Journal of Intercultural Management

Vol. 6, No. 4, December 2014, pp. 263–288

DOI 10.2478/joim-2014-0050

Balwant Samra
Coventry University

Anna Wos*
Coventry University

Consumer in Sports: Fan typology analysis

Abstract: Sport fan loyalty is important to attain within a culturally rich and global
audience as loyal sport fans are unique consumers. The ability to adequately understand
what motivates the sports consumer is an important requirement for sport managers.
This paper proposes that a greater understanding of fandom will contribute to a better
understanding of the concept of loyalty. Although there is research regarding typology
of fans and loyalty, but even within sport advocates group there may be sub-categories
that can explain loyalty behaviour further. This research analyses types of sport fans
in different disciplines in the UK, as an example of diverse society to explore factors
determining category of fans.
Key words: consumer, sport, fan typology

Introduction
Sports consumers display a bewildering array of values, attitudes, and behav-
iours (Mir 2000; Shank 2002; Westerbeek and Smith 2003). Not all sports consum-
ers are equally passionate and fanatical nor use their team to confirm their personal
identity (Redden and Steiner 2000). Neither are they totally loyal, engrossed in club
history, or resistant to change that threaten team values and practices. Some at-
tend games on a regular basis, while others attend only on special occasions. Some
consumers spend most of their time engaging in sport chatter trawling the internet,
while others display their fandom by watching pay television sport channels. They
experience sport in different ways, and use the team affiliation to meet a diverse
range of needs (Wann, Melnick, Russell and Pease 2001).

* [email protected]
264 Balwant Samra, Anna Wos

The ability to adequately understand what motivates the sports consumer is an

important requirement for sport managers (Brooks 1994). Understanding different
spectator motivations can be of significant benefit to the sport marketer looking to
boost team revenues and gate receipts. Of particular interest are both the market-
ing manager understanding the specific motivations that drive a spectator or fan
to consume sport (Bernthal and Graham 2003) and the subsequent development
of marketing communications based on these motivations (McDonald et al 2002).
These effective marketing communication plans can often help build groups of
“fanatical fans”, thus expanding the customer base for a team (Pease and Zhang
2001). What motivates consumers to become emotionally committed to a brand is
particularly important to marketers. In a sporting context where fans demonstrate
extreme forms of emotional commitment an ultimate version of brand commit-
ment can be demonstrated. Understanding different forms of fanship may provide
insight generically to consumer loyalty patterns and specifically provide insight into
sporting behaviour for the marketer.
Sport fan loyalty is important to attain within a culturally rich and global audi-
ence as loyal sport fans are unique consumers: their commitment to a sport team
is “arguably unparalleled in other business or leisure sector” (Tapp and Clowes
2002:126). While many industries face the problem of declining brand loyalty
amongst their customers (Lipke 2001), the sporting industry has lifelong fans that
demonstrate tremendous loyalty and devotion, even to teams with a long history of
poor performance (Bristow and Sebastion 2001).
This paper proposes that a greater understanding of fandom will contribute to a
better understanding of the concept of loyalty. Although there is research regarding
typology of fans and loyalty, but even within sport advocates group there may be
sub-categories that can explain loyalty behaviour further.
Conceptual Framework
The word ‘fan’ has been used in various disciplines from sociology
to marketing in management. It is an abbreviation from fanatic. Fanatic de-
rives from the Latin “fanaticus” which literally means “a temple servant, a
devotee”. It also refers to people “inspired by orgiastic rites and enthusiastic
frenzy” (Jenkins 1992). It has also been described as sacred or beneficial (Rudin
1969: 12). In the course of time, the word has been used in a reference to any
excessive enthusiasm which is considered with religious zealotry, false beliefs,
orgiastic excess, possession and madness.
Unique features of Fans as consumers
On the basis of the sociological and managerial description about fans outlined
above, three unique features of the fans as consumers can be identified as follows:
 Consumer in Sports: Fan typology analysis 265

Fans possess a strong and intense emotional attachment with the con-
sumption objects. Emotional affiliation has been used to distinguish the fan from
general consumers. Jenkins (1992) identifies the differences between watching a TV
drama series and becoming a fan of the drama as lying in the intensity of the fan’s
emotional or intellectual involvement. Grossberg (1995) observed that a fan is more
closely associated with a particular form of intensity or affect compared to general
customers. Following Oliver’s (1980, 1991, 1999) classification of stages of loyalty,
fandom cannot be reached unless the object is part and bundle of the consumer’s
self identity and his or social identity. Abercombie and Longhurst (1998) place the
position of fan on a continuum of audience experience and identities which range
from the consumer at one end, to the producer on the other end of the scale, taking
in the fan, the enthusiast and the cultist along the way. Sports consumers form psy-
chological connections to specific teams that are persistent and resistant to change
(Kolbe and James 2000; Trail and James 2001). Kolbe and James found consumers
themselves as part of the team, demonstrating a strong psychological commitment.
Fans behave as loyal consumers who exhibit several loyalty behaviours,
such as repeating their purchase or patronage, or insisting on staying in the
relationship between brands or products. Regular and repeated consumption is
the clearest indicator of a particular emotional investment of the fan in the litera-
ture. Brooker and Jermyn (2002) and Harrington and Bielby (1995) identify the re-
lationship between repeated consumption and the emotional commitment of these
fans. Sandvoss (2005) observes that most of those who labelled themselves as fans,
pointed to their repeated consumption patterns. He defines fandom on the basis of
repeated consumption and emotional bond with the fanatic objects and his descrip-
tion of the fan equates with consumer loyalty behaviour. Such loyal behaviour is a
composite blend of brand, an attitude and behaviour with indexes that measure the
degree to which the consumer favours and purchases a brand repeatedly (Day 1969,
Pritchard and Howard 1997).
Fans present informal membership behaviours, such as co-production
and investment. The relationship between fans and the object tends to always
be active and proactive. Active participation on production processes distinct fans
from general consumers. Among television fans, (Jenkins 1992) found some me-
dia fans as consumers who also produced, such as readers who also wrote, and
spectators who also participated. In a similar vein, Grossberg (1995) addresses that
fandom creates something more than consumption of cultural objects and actively
produces views on the objects. Cavicchi (1998) notes, that fans are specialist con-
sumers, in one sense, they are consumers whose consumption habits are highly
predictable and are likely to remain stable. Fans want to get involved with produc-
tion of the object rather than simply repurchasing or possessing it. Consequently,
the fan’s intense consumption is valued by uniting consumption with the cultural
values of production.
266 Balwant Samra, Anna Wos

In the marketing context, Bhattacharya (1998) characterises the consumer who

has greater affiliation with the organisation as informal membership, which implies
that highly loyal consumers are more actively involved in the organisation’s activi-
ties as a co-producer. Unlike the traditional view on the consumer loyalty which
focuses on consumers repurchase or repatronage, membership motivates the con-
sumer to help the organisation by volunteering time and gifting money to support
the mission of the organisation.
In sociology studies, fandom is used to portray the interaction between audience
and popular media within culture studies (Horton and Wohl 1956; Schikel 1986).
From the late 1980’s Fiske (1989) and Jenkins (1991, 1992) were the first to put em-
phasis on fans and fandom in media and cultural studies. Fiske (1989) and Jenkins
(1992) introduce the concept of motivation and the interaction between fans and
the objects of their fanaticism. A fan is generally viewed as an obsessed individual
someone who has an interest in a certain team, celebrity, show, brand and the like
(Hills 2002). Fiske (1992) has defined fandom as a consequence of specific social
and cultural interactions, institutions and communities, formed through the close
interaction of committed groups of fans in a sub-cultural context. Sport fandom
can enhance psychological well-being and the quality of life (Curtis et al 1986; Gia-
matti 1989; Grove et al 1982; Smith 1989, 1981). It has been argued that identifica-
tion with sport teams may serve to replace traditional but declining social ties such
as religion and the family (Branscombe and Wann 1991; Melnick 1993; Putnam
1995, Melnick and Wann 2011). Social connections resulting from sport identifica-
tion may prove beneficial to ones psychological health by serving as a buffer against
depression and alienation while increasing self-esteem (Pan et al 1997; Smith 1988,
1989; Zillman et al 1989; Keaton and Gearhart 2014).
Sport fandom is a subject of research in many dimensions such as sport fandom
and affective expression (Ferguson 1981, Coakley 1994), sport fandom as perfor-
mance entertainment (Lancaster 1997, Wann et al 1997), sport fandom and commu-
nication (Hardaway 1976; Seagrave 1994), sport fandom and religion (McGee 1975,
Novak 1976), sport fandom and national identity (Goodger and Goodger 1989), sport
fandom and integration (Lever 1983, Wilkerson and Dodder 1987; Melnick 1993) or
fans in management (Hill 2001; Kozinets 2002; Sandvoss 2005). This rich research
around sport fandom indicates importance of it for marketers and academics.
Fans in Sport
Sport fans are typically thought to have a stronger emotional commitment and
response than non-fans when viewing sport (Gantz and Wenner 1995). Hunt, Bris-
tol and Bashaw (1999: 440) formally define a sport fan as ‘an enthusiastic devotee
of some particular sports consumptive object’ The notion of being a fan in popular
culture has in some cases been seen as a negative (Jenkins 1992; Jenson 1992), but
 Consumer in Sports: Fan typology analysis 267

others authors see it in a much more positive light and that being a fan can be thera-
peutic act (Fisk 1992; Wenner 1990). Pooley (1978: 14) suggests that casual sport
spectators are simple observers and soon forget about a sporting event at its conclu-
sion, whilst more committed fan is said to ”continue his interest until the intensity
of feeling toward the team becomes so great that parts of every day are devoted to
either his team or in some instances, to be broad realm of sports in general”. The
distinction is best made by Guttmann (1986) where the term fan refers to the emo-
tionally committed consumer of sports events. The terms overlap but are obviously
not identical. In practice most fans are spectators and most spectators are fans, but
it is logically possible to be one and not the other.
Spectators are a key constituent of a sport organisation’s success – greater fan
numbers attract sponsors. A form of double jeopardy exists – sports that attract
small crowds are unlikely to attract large sponsorship deals or negotiate lucrative
television rights, further reinforcing the sport’s low profile and its unattractive-
ness for sponsors. Fans are the demand nodes; differences in demand according to
spectator characteristics are recognised. A number of sport fan studies, reviewed
by Quick (2000), have suggested that not all fans are motivated by the same factors.
Various typologies of fan attendance abound in the sport fan academic literature
with many relying on product usage rates (levels of spectatorship) for their clas-
sifications. The terms “theatre- goers”, “fair-weather fans” and “hardcore fans”
connote attendance status as well as commitment to the sport/team. Typically,
“theatre-goers” and “fair-weather fans” display temporal and situational involve-
ment with their team/sport whereas “hardcore fans” display enduring involvement
(Madrigal 1995). Implicit in most sport marketing activity is the desire to move
spectators up the attendance/participation escalator (akin to Christopher, Payne
and Ballantyne’s 1991 “ladder of loyalty”) thereby turning light users (“theatre- go-
ers” and “fair-weather fans”) into heavier users.
Quick (2000) summarises the heterogeneity of sport fan spectatorship. “The
tribal, hard-core fan is but a minor figure in the professional sportscape. In recent
decades a number of other fan segments have been identified, each having a differ-
ent expectation of the sport experience. Moreover, each group, whether consuming
the sport product at the event, on the street, or over the Internet, has unique value
to the sport organisation; because of this, if possible, the needs and experiences of
each group must be accommodated” (Quick 2000: 150). From previous research
undertaken three types of fans have identified (refer to Table 1).
268 Balwant Samra, Anna Wos

Fan types

Table 1: Fan types

Fan Cat- Literature Motivation Classification
egory
Temporary Champ follower Emotional Stimulation Brand Commitment (L)
Fan (Stewart/ Smith1997) (M) Personal Commitment (M)
Theatregoer (Stewart/ Group Affiliation (L) Enduring involvement (L)
Smith 1997) Group Disassociation Situational/involvement (H)
Carefree/Casual (Tapp/ (L) (Hirt et al 1992)
Clowes 2000) Economic (H) Advocacy (L) (Oliver 1999,
Aficionados (Stewart/ Self Identity (L) Tapp 2004)
Smith1997) Corporate fan Information Usage (L) (DeSchriver/Jensen
(Nash 2000), acquisition(M) 2002, Funk et al 2002,Hansen/
Modern/Fan (Boyle/ Gauthier 1989)
Haynes 2000)
Social/fan (Sutton et al
1997)
Less Loyal (Bristow/Se-
bastian 2001)
Devoted Committed casual (Hunt Emotional Stimulation Brand Commitment (M)
Fan et al 1999) (M) Personal Commitment (M)
Focused Fan Group Affiliation (H) Enduring involvement (M)
(Sutton et al 1997) Group Disassociation Situational/involvement (H)
Passionate Fan (M) Advocacy (M)
(Stewart/Smith 1997) Economic (H) Usage (M)
Traditional Fan Self Identity (M)
(Boyles/Haynes 2000) Information
acquisition(M)
Fanatical Die Hard Emotional Stimulation Brand Commitment (H)
Fan (Sebastion 2001) (H) (Doss1999,Muniz/
Fanatical Fan Group Affiliation (H) O’Guinn2001,
(Hunt et al 1999) Group Disassociation Personal Commitment (H)
Vested Fan (H) (Funk1998,Muniz/O’Guinn
(Sutton et al 1997) Economic (L) 2001)
Passionate Fan Self Identity (H) Enduring involvement (H)
(Stewart/Smith 1997) Information (Redden/
Traditional Fan acquisition(M) Steiener2000,McAlexander et
(Boyles/Haynes 2000) al 2002)
Situational/involvement (H)
Advocacy (H) (Hugenberg
2002)
Usage (H) (Hoffman2000)
 Consumer in Sports: Fan typology analysis 269

Types of fans

Temporary Fan
The stronger an individual identifies himself or herself as a “fan” the more the
individual uses this specific identification with regard to external others and inter-
nally, to discern himself or herself. However, being a fan is not used by the tempo-
rary fan for self identification (i.e. being a fan is not central to the temporary fan’s
self concept). The temporary fan’s interest in the phenomenon is time constrained.
After the phenomenon of interest is over, the fan is no longer motivated to exhibit
behaviour related to the sports object, but rather return to normal behaviour.
This time boundary is the primary factor that differentiates the temporary fan
from other sports fans. What might explain a temporary fan’s motives and behav-
iour? Cialdini et al (1976) suggested basking in reflected glory theory (BIRG) as a
way to understand fans. It involves the tendency for an individual to attempt to
internalize the success of others.
Devoted fan
The devoted fan remains loyal to their team or player even if either the specific,
short –term event that captivated their temporary attention has ended or if they are
removed from the context of the original geographical location. According to Ball
and Tasaki (1992), a person is attached to a particular object to the degree that the
object is used to maintain his or herself concept. The more an object constitutes
part of a consumer identity, the more the consumer exhibits protective behaviour
toward the object, the greater the effort the consumer spends on maintaining the
object, the greater the consumer’s emotional difficulty in accepting deterioration or
loss of the object. Thus, neither BIRG nor cuttings of reflected failure (CORFing)
explain the motives and behaviours of devoted fan. The devoted fan possesses an
attitude of my “team right or wrong”. The devoted fan uses being a fan as an im-
portant part of self-identification, yet not the most critical or central self-definition
in one’s life.
Fanatical Fan
Early explorations of social psychology theories currently adopted in sport so-
ciology research of fan loyalty provide preliminary insights that help develop our
understanding of the development of fanaticism and this unique form of intense
loyalty. For example, the concept of socialisation provided explanations that can
explain the process by which individuals are introduced to the brand that later be-
comes the object of fanaticism, e.g. socialising agents such as family, peers, school
and community attract or draw individuals to learn to accept the values, goals,
270 Balwant Samra, Anna Wos

beliefs, attitudes, and norms of the fan culture (James 1997; Huffman et al 2000;
Wann et al 2001). Social identity and self-esteem maintenance theories help explain
how an individual may develop an attraction to an object, and, attachment theories
for insights into how a person may become fanatical via the process of attachment.
Consumer fanaticism is a unique form of loyalty characterised by strong and in-
tense levels of commitment, allegiance, devotion, passion, emotional attachment,
enthusiasm and involvement (Bristow and Sebastion 2001; Cova and Cova 2002;
Funk and James 2001 Muniz and O’Guinn 2001; Oliver 1999; Redden and Steiener
2000; McAlexander et al 2002). Fans are unique consumers because their interest
in a brand is self-sustaining (Pimental and Reyonlds 2004). They voluntarily engage
in behaviours beneficial protecting the brand, and ensuring the brand’s continued
existence and legacy (Doss 1999, Fournier 1998, Fournier and Yao 1997; Pimental
and Reynolds 2004; Rozananski et al 1999). Fanatical consumers exhibit a deep love
for the brand and remain loyal despite poor brand performances (Hugenberg 2002;
Hunt, Bristol and Bashaw 1999; Rifkin 1999; Whang et al 2004). They display a true
admiration for the brand, and their devotion, passion, and enthusiasm are often
considered infectious in attracting new customers and fellow followers (Belk 2004;
Pimental and Reyonalds 2004; Rifkin 1999).
Fanatics are valuable customers of a brand and attractive to marketers due to a
variety of reasons. For example, some fanatics have extreme consumption drives,
which imply heavy usage and purchase patterns (Huffman 2000). They act as opin-
ion leaders to bring others’ attention to the brand and attract new customers on be-
half of the company (Rifkin 1999). Fanatics venture to great personal and financial
lengths to support the brand, such as by joining and actively participating in brand
communities (Funk 1998; Muniz and O’Guinn 2001). Their support is consistent,
persistent and resistant to any attempts at reducing this attachment, which includes
the active disregard of marketing messages from competitor brands (James 1997)
Hugenberg (2002: 178) explains that organisations become wealthy as a result of
fan loyalty.
The fanatical fan is similar to the devoted fan in that the fanatical fan is not
bounded by time or distance and defines self through attachment with the sports
consumptive object. The fanatical fan uses being a fan as a very important part of
self identification. The fanatical fan engages in behaviour that is beyond the nor-
mal devoted fan, greater level of knowledge , greater level of anxiety and arousal
watching their team compete (Branscombe and Wann 1992; Wann et al 1998) yet
the behaviour is accepted by significant others (family, friends, other fans) because
it considered supportive of the team, player or sport. Devoted fan may go to games.
Fanatical fan may go to the game and paint their body with colours of the team, or
go in costume, or in some way exhibit behaviour that is different from the devoted
fan. Interaction with the club is highly valued. Supporters engage in web site discus-
 Consumer in Sports: Fan typology analysis 271

sions and email commentaries, are keen in joining supporter groups, and actively
seek out and subscribe to newsletters and fanzines.
Involvement
Involvement has been defined as a state of motivation, arousal, or interest to-
ward a recreational activity or associated product (Rothschild 1984). Involvement
represents an internal state variable that reflects the amount of arousal, interest, or
drive evoked by a particular stimuli or situation that mediates consumer behaviour
(Mitchell 1979). Involvement research delineates situational involvement from en-
during involvement (Houston and Rothschild 1978; Richins and Bloch1986; Rich-
ins et al 1999).Enduring involvement is conceptualized as the ongoing baseline
level of concern with an activity or product, i.e. individuals ongoing concern with
the team. Situational involvement is a passing increase in concern for the activity
or product due to temporary circumstances (Richin and Bloch 1991). For example,
a fan that is preparing to attend may have high situational involvement on that
evening. Thus, enduring involvement represents an individual’s ongoing level of
interest in an activity or product class (Houston and Rothschild 1978). Enduring
involvement is independent of situations. High levels of enduring involvement are
likely to occur when the individuals perceive an activity or product offers hedonic
benefits or is closely linked with the self (Laurent and Kapferer 1985).
Loyalty
The concept of loyalty has earned considerable attention in the broad area of
consumer behaviour, and the importance of studying loyalty has been recognised
more than ever (Oliver 1999). The construct of loyalty has evolved within a frame-
work of behavioural, attitudinal and composite concepts. First loyalty was defined
as an overt behaviour or consequence of behaviour (Cunningham 1956). Therefore,
it centred on repeat purchase patterns of the same brand over time. Later, attitu-
dinal component of loyalty earned attention as a better way of understanding the
underlying psychological phenomenon behind the behaviour. Thus, the attitudinal
definition of loyalty focused on the position of the object along a continuum of
customer preference (Day 1969). Then, the composite conceptualization of loyalty
emerged. In this notion, loyalty is viewed as a two dimensional phenomenon that
is a function of favourable attitudes and behavioural repetition over some period
(Jacoby and Kyner 1973). This concept allows researchers to categorise the extent
of loyalty as high, spurious, latent and non-existent (Backman and Cromton 1991a;
Dick and Basu 1994).
In the sports literature, fan loyalty and identification with the team are seen as
the main determinants of fan behaviour. The popularity of fan loyalty is probably
due to the fact that loyalty of sports fans is in some ways dysfunctional. Sometimes,
272 Balwant Samra, Anna Wos

loyalty is increasing the worse the team is performing (Bristow and Sebastion 2001).
Hence, in contrast to the assumptions in sport economic literature, satisfaction with
the outcome of the game appears to have little link to loyalty at least for some of
the sports fans.
Attitudinal dimension of fan loyalty is represented by the psychological com-
mitment of a fan to the team. Commitment is typically defined as the emotional or
psychological attachment to brand (Beatty and Kahle 1988). Previous measures of
fan’s psychological commitment have included three components of commitment:
inner attachment, persistence and resistance (Gladden and Funk 2001; Mahony et
al 2000; Pritchard et al 1999). Fans therefore show a high level of psychological
commitment if they feel a deep inner attachment to their favourite team and if their
commitment is persistence overtime and resistant to criticism. In the organizational
behaviour literature commitment has been examined extensively (Meyer and Allen
1984), suggests that measure of commitment should also include indicators regard-
ing the degree to which individuals care about the long term success of the orga-
nization (O’Reilly and Chatman 1986), in this case favourite football club or team.
Wakefield and Sloan (1995: 159) define team loyalty as an “allegiance or devotion
to a particular team that is based on the spectator’s interest in the team that has
developed overtime”.
Behavioural loyalty represents past behaviour as well as behavioural intentions
(Homburg and Giering 1999). Past behaviour comprises past purchasing behav-
iour and past positive word of mouth. By transferring the loyalty concept to fan
behaviour, the following activities constitute past loyal behaviour in the team sport
context: attending the favourite club’s games live in the stadium, watching the fa-
vourite club’s game on television, consuming other club-related media, purchasing
club merchandise, wearing the colours or logo of their favourite club, and trying to
convince others that the favourite club should be supported (Funk et al 2003; Funk
and Pastore 2000; Gladden and Funk 2001; Mahony, Madrigal and Howard 2000;
Shank and Beasley 1998).The intentional component represents the positive and
persistent future behaviour of the fan. It embraces intended loyal behaviour and
positive word of mouth, as well as cross buying intensions (Homburg and Giering
1999). Positive word of mouth is referred to as all informal communication between
a consumer and others concerning evaluations of goods and services, including
recommendation to others (Anderson 1998). Cross buying refers to a fan’s practice
of buying additional products and services from a favourite club brand in addi-
tion to the ones he or she currently owns (Ngobo 2004), particularly, relevant for
sport marketers today because most professional clubs now have brand extension
strategies whereby they are expanding the range of branded products and services
beyond club merchandise (Apostolopoulou 2002; Chadwick and Clowes 1998).
In addition, loyalty of sports fans is fascinating because loyalty is important to
 Consumer in Sports: Fan typology analysis 273

them in a way that is not to consumers in most sectors (how many shoppers will
sing ‘loyal customers’ as they make their weekly trip to Asda?) (Tapp 2004:204).
Therefore, loyalty to a team is a highly meaningful concept for sports fans. While
Parker and Stuart (1997) point out that exclusively loyalty to a team is the norm and
that loyalty is not affected by team success at all, other author’s state that loyalty
of sports fans cannot be taken for granted. They emphasise that different types of
sports fans show different type of loyalty and different behaviour depending on
the team’s success (Tapp 2004). Based on the work of Dick and Basu (1994) Tapp
(2004) found a number of football supporter categories based on their attitudinal
and behavioural loyalty to a team. On the one end of the spectrum is a fanatic and
at the other end a supporter who attended only occasionally. Whereas fanatics will
still be loyal to a team even when success is missing, casual supporters might cease
to watch the games in such a situation. These different reactions are described by
Cialdini et al (1976) as BIRGing (Basking in Reflected Glory) and CORFing (Cut-
ting off Reflected Failure) behaviour. Several researchers have found that BIRGing
and CORFing tendencies vary across different types of sports fans (Madgrial 1995,
Sloan 1989). Wann and Branscombe (1990) found that individuals high in team
identification were more likely to BIRG after a victory and less likely to CORF
after defeat. Those fans are likely to support their team even when they drop down
a league and satisfaction with the outcome of a game is not linked to their loyalty
(Tapp 2004).
Commitment
Commitment, in marketing context, is used as the degree to which an individual
views his/her relationship with consumption objects from a long-term perspective
and is willing to stay with the relationship even when things are difficult. This
concept of commitment has been used to measure marketing effectiveness. Day
(1969) employed commitment to determine a more accurate description of loyalty.
Jacoby and Kyner (1973) emphasise that the notion of commitment provide the
essential basis for distinguishing between brand loyalty and other forms of repeat
purchasing behaviour. Samuleson and Sandvick (1997) state that commitment de-
scribes a bond or attitude strength between a consumer and a particular brand, thus
extending the meaning of loyalty and should go beyond simple repurchasing or
repatronage. Amine (1998) addresses the feature of true brand loyalty, and regards
it as effective buying.
General sport consumer motivations
Motivation has been defined as the driving force within individuals that impels
them to actions McClelland (1951). He observed that a motive became a strong
affective association, characterised by an anticipatory goal reaction and based on
274 Balwant Samra, Anna Wos

past association of certain cues with pleasure or pain. Murray (1964) extends the
above description stating that, “a motive is an internal factor that arouses, directs,
and integrates a person’s behaviour...[a motive] is not observed directly but inferred
from his behaviour or simply assumed to exist in order to explain his behaviour”
(Murray 1964).
Hunt et al (1999) classification schema focuses on the source of motivation and
on the behaviour exhibited by different types of fans. Similar to the concept of in-
volvement, the linkage between motivation and actual behaviour can be temporary
or enduring (Richins and Bloch 1986). For example if social pressures or temporary
circumstances are the source of a consumer’s motivation to engage in sports re-
lated behaviour, then such motivation is termed situational. Situational motivation
is bound by time or space and thus is more temporary in nature. Conversely, if the
source motivation is not context bound, then motivation is identified as enduring.
Enduring motivation is likely, given that the fan perceives the sports object as im-
portant to his or herself-concept. Unlike situational motivation, enduring motiva-
tion has no such time or location constraints. The source of temporary and local
fans motivation is situational, while the source of motivation for devoted, fanatical,
and dysfunctional fans is enduring.
For those fans whose motivation with sports is more enduring, differences oc-
cur because of their level of attachment to the sports object (i.e. the degree of
centrality of sport to self). Ball and Taski (1992) suggest that attachment is concep-
tually distinct because the object of attachment acquires meanings and significance
beyond that of a simple involvement or importance. Fans reveal their level of at-
tachment through their sports related behaviours. Devoted, fanatical fans differ in
terms of their attachment to the sports consumptive objective, as exhibited by their
behaviour towards that object.
Group affiliation
In most instances, sport spectating is a social activity (Danielson 1997). Wheth-
er it occurs at home, a restaurant, a bar, or the arena sport tends to be consumed
in a group environment. For some individuals, it is precisely the social nature of
sport spectating that attracts them to it. They are motivated by the group affiliation
motive, that is, a desire to spend time with others (Gantz and Wenner 1995; Gutt-
man 1986; Melnick 1993; Pan et al 1997; Sloan 1995; Smith et al 1981). Group affili-
ation is motivated by a desire for positive distinctiveness from other social groups
(Madrigal 2002). Sport fandom and sport spectating can help to fulfil the human
need for social interaction by providing a sense of belongingness. The fact that
most spectators consume sport as a member of a social group suggests that fans
do indeed use sport to satisfy social interaction needs (Mann 1969; Aveni 1977).
For some fans, the opportunity to spend some time with friends is a driving mo-
 Consumer in Sports: Fan typology analysis 275

tivational force behind their decision to consume sport (Melnick 1993; Pan et al
1997, Melnick and Wann 2011). This motive is particularly common among sports
fans that have children and or are married (Wann et al 1998). In affiliation, one
important part of the identification process with the group is rituals like collecting,
pilgrimages and viewing the club as a part of one’s self identity. Consuming some
brands becomes part of the integration.
Self-identity
Social identity theory, rooted in the symbolic interaction tradition, focuses on
the connection between self, role and society (Stryker 1980). In this conceptualiza-
tion, the self is composed of “multiple selves”, some which are more important than
others. This notion can be traced back to James (1890).This view of the self rec-
ognizes the social units that people live in are relatively small network of relation-
ships that impact individuals identities. Kleine et al (1993) find that social identity
perspective is useful way to study the many different types of consumption people
routinely partake in. The role of identity theory is to understand how and why
individuals select certain identity related activities, given all of the possible alterna-
tives (Serp 1987). Shamir (1992) finds identity salience is related to commitment to
participation in a leisure activity and to the time invested in the activity. Additional
support, in the context of leisure is offered by Laverie (1998) who demonstrates that
identity salience is an effective predictor of motivation for participation in a specific
leisure activity. Social identity theory is applicable because fan behaviour is socially
visible, involves relationships with others, can lead to the formation of a fan role
and one can experience satisfaction associated with that role. Therefore, those with
high level of identity salience for being a fan of a sporting team will attend more
games than those low in identity salience.
Economic
For some individuals, it is the potential economic gain from sport gambling that
attracts them to the role of a fan. These persons are driven by the economic mo-
tive (Chorbajian 1978; Eastman and Land 1997; Frey 1992; Gantz and Wenner1995;
Guttmann 1986).
Emotional Stimulation
As is widely known, sport can provide fans with stress and stimulation. Fun and
enjoyable stress often referred to as “eustress” is a major motivational factor for
fan attraction (Madrigal 1995; Mahony and Moorman 1999). It involves a desire to
gain excitement and stimulation through sport (Gantz 1981; Sloan 1986). Fans with
high level of eustress (i.e. euphoric stress) motivation become involved with the
pastime because they enjoy the excitement and arousal they experience watching
276 Balwant Samra, Anna Wos

sport, whether it’s the drama of close game or escape from their everyday routines.
Information acquisition
Many fans attend sports events to gain knowledge about the particular sport
and improve on their physical fitness by watching these events (Ryckman and
Hamel 1993; Elay and Page 1999; Koivulos 1999).
Group disassociation
Although many supporters of sport belong to a group, previous research (King
1997) has noted that that a minority support their teams in a solitary way.
Table 2: Motivation Table
Motivation Definition Dimension Authors
Group Affili- Developing and - family Branscombe/Wann 1991
ation maintaining - social opportunity Gantz 1981
associations or - community Guttman/Smith 1988
relations with Wenner/Gantz 1986
others. Funk 2001
Jamber 1999
Weiss/Duncan 1992
Emotional Seeking higher - escape Madrigal/Howard 1995
stimulation emotional retreat - drama Sloan et al 1987, Wann
- risk taking 1995, Zuckerman 1984
- aesthetics Duncan 1983, Smith 1988,
- eustress Sloan 1989, Hemphill
- stress/stimulation 1995’ Branscombe/
- salubrious effects Wann 1994, Wann/Gantz
- aggression/catharsis 1989, Gurin/Harris 1985,
- entertainment Haskell 1987, LeUnes na-
tion 1989.
Economic Potential for - economic Gutteman 1986, Chorba-
economic gains jian 1978, Crist 1998
through gambling
Self-identity Create / maintain - achievement McClelland et al 1953,
positive self - self-actualization Murray 1938,Kahle et al
concept - self-esteem 1996, Mahony et al 2002,
Maslow 1970, Gantz 1981,
Csikszentmihayli 1979
Information To improve - knowledge Ryckman/Hamel
acquisition performance - physical fitness 1993,Elay/Page 1999,Koi-
vulos 1999, Brodkin/
Weiss 1990
Group Dis- - competition Roberts 1984,Williams
association 1998

Source: own studies

 Consumer in Sports: Fan typology analysis 277

Proposed Conceptualised model

Based on the literature a model is proposed which looks at the relations amongst
the constructs, depicted in Figure 1. The model looks at the motivations and their
affects on situational and enduring involvement. Outcome of this results in brand
commitment, personal commitment, level of advocacy and level of usage.
Figure 1

Because of the exploratory nature of this research, the development of direct

hypotheses was often not plausible. That is, given the lack of applicable theory and/
or research, it was not appropriate to develop an expectation for each motivational
pattern for each sport.
Methodology
According to Aaker, Kumar and Day (2001), rich data containing consumers’
feelings, thoughts, intentions and behaviours can be obtained only through quali-
tative data collection methods. The methodology of this pilot study consists of a
simple survey questionnaire with fans in four different sports in the United King-
dom, the respondents were approached on the same day they attended the sport
event and were asked to express their views on their motives to attend this particu-
lar sport event.
The sample size for the pilot study was 460 respondents from four different
venues in the United Kingdom based on non-probability sampling. The breakdown
of the sample can be found table 2. The sample mainly consisted of males aged be-
tween 18 and 70, although some of these were with families and partners.
278 Balwant Samra, Anna Wos

Venue Sample size

Coventry football club 200
Coventry Rugby club 100
Warwickshire Coventry cricket club 100
Coventry bees 60

Questions asked:
–– What motivates you to spend time and money to attend this sporting event?
How often do you attend who do you come with?
–– What does supporting your team/club gives you?
–– Are you committed to your club/team? How and why or why not?
–– Are you affected by the performance of the team? How and why?
–– When did you first become a fan? Are your family or friends also fans of the
team?
–– In your opinion are there different types of fans and what type of fan do you
consider yourself to be?
–– How does being a fan affect your daily life in terms of emotionally, socially and
financially?
Findings/discussion

Group affiliation
Fans expressed this motive as one of the main reasons to attend Football, Rugby
and Cricket matches. “I come to the game because my dad, granddad, brother come
to the game”. Many of the younger fans became fans of the team from the age of
five although many had kits of the team bought for the as soon as they could walk
by their parents. “I come to the support the team because my friends came to sport
the team”. Many fans likened their clubs as extended families to whom they owed a
degree of devotion as described in religious terms (Belk et al 1989; Hill 2002). This
was especially true of devoted and fanatical fans. They showed great deal of loyalty
and commitment to the club by buying merchandise, attending home games and
travelling to away games, preseason matches, testimonials, and even training ses-
sions. These groups actively engage in singing and chanting before and during the
match and strongly believe that such activities mark them out to as real fans of the
team and the backbone of supporters.
Fanatics appear to value and promote the creation of feelings of communitas
across likeminded people. Communitas involves feelings of linkage, of belonging,
of group devotion to a transcendent goal. In many regards, the fan driven develop-
ment of communities can be viewed in terms of brand community. Members have
an almost encyclopaedic knowledge of the history of the club and celebrate the
 Consumer in Sports: Fan typology analysis 279

history through prematch or halftime discussions, in which prior events are recol-
lected. Interaction with the club is highly valued. These supporters enthusiastically
engage in web site discussions and email commentaries, are keen to in joining sup-
porter groups, and actively seek out and subscribe to newsletter and fanzines. Many
of the fans likened their clubs to their extended families to whom they agreed a
degree of devotion.
Emotional stimulation
The strongest motive for fans to attend matches in the different sports was
examined in this study. “I enjoy the drama of close games/race”, and “I enjoy it
when the game is not decided until the very end”, “it provides me with excitement
stimulation”, “game provides a distraction from everyday activities and diversions
from life’s little problems”, “I come to games because I feel bored, lonely, and
stressful”, were some of the comments made by fans. Majority of the sample se-
lected expressed that attending the sports event is a great opportunity for social
interaction and great experience for them. “I enjoy interacting with other specta-
tors at the game”, “I enjoy talking with others at the game”, “I enjoy going to the
game with my friends to socialise”, “and I enjoy taking my family to the game. It
is a day out for us”, “I enjoy socialising with people sitting near me at the game”
and “I enjoy watching the athletic performance of the players”. I enjoy bringing my
clients to games to enhance working relationships”, “I enjoy talking with other fans
at games”, some comments made by fans. Majority of these fans attended games
regularly and bought game programmes and pies and drinks, there was high level
of brand, personal commitment and high level of loyalty and usage.
Self identity
Laverie (1992) demonstrated that identity salience is an effective predictor of
motivation for participation in a specific leisure activity. This was true in this re-
search as those with high degree of identity with a particular club/venue attended
more games. Sport participation tends to absorb fans emotionally, occasionally to
an excessive level (Grove et al, 2012). ”I go to the game because I am big fan of
the team, individual players and venue”, “I am loyal to the team by wearing team
colours and attend most games”, “being a fan is important to me and would experi-
ence a loss if I had to stop being a fan”, “I identify (Support) the team even when
they lose, and, when someone criticizes my team it feels like a personal insult”,
expressed some of the fans. Fanatical and some of the more devoted fans strongly
identified with sports clubs/venues than temporary fans. Temporary fans lacked
this strong identification with the club and hence had low commitment to the club
and its players. There connection with the club centred on the social event of sup-
porting without any particular emotional attachment to the club or team. Such fans
280 Balwant Samra, Anna Wos

elect not to develop close links with their clubs and clearly view their links as largely
transactional.
An interesting observation that some of the fans were motivated because of an
aggression factor they attended to “come to fight opposing team fans” and “come
to swear at opposing team players and referee to get rid of my frustration and to
help my team to succeed by putting off players”. This type of fans has to be ad-
dressed carefully by their respective clubs in order to change and alter their motive
in attending the sport events.
Information acquisition
This was a motive given by number of fans for attending various sport events
in this study. ”I come to the game because it I increase my understanding of sport
(football, cricket, rugby) strategy by watching the game”, “I increase my knowledge
and technical aspects about football game (same was said in cricket and rugby)”,
was how they expressed themselves. Most of these fans attended the games once a
month and managed non league and junior teams and felt that by watching profes-
sional teams it would help to improve their team performances. The most devoted
and fanatical fans knew team stats and player information of their team players
and information on opposing teams. Community pride played a part in sport fans
psychology, fans, viewed the club as the “as the main source of local expression” of
the community and attended the sport event because “having a team in the higher
league in the city increases community image and represents important symbol for
the community”.
Economic
Many fans with high levels of economic motivation were not socialized into the
values, beliefs, attitudes and norms associated with sport fandom. They did not
perceive themselves as sports fans and did not have particularly high levels of team
identification. This motive was the strongest motive to attend dog races. It is the
potential gain from sport gambling that attracts them to the role of a fan. Fans were
more likely to attend dog racing out of desire to wager on the event. This is reason-
able given the reputation of dog racing as gambling sport. There was no evidence
from fans in other sports in this study as being the main reason to attend for eco-
nomic gains. Therefore, many economically motivated fans are by definition, not
fans at all. Instead, they participate in the pastime simply for the potential monetary
rewards that accrue through sport wagering.
Group dissociation
Very small minority of fans who attended the sporting event came by them-
selves, sat by themselves and did not speak to any other fans. They bought a game
 Consumer in Sports: Fan typology analysis 281

programme and sat in the same seats (area) every time but did not buy any other
form of merchandise. In cricket they took packed lunch. This motive was evident
in cricket, dog racing and less in football and rugby.
Overall the three strongest motivations were motivations emotional stimula-
tion, group affiliation and group identity.
Implication for sports marketers
An enhanced understanding of spectator and fan motivation can be of consid-
erable benefit to the sports marketer (James and Ross 2004; Trail et al 2003; Trail
and James 2001). The result gleaned from this study (once empirical work has been
done) could be of benefit to the marketing professional that is attempting to de-
velop new strategies to reach sports consumers. The development of promotional
campaigns and marketing strategies around these sport-specific motives can aid
in the marketing of a particular sport, thus driving attendance and consumption.
These sport specific motives can be employed by the sport marketer as a method
of segmentation and increase additional revenue as consumers are being presented
with an increasing number of entertainment options. In-depth understanding of
various motivations within sport fans group enables marketers to address them in
a way most suitable and meet their needs more fully. Different levels of fanship in-
dicate different needs groups. For practitioners such behaviours give multiple ways
to communicate with fans and fulfil their needs for association.
Limitations
The results of the research are not showcasing any significant culture impact on
fandom in sports. In the diverse British society with constant flow of immigrants
from variety of countries it’s a surprising outcome, indicating that sports unite
variety of cultures (Owen 2013). Further research is suggested to provide in-depth
exploration of differences in fanship among various cultural groups.
Conclusion
Motivating fans of sport is an important element for achieving competitive edge
within the sport industry; however, in order to achieve this uniqueness, fans classi-
fication is crucial for sport organisations. This is because each type of fans requires
special attention and hence special targeting and motivation method, some can be
motivated by their families and their social backgrounds and others by the sport
event itself. Finding the right balance is indeed challenging, nevertheless it is im-
portant to start investigating the extents of these motivations within the different
sport venues, which will be the second stage of this research.
282 Balwant Samra, Anna Wos

Bibliography
Amine, A. (1988) ‘Consumers’ true brand loyalty: The central role of commitment’, Journal
of Strategic Marketing, vol. 6, pp. 305-319
Aaker, D. (1994) ‘Building a brand: The Saturn Story’, California Management Review, vol. 36,
no. 14
Anderson, E.W. (1998) ‘Customer satisfaction and word of mouth’, Journal of Service Research,
vol. 1, pp. 5 – 17
Apostolopoulou, A. (2002) ‘Brand extensions by U.S. professional sport teams. Motivations
and keys to Success’, Sport Marketing Quarterly, vol. 11, pp. 205-214
Ashby, J.S., and Rice, K.G. (2002) ‘Perfectionism, Dysfunctional Attitudes, Self-Esteem: A
structural Equations Analysis’, Journal of Counselling and Development, vol. 80, no 2
Aveni, A.F. (1977) ‘The-not-so-lonely crowd. Friendship groups in collective behaviour’,
Sociometry, vol. 40, pp. 96-99
Ball, A.D. and Taski, L.H. (1992). ‘The role and measurement af attachment in consumer
behaviour’, Journal of Consumer Psycholog y, vol. 1 no. 2, pp. 155-72
Backman, S.J., and Crompton, J.L. (1991) ‘Using loyalty matrix to differientiate between
high, spurious, latent and loyal participants in two lesuire services’, Journal of Park and
Recreation Administration, vol. 9, pp. 1-17
Bandyopadhyay, S. and Bottone, M. (1997) ‘Playing to win’, Marketing Management. Spring,
pp. 9-19
Beatty, S.E., and Kahle, L.R. (1988) ‘Alternative hierarchy off the attitude behaviour rela-
tionship: the impact of brand commitment and habit’, Journal of the Academy of Marketing
Science, vol. 16, pp. 1-10
Bech, P. (1994) ‘Measurement by observations of aggressive behaviour and activities in
clinical situations’, Criminal Behaviour and Mental Health, vol. 4, pp. 290-302
Beisser, A. R. (1967) The madness in sports: Psychosocial observations on sports, New York: Warner
Brooks.
Belk, R.W. (2004) ‘Men and Their Machines’, Advances in Consumer Research, vol. 31, pp. 273-
278
Branscombe, N.R., and Wann, D.L. (1991) ‘He positive social and self concept consequenc-
es of sports team identification’, Journal of Sports and Social Issues, vol. 15, pp. 115-127
Bristow, D.N., Sebastian R.J. (2001) ‘Holy Cow! Wait ‘til next year! A Closer Look at the
Brand Loyalty of Chicago Cubs Baseball Fans’. Journal of Consumer Marketing, vol. 18, no.
3, pp. 256-275
Brooks, C.M. (1994) Sport Marketing: Competitive business strategies for sports. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Prentice Hall.
Bryant, J. (1989) Viewers’ enjoyment of televised sports violence. In. L.A. Wenner (ED), Media,
Sports, and Society (pp. 270-289). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Bryant, J., Brown, D., Comisky, P.W., and Zillman, D. (1982) ‘Sports and spectators: Com-
mentary and appreciation’, Journal of Communication, vol. 32, pp. 109-119
 Consumer in Sports: Fan typology analysis 283

Chadwick, S., and Clowes, J. (1998) ‘The use of extension strategies by clubs in the English
Football Premier League’, Managing Leisure, vol. 3, pp. 194-203
Christopher, M., Payne, A., and Ballantyne, D. (1991) Relationship Marketing, Sydney: But-
terworth-Heinemann
Cialdini, R.B., Borden, R. J., Thirne, A., Walker, M.R., Freeman, S., and Sloan, L. R. (1976)
‘Basking in reflected glory: three (football) field studies’, Journal of Personality and Social
Psycholog y, vol. 34, pp. 366-375
Cova, B., Cova, V. (2002) ‘Tribal Marketing: the tribalisation of society and its impact on
the conduct of marketing’, European Journal of Marketing, vol. 36, no. 5/6, pp. 595-620
DeSchriver, T.D., and Jenson, P.D. (2002) ‘Determinants of spectator attendance at NCAA
divison 11 football contests’, Journal of Sport Management, vol. 16, pp. 311-330
Dietz-Uhler, B., Harrick, E.A., End, C., and Jaquemotte, L. (2000) ‘Sex difference in sport
fan behaviour and reasons for being a sport fan’, Journal of Sport Behaviour, vol. 23, pp.
219-232
Doss, E. L., (1999) Elvis Culture: Fans, Faith & Image, University Press of Kansas: Kansas.
Eastman , S.T., and Land, A.M. (1997) ‘The best of both worlds: Sports fans find good seats
at the bar’, Journal of Sports & Social Issues, vol. 21, pp. 156-178
Elias, N., and Dunnung, E. (1970) The quest for excitement in unexciting societies. In G. Luschen
(ED.), The cross-cultural analysis of sport and games. Champaign, IL; Stipes.
Evaggelinou, C., and Grekinis, D. (1988) ‘A survey of spectators at the International Stoke
Mandeville Wheelchair Games’, Adapted Physical Education Quarterly, vol. 15, pp. 25-35
Ferrand, A., and Pages, M. (1996) ‘Football supporter involvement: Explaining football
match loyalty’, European Journal for Sports Management, vol. 3, no. 10, pp. 7-20
Fink, J.S., Trail, G.T., & Anderson, D.F. (2003) ‘Environmental factors associated with
spectator attendance and sport consumption behaviour: Gender and team differences’.
Sport Marketing Quarterly, vol. 11, pp. 8-19
Fisher, R.J., & Wakefield, K. (1998) ‘Factors leading to group identification: A field study of
winners and losers’, Psycholog y & Marketing, vol. 15, no. 1, pp. 23-40
Fiske, S.T. and Taylor, S.E. (1984) Social Cognition, Addison-Wesley Publishing: Reading,
MA.
Fournier, S. (1998) ‘Consumers and their brands: Developing Relationship Theory in Con-
sumer Research’, Journal of Consumer Research, vol. 22, pp. 343-373
Fournier, S., Yao, J.L. (1997) ‘Reviving brand loyalty: A reconceptualization within the
framework of consumer – brand relationships’, International Journal of Research in Marketing,
vol. 14, pp. 451-472
Fournier, S. (1998) ‘Consumers and their brands: Developing Relationship Theory in Con-
sumer Research’, Journal of Consumer Research, vol. 22, pp. 343-373
Funk, D.C. (1998) Fan Loyalty: The Structure and Stability of an Individual’s Loyalty toward an Ath-
letic Team. Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation. Columbous: Ohio State University
284 Balwant Samra, Anna Wos

Funk, D.C., and James, J.D (2001) ‘The Psychological Continuum Model: A conceptual
framework for understanding an individual’s psychological connection to sport’, Sport
Management Review, vol. 4, pp. 119-150
Funk, D.C., Mahony, D.F., & Ridinger, L.L. (2002) ‘Characterizing consumer motivation
as individual difference factors: Augmenting the sport interest inventory (SII) to explain
levels of spectator sport’, Sport Marketing Quarterly, vol. 11, pp. 33-43
Funk, D.C., & Pastore, D.L. (2000). ‘Equating attitudes to allegiance: The usefulness of
selected attitudinal information in segmenting loyalty to professional sports teams’, Sport
Marketing Quarterly, vol. 9, pp. 175-184
Gantz, W. (1981) ‘An exploration of viewing motives and behaviours associated with televi-
sion sports’, Journal of Broadcasting, vol. 25, pp. 263-275
Gantz, W., and Wenner, L.A. (1995) ‘Fanship and television sports viewing experience’,
Sociolog y of Sports Journal, vol. 12, pp. 56-74
Gmelch, G., and San Antonio, P.M. (1998) ‘Groupies and American baseball’, Journal of Sport
& Social Issues, vol. 22, pp. 32-45
Gibson, H.,Willming, C., Holdnak, A. (2002) ‘We’re Gators… Not Just Gator Fans: Serious
Leisure’, University of Florida Football.
Gladden, J.M., and Funk, D.C. (2001) ‘Developing an understanding of brand associations
in the team sport: empirical evidence from consumers of professional sport’, Journal of
Sport Management, vol. 16, no. 1, pp. 54-81
Gladden, J.M. & Milne, G.R. (1998) ‘Examining the importance of brand equity in profes-
sional sports’, Sports Marketing Quarterly, vol. 8, no. 1, pp. 21-29
Grove, J.R., Hanrahan, S.J., & McInman, A. (1991) ‘Success/failure bias in attributions
across involvement categories in sport’, Personality and Social Psycholog y Bulletin, vol. 17, pp.
93-97
Grove, S., Pickett, G., Jones, S., Dorsch, M. (2012) ‘Spectator Rage as the dark side of
Engaging Sport Fans: Implications for Service Marketers’, Journal for Service Research, vol.
2012, pp. 1-18
Guttmann, A. (1986) Sports spectators, New York: Columbia University Press
Hansen, H., and Gauthier, R. (1989). ‘A means –ends chain model based on consumer cat-
egorization processes’, Journal of Marketing, vol. 46, no. 2, pp. 60-72
Homburg, C., & Giering, A. (1999) The measurement of brand satisfaction and brand loyalty. Modern
Brand Management: Fundamentals, new approaches, implementation, Germany: Gabler.
Hirt, E.R., Zillmann, D., Erickson, G.A., and Kennedy, C. (1992) ‘Costs and benefits of
allegiance: Changes in fans’ self-ascribed competencies after team victory versus defeat’,
Journal of Personality and Social Psycholog y, vol. 63, pp. 724-738
Huffman, C., Ratneshwar, S., Mick, D.G. (2000) Consumer goal structures and gold-determination
processes: An integrative framework, in Ratneshwar, S., Mick, D. G., Huffman, C., (2000) The
Why of Consumption: Contemporary Perspectives on Consumer Motives, Goals, and Desires, Rout-
ledge: London & New York.
 Consumer in Sports: Fan typology analysis 285

Hugenberg, B., (2002) ‘Communicatively Constructed Stakeholder Idenity: A Critical Eth-

nography of Cleveland Browns Fan Culture’. Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation. Bowl-
ing Green: Bowling Green State University.
Hunt, K. A., Bristol, T., Bashaw, E.R. (1999) ‘A Conceptual Approach to Classifying Sports
Fans’, Journal of Services Marketing, vol. 13, no. 6, pp. 439-452
Jacoby, J., and Kyner, D.B. (1973) ‘Brand loyalty vs. Repeat purchasing behaviour’, Journal of
Marketing Research, vol. 10, pp. 1-9
Jamber, E.A. (1999) ‘Parent as children’s socializing agents in youth soccer’, Journal of Sports
Behaviour, vol. 22, no. 3, pp. 350-359
James, J.D., (1997) Becoming a sports fan: understanding cognitive development and socialization in the
development of fan loyalty. Unpublished Doctoral Dissertaion. Columbus: The Ohio State
University
Jones, I. (1997) ‘A further examination of the factors influencing current identification with
a sports team’, a response to Wann et al (1996) ‘Perceptual and Motor Skills’, vol. 85, pp.
257-8
Kahle, L.R., Kambara, K.M., Rose, G. (1996) ‘A function model of fan attendance motiva-
tions for college football’, Sport Marketing Quarterly, vol. 5, no. 4, pp. 51-60.
Keaton, S. and Gearhart, C. (2014) ‘Identity formation, identity strength and self-categorisation as
predictors of affective and psychological outcomes’, vol. 2, no. 4, pp. 363-385
Koivula, N. (1999) ‘Sport participation: Differences in motivation and actual participation
due to gender typing’, Journal of Sports Behaviour, vol. 22, no. 3, pp. 360-380
Kozinets, R.V. (2001) ‘Utopian Enterprise: Articulating the Meaning Star Trek’s Culture of
Consumption’, Journal of Consumer Research, vol. 24, pp. 479-475
Keaveney, S.M., & Hunt, K.A. (1992) ‘Conceptualization and operationalization of retail
store image: a case of rival middle – level theories’, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Sci-
ence, vol. 15, pp. 165-76
LeUnes, A.D., & Nation, J.R. (1989) Sport Psycholog y; An introduction. Chicago: Nelson-Hall
Inc.
Madrigal, R. (1995) ‘Cognitive and affective determinants of fan satisfaction with sporting
event attendance’, Journal of Leisure Research, vol. 27, pp. 205-227
Madrigal, R. & Howard, D.R. (1999) Measuring the multidimensional nature of spectators’
attraction to sports events, International Journal of Sport Management, vol. 1, pp. 154-180
Mahony, D.F., Madrigal, R., & Howard, D. (2000) ‘Using the psychological commitment
to a team (PCT) scale to segment sport consumer based loyalty’, Sport Marketing Quarterly,
vol. 9, pp. 15-25
Mann, L. (1974) ‘On being a sore loser: How fans react to their team’s failure’, Australian
Journal of Psycholog y, vol. 26, pp. 37-47
Mann, L. (1969) ‘Queue culture: the waiting line as a social system’, American Journal of Sociol-
og y, vol. 75, pp. 340-354
Mano, H., & Oliver, R.L. (1993) ‘Assessing the dimensionality and structure of the con-
286 Balwant Samra, Anna Wos

sumption experience: Evaluation, feeling, and satisfaction’, Journal of Consumer Research,

vol. 20, pp. 451-466
Maslow, A.H. (1943) ‘A Theory of Human Motivation’, Psychological Review, vol. 50, pp. 370-
396
Mechikoff. R.A. (1992) ‘Deep Fan: Mythic Identification, Technology and Advertising in
Spectator Sports’, Sociolog y of Sport Journal, vol. 9, no. 4. pp. 323-339
Melnick, M. and Wann, D. (2011) ‘An examination of sport fandom in Australia: Socialisa-
tion, team identification and fan behaviour’, International Review for the Sociolog y of Sport, vol.
46, no. 4, pp. 456-470
Meyer, J.P., & Allen, N.J. (1984) ‘Testing the side bet theory of organizational commitment:
Some methodological considerations’, Journal of Applied Psycholog y, vol. 69, pp. 372-378
Muniz, A., O’Guinn, T.C., (2001) ‘Brand Community’, Journal of Consumer Research, vol. 27,
pp. 412-432
McAlexander, J.H., Schouten, J.W., Koenig, H.F., (2002) ‘Building Brand Community’,
Journal of Marketing, vol. 66, pp. 38-54
Nash, R. (2002) ‘Contestation in Modern English Professional Football: The independent
Supporters Association Movement’, International Review for the Sociolog y of Sport, vol.35, no.
4, pp. 465 - 486
Ngobo, P.V. (2004) ‘Drivers of customers cross – buying intentions’, European Journal of
Marketing, vol. 38, pp. 1129-1157
Oliver, R.L. (1999) ‘Whence Consumer Loyalty?’, Journal of Marketing, vol. 63, pp. 33-44
O’Reilly, C. & Chatman, J. (1996) ‘Organizational commitment and psychological attach-
ment: the effects of compliance, identification, and internalization on prosocial behav-
iour’, Journal of Applied Psycholog y, vol. 71, pp. 492-99
Owen, D. (2013) Future Identities: Changing identities in the UK – the next 10 years, Government
Office for Science
Paffenbarger, R.S., & Lee, I. (1996) ‘Physical activity and fitness for health and longevity’,
Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, vol. 67, no. 30, pp. 11-28
Pan, D.W., Gabert, T.E., McGaugh, E.C., & Branvold, S.E. (1997) ‘Factors and differential
demographic effects on purchases of season tickets for intercollegiate basketball games’,
Journal of Sport Behaviour, vol. 20, pp. 447-464
Pimentel, R. W., Reynolds, K.W., (2004) ‘A model for consumer devotion: affective com-
mitment with proactive sustaining behaviour’, Academy of Marketing Science Review vol.
2004, no. 5, pp. 1-45
Pritchard, M.P., Havitz, M.E., & Howard, D.R. (1999) ‘Analyzing the commitment –loyalty
link in service contexts’, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, vol. 27, pp. 333-348
Quick, S. (2000) ‘Contemporary sport consumers: some implications of linking fan typol-
ogy with key spectator variables’, Sport Marketing Quarterly, vol. 9, no. 3, pp. 149-156
Quirk, K. (1997) Not now, honey, I’m watching the game. New York: Fireside.
 Consumer in Sports: Fan typology analysis 287

Rozanski, H.D., Baum A.G., Wolfsen, B.T., (1999) ‘Brand Zealots: Realizing the Full Value
of Emotional Brand Loyalty’, Strateg y+business, vol. 17, pp. 51-62
Redden, J., & Steiner, C.J. (2000) ‘Fanatical consumers: towards a framework for research’,
Journal of Consumer Marketing, vol. 17, no. 4, pp. 322-337
Richin, M.C., & Bloch, P.H. (1986) ‘After the new wears off: The temporal context of prod-
uct involvement’, Journal of Consumer Research, vol. 13, pp. 280-285
Rifkin, G., (1999) ‘How the Red Sox Touch All the Branding Bases’, Strateg y and business,
vol. 17, pp. 75-83
Rinehart, R. (1996) ‘Dropping hierarchies: Toward the study of a contemporary sporting
avant-garde’ Sociolog y of Sport Journal, vol. 13, pp. 159-175
Ruiz, F. (2001) ‘The relationship between coginitive dissonance and helping behaviour’,
Japanese Psychological Research, vol. 43. no. 3
Sergeant, S.L., Zillmann, D., & Weaver, J. B.III. (1998) ‘The gender gap in the enjoyment
of televised sports’, Journal of Sport & Social Issues, vol. 22, pp. 46-64
Sapolsky, B.S. (1980) ‘The effect of spectator disposition and suspense on the enjoyment of
sport contests’, International Journal of Sport Psycholog y, vol. 11, pp. 1-10
Shank, M.D., & Beasley, F.M. (1998) ‘Fan or Fanatic: refining measure of sports involve-
ment’, Journal of Sports Behaviour, vol. 21, pp. 435-443
Sjoestreoem, N., Eder, D.N., Malm, U., & Beskow, J. (2001) ‘Violence and its prediction at
a psychiatric hospital’, European Psychiatry, vol. 16, pp. 459-465
Sloan, L.R. (1989) ‘The Motive of Sports fans’. In J.D Goldstein (ED), Sports, games and play:
Social and psychosocial viewpoints, Hillsdale, NJ: Lawarence Erlbaum Associates.
Smith, G.J. (1988) ‘The Noble Sports Fan’, Journal of Sports & Social Issues, vol. 12, pp. 54-65
Snyder, C. R., Higgins, R.L., & Stuckhy R. J. (1983) Excuses: Masquerades in search of grace, New
York: Wiley Interscience.
Stebbons, R. (2010) New directions in theory and research of serious leisure. Lewiston, NY: Edwin
Mellen Press.
Sutton, W.A., McDonald, M.A., Milne,G.R., & Cimperman, J. (1997) ‘Creating and foster-
ing fan identification in professional sports’, Sports Marketing Quarterly, vol. 6, no. 1997,
pp. 15-22
Su-Lin, G., Tuggle, C.A., Mitrook, M.A., Coussement, S. H., & Zillman, D. (1997) ‘The
thrill of a close game: Who enjoys it and who doesn’t??’, Journal of Sport & Social Issues, vol.
21, pp. 53-64
Tapp, A., & Clowes, J. (2000) ‘From “Carefree Casuals” to “Professional Wanderers” Seg-
mentation Possibilities for Football Supporters’, European Journal of Marketing, vol. 36, no.
11-12, pp. 45-59
Tomasson, K. & Vaglum, P. (1996) ‘Psychopathology and alcohol consumption among
treatments seeking alcoholics: a prospective study’, Addictions, vol. 91, pp. 1019-1030
Trail, G. T., Robinson, M.J., & Gillentine, A.J., (2003) ‘Motives and points of attachment:
288 Balwant Samra, Anna Wos

Fans versus spectators in intercollegiate athletics’, Sport Marketing Quarterly, vol. 12, pp.
217-227
Wakefield, K.L., and Wann. D.L. (2006) ‘An Examination of Dysfunctional Sports Fans:
Method of Classification and Relationships with Problem Behaviours’, Journal of Leisure
Research, vol. 38, no. 2, pp. 168-186
Wann, D.L. (2006) ‘The causes and consequences of sport team identification’. In: A.A.
Raney and J. Brayant, Editors, Handbook of Sports and Media, Erlbaum, Mahwah, NJ
Wann, D.L. and Branscombe, N.R. (1993) ‘Sports Fans: Measuring the Degree of Identifi-
cation with their team’, International Journal of Sports Psycholog y, vol. 26, pp. 551-7
Wann, D.L., Schrader, M. P., & Wilson, A. M. (1999) ‘Sport fan motivation: Questionnaire
validation, comparison by sport, and relationship to athletic motivation’, Journal of Sport
Behaviour, vol. 22, pp. 114-139
Wann, D.L., Tucker, K., and Schrader, M. (1996) ‘An exploratory examination of the fac-
tors influencing the origination, continuation and cessation of identification with sports
teams’, Perceptual and Motor Skills, vol. 82, pp. 995-1001
Whang, Y.O., Allen, J., Sahoury, N., Zhang, H., (2004) ‘Falling in love with a product: The
Structure of a Romantic Consumer- Product Relationship’, Advances in Consumer Research,
vol. 31, pp. 320-327
Wann, D. L., & Dolan, T.J. (1994) ‘Attributions of highly identified sport spectators’, The
Journal of Social Psycholog y, vol. 134, pp. 279-286
Wann, D.L., Melinick, M.J., Russell, G.W., & Pease, D.G. (2001) Sport fans: The psycholog y and
social impact of spectators. New York: Routledge.
Weiller, K.H., & Higgs, C.T. (1997) ‘Fandom in the 40’s: the integrating functions of All
American Girls Professional Baseball League’, Journal of Sport Behaviour, vol. 20, pp. 211-
231
Weiss, M.R., & Duncan, S.C.(1992) ‘The relationship between physical competence and
peer acceptance in the context of children’s sports participation’, Journal of Sports & Exer-
cise Psycholog y, vol. 14, pp. 177-191
Zillman, D., Bryant, J., & Sapolsky, B.S. (1989) ‘Enjoyment from sports spectatorship’. In
J.H. Goldstein, Sports, games, and play: Social and psychological viewpoints. Hillsdale, NJ: Erl-
baum.
Zuckerman, M. (1984) ‘Sensation-seeking: A comparative approach to a human behaviour’,
The Behavioural and Brain Sciences, vol. 7, pp. 413-471
Appendix 3 Sample size breakdown
Venue Sample size
Coventry football club 200
Coventry Rugby club 100
Warwickshire Coventry cricket club 100
Coventry bees 60