CCC 2022 Questions

Associate Professor VO DAI QUANG, Ph.D.
; VNU High-Ranking Lecturer
LECTURE 1
INTRODUCTION
QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
1. What is ‘Culture’?
2. What is ‘Communication’?
3. What are the elements of culture?
4. What is meant by ‘high context’ and ‘low context’?
5. What is meant by ‘monochronic’ and ‘polychronic’ time orientation?
6. What are the dimensions (initiated by Geert Hofstede) that provide an extremely useful way of
analyzing and understanding cultures?
7. What are the seven steps in the strategic communication model offered by communication
expert Mary Munter?
8. What are the possible guidelines that help communicate well within your corporate culture and
across international cultures?
9. Discuss politeness as an inherent feature of cross-cultural communication.
LECTURE 2
POLITENESS: ONE ASPECT OF COMMUNICATION
Read the Pragmatics lectures provided to give brief answers to the following questions:
1. What is politeness as defined in Brown & Levinson’s politeness theory?
2. What are the approaches to politeness you have been informed of?
3. What are the pivotal concepts in these politeness theories?
4. What is the pivotal concept in the politeness theory advocated by Brown & Levinson?
5. What is ‘face’?
6. What is ‘speech act’? What are the 3 related acts in producing an utterance?
7. Discuss the Cooperative Principle and the Conversational maxims.

1
Associate Professor VO DAI QUANG, Ph.D.; VNU High-Ranking Lecturer
8. In what way is politeness created in verbal communication via conversation?
9. What is ‘implicature’ (implied meaning)?
10. How can implicature be created in communication via conversation? Give examples for
illustration.
11. What is meant by ‘positive politeness’ and ‘negative politeness’? Give examples for
illustration.
12. Is it possible to say that politeness is an inherent property of communication? Why is it the
fact?
13. In what way is implicature different from presupposition?
LECTURE 3
RELATIONSHIPS: INDIVIDUAL OR COLLECTIVE
1. What are the two self-definitions programmed into each one of us from a very early age by our
cultures?
2. What is the strength brought about by the individualism / collectivism dynamic?
3. What are the caveats related to the individualism/collectivism dynamic that needs to be kept in
mind?
4. Where, as far as you know, do people place great importance on individuality, independence,
and self-reliance?
5. Where, as far as you know, are children taught to be autonomous, to think and speak for
themselves, to ask questions in class, to make choices, to assume responsibility for their
decisions, and to be accountable for their actions?
6. What are the core beliefs of people in individualist cultures?
7. What is the citizenship goal in most individualist cultures?
8. What are the types of issues and problems encountered by people in individualist cultures?
9. How are life decisions normally made by the individual in individualist cultures?
2
10. Why are individual rights and needs taken over precedence over group rights and needs in
individualist cultures?
11. How are relationships viewed in individualist cultures? What do you know about people’s
attitude toward contracts in these cultures?
12. Why do most of individuals in individualist cultures have a greater physical space and
privacy requirement than that seen in collective cultures?
13. Where and how can the requirement for privacy be seen?
14. True or false?
- One of the most powerful ways in which human beings express their individuality is through
communication?
- How you express your thoughts, ideas, opinions, and feelings is what makes you unique.
15. What is the communication tendency in individualist cultures?
16. Why is it the practice that, in individualist cultures, communication is expected to reflect the
speaker or writer and appreciate clear, direct, explicit communication that can be decoded easily
(direct explicit messages)?
17. Why is a linear, cause-and-effect thought pattern characteristic of individualist cultures?
18. Why is it the expectation of messages that individuals may ‘sell’ themselves and assert their
accomplishments in resumes and interviews and assume responsibility for mistakes?
19. What can be seen as the most characteristic feature in individualist cultures regarding
business?
20. How is business success to be measured in individualist cultures?
21. How is competitiveness viewed in individualist cultures?
22. What is the common view held by businesspeople in individualist cultures?
23. What is thought to be the starting point for most human action and decision in collective
cultures, in sharp contrast to individualist cultures?
24. In which parts of the world is collectivism found common?
25. What are children taught to do in relation to elders and the family in collective cultures?
3
26. What, as far as you know, are the core beliefs of people in collective cultures?
27. How do members of collective cultures see themselves in relation to others?
28. What are the major issues to be investigated into regarding the group as the pivotal unit in
collective cultures?
30. What are the collective values cherished by collectivist cultures?
31. Is it true that, in collectivist cultures, the ‘we’ is emphasized over the ‘I’?
32. Give an example to illustrate the fact that, in collectivist cultures, group rights and needs
dominate.
33. In what way are collectivist cultures different from cultures that value individualism with
respect to space?
34. How does tolerance for shared space in collective cultures occur in both business and
personal environment?
35. Is it an observable fact that explicit and direct communication is less important in collective
cultures?
36. Why are messages in collective cultures indirect and ambiguous?
37. What type of logic is favored and employed in collective cultures? Why? Examples?
38. What is the common view in most collective cultures on relationships and results?
39. How are data viewed in collective cultures?
40. Where is the focus in collective cultures with regard to business?
41. What should be remembered when conducting business in individualist cultures?
42. What should be remembered when conducting business in in collective cultures?
LECTURE 4
SOCIAL FRAMEWORKS: HIGH CONTEXT OR LOW CONTEXT
1. What are the labels identified by Edward Hall in his development of a way to understand
cultures by examining social frameworks?
4
2. What is the essential difference between low context cultures and high context cultures?
3. Where, as far as you have been informed of, can high context vs. low context cultures be
found?
4. What, in your opinion, is the advantage of knowing Hall’s analysis of the social framework for
messages within different cultures?
5. What are the nine aspects of the social framework of ‘high context’ cultures?
6. What type of meaning have people from high context cultures been taught from early
childhood to look for?
7. What means are often resorted to in nonverbal communication?
8. In what type of cultures, high context or low context, do people rely more heavily on
nonverbal communication?
9. Why must nonverbal communication be carefully observed for effective communication to

take place?
10. What children in high-context cultures imbued with?
11. What is the common attitude of businesspeople in high-context cultures towards relationships
and transactions on the job?
12. What type of decision is favored in high-context cultures?
13. How are employees seen in high-context cultures?
14. Why would family members be preferred over strangers in hiring decisions in high-context
cultures?
15. What do people from high-context cultures rely on to guide them in decision making?
16. How do business people from high-context cultures begin a letter or an email?
17. How are business presentations done in high-context cultures?
18. How will issues be discussed by people from high-context cultures?
19. In what ways is it said that business people from high-context cultures adhere to the spirit of
the law?
20. What, as far as you are informed of, are the nine aspects of ‘low-context’ cultures?
5
21. How is message statement preferred in low-context cultures?
22. How is it that low-context cultures emphasize verbal communication over nonverbal
communication?
23. How are job tasks and relationships seen in low-context cultures?
24. How is it that low-context cultures emphasize individual initiative and decision making?
25. What is the most prominent feature of employer/employee relationship in low-context

cultures? Discuss this in detail.
26. Is it true that people from low-context cultures rely on facts, statistics, and other details as
supporting evidence? Clarify this point.
27. What type of reasoning is preferred by businesspeople from low-context cultures? Clarify
this point.
28. How is the law adhered to in low-context cultures?
29. What are the possible guidelines for effective business communication?
LECTURE 5
TIME: LINEAR, FLEXIBLE, OR CYCLICAL?
1. How is time viewed differently in different cultures?
2. What, as far as you know, are the three most common ways cultures define or measure time?
3. How is time viewed by people in cultures that have a linear concept of time?
4. How important are schedules in cultures that define time in a linear fashion?
5. What, as far as is informed, are the views of the people in linear-time cultures on time-related
issues?
6. How do people in linear cultures value time?
7. What can be commented on linear cultures’ belief in the future?
8. How do linear cultures view change?

6
9. How do linear-time cultures measure time? Example expressions?
10. What is the common attitude towards time in cultures that view time as flexible? What
cultures are flexible about time?
11. How is time viewed in connection with schedules and relationships in flexible-time cultures?
12. Why do people in flexible-time cultures tend to focus on the present?
13. What is people’s attitude towards measurement of time or earnings in flexible-time cultures?
14. What, as far as you know, are the utterances that capture the subordination of the clock to
human reality in flexible-time cultures?
15. What, in general, need to be remembered about flexible-time cultures?
16. Is it the observed tendency that both linear-time cultures and flexible, multi-tasking cultures
believe they manage and control time?
17. What is the tendency related to time and life connection in cyclical-time cultures?
19. What is the common logic-related belief in cyclical-time cultures?
20. How are decisions made in cyclical cultures?
21. What is the prominent relationship-related feature of cyclical cultures?
22. Why do people in cyclical cultures pay a great deal of attention to the past?
23. Is it the fact that, in cyclical cultures, planning is very long term and earnings per share or per
quarter are far less important than the building of equity? Why?
25. How should business be conducted in linear cultures?
26. How should business be conducted in flexible cultures?
27. How should business be conducted in cyclical cultures?
LECTURE 6
POWER: HIERARCHICAL OR DEMOCRATIC?
1. What is ‘power distance’? Is consideration of power distance one approach to thinking about
power?
7
2. What is the major tendency of communication in ‘high power distance’ cultures?
3. What is the major tendency of communication in ‘low power distance’ cultures?
4. What are the major features of ‘high power distance’ and ‘low power distance’ cultures?
5. How can power be ensured within an organization?
6. Why do some cultures prefer hierarchical organizational structure and others do not?
7. What are the three elements of Confucian thought that help explain the Asian culture’s
preference for a clearly defined hierarchy?
8. How is ‘harmony’ to be understood?
9. What is ‘face’”?’ In what way is it related to ‘hierarchy’?
10. What are the bad effects brought about by losing face?
11. What kind of knowledge is important for obtaining awareness of maintaining face?
12. What type of duties and responsibilities do Confucian beliefs strictly define?
13. Is it the tendency that hierarchical cultures are more comfortable with a clear hierarchy in
business, government, religion, and even family life?
14. What, as far as you know, are the hierarchical cultures?
15. What is the stark contrast between Eastern cultures and the cultures of United States,
Northern Europe, Australia, and New Zealand?
16. What are the three aspects of democratic cultures?
17. What type of relationship exists among workers in democratic cultures? Examples?
18. What is the information flow feature typical of Western cultures such as the United States,
Northern Europe, Australia, and New Zealand?
19. Is it true that in a democratic or flat organizational structure, everyone may share
information? If yes, how can the question of control of the unlimited information flow?
20. Why is it the fact in Japan that the back seat in a car is for the most important member?
21. What can be seen as signs and symbols of power?
22. ‘A person’s education and choice of profession may indicate power’ Clarify this point.
8
23. ‘In some cultures, a person’s family status and connections may be just as important as
education or hard work’. Illustrate this with examples.
24. How is ‘age’ as a sign of power assessed in different cultures around the world?
25. Gender can indicate relative power in many countries. How is this reflected in different
cultures?
26. In what way does language demonstrate power in many countries?
27. How is attire viewed in different cultures?
28. It is a known fact that the use of titles can indicate hierarchy in many cultures and that
greeting behavior can also indicate who is more powerful. Illustrate these pieces of information
with examples.
29. How is first name used in different cultures?
30. What are the questions the answers to which will reveal information about power &
hierarchy and help you understand your communication audience?
31. What should be the suggestions once you’ve asked the questions mentioned above?
LECTURE 7
USING LANGUAGE
1. What must we recognize if we are to successfully communicate across cultures?
2. In what way is language considered powerful? Examples?
3. How does the English language have impacts on culture?
4. In what way is it seen that reality is measurable by way of thinking, space and time?
5. In what way does English reveal the assumption that individuals are responsible?
6. What type of message do English people like?
7. What are the prominent characteristics of Sino-Tibetan family of languages related to value,
belief, thinking, and communication?
9
8. Why is it possible to say that reality reflected in Sino-Tibetan languages is complex and
impressionistic?
9. Why should messages be indirect and impersonal in Sino-Tibetan languages?
10. Why are direct expressions of personal perceptions or opinions usually avoided in Sino-
Tibetan languages?
11. How prevalent has English become today?
12. What are the possible guidelines for facilitating cross-cultural communication
LECTURE 8
WRITING
QUESONS FOR DISCUSSION
1. How fertile is the ground for cross-cultural communication in written messages?
2. Is it an observed fact that more is going on than words on paper, and it is often the case that
cultural disconnects, diverse cultural outlooks may lead to incorrect interpretations of messages?
3. Whom is writing communication channel preferred by? English communicators or

communicators from other cultures?
4. What are the business environment and business organizations like in the United States,
Canada, Western Europe, Australia, and New Zealand?
5. How important are written contracts in the face of increased government regulation and the
threat of consumer lawsuits?
6. Why are new technologies, systems, and products quickly espoused and used as soon as they
come off the assembly line?
7. Why does technology appear the ideal answer in the quest for efficiency in the United States
and most of Western Europe?
8. How is the sentence ‘Please call if you have any question’ interpreted in the U.S. and in
relational cultures such as Nigeria?
9. Is a personal call preferred to a written document in such cultures as India, many Southeast
Asian countries, Africa, and much of South America?
10. What may preclude widespread usage of technology in Indonesia and Malaysia?
10
11. How is getting straight to the point as quickly as possible viewed by Americans?
12. Which English sentence pattern is seen as a means for putting people at the center of the
universe and illustrates a core belief in the value of doing (not just being)?
13. Why may writers of other languages not place as great a value on directness?
14. In which cultures is business transaction considered less important than human feelings?
15. How is the written message viewed in these cultures?
16. Why do Asian cultures often begin their written communication with description of the
season and its beauty and bounty?
This reflects that people must live in harmony with nature.
17. How is directness in written messages viewed in Arabic countries?
18. Why is it the fact that English writers prefer immediate messages?
19. Why is it the fact that writers of languages other than English may delay writing? Examples?
20. Why is it the fact that English language writers value clear, concise writing?
21. Why is it the fact that writers of languages other than English place less emphasis on clarity
and conciseness? Examples?
22. What are the possible guidelines that help produce more effective written communication for
partners and associates.
LECTURE 9
COMMUNICATING NONVERBALLY
QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION AND/OR CLASSROOM PRESENTATION
1. What does nonverbal communication include?
2. True or false?
3. What is considered the secret to successful effective nonverbal communication across

cultures?
4. True or false?
5. In what way does social hierarchy affect eye contact?

11
6. Is it the fact that facial expressions vary greatly across cultures as they convey many emotions
such as anger, happiness, sadness, and surprise?
7. What are the two aspects of facial expression commonly observed?
8. True or false?
9. Is it the fact that the use of the hands to gesture varies across cultures?
10. ‘The specific meaning of gestures also varies among cultures’. Illustrate this with examples
you know.
11. Is posture another area where cultural differences can cause miscommunication?
12. How are executives and government officials expected to sit in France?
13. What does a slouching posture mean in the U.S.?
14. What can a generally slumping posture and slow walk with head cast downward indicate in
many cultures?
15. What does a shrug of the shoulders indicate?
16. Can turning away from someone as they speak or crossing the arms mean that the receiver is
rejecting an idea?
17. True or false? Men and women tend to adjust their body posture differently. Women in the
United States are more likely to face each other as they speak. Men tend to stand beside each
other as they speak unless they are angry or showing aggressiveness.
18. Is it possible to say that communicating nonverbally also involves touching?
19. How is touching practiced in nonverbal communication in Latino cultures, Northern

European cultures, and in Arab cultures?
20. Is it the fact that the use of space in greeting behavior will usually be consistent with other
nonverbal communication within that culture?
21. How is bowing practiced in Japan?
22. How is hands together practiced in Hindu culture?
23. How are handshakes practiced in the Netherlands and the U.S., and in France, India, and
many Asian countries?
12
24. How is kissing practiced in the Mediterranean cultures, and in some Slavic and European
cultures?
25. What do you know about the conversational space preferred by businesspeople from British
cultures and Arab cultures?
26. True or false?
27. What do you know about the attitude toward time in the U.S. and Northern Europe, and in
many Latin American and Mediterranean cultures?
28. Is it an observed fact that silence and rhythm of language vary depending on what the culture
teaches?
29. How is silence viewed by Euro-Americans and Northern Europeans?
30. How is silence viewed by people from Asian cultures?
31. What are the possible guidelines for nonverbal communication across cultures with respect to
the following aspects: eye contact, facial expressions, gestures, posture and body language,
touching, greeting behavior, conversational space, office space, dress and accessories, time,
silence, gender considerations?
LECTURE 10
NEGOTIATING: PROCESS, PERSUATION, AND LAW
1. What is meant by ‘negotiation’?
2. What will success depend on in the early stages of international negotiation?
3. What are the elements of negotiation?
4. What might broad objectives include?
5. What kind of team members should be chosen to achieve success in negotiations?
6. What are the elements of credibility that must be considered when making decisions?
7. How is goodwill established by cultures in most African countries?
8. How can credibility be enhanced?
13
9. What are the qualities required of a translator in cross-cultural communication?
10. Do room arrangements vary among cultures and within a culture? Examples?
11. How do cultures define time itself?
12. Is it an observable fact that patience is one of the most important negotiating tactics? Clarify
this point.
13. How are negative messages to be interpreted?
14. How is conclusion viewed by different cultures?
15. How are concessions used in negotiation by different cultures? Examples?
16. How can persuasiveness in negotiation process be enhanced?
17. What are the types of reasoning used in different cultures?
18. How does using the wrong form of logic affect negotiation process?
19. What should be done to enhance persuasiveness in a negotiation when your audience feels
anxious, fearful, or jealous?
20. Is it an observed fact that knowing how the culture expresses emotion is also important in
intercultural communication? Examples?
21. Do you agree to these statements?
22. What are the five factors that are the most important in establishing credibility as listed by
Munter?
23. How is rank defined by Munter and how does it influence the outcome of a negotiation?
24. What is meant by “goodwill”?
25. The importance of goodwill varies from culture to culture. Illustrate this with examples.
26. What is “expertise” as defined by Munter?
27. How does culture influence the extent to which expertise matters?
28. What is “image’ as defined by Munter?
29. How does image affect persuasiveness in a negotiation?
14
30. What is meant by “common ground”?
31. Do you agree or disagree to these statements?
31. What do legal systems consist of?
32. What are the three forms of law that can influence the outcome of any international
negotiation?
33. What is the overall goal of common law?
34. How was the common law system brought about?
35. What are some of the countries that use common law?
36. Why was it difficult to conduct business across states with any assurance of redress for
problems?
37. What does code law establish in contrast to common law, which is based on past precedents?
38. What do important historical examples of code law include?
39. What are the countries that use code law?
40. What are the major noted features of Sharia law?
41. Enumerate some of the organizations that have developed to facilitate international and
regional business.
42. What have you been informed of the WTO, EU, and NAFTA?
43. What, as far as you have been informed of, is the advantage of mediation and arbitration?
44. Enumerate some of the organizations that offer assistance with mediation and arbitration.
45. What are the possible guidelines for negotiation?
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
SUGGESTED FORMAT FOR ASSIGNMENT WRITING
MAIN TEXT
Section1: Introduction
- Rationale for the study/problem statement

15
- Aim(s) of the research
- Objective(s) of the research
- Research question(s)
- Structural organization of the assignment
- Significance: Theoretical and/or practical
Section 2: Literature Review
- Review of theoretical background
- Review of Previous research work(s)
Section 3: Methodology
- Research design
- Research approach: qualitative/quantitative; top-down/bottom-up, longitudinal/cross-sectional
- Research method: major method(s), supporting method(s)
- Data collection instrument(s): test, interview, questionnaire, …
- Data Analysis technique(s)
- Research procedure
Section 4: Finding(s) and Discussion
(i) ….
(ii) ….
(iii) ….
……………………………….
Section 5: Conclusion
- Concluding remarks on each of the objectives set forth
- Recommendation(s) [if any]
- Suggestion(s) for further research [if any]

16
References
- References are to be provided in their original (published) language in accordance with the
alphabetical order of authors’ names.
- References are to be given in conformity with APA Standards. Examples:
Vo Dai Quang (2005). Semantics. Ha Noi: Culture & Information Publishing House.

Vo Dai Quang (2005). Some Issues in Syntax, Semantics, Pragmatics, and Phonology. Ha Noi:
Culture & Information Publishing House
Vo Dai Quang (2004). X-Bar Syntax: An Effective Tool for Syntactic Analysis.
Hanoi: Language journal; Linguistics Institute – Vietnam Institute for Social Sciences, pp. 53-62
Vo Dai Quang (2007). Modality in the Sentence-Utterance: Some Basic Theoretical Issues.
Hanoi: VNU Science journal, N0 3-2007, pp. 1-12
Vo Dai Quang (2009). Modality-expressing Means in English and Vietnamese. Hanoi: VNU
Publishing House
Vo Dai Quang (2014). Semantico-pragmatic Analysis of English and Vietnamese Questions
Proper. Hanoi: VNU Publishing House
Vo Dai Quang (2006). Investigating Means and Devices Conveying Interpersonal Meaning in
English and Vietnamese Genuine Questions and Declarative Sentences. Ha Noi: VNU research
project (Ministry-level equivalent); Code: CB. 03.33
Vo Dai Quang (2010). Negative Modal Meaning in the Sentence-Utterance in English and
Vietnamese. Ha Noi: VNU research project (Ministry-level equivalent); Code: QN. 08.02
Vo Dai Quang (2018). Intonational Phonology: A Sketch for English Intonation. Hanoi:
Language and Life Journal, N0 11B(279)2018, pp. 10-25; ISSN0868-3409
Vo Dai Quang (2018). Approaches to Establishing Phonological Structure. Hanoi: VNU Journal
of Foreign Studies. Volume 34, N0 6(2008), pp. 60-70, ISSN 2525-2445
Yule, G (2997). Pragmatics. Oxford: Oxford University Press
Võ Đại Quang (2018). Approaches to Establishing Phonological Structure. Hanoi: VNU Journal
of Foreign Studies, ISSN 2525-2445; No 6-2018, vol.34; pp. 60-70.
Võ Đại Quang (2018). Intonational Phonology: A Sketch for English Intonation. Hanoi: Journal
of Language and Life, ISSN 0868-3409; No 11B (279); pp. 10-15.
17
Võ Đại Quang (2002). Âm vị học tạo sinh: Phân tích phái sinh và một số vấn đề âm vị học tiếng
Anh. Đại học Quốc gia Hà Nội: Đề tài NCKH, Mã số 01.N05/ KH-BD.
Võ Đại Quang (2018). Principles of English Phonetics and Phonology (Collection of lectures
for MA & PhD students). Hanoi: VNU University of Languages and International Studies (For
internal distribution).
COVER
- Title of training institution: …
- Title of assignment: …
- Name and title of Lecturer
- Student’s full name, phone number, email address
- Place and year of assignment writing: …
SOURCE INDICATION
- Verbatim citation must be placed between quotation marks immediately followed by source
indication.
- Sources are to be provided in this manner:
“……..” (Yule, G., 1997 : 36)
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
CROSS-CULTURAL COMMUNICATION
SUGGESTED TOPICS FOR ASSIGNMENT WRTING
Choose either of the topics below for assignment writing:
1. A Cross-Cultural Pragmatics of How the Americans and the Vietnamese Respond to

Compliments in English.
2. A Contrastive Analysis of the Writing Styles Preferred by the Americans and the Vietnamese:
Characteristic Features and Possible Explanations.
3. A Comparative Study on How the Americans and the Vietnamese Criticize Others.
4. A Contrastive Analysis of cultural perceptions the North Americans and the Vietnamese with
Respect to Social Framework.
18
5. An Investigation into Cultural Patterns of Behavior by the Americans and the Vietnamese with
Respect to Relationships.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
APA FORMAT CITATION GUIDE
Core Components of an APA Reference:
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
USEFUL GUIDES FOR ASSIGNMENT/THESIS WRITING1
1. INTRODUCTION
The introduction leads the reader from a general subject area to a particular topic of inquiry. It
establishes the scope, context, and significance of the research being conducted by summarizing
current understanding and background information about the topic, stating the purpose of the
work in the form of the research problem supported by a hypothesis or a set of questions,
explaining briefly the methodological approach used to examine the research problem,
highlighting the potential outcomes your study can reveal, and outlining the remaining structure
and organization of the paper.
1
Abstracted from different scholarly sources at USC Libraries
19
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
- A literature review surveys books, scholarly articles, and any other sources relevant to a
particular issue, area of research, or theory, and by so doing, provides a description, summary,
and critical evaluation of these works in relation to the research problem being investigated.
Literature reviews are designed to provide an overview of sources you have explored while
researching a particular topic and to demonstrate to your readers how your research fits within a
larger field of study.
- The purpose of a literature review is to:
 Place each work in the context of its contribution to understanding the research problem
being studied.
 Describe the relationship of each work to the others under consideration.
 Identify new ways to interpret prior research.
 Reveal any gaps that exist in the literature.
 Resolve conflicts amongst seemingly contradictory previous studies.
 Identify areas of prior scholarship to prevent duplication of effort.
 Point the way in fulfilling a need for additional research.
 Locate your own research within the context of existing literature (very important).
3. METHODOLOGY
3.1.The methods section describes actions to be taken to investigate a research problem and the
rationale for the application of specific procedures or techniques used to identify, select, process,
and analyze information applied to understanding the problem, thereby, allowing the reader to
critically evaluate a study’s overall validity and reliability. The methodology section of a
research paper answers two main questions: How was the data collected or generated? And,
how was it analyzed? The writing should be direct and precise and always written in the past
tense.
3.2. The introduction to your methodology section should begin by restating the research
problem and underlying assumptions underpinning your study. The remainder of your
methodology section should describe the following:
 Decisions made in selecting the data you have analyzed or, in the case of qualitative
research, the subjects and research setting you have examined,
 Tools and methods used to identify and collect information, and how you identified
relevant variables,
20
 The ways in which you processed the data and the procedures you used to analyze that
data, and
 The specific research tools or strategies that you utilized to study the underlying
hypothesis and research questions.
3.3. An effectively written methodology section should:
 Introduce the overall methodological approach for investigating your research

problem. Is your study qualitative or quantitative or a combination of both (mixed
method)? Are you going to take a special approach, such as action research, or a more
neutral stance?
 Indicate how the approach fits the overall research design. Your methods for gathering
data should have a clear connection to your research problem. In other words, make sure
that your methods will actually address the problem.
 Describe the specific methods of data collection you are going to use, such as surveys,
interviews, questionnaires, observation, archival research. If you are analyzing existing
data, such as a data set or archival documents, describe how it was originally created or
gathered and by whom. Also be sure to explain how older data is still relevant to
investigating the current research problem.
 Explain how you intend to analyze your results. Will you use statistical analysis? Will
you use specific theoretical perspectives to help you analyze a text or explain observed
behaviors? Describe how you plan to obtain an accurate assessment of relationships,
patterns, trends, distributions, and possible contradictions found in the data.
4. RESULTS
 The results section is where you report the findings of your study based upon the
methodology (or methodologies) you applied to gather information. The results section
should state the findings of the research arranged in a logical sequence without bias or
interpretation. A section describing results is particularly necessary if your paper includes
data generated from your own research.
 When formulating the results section, it's important to remember that the results of a
study do not prove anything. Findings can only confirm or reject the hypothesis
underpinning your study. However, the act of articulating the results helps you to
understand the problem from within, to break it into pieces, and to view the research
problem from various perspectives.
21
 The page length of this section is set by the amount and types of data to be reported. Be
concise, using non-textual elements appropriately, such as figures and tables, to present
findings more effectively. In deciding what data to describe in your results section, you
must clearly distinguish information that would normally be included in a research paper
from any raw data or other content that could be included as an appendix. In general, raw
data that has not been summarized should not be included in the main text of your paper
unless requested to do so by your professor.
 Avoid providing data that is not critical to answering the research question. The
background information you described in the introduction section should provide the
reader with any additional context or explanation needed to understand the results. A
good strategy is to always re-read the background section of your paper after you have
written up your results to ensure that the reader has enough context to understand the
results (and, later, how you interpreted the results in the discussion section of your paper).
5. DISCUSSION
5.1. The purpose of the discussion section
The purpose of the discussion is to interpret and describe the significance of your findings in
light of what was already known about the research problem being investigated and to explain
any new understanding or insights that emerged as a result of your study of the problem. The
discussion will always connect to the introduction by way of the research questions or
hypotheses you posed and the literature you reviewed, but the discussion does not simply repeat
or rearrange the first parts of your paper; the discussion clearly explains how your study
advanced the reader's understanding of the research problem from where you left them at
the end of your review of prior research.
5.2. The importance of the discussion section
The discussion section is often considered the most important part of your research paper
because this is where you:
(i) Most effectively demonstrates your ability as a researcher to think critically about an issue, to
develop creative solutions to problems based upon a logical synthesis of the findings, and to
formulate a deeper, more profound understanding of the research problem under investigation,
(ii) Present the underlying meaning of your research, note possible implications in other areas of
study, and explore possible improvements that can be made in order to further develop the
concerns of your research,
22
(iii) Highlight the importance of your study and how it may be able to contribute to and/or help
fill existing gaps in the field. If appropriate, the discussion section is also where you state how
the findings from your study revealed and helped fill gaps in the literature that had not been
previously exposed or adequately described, and
(iv) Engage the reader in thinking critically about issues based upon an evidence-based
interpretation of findings; it is not governed strictly by objective reporting of information.
5.3. The Content of the discussion section

The content of the discussion section of your paper most often includes:
(i) Explanation of results: comment on whether or not the results were expected for each set of
results; go into greater depth to explain findings that were unexpected or especially profound. If
appropriate, note any unusual or unanticipated patterns or trends that emerged from your results
and explain their meaning in relation to the research problem.
(ii) References to previous research: either compare your results with the findings from other
studies or use the studies to support a claim. This can include re-visiting key sources already
cited in your literature review section, or, save them to cite later in the discussion section if they
are more important to compare with your results instead of being a part of the general literature
review of research used to provide context and background information. Note that you can make
this decision to highlight specific studies after you have begun writing the discussion section.
(iii) Deduction: a claim for how the results can be applied more generally. For example,
describing lessons learned, proposing recommendations that can help improve a situation, or
highlighting best practices.
(iv) Hypothesis: a more general claim or possible conclusion arising from the results (which
may be proved or disproved in subsequent research). This can be framed as new research
questions that emerged as a result of your analysis.
5.4. Organization and Structure

Keep the following sequential points in mind as you organize and write the discussion section of
your paper:
(i) Think of your discussion as an inverted pyramid. Organize the discussion from the general to
the specific, linking your findings to the literature, then to theory, then to practice (if
appropriate).
23
(ii) Use the same key terms, narrative style, and verb tense (present) that you used when
describing the research problem in your introduction.
(iii) Begin by briefly re-stating the research problem you were investigating and answer all of the
research questions underpinning the problem that you posed in the introduction.
(iv) Describe the patterns, principles, and relationships shown by each of the major findings and
place them in proper perspective. The sequence of this information is important; first state the
answer, then the relevant results, then cite the work of others. If appropriate, refer the reader to a
figure or table to help enhance the interpretation of the data (either within the text or as an
appendix).
(v) Regardless of where it's mentioned, a good discussion section includes analysis of any
unexpected findings. This part of the discussion should begin with a description of the
unanticipated finding, followed by a brief interpretation as to why you believe it appeared and, if
necessary, its possible significance in relation to the overall study. If more than one unexpected
finding emerged during the study, describe each of them in the order they appeared as you
gathered or analyzed the data. As noted, the exception to discussing findings in the same order
you described them in the results section would be to begin by highlighting the implications of a
particularly unexpected or significant finding that emerged from the study, followed by a
discussion of the remaining findings.
(vi) Before concluding the discussion, identify potential limitations and weaknesses if you do not
plan to do so in the conclusion of the paper. Comment on their relative importance in relation to
your overall interpretation of the results and, if necessary, note how they may affect the validity
of your findings. Avoid using an apologetic tone; however, be honest and self-critical (e.g., had
you included a particular question in a survey instrument, additional data could have been
revealed).
(vii) The discussion section should end with a concise summary of the principal implications of
the findings regardless of their significance. Give a brief explanation about why you believe the
findings and conclusions of your study are important and how they support broader knowledge
or understanding of the research problem. This can be followed by any recommendations for
further research. However, do not offer recommendations which could have been easily
addressed within the study. This would demonstrate to the reader that you have inadequately
examined and interpreted the data.
5.5. Overall Objectives
24
(i) Reiterate the research problem/State the major findings

(ii) Explain the meaning of the findings and why they are important
(iii) Relate the findings to similar studies
(iv) Consider alternative explanations of the findings
(v) Acknowledge the study’s limitations
(vi) Make suggestions for further research
6. CONCLUSION
A well-written conclusion provides you with important opportunities to demonstrate to the reader
your understanding of the research problem. These include:
(i) Presenting the last word on the issues you raised in your paper. Just as the introduction
gives a first impression to your reader, the conclusion offers a chance to leave a lasting
impression. Do this, for example, by highlighting key findings in your analysis or result section
or by noting important or unexpected implications applied to practice.
(ii) Summarizing your thoughts and conveying the larger significance of your study. The
conclusion is an opportunity to succinctly answer (or in some cases, to re-emphasize) the "So
What?" question by placing the study within the context of how your research advances past
research about the topic.
(iii) Identifying how a gap in the literature has been addressed. The conclusion can be where
you describe how a previously identified gap in the literature (described in your literature review
section) has been filled by your research.
(iv) Demonstrating the importance of your ideas. Don't be shy. The conclusion offers you the
opportunity to elaborate on the impact and significance of your findings.
(v) Introducing possible new or expanded ways of thinking about the research problem.
This does not refer to introducing new information (which should be avoided), but to offer new
insight and creative approaches for framing or contextualizing the research problem based on the
results of your study.
25
26
27
28

CCC 2022 Questions

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

CCC 2022 Questions

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Associate Professor VO DAI QUANG, Ph.D.

; VNU High-Ranking Lecturer

QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

3. What are the elements of culture?

4. What is meant by ‘high context’ and ‘low context’?

5. What is meant by ‘monochronic’ and ‘polychronic’ time orientation?

9. Discuss politeness as an inherent feature of cross-cultural communication.

POLITENESS: ONE ASPECT OF COMMUNICATION

1. What is politeness as defined in Brown & Levinson’s politeness theory?

3. What are the pivotal concepts in these politeness theories?

7. Discuss the Cooperative Principle and the Conversational maxims.

8. In what way is politeness created in verbal communication via conversation?

9. What is ‘implicature’ (implied meaning)?

13. In what way is implicature different from presupposition?

RELATIONSHIPS: INDIVIDUAL OR COLLECTIVE

QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

2. What is the strength brought about by the individualism / collectivism dynamic?

6. What are the core beliefs of people in individualist cultures?

7. What is the citizenship goal in most individualist cultures?

14. True or false?

15. What is the communication tendency in individualist cultures?

17. Why is a linear, cause-and-effect thought pattern characteristic of individualist cultures?

20. How is business success to be measured in individualist cultures?

21. How is competitiveness viewed in individualist cultures?

22. What is the common view held by businesspeople in individualist cultures?

24. In which parts of the world is collectivism found common?

27. How do members of collective cultures see themselves in relation to others?

30. What are the collective values cherished by collectivist cultures?

36. Why are messages in collective cultures indirect and ambiguous?

39. How are data viewed in collective cultures?

40. Where is the focus in collective cultures with regard to business?

41. What should be remembered when conducting business in individualist cultures?

42. What should be remembered when conducting business in in collective cultures?

SOCIAL FRAMEWORKS: HIGH CONTEXT OR LOW CONTEXT

QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

7. What means are often resorted to in nonverbal communication?

9. Why must nonverbal communication be carefully observed for effective communication to

10. What children in high-context cultures imbued with?

12. What type of decision is favored in high-context cultures?

13. How are employees seen in high-context cultures?

17. How are business presentations done in high-context cultures?

18. How will issues be discussed by people from high-context cultures?

21. How is message statement preferred in low-context cultures?

25. What is the most prominent feature of employer/employee relationship in low-context

28. How is the law adhered to in low-context cultures?

TIME: LINEAR, FLEXIBLE, OR CYCLICAL?

QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

1. How is time viewed differently in different cultures?

6. How do people in linear cultures value time?

7. What can be commented on linear cultures’ belief in the future?

8. How do linear cultures view change?

9. How do linear-time cultures measure time? Example expressions?

12. Why do people in flexible-time cultures tend to focus on the present?

15. What, in general, need to be remembered about flexible-time cultures?

19. What is the common logic-related belief in cyclical-time cultures?

20. How are decisions made in cyclical cultures?

21. What is the prominent relationship-related feature of cyclical cultures?

25. How should business be conducted in linear cultures?

26. How should business be conducted in flexible cultures?

27. How should business be conducted in cyclical cultures?

POWER: HIERARCHICAL OR DEMOCRATIC?

QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION