1.

The Reciprocal Function

The function
1
f ( z )=
z
is called the reciprocal function. It is a one-to-one function between the z-plane, except
for z=0 , and the w-plane, except for w=0 . It follows that the inverse relation
1
z=
w

is a function, which is also one-to-one, mapping the w-plane, except for w=0 , “back”
onto the z-plane, except for z=0 . We demonstrated that the derivative of f is given by
' −1
f ( z )= 2
z
which exists for all z ≠ 0 .

So far, we have excluded from our

discussion the point z=0 , which has no
image under the reciprocal function.

As well as the point w=0 , which has

no preimage. In what follows we
will find it convenient and useful to
eliminate these exceptions by
introducing the “point at infinity.”

The point at infinity, denoted ∞ , is an ideal point which has the property that for any z in
the set of complex numbers,¿ z∨¿ ∞ .
The z-plane, augmented with this ideal point, is called the extended complex plane.
Although we will find it expedient to use expressions such as “the point z=∞,” the point
at infinity is not to be treated as a number, especially when it comes to using algebraic
operations on it. We emphasize once again that∞ is an ideal point whose only property
we know at this stage of our discussion is that it is larger in magnitude than the modulus
of any number z (i.e., for all z ,∨z∨¿ ∞ ).

The foregoing definition of the point at infinity is motivated by the fact that under the
1
function w= , if we let z → 0 , the corresponding w ’s will be numbers of arbitrarily large
z
moduli (i.e., as z → 0 ,∨w∨¿“tends to infinity”). With the point at infinity at our disposal,
we can now say that under the reciprocal function, the image of z=0 is w=∞ and the pre-
image of w=0 is z=∞.

The natural question that arises here is whether we can consider, in general, the behavior
of any given function at the point z=∞. The answer to this question is in the affirmative
if we adopt, as we do, the following convention:

The behavior of a function f (z) at z=∞ will be identified with the behavior of f ( 1z ) at
the point z=0 .

Again, this convention is motivated by the same limiting process:

1
→0 as z → ∞ ,
z

and vice versa

1
→ ∞ as z → 0
z

Example

2. The Reciprocal Transformation

Some of the basic algebraic and analytic properties of the reciprocal transformation

1
w= (1)
z
As a mapping, the reciprocal transformation has some very interesting properties. It is
intuitively evident that under equation (1), points in the vicinity of z = 0 are mapped onto
points in the remote regions of the w-plane, and points “far away” from z = 0 are mapped
onto points“close”to w = 0. We can be more precise: Writing z and w in polar form, we
see that if
 z=r ( cos t +isin t ) ,

then

1 1
w= ( cos (−t ) +i sin(−t) ) = ( cos t−isin t )
r r

Modulus Argument
z r t
1
w −t
r

From the latter we see that under the reciprocal function a point with modulus r and
1
argument t is mapped onto a point with modulus and argument −t . This transformation
r
may be more easily understood by expressing the reciprocal function as the composition
of two geometric transformations as follows.

First, take a nonzero point z with modulus r and argument t. Draw the ray R from 0
through z (i.e., R consists of all complex numbers with argument ζ , and upon R locate the
1
unique complex number ζ with modulus . Note that if z is inside the unit circle (r <1),
r
1
( )
then ζ will be outside the unit circle >1 , while if z is outside the unit circle, then ζ
r
will be inside. If ¿ z∨¿ 1, then ζ =z . Second, take the conjugate of ζ . In all cases this will
be the reciprocal of z . In particular,

1 1
=ζ and ζ=
z z

Example:

a. When z is inside the unit circle:

Given point z=¿
b. When z is outside the unit circle:
Given point z=1+i , then
¿ z∨¿ r =√ 2>1 (since ¿ z∨¿ 1, then z is outside the unit circle)
1 1
|ζ|= = <1 (since ¿ ζ ∨¿ 1, then ζ is inside the unit circle)
r √2
INVERSION IN A CIRCLE

The first of the geometric transformations described above is known as inversion in a

circle (the unit circle in our present case). The number ζ is called the inversion of z with
respect to the unit circle. This process, which transforms the entire exterior of a circle
onto its interior and vice versa, has been known since ancient times. The procedure of
determining the inversion of a point z with respect to any circle C may be effected by a
classical geometric construction familiar to students of geometry since at least the time of
Euclid:

Given a point z inside a circle C, let R be the ray from the center O of C through
z, and let L be the line through z perpendicular to R (see Fig. 8.7). L will intersect
the circle C in two points, say P and Q. Let S and T be the tangent lines to circle
C at the points P and Q. Then S and T will intersect at the point ζ on the ray R. C
is the inversion of z. If z is outside C, we reverse this procedure by drawing the
tangents from z to C, drawing the line L joining the two points of tangency,

and locating ζ at the intersection of L and the ray R from the center O to z. In
other words, z and ζ are each the inversion of the other.
 One can show by elementary Euclidean geometry that the product of the distances
from the center O to the points z and ζ is the square of the radius of the circle C. In the
case of inversion in the unit circle, this confirms that the modulus of ζ is the reciprocal of
the modulus of z.

In mapping terms, the process of inversion in a circle maps the extended complex
plane onto itself in a one-to-one fashion. Perhaps the most interesting geometric feature of
inversion in a circle is that the resulting transformation of the plane onto itself maps any
circle in the plane to either a circle or a line and any line to either a circle or a line. In
short, we say that

inversion maps the set of all circles and lines to itself.

This fact may be established by pure Euclidean geometry. It may also be shown by
coordinate geometry via a generalization of the argument we provide below to
demonstrate the same fact in the case of the reciprocal function. As observed earlier, the
reciprocal function is the composition of inversion in the unit circle followed by
conjugation:

Since conjugation as a mapping simply reflects the complex plane across the real axis,
it also transforms all circles and lines into circles and lines. Hence the composition of
these mappings, which is the reciprocal function, will map circles and lines to circles or
lines. We establish this result directly by a coordinate geometry argument after the next
example.

INVARIANCE OF LINES AND CIRCLES

We proceed now to prove the general fact:

Under the reciprocal transformation lines and circles map onto lines or circles. The proof
is based on the following two elementary facts:

1 x y
(A) = 2 2 − 2 2 i
z x +y x +y

(B) The equation a ( x2 + y 2 )+ bx+ cy +d=0 represents a circle (if a ≠ 0) or

a line (a=0), and conversely, any line or circle is represented by an equation of this form.

Now, let a circle or a line be given; call it K. Then for some real constantsa , b , c , and d ,
the equation of K is

a ( x + y ) +bx +cy +d =0
2 2
(1)

From (A) we have

 x −y
u= 2 2
, u= 2 2 , (2)
x +y x +y

so that

2 2 1
u +v = 2 2
x +y

Then, dividing equation (1) by x 2+ y 2 and substituting from equations (2), we obtain

which is a line (if d=0) or a circle (if d ≠ 0) in th w-plane; our proof is complete.