss (which is the efficiency with which the
solids in the mud are creating an impermeable filter cake) under specific testing conditions (of
pressure and temperature). Filtration characteristics are affected by the types and quantities of
solids and their physical and chemical interactions. Temperature and pressure further affect these
solids and their interactions.
The Filter press consists of a mud cell, pressure assembly and filtering device. The API standard
test is at room temperature and 100 psi pressure. A special cell must be used to conduct the test at
high pressure and temperature (500 psi, 300 degrees F). The cell is closed at the bottom by a lid
which is fitted with a screen. On top of the screen is placed a filter paper which is pressed
up against an O-ring seal. A graduated cylinder is placed under the screen to collect
the filtrate.
The pressure of 100 psi is applied for a period of 30 minutes and the volume of filtrate can then
be measured (in cm3). When the pressure is bled off the cell can be opened and the filter paper
examined. The thickness of the filter cake is measured in 1/32’s of a inch.

SAND CONTENT
A high proportion of sand in the mud can damage the mud pumps and is therefore undesirable.
The percentage of sand in the mud is therefore measured regularly using a 200 mesh sieve and a
graduated tube. The glass measuring tube is filled with mudup to the scribe line. Water is then
added up to the next scribe line. The fluids are mixed by shaking and then poured through the
sieve. The sand retained on the sieve should be washed thoroughly to remove and remaining mud.
A funnel is fitted to the top of the sieve and the sand is washed into the glass tube by a fine spray
of water. After allowing the sand to settle the sand content can be read off directly as a
percentage.

Fig Sand Content apparatus.

LIQUID AND SOLIDS CONTENT

If pipe sticking is to be avoided, the proportion of solids inthe mud should not exceed 10% by
volume. A carefully measured sample of mud is heated in a retort until the liquid components are
vaporised. The vapours are then condensed, and collected in the measuring glass. The volume of
liquids (oil and/or water) is read off directly as a percentage. The volume of solids (suspended
and dissolved) is found by subtraction from 100%.

pH Determination
The pH of the mud will influence the reaction of various chemicals and must therefore be closely
controlled. The pH test is a measure of the concentration of hydrogen ions in an aqueous solution.
This can be done either with pHydrion paper or by a special pH meter. The pH paper will turn
different colours depending on the concentration of hydrogen ions. A standard colour chart can be
used to read off the pH to the nearest 0.5 of a unit (on a scale of 0 to 14). With a pH meter the
probe is simply placed in the mud sample and the reading taken after the needle stabilises (make
sure probe is washed clean before use). The meter gives a more accurate result to 0.1 of a unit.

CHLORIDE CONTENT
The amount of chloride in the mud is a measure of the salt contamination from the formation. The
procedure for measuring the quantity of salt in the mud is to take a small sample of filtrate of the
mud, adding phenolphthalein and titrating with acid until the colour changes. 25 - 50 ml of
distilled water and a small amount of potassium chromate solution is then added. The solution is
stirred continuously while silver nitrate is added drop by drop. The end point is reached when the
colour changes. The chloride content is calculated from:

CATION EXCHANGE CAPACITY

This test gives an approximate measure of the bentonite (sodium montmorillonite) content of the
mud. The sodium cation (Na+) of bentonite is held loosely on the clay structure and is readily
exchanged for other ions and certain organic compounds. Methylene blue is an organic dye which
will replace the exchangeable cations in montmorillonite and certain other mud additives (eg
organic compounds such as CMC, lignite). A small mud sample is put in a flask where it is first
treated with hydrogen peroxide to remove most of the organic content. Methylene blue solution is
added in increments of 0.5 ml. After each increment the flask is well shaken, and while the solids
are stillsuspended one drop is placed on filter paper. The end point is reached when the dye
appears as a greenish-blue ring around the solids on the filter paper.
The bentonite content (lb/bbl) = 5 x methylene blue capacity. The cation exchange
capacity of other solids can be done in a similar way. The capacity can be expressed in
milliequivalents of methylene blue per 100 g of solids (See table on Properties of Clay Minerals).
Note the high reading for montmorillonite clay compared with other clays.

MUD CALCULATIONS
HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE CALCULATIONS
Objective;
The main objective is to understand hydrostatic pressure and its importance in well control. Other
objectives include:
• To review pressure.
• To define hydrostatic pressure.
• To explain the importance of vertical depth.
• To show what we mean by pressure gradient.
• To show the relationship between mud density and hydrostatic pressure
• To calculate hydrostatic pressure using gradient and or density.

Pressure is the force or weight acting on a unit area. If a block of 1pound weight is sitting on a
square of 1inch side. It would exert a pressure of 1psi. Likewise, a mass of 100Ib weight sitting
on a 10inch square will also exert a pressure of 1psi.

F 1 Ib
P=¿ = = 1psi.
A 1inch x 1inch

F 100 Ib 100
P=¿ = = =¿1psi.
A 10inch x 10 inch 100

For liquids, density is usually measured in ppg, i.e. pound weight of the liquid in one gallon. This
depends on the thickness of the liquid. A heavy (thick) liquid will have more pound weight in one
gallon than a light one.
Hydrostatic pressure is pressure exerted by a column of liquid at rest in a well. It depends on the
density of the liquid. It also depends on the height or depth (level) of liquid in the hole. The word
Hydrostatic means liquid at rest. Hydro means liquid. Static means rest.
If a 1 gallon container contains a 10ppg fluid, the weight of fluid would be;
w
ρ=
v
w
10ppg =
1 galon
w=ρ x v
w=10 x 1=10 pounds =10Ibs
If the 10ppg fluid was replaced with a 15ppg fluid, its weight would then be;
w
15ppg =
1 galon
w=ρ x v
w=15 x 1=15 pounds =15Ibs
15 Ibs
Its pressure on 10sqinches area will be = = 1.5psi
10 sqinch
Exercise

1.Select the correct definition of hydrostatic pressure.

a. The pressure which must be overcome to move a fluid.
b. The pressure exerted by a column of fluid at rest.
c. The pressure of drilling mud passing through the bit.
d. The weight of the drill string in mud.

2. Select the correct statement regarding hydrostatic pressure.

a. Hydrostatic pressure increases with depth.
b. Hydrostatic pressure decreases with depth.
c. Hydrostatic pressure is not affected by depth.

3. Select the correct statement regarding hydrostatic pressure.

a. Hydrostatic pressure increases with fluid density.
b. Hydrostatic pressure decreases with fluid density.
c. Hydrostatic pressure is not affected by fluid density.

4. Two wells have been drilled and cased.

Well 1 has 95/8 inch casing set at 10000 feet
Well 2 has 133/8 inch casing set at 10000 feet
Both wells are full of 10 ppg mud. Which of the following statements is correct?
a. The hydrostatic pressure is greater in well 2 because of the smaller size of
casing.
b. The diameter of the casing does not affect the hydrostatic pressure; it is the
same in both wells.

In drilling calculations, we encounter the following depths. But it is the TVD that is used for mud
pressure caiculations.
Measured depth: the total length of the well measured from surface along the
path of the wellbore (abbreviated to MD).
True vertical depth: the depth of a well measured from the surface vertically
down to the bottom of the well (abbreviated to TVD).
Total depth: refers to the final depth of the well (abbreviated to TD). This is
normally the measured depth.
Note: In drilling, depths are usually measured from the rotary table on the rig floor
(abbreviated to BRT – below rotary table or RKB – rotary Kelly bushings).
Occasionally depths can be quoted below surface or sea level
Exercise
5. Which two of the following affect the hydrostatic pressure in a well bore?
a. Fluid viscosity
b. Fluid density
c. Measured depth
d. True vertical depth

6. Three wells have been drilled from a template. All are full of the same density
fluid.
Well 1 - MD 11000 ft
- TVD 11000 ft
Well 2 - MD 13000 ft
- TVD 11000 ft
Well 3 - MD 15000 ft
- TVD 11000 ft
Which well has the greater hydrostatic pressure at total depth (TD)?
a. Well 1
b. Well 2
c. Well 3
d. They are all the same
7. Sea water in the North Sea exerts a pressure gradient of 0.45 psi/ft. What would the
pressure be at
a. 10 feet? psi
b. 100 feet? psi
c. 1000 feet? psi
d. 11570 feet? psi
8. If a well is full of fresh water with a gradient of 0.433 psi/ft, what would the
hydrostatic pressure be at
a. 150 feet? psi
b. 1500 feet? psi
c. 15000 feet? psi
d. 14930 feet? psi

Different densities of fluids will have different pressure gradients.

For example: -
Diesel oil 0.3 – 0.4 psi/ft
Fresh water 0.433 psi/ft
North Sea water approximately 0.45 psi/ft
Dead Sea water approximately 0.59 psi/ft
Drilling mud up to 1 psi/ft
Gas 0.1 psi/ft
If we know the gradient and the vertical depth, we can calculate the hydrostatic pressure
exerted by any fluid
Exercise
1. Calculate the hydrostatic pressure exerted by a mud with a gradient of 0.6 psi/ft in
a well 15000 feet true vertical depth (TVD).

2. Calculate the hydrostatic pressure exerted by the drilling mud in the following wells.
a. Measured Depth (MD) 15000 ft
True Vertical Depth (TVD) 15000 ft
Mud gradient 0.5 psi/ft

b. MD 15000 ft
TVD 12000 ft
Mud gradient 0.5 psi/ft

c. MD 17500 ft
TVD 17500 ft
Mud gradient 0.728 psi/ft

d. MD 16430 ft
TVD 9850 ft
Mud gradient 0.55 psi/ft

e. MD 5520 ft
TVD 2590 ft
Mud gradient 0.52 psi/ft

To convert from to
psi/ft divide by 0.052 ppg
ppg multiply by 0.052 psi/ft

Exercise
1. Convert 0.63 psi/ft to ppg.

2. Convert 17.2 ppg to psi/ft.

3.Convert the following:

psi/ft to ppg
a.0.572 ppg = 0.572 ÷ 0.052 = 11.0
b. 0.884
c. 0.5876
d. 0.5564
e. 0.9464
4. Convert the following:
ppg to psi/ft
a) 9.7 psi/ft = 9.7 x 0.052 = 0.504
b.11.8
c.12.2
d. 17.9
e. 16.2

1. Select the correct definition of hydrostatic pressure.

a. The pressure required to circulate fluid around a well.
b. The buoyancy force exerted by a column of fluid.
c. The pressure exerted by a column of fluid at rest.

2. Which two of the flowing affect hydrostatic pressure?

a. Hole diameter.
b. Measured depth.
c. True vertical depth.
d. Fluid viscosity.
e. Fluid density.

3. What hydrostatic pressure is exerted by a fluid with a pressure gradient of 0.7

psi/ft in a well 11500 feet deep (TVD)?
psi

4. What mud density (ppg) is required to give a hydrostatic pressure of 6240 psi at
10000 feet?

HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE = PRESSURE GRADIENT X TRUE VERTICAL DEPTH

(psi) = (psi/ft) X (ft)

5. Determine the hydrostatic pressure exerted by a column of water at 10ft.

6. Sea water in the North Sea exerts a pressure gradient of 0.45 psi/ft. What would the
pressure be at 1000ft?

7. Calculate the hydrostatic pressure exerted by a mud with a gradient of 0.6 psi/ft in
a well 15000 feet true vertical depth (TVD).

Calculate the hydrostatic pressure exerted by the drilling mud in the following wells.
8. Measured Depth (MD) 15000 ft
True Vertical Depth (TVD) 15000 ft Mud gradient 0.5 psi/ft
Hydrostatic pressure (psi)
9. MD 15000 ft
TVD 12000 ft
Mud gradient 0.5 psi/ft
Hydrostatic pressure (psi)
10. MD 17500 ft
TVD 17500 ft
Mud gradient 0.728 psi/ft
Hydrostatic pressure (psi )
11. MD 16430 ft
TVD 9850 ft
Mud gradient 0.55 psi/ft
Hydrostatic pressure ( psi)

To convert from to
psi/ft divide by 0.052 ppg
ppg multiply by 0.052 psi/ft

Therefore,
HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE = PRESSURE GRADIENT X TRUE VERTICAL DEPTH
(psi) = (psi/ft) X (ft)

HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE = MUD DENSITY X 0.052 X TRUE VERTICAL DEPTH

(psi) = (ppg) X (144gal/ft3) X (ft)

Recall, 1foot of 1 ppg fluid exerts a pressure of 0.052 psi.

Primary Well control

Hydrostatic pressure is the pressure exerted by a column of fluid at rest, like a column of Mud in
a well. Mud hydrostatic pressure depends on the depth (TVD) and also on the mud density. Mud
density is very important. The most important function of mud is primary well control, which
means that the mud provides a hydrostatic pressure that balances the formation pressure.
Formation pressure is the pressure due to the fluids in the pore spaces of the formation/rock. For
rock that contains fresh water it’s about 0.433psi/ft gradient. Most rocks contain water with
dissolved salts which has a gradient of about 0.465psi/ft.
As stated earlier, mud hydrostatic is used to control formation pressure, that is, mud hydrostatic
must be sufficient to keep the formation fluid in the formation and not allow any into the
wellbore. In describing the relationship between mud hydrostatic pressure and formation pressure,
three terms can apply; Overbalance, Onbalance and Underbalance. When Mud hydroststic is
greater than formation pressure, It becomes an Overbalance. When Mud hydrostastic equals
formation pressure, it’s Onbalance. Then, when formation pressure exceeds Mud hydrostatic, it’s
Underbalanced.
Abnormal (Higher than normal) formation pressures result from formation being subjected to
compression forces at some point leading to folds, faults, compaction, etc.
In normal drilling operations it is important to maintain a slight overbalance. This overbalance
should not get too high. If the overbalance is allowed to increase too much the mud hydrostatic
pressure could exceed the actual strength of the rock itself ( fracture pressure) and mud losses will
ensue (lost circulation).
On the other hand, if during drilling, it enters an underbalance where formation pressure exceeds
mud hydrostatic, formation fluid will begin entering the wellbore. We say that the well is kicking.
Formation rock, like every other material obeys Hook’s Law. When it is subjected to excess
overbalance, up to its Fracture Pressure (beyond Ultimate strenght) it breaks, cracks, or
fractures. Mud in the well, will then flow through the cracks and be lost. This is called Lost
Circulation. It is important to know a formation’s fracture pressure to set an upper limit for mud
weights(density) and pressures that the formation can be safely exposed to. Fracture pressures are
measured from Leak Off Tests
A leak off test is normally performed just below each casing shoe and is carried out by shutting in
the well, applying a pressure at surface and monitoring when the formation begins to fracture.
Another type of test is a formation integrity test (FIT) or limit test which tests the formation to a
pre-determined pressure and not to the point when fracture takes place.
These tests are carried out to measure the strength of the formation below the last casing shoe.
This information is needed to be able to calculate, amongst other things, the maximum mud
density that can be used.
We carry out the test by closing in the well and applying additional pressure at surface. By careful
monitoring of the surface pressure, we can tell when the formation begins to fracture.

Figure Showing leak offpoint and fracture pressure.

Once we have measured the surface pressure at which fracture takes place, we can
calculate the actual pressure on the formation when the fracture takes place (fracture
pressure). The fracture pressure will be equal to the mud hydrostatic pressure plus the surface
pressure.

FRACTURE PRESSURE = MUD HYDROSTATIC + LOTpressure

Example
5
A leak off test has been carried out just below the 9 inch casing shoe (set at 10000 feet).
8
The mud weight for the test was 10.0 ppg. Leak off took place at a surface pressure of 1000 psi.
Calculate the fracture pressure, fracture gradient and the mud weight required to fracture the
formation.
Well data
Shoe depth (TVD) : 12000 ft
Mud weight : 13.0 ppg
LOT pressure : 1500 psi
Calculate:
1. The mud hydrostatic at the shoe.

2. The fracture pressure of the formation

3. The fracture gradient of the formation

4. The fracture mud weight

Well data
Shoe depth (TVD) : 12000 ft
Mud weight : 13.0 ppg
LOT pressure : 1500 psi
Calculate:
1. The mud hydrostatic at the shoe.
2. The fracture pressure of the formation
3. The fracture gradient of the formation
4. The fracture mud weight
CIRCULATING SYSTEM
Earlier, we studied mud properties and behavior in Static conditions. Now, we will look at mud in
dynamic/ flow condition, which is exactly what happens during circulation.
The Circulating System is comprised of 4 main parts, each of which has various tools and
equipment. These parts are;

Figure The Circulating System

1. The Surface equipment

2. The Drill String
3. The Drill Bit
4. The Annulus
5. Surface return equipment.

The first part; the Surface equipment comprises of the Mud pumps, the Stand Pipe, the rotary
hose, and the Swivel/ top drive.
The Second part; The drill string comprises f drill pipes and drill collars.
The Third part; the drill Bit
The fourth part: The annulus; the annulus around the drill collars in open hole, the annulus around
the drill pipes in open hole, and the annulus around the drill pipes in cased hole.
The fifth part; Solids control equipment. These include the return line, mud tank, Solids control
equipment like shaleshakers, centrifuge, desanders, destilers, degassers, etc.

For Mud to flow/move, The mud pump must provide a pressure (force) that overcomes it
resistance to flow (Newton’s first law). This resistance to flow includes the friction between the
mud and the pipe walls, and the viscosity between the fluid layers.
Four factors affect the pump pressure which is the pressure supplied by the pump to keep the fluid
flowing at a constant flowrate. These are;
 Flow rate
 Fluid properties (majorly, viscosity and density)
 Pipe diameter
 Pipe length
Increasing the flow rate, fluid viscosity, fluid density and length of the pipe would all cause an
increase in pump pressure.
Increasing the diameter of the pipe would cause a decrease in the pump pressure.
When we pump mud around the circulating system, each section of the system will have an
associated pressure loss. The sum of these pressure losses will be seen at the pump as the
pump pressure. Therefore, the pump pressure is the sum of pressure losses in the system from the
pump to the surface.

For example, from the diagram below, what is the pump pressure? What is the reading at the
standpipe gauge? If there was a gauge at the drill string, and bit, what wound they read?

Figure