Midterm

ALVIN KRIS B. ALIC

09472646753 | FB: Alvin Alic
Email: [email protected]

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 MODULE 3
CONSTATIVES, DEDUCTION, AND INDUCTION
Most Essential Learning Outcomes
At the end of this module, students will be able to:
1. Describe and define the difference between formal and informal constatives.
2. Make a deductive and inductive argument and use each practically.
3. Evaluate and assess arguments on the basis of their validity.

Let’ Observe!
Notice the phrases and words in both columns. Compare and contrast the commonalities of both groups.

COLUMN A COLUMN B

Hello. FBC is located in Rizal street.

Good morning. The moon is made of cheese.

What time is it? Today is Monday.

Can you please get me a glass of water? Four plus three equals seven.

Get out of here! Cebu is the capital of the Philippines.

Oh no. Light travels at around 186,000 miles per hour.

Lesson Inputs

I. Constatives
Constatives are words or phrases that can or cannot be judged either true or false. The phrases and
words located in column A are informal constatives, which cannot be true or false. On the other hand,
column B presents formal constatives, which can be true or false.
Only constatives can be used in arguments, which makes it different from a proposition.

Example 1:
Since FBC is located in Rizal Street, it would take less than 5 minutes to get there if you live in
Don Emilio Village.
The underlined word is called a Premise

Example 2:
Since the moon is yellow and has craters, the moon is made of cheese.
The underlined word is called a Conclusion

II. Deduction and Induction

There are two major types of arguments based on logical arrangement - deductive (general to specific)
and inductive (specific to general)

Example of Deductive Argument: Example of Inductive Argument:

All teachers are funny Karen is funny
Karen is a teacher Karen is a teacher
Therefore, Karen is funny Therefore, all teachers are funny

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 Take note that in every deductive argument, a claim is made that if the premises are true, then the
conclusion cannot be false.
Further, in every inductive argument, even if all the premises are true, the conclusion can only be
probably true.

III. Validating the Truth

In reasoning, the mind is given the capacity to form new truth or knowledge. The phrase used, “new
truth or knowledge,” means that beforehand, there is already known truth or knowledge from which the mind
forms a new one. The new truth is said in form of a proposition. There must be two propositions logically
connected and closely related in order to form a valid and sound conclusion which is the new truth.
The first two known truths which are called “premises”, which should be both true.
The premises must have a logical connection so that the third proposition, the conclusion or the
“new truth” will be the consequence of such relationship
If these two requisites are not observed, it will give form to an invalid conclusion

Example 1:
All cats are mammals. = TRUE
All animals are warm-blooded. = FALSE (some are cold-blooded)
Therefore, all cats are warm-blooded. = TRUE but invalid and not logical

Example 2
All kittens are mammals. = TRUE
All cats are mammals. = TRUE
Therefore, all kittens are cats. = TRUE and valid (but not logical)

Example 3
All tigers are pigs. = FALSE
All pigs are snakes. = FALSE
Therefore, all tigers are snakes. = FALSE, but valid and logical

If you observed, what makes an argument invalid or valid is solely its form and structure and not on the
truthfulness of premises. Here is the pattern of argument validity.

The Validity Pattern

All X are Y.
All Y are Z.
Therefore, all X are
Z.

Example:
All kittens are mammals. = TRUE
X Y
All mammals are living. = TRUE
Y Z
Therefore, all kittens are living. = TRUE, VALID, and LOGICAL
X Z

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 EXERCISE NO. 1

Test 1. Determine if the following phrases or words are formal or informal constatives by checking the
appropriate box.
PHRASE/WORD FORMAL INFORMAL
1. Please shut up.
2. Can you identify which is right?
3. That is great!
4. This is not worth-sharing.
5. She is an amazing singer.
6. How to do this?
7. Let me finish this first?
8. She can finish it first.
9. Kabankalan has the best coffee in the island.
10. How to drink coffee the right way?

Test 2. Evaluate the following argument based on their truthfulness, validity, and logical conformity by writing
Yes or No on the appropriate box.

ARGUMENT TRUE? VALID? LOGICAL?

Premise 1 Premise 2
Rizal is a 3 unit course
All 3 unit course are Tuition-free
Therefore, Rizal is Tuition-free
Computer requires electricity to operate
Electricity is expensive in the Philippines
Therefore, computers are expensive.
COVID-19 causes death
Tuberculosis causes death
Therefore, COVID-19 is Tuberculosis.

Test 3. Make an example of inductive argument and deductive argument.

INDUCTIVE ARGUMENT DEDUCTIVE ARGUMENT

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 MODULE 4
LOGICAL FALLACIES
Most Essential Learning Outcomes
At the end of this module, students will be able to:
1. Describe and define the logical fallacies and how to avoid them.
2. Make and criticize a logical fallacy.
3. Identify logical fallacies in a simple narrative.

Lesson Inputs

What is a Fallacy? Here are some definitions:

 Fallacies are defects that weaken arguments.

 First, fallacious arguments are very, very common and can be quite persuasive, at least to the causal reader or
listener. You can find dozens of examples of fallacious reasoning in newspapers, advertisements, and other
sources.
 Second, it is sometimes hard to evaluate whether an argument is fallacious.
 An argument might be very weak, somewhat weak, somewhat strong, or very strong. An argument that has
several stages or parts might have some strong sections and some weak ones.

1. Appeal to Pity
Definition: The appeal to pity takes place when an arguer tries to get people to accept a conclusion by making
them feel sorry for someone.

Example: "I know the exam is graded based on performance, but you should give me an A. My cat has been
sick, my car broke down, and I've had a cold, so it was really hard for me to study!"
The conclusion here is "You should give me an A." But the criteria for getting an A have to do with learning and
applying the material from the course; the principle the arguer wants us to accept (people who have a hard
week deserve A's) is clearly unacceptable.

Example: "It's wrong to tax corporations--think of all the money they give to charity, and of the costs they
already pay to run their businesses!"

2. Appeal to Ignorance
Definition: In the appeal to ignorance, the arguer basically says, "Look, there's no conclusive evidence on the
issue at hand. Therefore, you should accept my conclusion on this issue."

Example: "People have been trying for centuries to prove that God exists. But no one has yet been able to
prove it. Therefore, God does not exist."

Here's an opposing argument that commits the same fallacy:

"People have been trying for years to prove that God does not exist. But no one has yet been able to prove it.
Therefore, God exists."

In each case, the arguer tries to use the lack of evidence as support for a positive claim about the truth of a
conclusion. There is one situation in which doing this is not fallacious: If qualified researchers have used well-
thought-out methods to search for something for a long time, they haven't found it, and it's the kind of thing
people ought to be able to find, then the fact that they haven't found it constitutes some evidence that it doesn't
exist.

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3. Hasty Generalization
Definition: Making assumptions about a whole group or range of cases based on a sample that is
inadequate (usually because it is atypical or just too small).

Stereotypes about people ("frat boys are drunkards," "grad students are nerdy," etc.) are a common
example of the principle underlying hasty generalization.

Example: "My roommate said her philosophy class was hard, and the one I'm in is hard, too. All
philosophy classes must be hard!"

Two people's experiences are, in this case, not enough on which to base a conclusion.

4. Missing the Point

Definition: The premises of an argument do support a particular conclusion--but not the conclusion that
the arguer actually draws.

Example: "The seriousness of a punishment should match the seriousness of the crime. Right now, the
punishment for drunk driving may simply be a fine. But drunk driving is a very serious crime that can kill
innocent people. So the death penalty should be the punishment for drunk driving."

The argument actually supports several conclusions-- "The punishment for drunk driving should be very
serious," in particular--but it doesn't support the claim that the death penalty, specifically, is warranted.

5. Post hoc (false cause)

This fallacy gets its name from the Latin phrase "post hoc, ergo propter hoc," which translates as "after
this, therefore because of this."

Definition: Assuming that because B comes after A, A caused B.

Of course, sometimes one event really does cause another one that comes later--for example, if I register
for a class, and my name later appears on the roll, it's true that the first event caused the one that came
later. But sometimes two events that seem related in time aren't really related as cause and event. That is,
correlation isn't the same thing as causation.

Examples: "President Duterte raised taxes, and then the rate of violent crime went up. Duterte is
responsible for the rise in crime.“

The increase in taxes might or might not be one factor in the rising crime rates, but the argument hasn't
shown us that one caused the other.

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 EXERCISE NO. 2

Identify the fallacy committed by the following arguments:

1. Crimes of theft and robbery have been increasing at an alarming rate lately. The conclusion is obvious the
govt should approve the SOGIE bill immediately.

FALLACY: ___________________________________________

2. I'm positive that my work will meet your requirements. I really need the job since my grandmother is sick.

FALLACY: ___________________________________________

3. You know Ivana Alawi’s exercise video’s must be worth the money. Look at the great shape she’s in.

FALLACY: ___________________________________________

4. Water fluoridation affects the brain. Citywide, student’s test scores began to drop five months after
fluoridation began.

FALLACY: ___________________________________________

5. I know three redheads who have terrible tempers, and since Annabel has red hair, I’ll bet she has a terrible
temper too.

FALLACY: ___________________________________________

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 MODULE 5
PROPAGANDA
Most Essential Learning Outcomes
At the end of this module, students will be able to:
1. Identify common propaganda that are being used in advertising and persuasion.
2. Use propaganda techniques in making an effective persuasive speech.
3. Avoid unnecessary use of propaganda.

Think on this thing…

Think about a time you convinced someone to do something or buy something or believe something? What
was it? How did you convince them? Do you think you are good at convincing people?

Lesson Inputs

Propaganda are techniques used to influence opinions, emotions, attitudes or behavior.

I. What is persuasion?
a) Generally an appeal to emotion, not intellect.
b) An attempt to change your behavior
c) It attempts to “guide your choice”

II. Who uses propaganda?

a) Military - in making treaties and collaborating with new allies.
b) Media - in promoting shows and programs.
c) Advertisers - in presenting products and services.
d) Politicians - in convincing people to believe in them.
e) You and I! - in everyday life.

III. Propaganda Techniques

a) Bandwagon Technique - Everyone is doing it! You should too!!!
Example:

b) Testimonial - Testimonials are quotations or endorsements which connect a famous or respectable

person with a product or item.
Example:

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c) Loaded Word - Use “loaded” words like “new”, “improved”, and “best”.

d) Misuse of Statistics - When the statistics are based on a falsehood.

Example:

e) Name Calling or stereotyping - Smears or damages an opponent. Often used by politicians.

f) Snob Appeal - aims to flatter. Makes insinuation that this product is better than others. Presents the
product as “avant garde” - ahead of the times.

g) Plain Folks - Makes the leaders look like Plain folks (mom and pop style). This is a convincing method
to show they are just common people. Also, this is the opposite of snob appeal.

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 EXERCISE NO. 3

Identify the propaganda technique being used in the following pictures:

1.

2. Ff

3.

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