Analysis and Design Reinforced Concrete Foundations PR

Engineering Encyclopedia
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards
Analysis and Design Of

Reinforced Concrete Foundations
Note: The source of the technical material in this volume is the Professional
Engineering Development Program (PEDP) of Engineering Services.
Warning: The material contained in this document was developed for Saudi
Aramco and is intended for the exclusive use of Saudi Aramco’s
employees. Any material contained in this document which is not
already in the public domain may not be copied, reproduced, sold, given,
or disclosed to third parties, or otherwise used in whole, or in part,
without the written permission of the Vice President, Engineering
Services, Saudi Aramco.
Chapter : Structural, On-shore For additional information on this subject, contact

File Reference: CSE10804 C.C. Baldwin on 873-1567
Engineering Encyclopedia Structural, On-shore
Analysis and Design of
Contents Pages
PREPARING A STRUCTURAL DESIGN FOR A FOUNDATION ............................................... 1
IDENTIFYING TYPICAL REFINERY EQUIPMENT FOUNDATIONS ....................................... 2
DETERMINING STABILITY RATIO, LATERAL RESTRAINT, AND SOIL-

BEARING PRESSURE .................................................................................................................. 10
Stability Ratio and Lateral Restraint Check ...................................................................... 10
Soil-bearing Pressure Calculation ..................................................................................... 11
DESIGNING FOOTINGS .............................................................................................................. 19
Approximate Required Thickness..................................................................................... 19
Shear Considerations ........................................................................................................ 19
Development Length for Dowels ...................................................................................... 23
Reinforcing Steel Area...................................................................................................... 26
Reinforcing Steel Size/Distribution .................................................................................. 26
DESIGNING PEDESTALS............................................................................................................ 32
DETERMINING ANCHOR BOLT REQUIREMENTS................................................................. 34
INTRODUCTION TO PILED FOUNDATIONS ........................................................................... 36
Introduction to Piled Foundations..................................................................................... 36
Laterally Loaded Piles ...................................................................................................... 37
Single Piles vs. Pile Groups .............................................................................................. 38
Pile-Group Considerations................................................................................................ 38
STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF PILE CAPS..................................................................................... 42
Checking the Structural Design of Pile Caps .................................................................... 44
Shear Considerations ........................................................................................................ 45
Development Length for Dowels ...................................................................................... 48
Reinforcing Steel Area...................................................................................................... 48
Reinforcing Steel Size/Distribution .................................................................................. 48
Design Aids Available ...................................................................................................... 48
WORK AID 1: STEPS IN PREPARING A STRUCTURAL DESIGN FOR A

FOUNDATION ............................................................................................... 52

WORK AID 2: DETERMINING STABILITY RATIO, LATERAL RESTRAINT

AND SOIL-BEARING PRESSURE ................................................................ 53
WORK AID 3: DESIGNING FOOTINGS ............................................................................... 56
WORK AID 4: DESIGNING PEDESTALS ............................................................................. 57
WORK AID 5: DETERMINING ANCHOR BOLT REQUIREMENTS .................................. 58
WORK AID 6: DESIGNING PILE CAPS................................................................................ 60
GLOSSARY ................................................................................................................................... 61
DESIGN AIDS ............................................................................................................................... 62
Procedure For Using Design Aids: ................................................................................... 62

Preparing a Structural Design for a Foundation

In this module, the participant will learn to design reinforced concrete footings, pile caps, and pedestals, as well
as determine the associated anchor bolt requirements.
The steps in preparing a structural design for a foundation are:
1) Select a size and shape of footing, or arrangement of piles and pile caps, appropriate for the purpose.
2) Determine the weight of the equipment, structure, foundation elements, and the soil backfill acting at the
bottom of the foundation.
3) Determine the lateral forces and overturning moments at the level of the anchor bolts and at the top and
4) Calculate average and maximum soil-bearing pressures and stability ratios for erection, operation, water
testing, and other significant load cases.
5) Adjust footing size or piling arrangements to meet minimum design criteria or to eliminate unnecessary
conservatism.
6) Design the reinforcement of slab, pedestals, and other foundation members to resist moments and shears
corresponding to the critical loading conditions. If the detailed structural design requires substantial
change in foundation slab thickness or other dimensions, recheck the soil bearing or pile loading and
stability calculations.
Unfactored service loads must be used when bearing pressures and stability ratios are compared to allowable
values, as in Steps 4 and 5 above. For structural design of the foundation, factored loads are used in
conjunction with the strength design method to determine the thickness and reinforcement. Consequently,
unfactored and factored loads must be determined separately, and both must be used.
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 1

Identifying Typical Refinery Equipment Foundations

Shallow footings or pile caps used in a refinery can be grouped into broad categories, depending on the type of
equipment to be supported:
• Furnace foundations.
• Overhead structure foundations.
• Vertical vessel foundations.
• Horizontal drum foundations.
• Grade-level heat exchanger foundations.
• Pipe support structure foundations.
• Grade-level machinery foundations.
• Elevated machinery foundations.
Some of these foundation types are shown in Figures 1-6.

VERTICAL CYLINDRICAL HEATER FOUNDATION
FIGURE 1

ELEVATED REACTOR FOUNDATION
FIGURE 2

ELEVATED VERTICAL VESSEL SUPPORT STRUCTURE
VERTICAL VESSEL FOUNDATION

Anchor Bolt
(Typ.)
FIGURE 3

HORIZONTAL DRUM FOUNDATION
Anchor Bolt
Pedestal
Grade Level
Footing
FIGURE 4

GRADE-LEVEL HEAT EXCHANGER FOUNDATION
FIGURE 5

ELEVATED MACHINERY FOUNDATION
FIGURE 6

The shape and configuration can vary significantly within the foundation categories. For example, a grade-
level exchanger can be supported on pedestals with separate footings, footings connected together with a grade
beam, or pedestals with one large slab. The choice depends on equipment size and loading, soil conditions,
layout of adjacent foundations, construction costs, and designer's preference. For pedestals supporting vertical
process vessels, the choice between a solid concrete block and an annular wall with a sand-filled interior
depends largely on material availability and cost.
Placing two vertical vessels or two exchangers on a single (combined) foundation may be necessary or
desirable for particular equipment layouts. In some cases, a required spacing of two vertical vessels may not
give sufficient room for separate foundations. In other cases, efficiencies in construction effort and materials
may be gained by using combined foundations.

Determining Stability Ratio, Lateral Restraint, and Soil-Bearing Pressure
Stability Ratio and Lateral Restraint Check

Foundations supporting tall equipment or structures subjected to significant horizontal loading (H) must be
designed for adequate stability against overturning and checked to ensure lateral restraint through sliding
friction. Foundation design includes checking the stability ratio, which is the ratio of restoring moment to
overturning moment, taken about a point at the periphery of the footing base (see Figure 7). Vertical forces
used to calculate the restoring moment include the weight of the vessel with internals, fittings, ladders, and
platforms; the weight of contained fluid; and the weight of foundation concrete and soil backfill. Buoyant unit
weights for the foundation concrete and soil backfill should be used if the groundwater level for any design
condition is above the base of the foundation.
The vertical forces can be assumed to act through the centroid of the base area for foundations of most vertical
vessels and other symmetrical equipment. If equipment is significantly nonsymmetrical, the effect must be
included in the stability and soil-bearing pressure calculations as an increase in the eccentricity. Unfactored
design loads and weights are used to calculate stability ratio.
STABILITY RATIO
Restoring Moment, MR = P • D
2
H
Overturning Moment, MOT = H • h
Stability Ratio = MR
MOT
h
Eccentricity, e = MOT
P
D D
2 2
FIGURE 7

The stability ratio shall exceed 2.0 for all service conditions other than during construction or erection, per the
Saudi Aramco Standard SAES-Q-005, Concrete Foundations. During erection, the ratio shall be greater than
1.5. The erection loading condition results in a "lighter" structure that is more vulnerable to overturning.
The stability ratio applies directly to soil-supported footings and slabs. For pile-supported foundations, the
stability ratio is indirectly satisfied as long as the individual pile loads do not exceed either the allowable
tension or compression pile capacity.
Foundations for structures or vessels subjected to horizontal loading must be laterally restrained through sliding
friction at the base of the foundation. Per Saudi Aramco Standard SAES-Q-005, passive earth pressure shall not
be considered when computing lateral restraint for foundations. A suitable value of the friction coefficient for
the ultimate resistance between the foundation base and the soil is 0.40. Therefore, the ultimate frictional
lateral restraint, Vf, is:
Vf = 0.40 x W
where W is the total load.
SAES-Q-005 states that foundations shall be designed so that the safety factor against sliding exceeds 1.5. The
safety factor is equal to the ratio of the computed frictional restraint capacity, V f, divided by the total
unfactored horizontal load.
Soil-bearing Pressure Calculation
The stability ratio is calculated from overturning about a centroidal axis parallel to a side of the base. For
calculating soil-bearing pressure beneath the foundation, it is important to note that greater soil-bearing
pressure exists beneath a corner because of the overturning moment around an axis that is perpendicular to the
diagonal between corners. Although wind and seismic forces are considered as coming from any direction, it is
normal practice to check soil-bearing pressure at corners only. Using the method of calculation outlined in this
section, the calculated soil-bearing pressure is a gross pressure; it corresponds to the total pressure exerted by
the footing upon the bearing soil at a given depth, including the effect of the foundation weight and the weight
of the backfill above the footing.
When comparing the calculated soil-bearing pressure for a trial footing size with the specified allowable soil-
bearing pressure, it is necessary to note whether allowable soil-bearing pressure is stated as gross pressure for a
given depth, or as net pressure. When working toward an allowable net soil-bearing pressure, the calculated
gross pressure must be converted to an equivalent net pressure by subtracting the effective weight of
overburden soil acting at the level of the base of the foundation before foundation construction.

Allowable soil-bearing pressure values are usually stated in terms of net soil-bearing pressure, because this
pressure increase at the bottom of footing contributes to shearing failure and differential settlement in the soil.
The calculation of pressure on the soil beneath a foundation subjected to vertical load and overturning
moment is directly comparable to calculation of stress in a structural member caused by axial force combined
with bending, only when the entire area of the footing base exerts compressive load on the soil. When the
relative magnitude of the overturning moment becomes large enough that calculation by the combined flexure
formula (P/A + Mc/I) begins to show tensile stresses on one side, the combined flexure formula is no longer
applicable for calculating the soil-bearing pressure. Tensile stresses cannot be developed between the base of
the footing and the supporting soil.
When overturning is great enough that compression acts on only a part of the base, statics must be considered
in calculating the stress distribution over the foundation/soil interface. This calculation may be simplified by
utilizing the nomographs shown in Figures 8 and 9. Figures 8 and 9 illustrate the relationship between bearing
pressure and load eccentricity for square and octagonal foundations, respectively. Geometric properties of
octagonal shapes used in foundation design are shown in Figure 10.

RECTANGULAR SPREAD FOOTING DESIGN CURVES
x x
Maximum and Minimum

Soil-Bearing Pressures
x x at Face of Rectangle:
D
D P max = L . P
A
Pmin = Pmax K , For K > 0
1+K
L L Pmin = 0, For K Š 0
P e P
e A = Area of Foundation
P
min
Pmax
-KD
Pmax +KD
6.0
5.0
4.0 -0.5
-0.4
-0.3
-0.2
-0.1
3.0 0.0
+0.5
2.0 +1.0
+1.5
1.0 +2.0
0.0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.20 0.22 0.24 0.26 0.28 0.30 0.32 0.34 0.36 0.38 0.40
e/D Ratio
FIGURE 8

RECTANGULAR SPREAD FOOTING DESIGN CURVES (CONT'D)
Square Footing
8.0 e
7.0 Soil-Bearing Pressure

at Corner of Square
O
6.0 P =L P
P max A
P max
5.0
4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
0.0 0.04 0.08 0.12 0.16 0.20 0.24 0.28 0.32 0.36 0.40
e/D Ratio
FIGURE 8 (CONT'D)

OCTAGONAL FOOTING DESIGN CURVES
Maximum Soil-Bearing
Pressure at Face or
L L Corner of Octagon:
x x
y y
Pmax =L P
A
Minimum Soil-Bearing
Pressure at Face of
Octagon:
y x y x 1+K
D D Pmin = 0, For K < 0
e P e Pmin
P
P -KD
max
+KD
A = Area = 0.828 D 2
Pmax
10.0 -0.6
-0.5
9.0 -0.4
-0.3
K-Value for
8.0 Moment -0.2
About
-0.1
Axis x - x
7.0 0.0
L - Values for Moment

6.0 +0.5
About Axis x - x
5.0 +1.0
L - Values for
Moment About
4.0 Axis y - y +1.5
3.0 +2.0
2.0 +2.5
1.0 +3.0
0.00 0.04 0.08 0.12 0.16 0.20 0.24 0.28 0.32 0.36 0.40
e/D Ratio
FIGURE 9

PROPERTIES OF OCTAGONAL SHAPED FOOTINGS

B = 0.293 D
C = 0.414 D
Z = 1.08 D
A = 0.828 D2
I = 0.0547 D4
S = 0.109 D3
D Z A I S D Z A I S
ft ft ft2 ft4 ft3 ft ft ft2 ft4 ft3
4.0 4 13.3 14. 7 23.5 25.44 457.5 16694. 1421
4.5 4.67 16.8 22. 10 24.0 25.98 477.2 18161. 1512
5.0 5.41 20.7 34. 14 24.5 26.52 497.3 19722. 1610
5.5 5.95 25.1 50. 18 25.0 27.06 517.8 21382. 1711
6.0 6.49 29.8 71. 24 26.0 28.14 560.0 25014. 1924
6.5 7.04 35.0 98. 30 27.0 29.22 603.9 29090. 2155
7.0 7.58 40.6 131. 37 28.0 30.31 649.5 33645. 2403
7.5 8.12 46.6 173. 46 29.0 31.39 696.7 38715. 2670
8.0 8.66 53.0 224. 56 30.0 32.47 745.6 44338. 2956
8.5 9.20 59.9 286. 67 31.0 33.55 796.1 50552. 3261
9.0 9.74 67.1 359. 80 32.0 34.64 848.3 57397. 3587
9.5 10.28 74.8 468. 94 33.0 35.72 902.2 64915. 3934
10.0 10.82 82.8 547. 109 34.0 36.80 957.7 73148. 4303
10.5 11.37 91.3 685. 127 35.0 37.88 1014.8 82141. 4694
11.0 11.91 100.2 801. 146 36.0 38.97 1073.6 91938. 5108
11.5 12.45 109.6 957. 166 37.0 40.05 1134.1 102587. 5545
12.0 12.99 119.3 1135. 189 38.0 41.13 1196.2 114136. 6007
12.5 13.53 129.4 1336. 214 39.0 42.21 1260.0 126633. 6494
13.0 14.07 140.0 1563. 240 40.0 43.30 1325.5 140129. 7006
13.5 14.61 151.0 1818. 269 41.0 44.38 1392.6 154646. 7545
14.0 15.15 162.4 2103. 300 42.0 45.46 1461.3 170327. 8111
14.5 15.69 174.2 2420. 334 43.0 46.54 1531.8 187138. 8704
15.0 16.24 186.4 2771. 369 44.0 47.63 1603.8 205163. 9326
15.5 16.78 199.0 3159. 408 45.0 48.71 1677.6 224459. 9976
16.0 17.32 212.1 3587. 448 46.0 49.79 1753.0 245086. 10656
16.5 17.86 225.5 4057. 492 47.0 50.87 1830.0 267103. 11366
17.0 18.40 239.4 4572. 538 48.0 51.95 1908.7 290571. 12107
17.5 18.94 253.7 5134. 587 49.0 53.04 1989.1 315553. 12880
18.0 19.48 268.4 5746. 638 50.0 54.12 2071.1 342111. 13684
18.5 20.02 283.5 6412. 693 51.0 55.20 2154.7 370312. 14522
19.0 20.57 299.1 7133. 751 52.0 56.28 2240.1 400222. 15393
19.5 21.11 315.0 7915. 812 53.0 57.37 2327.1 431908. 16298
20.0 21.65 331.4 8758. 876 54.0 58.45 2415.7 465439. 17238
20.5 22.19 348.1 9667. 943 55.0 59.53 2506.0 500885. 18214
21.0 22.73 365.3 10645. 1014 56.0 60.61 2597.9 538319. 19226
21.5 23.27 382.9 11696. 1088 57.0 61.70 2691.6 577812. 20274
22.0 23.81 401.0 12823. 1166 58.0 62.78 2786.8 619440. 21360
22.5 24.35 419.4 14029. 1247 59.0 63.86 2883.8 663278. 22484
23.0 24.90 438.2 15318. 1332 60.0 64.94 2982.3 709402. 23647
FIGURE 10

Example Problem 1 - Bearing Pressure

Given:
10-ft diameter x 40-ft high process tower.

Normal operating weight = 340 kips (excluding the foundation).
Overturning moment at foundation base = 1250 kip-ft.
Foundation/soil buoyant weight = 85 kips.
Depth below grade = 5 ft.
Octagon foundation, D = 16.5 ft.
Soil Density = 120 lbs/ft3
Determine:
Stability ratio.
Maximum soil pressure (gross and net).
Solution:
MR 340 + 85 16.5/2
1) Stability ratio = =
MOT 1250
= 2.8 OK
2) From Figure 10, AFDN = 225.5 ft2, SFDN = 492 ft3
3) Check using flexure formula.
P M 425 1250
Q= ± = ± = 4.42, – 0.66 kips / ft 2
A S 225.5 492
Not OK (tension indicated)
1250
4) e = = 2.94 e/D = 2.94 / 16.5 = 0.178
425
5) From nomograph on Figure 9, L = 2.65
6) Maximum gross pressure = (2.65) (1.88) = 4.98 kips/ft2

7) Net pressure = 4.98 - (5) (0.12) = 4.4 kips/ft 2
Note: Maximum gross pressure of 4.98 kips/ft 2 calculated in Step 6 exceeds that calculated in Step 3. This is
expected since in Step 3 the whole foundation area is used (erroneously) to calculate A and S, whereas
in Step 5, the nomograph correctly considers only that part of the area that remains in compression.

Designing Footings
When the plan dimensions of the footing have been established, the depth and reinforcement are determined.
For this purpose, the contact pressures and all loads are increased by the appropriate load factors covered in
CSE 108.01. The factored loads and related internal shears and moments are used to design the footing.
Design steps are:
1) Determine thickness based on shear and development considerations.
• One-way beam shear.

• Two-way punching shear.
• Development length of column or pedestal rebars (dowels).
2) Determine reinforcing steel area.
• Flexure considerations.
• ACI minimum/maximum requirements.
3) Determine reinforcing steel bar size and distribution.
• Development length of bars.

• ACI paragraph 15.4 for footings.
Approximate Required Thickness
A simple approach for determining preliminary footing thickness, h f, in inches, is given by:
hf > 12 + L/10
where L is the larger footing dimension in inches.

Shear Considerations
Shear strength of a footing near the face of the column pedestal or wall must be checked for two conditions.
Both beam action (ACI section 11.12.1.1) and two-way action (ACI section 11.12.1.2) for the footing must be
checked to determine the footing depth. Beam action assumes that the footing acts as a wide beam with a
critical section across the entire width. If this condition governs, the design for shear follows ACI shear
equations 11-1 and 11-3.

Beam Action
Vu < φVn ACI 318 Eqn. 11-1
V u < φ2 f ′c b wd ACI 318 Eqn. 11-3
where footing width, bw, and factored shear force, Vu, are computed for the critical section.
The critical section is located a distance d from the face of the column, pedestal, or wall (see Figure 11); d is the
depth from the top of the footing to the steel reinforcement.
Two-way action for the footing checks punching shear. The critical section (dimension b o) completely encloses
the column or pedestal and is located a distance d/2 from the outside face (see Figure 11). The shear strength for
two-way action is a function of support size, βc, which is the ratio of the long side to the short side of the column
or support area. Figure 12 illustrates the shear strength reduction as a function of βc.
Two-way Action
Vu < φ Vn ACI 318 Eqn. 11-1
 4 ACI 318 Eqn. 11-36

V u < φ 2 + f c′ b od
 βc 
( ) α d
 bo

but not greater thanφ 4 f ′c bo d or φ s + 2 f c′ bo d

where α s is 40 for interior columns, 30 for edge columns, or 20 for corner columns.

SHEAR CRITICAL SECTIONS
13 ft-0 in.
30 in. + d b o for Two-Way Action
30 in.
bo = 2[(30 + d) + (12 + d)]
13 ft-0 in. 12 12 in. + d
in.
d
d
2
d
2 bw for Beam Action
Source: Notes on ACI 318-89. Reprinted with permission from Portland Cement Association, 5420 Old
Orchard Rd., Skokie, Illinois 60077.
FIGURE 11

SHEAR STRENGTH OF FOOTINGS

If the factored shear force, Vu, at the critical section exceeds the shear strength of the concrete, φVc, determined
for either beam or two-way action, the thickness of the footing must be increased or shear reinforcement added.
It is generally preferred to increase the thickness rather than to add shear reinforcement, to simplify the
construction effort.
Development Length for Dowels
After the shear considerations are included in the calculations, the preliminary footing thickness must be
checked to ensure that sufficient anchorage or development length exists for the column or pedestal
reinforcement. If the thickness is inadequate, then either the thickness of the footing must be increased, or the
column or pedestal design revised.
Procedures for determining the development length of dowels or reinforcing steel for various conditions are
covered in Section 12. Section 12 requirements are also summarized in Figures 13a and 13b for tension and
compression reinforcement, respectively.
For pedestal or column tension reinforcement, the rebars are usually terminated in the footing with a standard
hook below the bottom steel in the footing. For example, using Figure 13a, the development length required
for a #9 Grade 60 bar in 3 ksi concrete with a hook, sufficient cover and no stirrups is given by 24.7 inches
multiplied by an α- factor of 0.7, or 17.3 inches.
For pedestals or columns where reinforcing steel is necessary to achieve the required strength for compressive
loads, the development length in compression can be greater than for a standard hook in tension. Per Figure 13b
for a #9 bar, the standard development length is 24.7 inches for Grade 60 rebar in 3 ksi concrete. Note that the
development length significantly increases with increasing bar diameters.

DEVELOPMENT OF STANDARD HOOKS IN TENSION
Authorized reprint from ACI, SP-17, Vol. 1, Reinforcement 18-1, Page 233, with permission from the
American Concrete Institute.
FIGURE 13a

DEVELOPMENT OF BARS IN COMPRESSION
Authorized reprint from ACI SP-17, Vol. 1, Reinforcement 17.4, Page 232, with permission from
American Concrete Institute.
FIGURE 13b

Reinforcing Steel Area

The designer uses the factored soil pressures and calculates the moment, M u, at the critical section, per ACI 318,
Section 15.4. For most cases, the critical section is located at the faces of the column, pedestal, or wall. The
moment is calculated for both directions. Negative moments, if present, must also be calculated in order to
determine the need for top steel.
The procedure for determining the amount of steel reinforcement (in both directions, top and bottom) in the
footing follows that outlined in CSE 108.02. Based on M u and F determined from footing dimensions, calculate
Kn. Given Kn, f'c , and fy, use Work Aids 2 through 5 of CSE 108.02 to determine reinforcing steel percentage,
ρ. The value of ρ must be greater than 0.0018 (for shrinkage) but less than 0.75 ρb. ACI 318, Section 10.5
requires that the amount of reinforcement be increased by 33% if ρ < 200/fy.
Reinforcing Steel Size/Distribution
Note that the distance from the critical section to the footing edge, a f, must be great enough to provide the
necessary development length for the footing reinforcement. Work Aids 6,7 and 8 of CSE 108.02 can be used to
determine maximum permitted bar size (straight bar in tension) that can be developed for a development length
equal to af.
The amount of reinforcing steel must be distributed across the footing width, per ACI 318, Paragraph 15.4. This
provision states that reinforcement shall be uniformly spaced across the entire width, except for reinforcement in
the short direction of two-way rectangular footings. For this special case, ACI states that a portion of the total
reinforcement must be distributed within a bandwidth centered on the column or pedestal, with a dimension equal
to the length of the short side (see Figure 14). The remainder of the reinforcement is to be equally spaced in the
area outside the bandwidth.

FOOTING STEEL DISTRIBUTION
L
B
B Aso Aso
2 2
Asb
Asb = 2 A stot
= L/B +1
Aso = (1 - 2 ) Astot
+1
Astot= Total required steel area

Asb = Steel area within bandwidth
Aso = Steel area outside bandwith (one-half to each side)
β = Shape ratio
FIGURE 14

Example Problem 2 - Footings

Given:
qs (factored) = 6.67 kips/ft2
f'c = 3000 psi
fy = 50,000 psi
af1 = 72 in
af2 = 50 in
Column size = 42 x 20 in
Footing size = 15.5 x 10 ft
#11 dowel
bars
Authorized reprint from ACI SP(17), ACI Design Handbook - Volume 1, 1991, Page
137.
FIGURE 15
Step 1
Determine minimum depth. Use rule-of-thumb sizing.
hf = 12 in. + 15.5 x 12/10 = 30.6 in., say 30 in hf = footing thickness.
Assume 3 in. cover and #9 bars.
d = 30 - 3 - 1.128 - 0.564 = 25.31 in., say 25 in d = footing effective depth.
Step 2
Check beam shear.
af = (15.5x12-[42+2(25)])/2 = 47.0 in af = footing stem length.

Vu = (6.67)(10)(47.0/12) = 261 kips Vu = shear ultimate capacity.
φVn= (0.85)(2)( 3000 )(120)(25)/1000 = 279 kips φVn = shear design capacity.
279 > 261 OK
Step 3
Check perimeter shear.
AFV = Loaded area for perimeter shear.
 42 + 25   20 + 25  
A FV = (15.5)(10) −  ≅ 134 ft 2
 12   12  
V u = (6.67)(134) = 894 kips

Example Problem 2 (Cont'd)
βc = 42/20 = 2.1
bo = Critical section dimension.
bo = (42+25)2+(20+25)2 = 224 in
φVN = (0.85)[2+4/2.1]( 3000 )(224)(25.0)/1000
φVN = 1018 kips > Vu = 894 kips OK
Step 4
Check dowel development length per Figure 13a, Development Length Standard Hook in Tension.
For d ≅ 25.0, up to #11 Bar OK (25.7" required)
Step 5
Check conservatism/understrength.
One-way shear 279/261 ≅ 7% extra capacity
Two-way shear 1018/894 ≅ 14% extra capacity
Dowel development 25.0/18 ≅ 38% extra capacity (Including α = 0.7 factor for good cover requirements.)
∴ Seems Reasonably Designed
Step 6
Determine reinforcement in long direction.
Mu = (6.67)(10)(72/12)(3) = 1200 kip-ft
F = (120)(25.0)2/12,000 = 6.25
KN = 1200/6.25 = 192
Per Work Aid 2 of CSE 108.02, ρ = 0.0045
∴ As = (0.0045)(120)(25) = 13.5 in2

Step 7
Determine reinforcement in short direction.
Mu = (6.67)(15.5)(50/12)(25/12) = 897 kip-ft
F = (15.5)(12)(25.0)2/12000 = 9.7
KN = 897/9.7 = 93
Per Work Aid 2 of CSE 108.02, ρ = 0.0021
Since ρ < ρmin = 200/fy = 0.004, increase ρ by 33%. Therefore, ρ = 0.0028.
∴ As = (0.0028)(15.5)(12)(25.0) = 13.0 in2
For L = 15.5 ft and b = 10 ft 2/(β+1) = 0.78
Bandwidth As = (0.78)(13.0) = 10.1 in2 ρ B = 10.1/(25.0)(120) = 0.0034 OK
Outside As = (0.22)(13.0) = 2.9 in2 ρ o= 2.9/(25.0)(66) = 0.0018 OK (Exceeds Min.

Shrinkage Reinforcement)
Step 8
Select bar size and spacing.
Long direction: AF = 72 in DB ² #11 bar (Work Aid 6 of CSE 108.02.)
Short direction: AF = 50 in DB ² #10 bar (Work Aid 6 of CSE 108.02.)
Long direction: For 12 in spacing, As / bar = 13.5/11 = 1.22 in2/Bar
Use #10 bars @ 12 in spaces.

Short direction:
Within Bandwidth
For 8 in spacing (15 bars total), A s/bar = 10.1/15 = 0.67 in2/bar
Use #8 @ 8 in spacing (15 bars in bandwidth)
Outside of Bandwidth
For 16 in spacing As/bar (4 bars total) = 2.9/4 = 0.73 in2/bar
Use #8 bars @ 16 in spacing, two in each region outside bandwidths
Note: From a construction practicality point of view, it would be easier to also use #8 bars in the long
direction. No. of bars required = 13.5/0.79 = 17 total, evenly spaced.

Designing Pedestals
The structural design of the pedestal principally involves determining the amount of vertical reinforcement
necessary to transfer tensile stresses into the footing. Although compression and shear stresses are usually low
for pedestals supporting process equipment, they should be checked using the procedures given in CSE 108.02
and 108.03. The foundation designer should also ensure that the base ring or base plates are adequate to
transfer the vessel loads to the top of the pedestal without exceeding the bearing stress permitted by the ACI
code. Usually, octagonal pedestals are used for vertical process vessels.
When the strength design method is used, the bearing stresses cannot exceed 0.6 f'c unless the supporting
surface is wider on all sides of the loaded area. In such cases, the permitted bearing stress may be increased by
the square root of the ratio of the supporting concrete surface area, A c, to the loaded area, ABP, however this
function cannot exceed 2.0.
Bearing stress ≤ 0.6 f c′ ( Ac / ABP )

where: ( Ac / A BP ) ≤ 2.0
The vertical reinforcement may be designed on the basis of treating the pedestal as a column member subjected
to axial load and bending. It is sufficient, however, to use the following simplified equation to determine the
required area of pedestal steel.
As = 1 4M - W
ft Dp
where: As = Total area of vertical reinforcement, in 2.

Dp = Bar octagon diameter, ft.
ft = Allowable stress in pedestal reinforcement, psi.
= 0.9 fy.
M = Factored moment at top of footing, lb-ft.
W = Vertical load at top of footing, lb.
The minimum number of vertical bars in octagonal pedestals is eight, with one bar placed at each of the eight
corners of the octagon. For pedestals larger than 6 ft in diameter, additional bars are placed in each side. To
reduce cracking at the upper surface and exposed sides, horizontal reinforcement should be added per ACI
shrinkage and temperature requirements. All vertical rebars should be embedded into the footing with a
_
standard 90 hook.

ACI Section 15.8 states that the designer is required to check for sufficient reinforcement to transfer loads from
the pedestal to the footing. The minimum vertical reinforcement extending across the interface shall be 0.005
times the pedestal gross area. As discussed earlier, the footing or pile cap thickness must be sufficient to
develop anchorage of the bars. ACI Section 11.7 lists shear-friction provisions to ensure that the vertical
reinforcement can also transfer the shear forces across the interface. ACI 11.7 assumes that the interface is
cracked and that all shear is transferred through dowel action of the vertical reinforcement. The following
equation is used for this shear-friction check:
Vu ≤ φ As Fy µ
where µ is the coefficient of friction across the interface and can be conservatively taken as 0.6 for normal
weight concrete.

Determining Anchor Bolt Requirements

Anchor bolts are required to resist the uplift from the overturning moment and maintain the vessel in a vertical
position. The number, size, length, and bolt circle diameter are usually established during vessel design, but are
rechecked and detailed as part of the foundation design.
Plastic sleeves may be provided at the top of the concrete pedestal to permit adjustment for centering and fitting
into the bolt holes on the baseplate. After the vessel is placed and the grout under the baseplate has hardened,
the nuts on the anchor bolts are tightened until the bolts are pretensioned. This initial tension does not increase
the maximum bolt tension caused by earthquake or wind. Note that the level of tension is much lower than is
typical for high-strength structural bolted connections.
Anchor bolts should be sized using the allowable capacities given in Figure 16. No increase in allowable stress
should be taken when wind or earthquake is considered. Anchor bolts sized by this method include a 25%
corrosion allowance. Note that at least 1/8 inch is added to the diameter as a corrosion allowance. This level of
conservatism is not costly and provides additional protection against excessive stretching of the bolts during
earthquakes or high winds.
There should be at least 8 bolts, preferably 12 or more, equally spaced around a circle. If N is the number of
anchor bolts and Db the bolt-circle diameter, the maximum bolt tension, T, may be calculated from this
simplified formula:
T = 4M - P
DbN N
where: M is the overturning moment (unfactored).

P is the corresponding vertical load at the top of the pedestal (unfactored).
The anchor bolts most commonly used in vessel foundations are made of steel rods, hooked or with a
mechanical anchorage at one end and threaded at the other. Development length of anchor bolts should be
checked using Figure 16. For ease of construction, it is generally preferred that the anchor bolts do not extend
into the footing. Where they do extend into the footing, they should not be considered in the calculations of
load transfer across the pedestal or footing interface.

ANCHOR BOLT DATA
DIMENSIONS (INCHES) LOAD CAPACITY (KIPS)
A B C D E F G SHEAR TENSION
Anchor Min. Type Length Length Length Length Type Type Type Type
Bolt Depth 2 Thread Thread Hook Sleeve 1, 2, 1 2 3, 4
Dia. Only 3.5 Dia. 15 Dia. Nut on 3, 4
Type 4
1/2” 10 4 1-5/8 - 7-1/2 - - 1.0 1.5 1.8 2.1
5/8” 10 4 1-5/8 - 9-3/8 - - 1.5 1.7 2.3 3.4
3/4” 12 6 2 2-5/8 11-1/4 1-7/8 11 2.2 2.3 3.2 5.1
7/8” 14 6 2 3-1/8 13-1/8 2-1/4 12-3/4 3.2 2.9 4.1 7.0
1” 16 8 2-1/2 3-1/2 15 2-1/2 14-3/4 4.2 3.6 5.1 9.1
1-1/8” 18 8 3 4 16-7/8 2-7/8 16-1/2 5.3 3.8 5.5 11.5
1-1/4” 20 8 3 4-3/8 18-3/4 3-1/8 18-1/4 6.7 4.1 6.5 14.7
1-3/8” 22 8 3-5/8 4-7/8 20-5/8 3-1/2 20-1/4 7.9 7.6 17.6
1-1/2” 24 8 3-5/8 5-1/4 22-1/2 3-3/4 22 9.7 8.7 21.4
1-5/8” 26 8 4-1/8 5-3/4 24-3/8 4-1/8 23-3/4 11.5 9.9 24.4
1-3/4” 28 10 4-3/8 6-1/8 26-1/4 4-3/8 25-1/2 13.2 10.5 28.9
2” 32 10 5 7 30 5 29-1/2 17.4 13.2 38.0
2-1/4” 36 10 5-5/8 7-7/8 33-3/4 5-5/8 33 22.9 15.9 47.7
2-1/2” 40 10 6-1/4 8-3/4 37-1/2 6-1/4 37-1/2 28.3 18.9 58.2
FIGURE 16

Introduction to Piled Foundations
Introduction to Piled Foundations

Piles are structural members of timber, concrete, and/or steel, used to transmit surface loads to lower levels in
the soil mass. This may be by vertical distribution of the load along the pile shaft, or by a direct application of
load to a lower stratum through the pile point. A vertical distribution of the load is made using a friction, or
"floating," pile and a direct load application is made by a point, or "end-bearing," pile. This distinction of piles
is purely one of convenience because all piles function as a combination of side resistance and point bearing,
except when the pile penetrates an extremely soft soil to a solid base. Refer to Figure 17.
PILE USES
FIGURE 17

Piles are commonly used to:
1. Carry the superstructure loads into or through a soil stratum. Both vertical and lateral loads
may be involved.
2. Resist uplift or overturning forces (as for basement mats below the water table) or to support
tower legs subjected to overturning.
3. Compact loose, cohesionless deposits through a combination of pile volume displacement and
driving vibrations. These piles may later be pulled.
4. Control settlements when spread footings or a mat are on a marginal soil or are underlain by a
highly compressible stratum.
5. Stiffen the soil beneath machine foundations to control both amplitudes of vibration and the
natural frequency of the system.
6. As an additional safety factor beneath bridge abutments and/or piers, particularly if scour is a
potential problem.
7. In offshore construction to transmit loads above the water surface through the water and into the
underlying soil. This is a case of partially embedded piling subjected to vertical (and buckling)
as well as lateral loads.
Laterally Loaded Piles
Structures supported on piles are often subjected to horizontal design loads caused by wind or earthquake.
These horizontal loads can be resisted by the piles in two different modes:
• Axially, by use of battered or angled piles.
• Bending, for vertical piles.
Battered piles are more effective for axially resisting lateral forces. "Battered" means that the pile(s) is installed
at a vertical inclination angle flatter than 90 °. The batter angle is usually defined as the ratio of the length of the
vertical side to the horizontal side (see Figure 18). Typical batter angles range from 2V:1H to 4V:1H. When
battered piles are used, the lateral resistance of any vertical piles is neglected (because the battered piles are
much stiffer). The resulting axial load in the battered piles and vertical piles is determined on the basis of static
equilibrium. Battered piles are common for precast piles, because they can be easily driven within the range of
batter angles given above.

Cast-in-place piles cannot be easily installed on a batter angle because of the difficulty of drilling a hole on an
angle and the increased possibility of soil collapsing into the hole. Consequently, cast-in-place piles are almost
always installed vertically; they resist lateral forces by lateral deflection to mobilize the reaction of the
surrounding soil. The magnitude and distribution of the resisting pressures are a function of the relative
stiffness of the pile and soil.
Design criteria for laterally loaded vertical piles are based on the maximum combined stress in the pile, the
allowable deflection at the top of the pile, and soil-bearing considerations.
These criteria are used in conjunction with a laterally loaded pile analysis computer program by the
geotechnical engineer to define the pile deformation, shears, and moments.
Single Piles vs. Pile Groups
Foundations rarely consist of a single pile. Generally, there will be a minimum of two or three piles under a
foundation element or footing to allow for misalignments and other inadvertent eccentricities. Building codes
may stipulate the minimum number of piles under a building element. The load capacity, settlement, and
individual pile loads associated with pile groups is the concern of this discussion. Figure 19 presents some
typical pile clusters, for illustrative purposes only, since the designer must make up the group geometry to
satisfy any given problem.
Pile-Group Considerations
When several piles are clustered, it is reasonable to expect that the soil pressures produced from side friction or
point bearing will overlap, as idealized in Figure 20. The superimposed pressure intensity will depend on both
the pile load and spacing and, if it is sufficiently large, the soil will fail in shear or the settlement will be
excessive.

BATTER PILES
Batter Angle
4V= 1H
4
FIGURE 18

TYPICAL PILE-GROUP PATTERNS
FIGURE 19

The stress intensity from overlapping stressed zones will obviously decrease with increased pile spacings.
However, large spacings are often impractical because a pile cap is cast over the pile group for the column base
and/or to spread the load to the several piles in the group.
STRESSES SURROUNDING A FRICTION PILE

AND THE SUMMATION EFFECTS OF A PILE-GROUP
FIGURE 20
Minimum pile spacings suggested by several building codes are as shown in Figure 21:
Pile type BOCA, 1984 NBC, 1976 Chicago, 1987

Friction 2D or 1.75H ³ 30 in. 2D or 1.75H ³ 30 in. 1D or 1.75 H ³ 30 in.
Point bearing 2D or 1.75H ³ 24 in. 2D or 1.75H ³ 24 in.
FIGURE 21
In Figure 21, D = pile diameter and H = diagonal of a rectangular shape or H pile. The BOCA code also
stipulates that spacing for friction piles in loose sand or loose sand gravels shall be increased 10% for each
interior pile to a maximum of 40%. Optimal spacing seems to be on the order of 2.5-3.5D or 2-3H for vertical
loads; for groups carrying lateral and/or dynamic loads, larger pile spacings are usually more efficient.
Maximum pile spacings are not given in building codes, but spacings as high as 8 or 10D have been used on
occasion.

Structural Design of Pile Caps

Unless a single pile is used, a cap is necessary to spread the vertical and horizontal loads and any overturning
moments to all the piles in the group. The cap is usually of reinforced concrete, poured on the ground, unless
the soil is expansive. Caps for offshore structures may be fabricated from steel shapes. The pile cap has a
reaction that is a series of concentrated loads (from the piles), and the design considers the column loads and
moments, any soil overlying the cap (if it is below the ground surface), and the weight of the cap. It is usual
practice to assume that:
1. Each pile carries an equal amount of the load for a concentric axial load on the cap, or, for n
piles carrying a total Q, the load, P p, per pile is:
Q
Pp =
n
2. The combined stress equation (assuming a planar stress distribution) is valid for a pile cap
noncentrally loaded, or loaded with a load, Q, and a pair of bending moments, as
Q My x M xy
PP = + 2 + 2
n Σx Σy
where: Mx, My = Moments about x and y axes, respectively.

x, y = Distances from y and x axes to any pile.
∑x2, ∑y2 = Moment of inertia of the group, computed as
I = Io + Ad2 (see Figure 22)
but Io is negligible, and the A term cancels, because it is the pile load that is being computed,
and A appears in both the numerator and denominator.
The assumption that each pile in a group carries equal load may be nearly correct when all the following criteria
are met:
1. The pile cap is in contact with the ground.
2. The piles are all vertical.
3. Load is applied at the center of the pile group.
4. The pile group is symmetrical and the cap is very thick, i.e., very stiff.
In a practical case of a four-pile symmetrical group centrally loaded, each pile will carry one-fourth of the
vertical load regardless of cap rigidity (or thickness). With a fifth pile directly under the load, cap rigidity will
be a significant factor.

20-FT X 20-FT PILE CAP
2
Σy = 2 3 2.5 2 + 3 7.5 2 = 375 pile-ft2
2
Σx = 2 4 7.5 2 = 450 pile-ft2
FIGURE 22

Checking the Structural Design of Pile Caps

When the layout of the pile cap has been established, the depth and reinforcement are determined in a way
similar to that for footings. The factored loads and related internal shears and moments are used to design the
pile cap.
Given below are important guidelines for structural design of pile caps:
1. Bending moments are taken at the same sections as for reinforced concrete footings and are
defined in Section 15.4 of the ACI Code.
2. Pile caps must be reinforced for both positive and negative bending moments. Reinforcement
should be placed so that there is a minimum cover of 3 inches for concrete adjacent to the soil.
Where piles extend into the cap only about 3 inches, the bottom reinforcement should be 3
inches above the pile top in case of concrete cracking around the pile head.
3. Pile caps should extend at least 6 inches beyond the outside face of exterior piles and
preferably 10 inches. When piles extend into the cap more than 3 inches, the bottom rebars
should loop around the pile to avoid splitting a part of the cap due to the pile head moments
and shears.
4. When pile heads are assumed to be fixed, they should extend into the pile cap at least 12
inches. The minimum thickness of pile caps above pile heads is 12 inches (required by ACI
318, Section 15.7).
5. Tension connectors should be used on the pile heads if the piles are subjected to tension
forces.
6. Pile cap shear is computed at critical sections as shown in Figure 23.
The design steps are:
• Determine thickness (based on shear and development length considerations).
- Beam shear near column.

- Perimeter shear near column.
- Beam shear near corner pile.
- Perimeter shear near corner pile.
- Development length of rebars from column or pedestals.

• Determine reinforcing steel area.
- Flexure considerations.
- ACI minimum/maximum requirements.
• Determine reinforcing steel bar size and distribution.
- Development length of bars.

- ACI Section 15.4.
Shear Considerations
Pile caps must be checked for beam shear and perimeter shear near the column or pedestal, in a way similar to
the method used for footings:
1. Beam shear at a distance, d, from the column.
(
V u < φ 2 f ′c bw d )
2. Perimeter shear at a distance, d/2, from the column.
 4
V u < φ 2 + f ′c bo d
 βc 
 α sd
( )
but not greater than φ 4 f c′ bo d or φ 
 bo

+ 2 f c′ b od

These are the same equations as for footings.
The critical sections for these two cases are shown on Figure 23.
In addition, two additional shear conditions must be considered;
3. Beam shear for a corner pile (diameter d p) at a distance, d, from the pile, with edge distance, de.
Factored pile capacity(lbs)

d> inches
[
φ2 f c′ d p + 2d + 2 2de ]
4. Perimeter shear around corner pile at a distance, d/2, from the pile, with edge distance, de.

Factored pile capacity(lbs)

d> inches
[
φ 4 f ′c (d p + d )π /4 + 2d e ]
The critical sections for Items 3 and 4 are shown in Figures 24 and 25.
If any of the above considerations are not satisfied, the thickness of the footing must be increased or shear
reinforcement added. Because most pile caps only have one layer of reinforcement, at the bottom, it is
generally preferred to increase the thickness rather than add shear reinforcement.
PILE CAP SHEAR CRITICAL SECTIONS
Critical Section for

Two-Way Action
1'-3"
Critical Section for d/2 3'-0"

Beam Action
8'-6"
d 3'-0"
1'-3"
1'-3" 3'-0" 3'-0" 1'-3"
Source: Notes on ACI 318-89, Page 24-21. Reprinted with permission from Portland Cement Association,
5420 Old Orchard Rd., Skokie, Illinois 60077.
FIGURE 23

CORNER PILE BEAM SHEAR
Pseudocritical Section for

Beam Shear
Pile
dp
45°
Edge
Distance
de
Authorized reprint from ACI 340.1R - 91, ACI Design Handbook - Volume 1, 1991, Page 354.
FIGURE 24
CORNER PILE PERIMETER SHEAR
Pseudocritical
Section for
Perimeter Shear
2
d/
Pile
dp
Edge
Distance
de
FIGURE 25

Development Length for Dowels

If the shear capacity is inadequate, the pile cap thickness is increased. Shear reinforcement is generally not
used in pile caps. After the shear considerations are checked, the preliminary footing thickness also must be
checked to ensure sufficient anchorage or development length for the column or pedestal reinforcement. Shear
considerations will usually govern the thickness. Dowel development length was provided in Figures 13a and
13b.
Reinforcing Steel Area
The designer, using the factored loads and pile reactions, calculates the moment, M u, at the critical section, per
ACI 318, Section 15.4, in each direction, top and bottom, as necessary. Reinforcement based on flexure is
then determined using Work Aids 2 through 5 of CSE 108.02. For most cases, the amount of steel is governed
by minimum requirements in ACI 318, Section 7.12 for shrinkage and temperature (ρ = 0.0018 - 0.002).
Reinforcing Steel Size/Distribution
Note that the maximum bar diameter is again governed by the development length. The available length is
equal to the distance from the column face to the edge of the pile cap.
The reinforcing steel is uniformly distributed across the width of the pile cap except for reinforcement in the
short direction of a rectangular pile cap. For footings, ACI 15.4 dictates that a certain percentage of the total
steel be distributed within the bandwidth. Note that this distribution provision applies only where
reinforcement is governed by flexure and exceeds the minimum requirements.
Design Aids Available
Most of the structural design requirements have been previously determined for standard pile cap layouts. The
minimum thickness, based on shear considerations, reinforcing steel percentage, and maximum bar size, is
provided in the Appendix, which includes design aids for pile caps containing from two to nine piles. Note that
development length for column dowels and steel distribution in rectangular pile caps must be checked
separately.
Several notes on the use of these design aids follow.
• Shear Checks: The design aids check Shear Considerations 1 and 2 discussed previously. For
thin caps, the designer must manually check for Shear Considerations 3 and 4.

• Pile Capacities: The pile capacities of 20-100 tons per pile are the maximum allowable service
loads (not factored) that must be carried by each pile. It is assumed that all piles
are equally loaded to their full allowable capacity.
• Load Factor: Pile caps are designed by the strength design method, using an average load
factor of 1.55 (for dead plus live load) to be conservative for most design
conditions. Should the effective load factor be higher, a higher pile capacity
should be used with the table.
• Footing Thickness: The design aids provide the effective depth, d, of the pile caps and leave the
determination of total thickness, h f, to the designer.
• Pile Diameter and Spacing: The design aids are based on relatively small pile size (8-in. diameter for 20-
60 ton piles and 10 in. for 80-100 ton piles). Pile spacings of 2.5-3 ft are
assumed.
• Column Dimension, hc: For symmetrical pile caps with the same reinforcement in both directions,
hc is the smaller column dimension.
• Column Width, bc: Values given under "min bc" are minimum column dimensions, in inches,
required to satisfy shear provisions for f'c = 3000 psi. Values of bc may be
reduced for higher-strength concrete. Values must be modified by the designer
when the column aspect ratio is greater than 2.
• Reinforcement Area: Values are based on fy = 60,000 psi; adjust for different yield strengths by
multiplying values by 60,000/f y. Values shown above solid stepped lines satisfy
the minimum shrinkage and temperature requirements. Note that for one-way
pile caps supporting structures such as walls, the minimum steel area ratio, r,
should be increased to 200/fy.
• Maximum Bar Size: The design aids indicate the maximum bar size that can be developed for pile cap
reinforcing steel. Bar development lengths are based on a minimum edge
distance of 1 ft-3 in.
• Minimum Depth: It should be noted that the values of effective depth given in the tables are
minimum values. These values are sensitive to pile position and may be
unconservative if piles are misaligned during installation.

Example Problem 3
SYMMETRICAL PILE-SUPPORTED FOOTING; MINIMUM DEPTH AND REINFORCEMENT
REQUIRED


Work Aid 1: Steps in Preparing a Structural Design For a Foundation

The steps in preparing a structural design for a foundation are:
1) Select a size and shape of footing, or arrangement of piles and pile cap, appropriate for the purpose.
2) Determine the weight of the equipment, structure, the foundation elements, and the soil backfill acting at
the bottom of the foundation.
3) Determine the lateral forces and overturning moments at the level of the anchor bolts and at the top and
4) Calculate average and maximum soil-bearing pressures and stability ratios for erection, operation, water
testing, and other significant load cases.
5) Adjust footing size or piling arrangements to meet minimum design criteria or to eliminate unnecessary
conservatism.
6) Design the reinforcement of slab, pedestals, and other foundation members to resist moments and shears
corresponding to the critical loading conditions. If this detailed structural design requires substantial
change in foundation slab thickness or other dimensions, recheck the soil-bearing or pile loading and
stability calculations.
Unfactored service loads must be used when bearing pressures and stability ratios are compared to allowable
values as in Steps 4 and 5 above. For structural design of the foundation, factored loads are used in conjunction
with the strength design method to determine the thickness and reinforcement. Consequently, unfactored and
factored loads must be determined separately, and both must be used.

(Sheet 1 of 3)
Work Aid 2: Determining Stability Ratio, Lateral Restraint and Soil-Bearing

Pressure
1. Stability ratio.
STABILITY RATIO
Restoring Moment MR = P • D
2
H
Overturning Moment MOT = H • h
P
MR
Stability Ratio =
MOT
h
Eccentricity e = MOT
P
D D
2 2
FIGURE 29
2. Lateral restraint.
Vf = 0.40 x W
3. Soil-bearing pressure.
a) From "Properties Table" (Figure 31), select values for A FDN and SFDN.
b) Check using flexure formula Q = P ± M.
A S
If both values of Q are positive (i.e., no tension), go to Step (f).
c) Calculate e = MOT, then calculate e/D.
P
d) From the nomograph (Figure 30), determine L.
e) Calculate maximum gross pressure, P max = L P

A
f) Calculate maximum net pressure. Q = P max - γd (overburden pressure).

(Sheet 2 of 3)
OCTAGONAL FOOTING DESIGN CURVES
Maximum Soil-Bearing
Pressure at Face or
L L Corner of Octagon:
x x
y y
Pmax =L P
A
Minimum Soil-Bearing
Pressure at Face of
Octagon:
y x y x 1+K
D D Pmin = 0, For K < 0
P e P e Pmin
P -KD
max
+KD
A = Area = 0.828 D 2
Pmax
10.0 -0.6
-0.5
9.0 -0.4
-0.3
K-Value for
8.0 Moment -0.2
About
Axis x - x -0.1
7.0 0.0
L - Values for Moment

6.0 About Axis x - x +0.5
5.0 +1.0
L - Values for
Moment About
4.0 Axis y - y +1.5
3.0 +2.0
2.0 +2.5
1.0 +3.0
0.00 0.04 0.08 0.12 0.16 0.20 0.24 0.28 0.32 0.36 0.40
e/D Ratio
FIGURE 30

(Sheet 3 of 3)
PROPERTIES OF OCTAGONAL SHAPED FOOTINGS
B = 0.293 D
C = 0.414 D
Z = 1.08 D
A = 0.828 D2
I = 0.0547 D4
S = 0.109 D3
D Z A I S D Z A I S
ft ft ft2 ft4 ft3 ft ft ft2 ft4 ft3
4.0 4 13.3 14. 7 23.5 25.44 457.5 16694. 1421
4.5 4.67 16.8 22. 10 24.0 25.98 477.2 18161. 1512
5.0 5.41 20.7 34. 14 24.5 26.52 497.3 19722. 1610
5.5 5.95 25.1 50. 18 25.0 27.06 517.8 21382. 1711
6.0 6.49 29.8 71. 24 26.0 28.14 560.0 25014. 1924
6.5 7.04 35.0 98. 30 27.0 29.22 603.9 29090. 2155
7.0 7.58 40.6 131. 37 28.0 30.31 649.5 33645. 2403
7.5 8.12 46.6 173. 46 29.0 31.39 696.7 38715. 2670
8.0 8.66 53.0 224. 56 30.0 32.47 745.6 44338. 2956
8.5 9.20 59.9 286. 67 31.0 33.55 796.1 50552. 3261
9.0 9.74 67.1 359. 80 32.0 34.64 848.3 57397. 3587
9.5 10.28 74.8 468. 94 33.0 35.72 902.2 64915. 3934
10.0 10.82 82.8 547. 109 34.0 36.80 957.7 73148. 4303
10.5 11.37 91.3 685. 127 35.0 37.88 1014.8 82141. 4694
11.0 11.91 100.2 801. 146 36.0 38.97 1073.6 91938. 5108
11.5 12.45 109.6 957. 166 37.0 40.05 1134.1 102587. 5545
12.0 12.99 119.3 1135. 189 38.0 41.13 1196.2 114136. 6007
12.5 13.53 129.4 1336. 214 39.0 42.21 1260.0 126633. 6494
13.0 14.07 140.0 1563. 240 40.0 43.30 1325.5 140129. 7006
13.5 14.61 151.0 1818. 269 41.0 44.38 1392.6 154646. 7545
14.0 15.15 162.4 2103. 300 42.0 45.46 1461.3 170327. 8111
14.5 15.69 174.2 2420. 334 43.0 46.54 1531.8 187138. 8704
15.0 16.24 186.4 2771. 369 44.0 47.63 1603.8 205163. 9326
15.5 16.78 199.0 3159. 408 45.0 48.71 1677.6 224459. 9976
16.0 17.32 212.1 3587. 448 46.0 49.79 1753.0 245086. 10656
16.5 17.86 225.5 4057. 492 47.0 50.87 1830.0 267103. 11366
17.0 18.40 239.4 4572. 538 48.0 51.95 1908.7 290571. 12107
17.5 18.94 253.7 5134. 587 49.0 53.04 1989.1 315553. 12880
18.0 19.48 268.4 5746. 638 50.0 54.12 2071.1 342111. 13684
18.5 20.02 283.5 6412. 693 51.0 55.20 2154.7 370312. 14522
19.0 20.57 299.1 7133. 751 52.0 56.28 2240.1 400222. 15393
19.5 21.11 315.0 7915. 812 53.0 57.37 2327.1 431908. 16298
20.0 21.65 331.4 8758. 876 54.0 58.45 2415.7 465439. 17238
20.5 22.19 348.1 9667. 943 55.0 59.53 2506.0 500885. 18214
21.0 22.73 365.3 10645. 1014 56.0 60.61 2597.9 538319. 19226
21.5 23.27 382.9 11696. 1088 57.0 61.70 2691.6 577812. 20274
22.0 23.81 401.0 12823. 1166 58.0 62.78 2786.8 619440. 21360
22.5 24.35 419.4 14029. 1247 59.0 63.86 2883.8 663278. 22484
23.0 24.90 438.2 15318. 1332 60.0 64.94 2982.3 709402. 23647
FIGURE 31

Work Aid 3 : Designing Footings

Step 1. Determine minimum depth. Use rule-of-thumb sizing.
Step 2. Check one-way beam shear.
Step 3. Check two-way perimeter shear.
Step 4. Check dowel development length according to Figures 13a and 13b for tension and
compression reinforcement, respectively.
Step 5. Check conservatism/understrength.
Step 6. Determine reinforcement in long direction.
Step 7. Determine reinforcement in short direction.
Step 8. Select bar size and spacing.

Work Aid 4 : Designing Pedestals

Step 1. Check base plate stress.
Step 2. Select pedestal reinforcing bar size and layout, and calculate minimum horizontal
reinforcement according to the codes.
Step 3. Size vertical reinforcement.
AS = 1 4M - W
ft Dp
where:
As = Total area of vertical reinforcement, in 2.
Dp = Bar octagon diameter, ft.
ft = Allowable stress in pedestal reinforcement, psi.
= 0.9 fy.
M = Moment at top of footing, lb-ft.
W = Vertical load at top of footing, lb.
Step 4. Consider pedestal/footing interface and load transfer (ACI Section 15.8). Calculate dowel
requirements to code minimum and standards (ACI Section 11.7).
(As > 0.005 Ap)
where Ap = Gross pedestal area
Vu ≤ φ AsFyµ

Work Aid 5 : Determining Anchor Bolt Requirements

Step 1. Calculate bolt tension.
T = 4M - P
DbN N
where: N = Number of anchor bolts.

Db = Bolt-circle diameter.
M = Overturning moment (unfactored).
P = Corresponding vertical load at top of pedestal (unfactored).
T = Maximum bolt tension.

Step 2. Size to allowable capacities.
ANCHOR BOLT DATA
DIMENSIONS (INCHES) LOAD CAPACITY (KIPS)
A B C D E F G SHEAR TENSION
Anchor Min. Type Length Length Length Length Type Type Type Type
Bolt Depth 2 Thread Thread Hook Sleeve 1, 2, 1 2 3, 4
Dia. Only 3.5 Dia. 15 Dia. Nut on 3, 4
Type 4
1/2” 10 4 1-5/8 - 7-1/2 - - 1.0 1.5 1.8 2.1
5/8” 10 4 1-5/8 - 9-3/8 - - 1.5 1.7 2.3 3.4
3/4” 12 6 2 2-5/8 11-1/4 1-7/8 11 2.2 2.3 3.2 5.1
7/8” 14 6 2 3-1/8 13-1/8 2-1/4 12-3/4 3.2 2.9 4.1 7.0
1” 16 8 2-1/2 3-1/2 15 2-1/2 14-3/4 4.2 3.6 5.1 9.1
1-1/8” 18 8 3 4 16-7/8 2-7/8 16-1/2 5.3 3.8 5.5 11.5
1-1/4” 20 8 3 4-3/8 18-3/4 3-1/8 18-1/4 6.7 4.1 6.5 14.7
1-3/8” 22 8 3-5/8 4-7/8 20-5/8 3-1/2 20-1/4 7.9 7.6 17.6
1-1/2” 24 8 3-5/8 5-1/4 22-1/2 3-3/4 22 9.7 8.7 21.4
1-5/8” 26 8 4-1/8 5-3/4 24-3/8 4-1/8 23-3/4 11.5 9.9 24.4
1-3/4” 28 10 4-3/8 6-1/8 26-1/4 4-3/8 25-1/2 13.2 10.5 28.9
2” 32 10 5 7 30 5 29-1/2 17.4 13.2 38.0
2-1/4” 36 10 5-5/8 7-7/8 33-3/4 5-5/8 33 22.9 15.9 47.7
2-1/2” 40 10 6-1/4 8-3/4 37-1/2 6-1/4 37-1/2 28.3 18.9 58.2
FIGURE 32

Work Aid 6 : Designing Pile Caps

Step 1. Determine thickness (based on shear and development length considerations).
- Beam shear near column.

- Perimeter shear near column.
- Beam shear near corner pile.
- Perimeter shear near corner pile.
- Development length of rebars from column or pedestals.
Step 2. Determine reinforcing steel area.
- Flexure considerations.
- ACI minimum/maximum requirements.
Step 3. Determine reinforcing steel bar size and distribution.
- Development length of bars.

- ACI Section 15.4.

GLOSSARY
beam shear Behavior where shear failure is across entire width of a member.
continuous strip footing Foundation supporting multiple columns in a row or supporting a wall.
critical section Critical location where shear and/or moment capacity is computed.
development length Distance required to transfer force in reinforcing steel into surrounding
concrete by bond/friction stresses.
footing Soil-supported foundation.
gross pressure Maximum soil bearing pressure exerted by foundation and overburden.
mat foundation Large foundation supporting multiple columns.
net pressure Bearing pressure exceeding existing overburden stress.
overturning moment Moment applied to foundation due to lateral loading.
punching shear Behavior where shear failure encircles a column, pedestal, or pile.
restoring moment Total weight of foundation/vessel times one half of foundation diameter or
width.
soil-bearing pressure Pressure applied to soil under foundation.
stability ratio Measure of foundation stability, restoring moment/overturning moment

(dimensionless).
ultimate frictional Maximum resistance against sliding of foundation afforded by soil friction.
lateral restraint

Design Aids
Procedure For Using Design Aids:
ACI 318-89 Step Description Design Aid

Section
Use service Strength Design of Pile Caps Using Special Tables for
loads Pile Cap Design
Given N (kips) total column load (D+L) (service).
∆ N (kips) estimated weight of pile cap and surcharge
over area of cap.
Pa (tons) allowable pile capacity (service).
b x h, pier size, h in investigated direction.
1A. Number
of piles n = N + ∆N = round up to next full number.
required n 2Pa
2A. 2A.1. Select table with required number of piles. Enter FOOTINGS 4
Thickness of with allowable pile capacity Pa (tons) and pier size h (in.)
pile cap hf in the direction to be investigated.
2A.1a. If β c, ratio of long side to short side of the
11.11.2 supported column, is greater than 2, enter table with
adjusted allowable pile capacity Pa x Kv6 .
Kv6 = 4 / 2 + 4/β c
2A.2. Select effective depth, d, of pile cap for condition

where actual pier size, b (perpendicular to investigated
Commentary direction), is larger than bmin given in table.
15.5 Note: Investigate shear around individual piles other than
beam shear and perimeter shear around corner piles
(which have been considered in FOOTINGS 4 tables).
2A.3. Determine hf = d + (~7 in.).
Note: ACI 318-89 Commentary Section 15.5.3 says:

"When piles are located inside the critical sections d or
d/2 from face of column, analysis for shear in deep
flexure members in accordance with Section 11.8 must be
considered."
Authorized reprint from ACI 340.1R - 91, ACI Design Handbook - Volume 1, 1991, Pages 50-51.

ACI 318-89 Step Description Design Aid

Section
3A. As = (Table value is total As in investigated direction).
Reinforcemen Note: Reinforcement selection is made using actual Pa
t even though an adjusted value may have been used in
Step 2A.1a to find hf .
4A. Bar 4A.1. Read maximum bar size that can be used, at top of
selection table.
4A.2. Determine bar size and number of bars to be used in
investigated direction.
Note: Unless pile arrangement and pier are square, repeat
investigation for other direction.
Recompute thickness, selecting the larger of:
(a) Using d required for beam shear
hf = d + db / 2 + 7 in.
(b) Using d required for perimeter shear
hf = d + db + 7 in.
15.4.4 5A. Bar 5A.1. For square pile caps, piers, and pile arrangement,
distribution use uniform spacing of bars in both directions.
5A.2. For rectangular pile caps, piers, and pile ACI Section 15.4
arrangement, place bars as required by code.
For uniform spacing in either direction, increase

reinforcement in short direction to
ACI Section 15.4
2A β
Asa = s , β = /b
β +1
A s = Area of steel in short direction as calculated for

flexure.
Authorized reprint from ACI 340.1R - 91, ACI Design Handbook - Volume 1, 1991, Pages 50-51.












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Engineering Encyclopedia

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Analysis and Design Of

Chapter : Structural, On-shore For additional information on this subject, contact

PREPARING A STRUCTURAL DESIGN FOR A FOUNDATION ............................................... 1

IDENTIFYING TYPICAL REFINERY EQUIPMENT FOUNDATIONS ....................................... 2

DETERMINING STABILITY RATIO, LATERAL RESTRAINT, AND SOIL-

Stability Ratio and Lateral Restraint Check ...................................................................... 10

Soil-bearing Pressure Calculation ..................................................................................... 11

DESIGNING FOOTINGS .............................................................................................................. 19

Approximate Required Thickness..................................................................................... 19

Shear Considerations ........................................................................................................ 19

Development Length for Dowels ...................................................................................... 23

Reinforcing Steel Area...................................................................................................... 26

Reinforcing Steel Size/Distribution .................................................................................. 26

DETERMINING ANCHOR BOLT REQUIREMENTS................................................................. 34

INTRODUCTION TO PILED FOUNDATIONS ........................................................................... 36

Introduction to Piled Foundations..................................................................................... 36

Laterally Loaded Piles ...................................................................................................... 37

Single Piles vs. Pile Groups .............................................................................................. 38

STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF PILE CAPS..................................................................................... 42

Checking the Structural Design of Pile Caps .................................................................... 44

Shear Considerations ........................................................................................................ 45

Development Length for Dowels ...................................................................................... 48

Reinforcing Steel Area...................................................................................................... 48

Reinforcing Steel Size/Distribution .................................................................................. 48

Design Aids Available ...................................................................................................... 48

WORK AID 1: STEPS IN PREPARING A STRUCTURAL DESIGN FOR A

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

WORK AID 2: DETERMINING STABILITY RATIO, LATERAL RESTRAINT

WORK AID 3: DESIGNING FOOTINGS ............................................................................... 56

WORK AID 4: DESIGNING PEDESTALS ............................................................................. 57

WORK AID 5: DETERMINING ANCHOR BOLT REQUIREMENTS .................................. 58

WORK AID 6: DESIGNING PILE CAPS................................................................................ 60

DESIGN AIDS ............................................................................................................................... 62

Procedure For Using Design Aids: ................................................................................... 62

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Preparing a Structural Design for a Foundation

The steps in preparing a structural design for a foundation are:

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 1

Identifying Typical Refinery Equipment Foundations

• Overhead structure foundations.

• Vertical vessel foundations.

• Horizontal drum foundations.

• Grade-level heat exchanger foundations.

• Pipe support structure foundations.

• Grade-level machinery foundations.

• Elevated machinery foundations.

Some of these foundation types are shown in Figures 1-6.

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 2

VERTICAL CYLINDRICAL HEATER FOUNDATION

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 3

ELEVATED REACTOR FOUNDATION

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 4

ELEVATED VERTICAL VESSEL SUPPORT STRUCTURE

VERTICAL VESSEL FOUNDATION

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 5

HORIZONTAL DRUM FOUNDATION