Bes 141b1e
Bes 141b1e
Pedagogy of Science
Indira Gandhi
National Open University
School of Education
Block
1
UNDERSTANDING SCIENCE
UNIT 1
Science: Perspective and Nature 7
UNIT 2
Aims and Objectives of Science Teaching-Learning 31
UNIT 3
Process Skills in Science 48
UNIT 4
Science in School Curriculum 66
EXPERT COMMITTEE
Prof. I. K. Bansal (Chairperson) Prof. Anju Sehgal Gupta
Former Head, Department of Elementary School of Humanities
Education, NCERT, New Delhi IGNOU, New Delhi
Prof. Shridhar Vashistha Prof. N. K. Dash (Director)
Former Vice-Chancellor School of Education
Lal Bahadur Shastri Sanskrit IGNOU, New Delhi
Vidhyapeeth, New Delhi
Prof. M. C. Sharma (Programme
Prof. Parvin Sinclair Coordinator- B.Ed.)
Former Director, NCERT School of Education
School of Sciences IGNOU, New Delhi
IGNOU, New Delhi
Dr. Gaurav Singh (Programme
Prof. Aejaz Mashih Co-coordinator-B.Ed.)
Faculty of Education School of Education
Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi IGNOU, New Delhi
Prof. Pratyush Kumar Mandal
DESSH, NCERT, New Delhi
Material Production
Prof. Saroj Pandey Mr. S.S. Venkatachalam
Director, SOE, IGNOU A.R. (Publication), SOE, IGNOU
April, 2017
Indira Gandhi National Open University, 2017
ISBN-
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other
means, without permission in writing from the Indira Gandhi National Open University.
Further information on the Indira Gandhi National Open University courses may be obtained from the
University’s Office at Maidan Garhi, New Delhi-l10068.
Printed and published on behalf of the Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi by Director,
School of Education, IGNOU, New Delhi.
Laser Typeset by Tessa Media & Computers, C-206, A.F.E.-II, Okhla, New Delhi.
Printed at:
COURSE: BES-141 Pedagogy of Science
BLOCK 1: UNDERSTANDING SCIENCE
Unit 1 Science: Perspectives and Nature
Unit 2 Aims and Objectives of Science Teaching-Learning
Unit 3 Process Skills in Science
Unit 4 Science in School Curriculum
Unit 1: Science: Perspectives and Nature will discuss in detail about meaning
and nature of Science. Common myths related to nature of Science will also be
discussed so that you can facilitate learners in resolving these myths in order to
understand true nature of Science. Unit will also explain the process of scientific
inquiry and deliberate on place of Science in society. Unit will propose that
Science has its own values system, which is to be developed through teaching-
learning of Science.
6
Science: Perspective and
UNIT 1 SCIENCE: PERSPECTIVES AND Nature
NATURE
Structure
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Objectives
1.3 Understanding Science
1.3.1 What is Science?
1.3.2 Myths about Nature of Science
1.3.3 Understanding Nature of Science
1.3.4 Domains of Science
1.4 How Science Works?
1.5 Science as a Process of Inquiry
1.6 Science in Society
1.7 Value Development through Science
1.8 Let Us Sum Up
1.9 Unit End Exercises
1.10 Suggested Readings and References
1.11 Answers to Check Your Progress
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Science as a discipline has its unique perspective. Science is not limited to
observation, experimentation and analysis only; rather it is a way of life. Science
is an expanding body of knowledge through process of inquiry. A Science teacher
should understand all its dimensions. Present unit will discuss in detail about
meaning and nature of Science and facilitate you in resolving myths related to
Science. The Unit also explains the process of scientific inquiry, as well deliberates
on place of Science in society. It will facilitate you in developing understanding
of relationship of Science and society in learners’ minds. Science has its own
values system, which will be discussed in this unit.
1.2 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be able to:
• facilitate your learners in understanding meaning of Science,
• explain various domains of Science,
• explain Science as a process of inquiry,
• identify and resolve myths related to nature of Science in learner’s mind,
• help your learners in realizing place of Science in the society, and
• identify and inculcate scientific values among your learners.
7
Understanding Science
1.3 UNDERSTANDING SCIENCE
Being a Science teacher, your first responsibility is to facilitate your learners in
understanding the Science. Science is not a new subject for them, as it has already
been introduced to them at upper primary (Class VI-VIII) level. The focus of
Science teaching at elementary level was on engaging learners in learning
principles of Science through familiar experiences, working with hands-on to
design simple technological units and modules and continuing to learn more on
environment and health through various activities (NCF-2005). At Secondary
level, you have to engage your learners in learning Science as a composite
discipline i.e. as an integrated discipline Science and not as segregated subjects
like Physics, Chemistry, Biology, etc. They need to understand the nature of
Science as well as what comes under domain of Science. Let us discuss, how
will you facilitate them in understanding what is Science?
It is never easy to answer the question, what exactly the Science is. For some
Science is what the scientists practice. For others, it is organized knowledge
disciplines like Physics, Chemistry, Biology, etc., but no one can answer this
question exactly. This leads us to think bit deeper.
Etymologically word ‘Science’ has been derived from the Latin word ‘scientia’
which means ‘knowing’. Before the 18th century, Science was referred as ‘natural
philosophy’. Still for some, it is a title; for some, it is a concept, few perceive it
as a method or process while for some, it is inquiry. If we go through philosophical
origin and understanding of term ‘Science’, we can see various perceptions about
Science and this makes it more interesting and challenging. Similarly, when you
look back towards your own childhood and school days, you can find, what was
your own perception about Science.
When your teachers introduced Science as a subject for systematic study and
divided it into many areas like: Physics, Chemistry, Zoology, Botany, do you
think, at that time, you understood what Science is? Many of you may answer in
the negative. Now how will you answer the question: What is Science?
Let us reflect on it. Science is a process of learning. It is very different from other
areas of study because “the way to learn Science is to do Science”. You can
propose it as subject, which always tests ideas with the help of evidences collected
8
from the worlds around us. Some of the important characteristics of Science Science: Perspective and
Nature
which need to be shared with learners are:
• You can help learners to understand that Science does not explain supernatural
myths rather it focuses on the natural world around them. For example,
Science helps to understand growth in plants, characteristics of animals,
etc.
• Learners should understand that Science is not merely a collection of
evidences of happenings; rather it attempts to understand happening through
analysis, testing and verification.
• You can give examples of Scientists working in different areas and ask
learners to find out what is common in their working. Learners will soon
realize that scientists work on testing of ideas, that are generated and their
verification with the help of evidences generated or collected.
Science is actually an integral part of our daily life. As a teacher you can help
learners to understand that scientists are as human as we. They also have feelings
of joy, rivalry, competition, success, failure, etc. as any human being.
As a teacher of Science at secondary level, you should ensure that learners should
overcome the traditional stereotype/mental blocks related to Science like Science
text books are heavy, scientists are persons wearing lab coats and working on
microscopes, a natural scientist works in the rainforest, or busy in writing some
equations and formula on a chalkboard…. all such images are the reflection of
one aspect of Science, but do not offer a full picture.
It is always a debate that what is Science and what is not. As a Science teacher,
we must think on certain issues like why there is no suffix ‘Science’ with subjects
like Physics, Chemistry, Biology, Zoology, Botany, etc., and why there is always
a suffix ‘Science’ with subjects like Social Science, Political Science, Management
Science, Environmental Science, Health Science, Library Science, etc.
As teachers of Science, you should also reflect such questions and identify the
elements which justify the addition of ‘Science’ as suffix to any subject.
9
Understanding Science
Check Your Progress
Note: a) Space is given below to write your answer.
b) Compare your answer with the one given at the end of this Unit.
1) Do you agree that Library Science is a Science? Give arguments in
support of your answer.
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
10
One of the most common myths about the nature of Science is that “a general Science: Perspective and
Nature
and universal scientific method exists”. Many times teachers and learners in
Science have the view that there is a common series of steps that scientists follow
in their investigations/research. In most text books of Science, initial chapters
talk about the general steps of a scientific method i.e. defining the problem,
forming a hypothesis, making observations, testing the hypothesis, drawing
conclusions and reporting results. Slowly classroom and laboratory practices
adopt this procedure of writing up the aims, hypothesis, method, results and
conclusion. This, in the long run, turns into a wrong belief that a general and
universal scientific method exists.
There is another common myth that “scientific laws and other such ideas are
absolute”. This has also taken the shape due to misconceptions and traditional
way of teaching Science. In teaching learning Science, our focus remains on
universal laws and theories. Even the cover page of various Science related books
often reflects some equations like E=mc2 and picture of law of gravitation or the
Archimedes principle. An emphasis on the principles and theories which are of
universal nature gives birth to such misconceptions.
11
Understanding Science Understanding of nature of Science is also important for two reasons; one is
curricular, that is what kind and amount of content is appropriate according to
the cognitive level of learners and the second, to plan right kind of learning
situations for learners i.e. the teaching learning strategies to be adopted. It is
challenging task for a teacher to translate the understanding of Science into a
knowledge generation opportunity for learners. A broad understanding can help
you in designing meaningful situations and in selecting appropriate tools for
classroom transition.
What is nature of Science? This is a debatable issue since long but an accurate
description of the function, processes and limits of Science can engage learners’
interest in the issue.
• Solar system is a very common topic, while discussing the Solar system;
teachers can emphasize that now there are eight planets but earlier ninth
planet Pluto also existed. But in 2006 Scientists reclassified it as a ‘Dwarf
Planet’. Astronomers discovered an object in the Kuiper belt which was
larger than the former ninth planet Pluto and therefore Pluto was not given
the status of a planet. This means Science is tentative – its facts, theories are
subject to change in the light of new observations and new findings.
• Evolution and connecting links are some other common themes in Science.
The tentative nature of Science can be emphasized by discussing many more
examples. Let us discuss the case of ‘dinosaurs’. Dinosaurs were earlier
12
believed to have evolved from reptiles (group to which lizards, snakes etc. Science: Perspective and
Nature
belong) but now the perception about their lineage has changed. Today
scientists are of the opinion that they have evolved from birds. Archaeopteryx,
a feathered dinosaur, was discovered in Germany in 1861. Archaeopteryx
forms a connecting link between two vertebrate groups – reptiles and birds.
It has some reptilian features like presence of teeth and beak. The avian
features include presence of wings and beak. John Ostrom from Yale
University in late 1960s found 22 features in the skeletons of meat-eating
dinosaurs which are only seen in birds. This forms the basis of bird lineage
of dinosaurs.
Above examples support the argument that Science is tentative and subject
to change but there are certain scientific ideas which have stood the test of
time. Sir Isaac Newton’s three laws of motion have survived the test of
time. Although these laws have also been modified, instead of force at a
distance, the concept of field has been introduced. As a Science teacher,
you have to present both sides of the coin because there are certain scientific
principles of universal application.
Activity 1
Present few examples to reflect that nature of Science is tentative and also
few examples to show universal nature of few scientific principles (From
Science text book of class IX or X. Ask your learner to compare both the
situations and enlist few key differences in them.
As a teacher, you can identify and use many such opportunities from the nearby
region to introduce simple concepts of Science. At secondary level, Science should
be evolved from natural contexts of the learners and also from laboratory
experiments, theoretical principles and processes, but if examples are close to
their immediate natural environment, Science will become interesting and
understandable for learners.
Activity 2
Identify some topics from the Science textbook of class IX. Plan some visits
to the nearby areas to provide the learners a feel that the content in text book
is of their immediate use and they can observe its implications in the natural
environment.
A Body of
Knowledge
A Way of A Process
Thinking of Enquiry
Let us try to understand what these domains are. In order to do so, we have to
enlist various activities, facts, and processes related to Science. You can think of
scientific facts, concepts, theories, laws and some methods and processes.
However, when describing the nature of Science, educators have converged on a
key set of concepts, like: tentativeness, empirical evidence, observation and
inference, scientific laws and theories, scientific method, creativity, objectivity
and subjectivity,etc. All these can figure in the three major domains of Science,
as shown in Figure1.2.
A Body of A Process
A way of
Knowledge of Enquiry
Thinking
• Facts • Observing
• Definitions • Measuring • Based upon
• Concepts • Estimating evidences
• Theories • Inferring • Creatinve
• Laws • Classifying • Influenced by
• Hypothesizing background
• Experimenting knowledge
• Concluding
Activity 3
Take the Science textbook of class IX. Enlist the facts, concepts, definitions,
principles and theories presented in the chapter ‘Acids, Bases and Salts’.
How will you present them as a body of scientific knowledge to your learners?
When you start teaching and learning of Science in your class, you have to go
through various processes, which will allow your learners to investigate about
various important issues in their surroundings. Certain process skills have to be
developed like ‘Observation, Inference, Classification, Communication, Measurement,
Prediction’, etc. These skills will be discussed in details in the Unit 3.
The process skills are important for scientific investigations and in everyday
life. The learners should be able to establish causal relationships and distinguish
them from mere associations.
Scientific way of thinking can be promoted by making our learners able to explore,
analyze, evaluate and work in a scientific manner. Scientific way of thinking
will make our learners collect evidence that can be physically observed and
measured. This is known as empirical evidence. Scientific way of thinking also
allows starting questioning why and how things are as they are.
Let us discuss few path breaking inventions and discoveries of Science and how
did they take place.
17
Understanding Science
Law of Gravitation
In the biography of Newton entitled Memoirs of Sir Isaac Newton’s Life
written by William Stukeley, an archaeologist and one of Newton’s first
biographers and published in 1752, Newton told the apple story to Stukeley,
who relayed it as such:
“After dinner, the weather being warm, we went into the garden and drank
tea, under the shade of some apple trees...he told me, he was just in the same
situation, as when formerly, the notion of gravitation came into his mind. It
was occasion’d by the fall of an apple, as he sat in contemplative mood. Why
should that apple always descend perpendicularly to the ground, thought he
to himself...”
Source: https://www.newscientist.com/blogs/culturelab/2010/01/newtons-apple-the-real-
story.html
Discovery of Penicillin
Scottish biologist Alexander Fleming took a break from his lab work
investigating staphylococci and went on holiday. When he returned, he found
that one Petri dish had been left open, and a blue-green mould had formed.
This fungus had killed off all surrounding bacteria in the culture. The mould
contained a powerful antibiotic, penicillin, which could kill harmful bacteria
without having a toxic effect on the human body.
Source: https://newhumanist.org.uk/articles/4852/Science-and-serendipity-famous-
accidental-discoveries
Radioactivity
French scientist Henri Becquerel was working on phosphorescent materials,
which glow in the dark after exposure to light. The chance discovery came
during an experiment involving a uranium-enriched crystal. He believed
sunlight was the reason that the crystal would burn its image on a photographic
plate.
One stormy day in 1896, he decided to leave it for the day and resume his
experiments when the weather was better. A few days later, he took his crystal
out of a darkened drawer. The image burned on the plate was “fogged” – the
crystal had still emitted rays, despite the lack of sunlight. It was clear that
there was a form of invisible radiation that could pass through paper, causing
the plate to react as if exposed to light.
His research was continued by Pierre and Marie Curie, who named the
phenomenon radioactivity.
Source: https://newhumanist.org.uk/articles/4852/Science-and-serendipity-famous-
accidental-discoveries
The Microwave
The heating effect of a high-power microwave beam was discovered in 1945
by Percy Spencer, an American engineer working for the company Raytheon.
He was working on a magnetron capable of beaming high waves of radiation,
when he noticed that a chocolate bar in his pocket had melted. Curious, he
18
Science: Perspective and
placed a bowl of popcorn in front of the tube and it began to pop. Spencer Nature
then created a high-density electromagnetic field by feeding microwave power
from a magnetron into a metal box from which it could not escape. When
food was placed in the box, its temperature quickly rose. In October that
year, Raytheon patented the technology and it became available to the public
in 1947.
Source: https://newhumanist.org.uk/articles/4852/Science-and-serendipity-famous-
accidental-discoveries
What inference your learners can draw from many such stories?
You can use many such stories to help your learners in understanding that every
discovery or invention is not a linear process. Sometimes, it is an observation
(like law of gravitation), sometimes it may a critical question or a systematic
inquiry (like radioactivity), which results into a discovery or invention, but yes,
they have to follow scientific method to test, validate or establish any theory.
19
Understanding Science
If you go through this cycle, you will observe that learners learn through inquiry
which begins with some incident they notice. It initiates a process of question
formation in their mind, which they ask to themselves first and then to elders. It
guides them to move on to next step of focused exploration and investigation.
They collect data, information and analyze it to draw a conclusion. They correlate
their observations with data, formulate patterns and find out relationships and
share their ideas with their peers as well as teachers. Similar procedure is adopted
by scientists, but yes with some sophistication.
Thus, we can say that scientific inquiry helps learners to develop a variety of
skills. Few of them may be like exploration of objects, things, incident,
questioning, careful observation, engaging in simple investigations, ability to
describe, compare, analyze and classify, recording observation, using tools for
data collection, identifying patterns and relationships, drawing out tentative
conclusions, etc.
In order to understand the process of scientific inquiry in more specific terms, let
us discuss various processes such as formulation of hypotheses, gathering of
20
data, recording of observations, reaching to conclusions, etc. which one has to Science: Perspective and
Nature
undergo during scientific inquiry.
The very first process, which a learner undergoes in this process, is the
construction of explanations and ideas. Let us see, how it takes place.
In a Science class, the Science teacher Mr. Moin, brought some material. It
was a water bottle, a glass and a thick paper sheet. He poured water in the
glass and put the thick paper sheet on it. Slowly and carefully, he inverted
the glass and removed his hand from there. Learners were surprised that
paper had stuck on the glass and water is not coming out.
He asked learner to reflect on it.
Learners started discussing by giving explanations for their observation.
The responses were varied.
Some said that paper had glue inside.
Some said, it had stuck due to water inside.
Others whispered that there was some other thing in the water bottle.
For some it was a kind of a magical trick.
What are these comments? As a Science teacher, how can you use their comments
for generating interest in natural phenomenon?
Existence questions start with why and are answered on the basis of recalling
factual knowledge a learner already have. On the other hand casual questions
begin with how, what if, does and I wonder, which are generally answered through
scientific investigations.
In scientific inquiry, questions are a bit different from the questions generally
asked. When a learner develops his/her understanding about scientific inquiry,
s/he is able to generate his/her own set of questions. Generally, following types
of questions are asked during scientific inquiry.
Generally, learners ask factual questions as they are not aware about the actual
process of scientific inquiry. Factual questions are comparatively easy to generate.
As a teacher you have to encourage learners to ask more meaningful questions.
As soon as learners will learn to ask a variety of questions, they will also learn to
relate the questions with scientific inquiry process and investigations. They should
be provided opportunities to explore information related to their questions and
should be encouraged to find answers of their questions by themselves. Along
with it, the teacher should try to modify factual questions into testable questions
and provide opportunity to generate new questions.
Activity 2
Initiate a discussion on any topic (e.g. rain, air pollution, etc.) related to
Science in your class. List the questions asked by learners. Categorize these
questions into various types of questions mentioned above.
22
It is also suggested that you direct your learners to be able to distinguish between Science: Perspective and
Nature
testable questions and other forms of questions and factual questions asked by
learners should be modified into testable questions. Let us first try to understand
what is a testable question?
BSCS (2005, p. 30) has suggested that a testable question meets these criteria:
• The question centers on objects, organisms and events in the natural world.
• The question connects to scientific concepts rather than to opinions, feelings,
or beliefs.
• The question can be investigated through experiments or observations.
• The question leads to gathering evidence and using data to explain how the
natural world works.
Can you apply these criteria on the questions discussed in previous section?
Many times, you can observe that the questions are mostly related to an activity
but cannot be accepted as testable questions because these can’t be answered
through an experiment only. There are a few questions, which can be answered
on the basis of factual knowledge and explanation of cause-effect relationship.
According to Heyer (2006, p.4), the four most important things to remember
about hypotheses are:
• A hypothesis should be consistent with existing observations and known
information regarding the question.
• A hypothesis must be presented as a statement of the predicted outcome, not
as a question.
• A hypothesis is formulated before the experiment, not after the experiment.
• A hypothesis must be specific and testable.
As a teacher you can create situations to encourage learners to form testable
questions and find out probable answers on the basis of their observations and
previous knowledge.
Activity 3
In order to encourage your learners for framing hypotheses, you can perform
activities in the classroom based on:
• The increase in the rate of evaporation of water with heat.
• Factors affecting growth of salt crystal.
• Factors affecting growth of plants/seed germination.
• Effect of exercise on rate of respiration.
23
Understanding Science Planning, conducting and observing simple investigations
In order to test formulated hypotheses, you have to encourage learners to plan,
conduct and observe some investigations or simple experiments. Whenever an
investigation is to be carried out, it should be based on sound planning regarding
the role of the teachers and learners and their participation during the investigation.
While planning any simple scientific investigation, you should prepare yourself
by answering questions like:
• What is the objective of investigation?
• How is it related with scientific concept or theory?
• What are the required material/resources for investigation?
• Where will the investigation be carried out i.e. inside the classroom or outside
the class/school?
• What will be the level of involvement of the learners?
• What will be role of learners?
• What are the precautions to be kept in mind? And so on…
After planning, the next task is to conduct the activity i.e. executing your plan.
To encourage learners to be active participants of investigation, the teachers should
guide them to perform the investigation. The activity set by the teacher should
ensure the active and enthusiastic involvement of the learners in observation,
establishing cause-effect relationship, collecting information, arranging data in
sequential and logical manner etc. Teachers’ role should be of a vigilant observer
with minimum interference in the process of investigation.
It has been suggested that the teacher not only connects classroom teaching with
the physical surroundings but also promotes the investigation by learners, helping
them to establish a relationship with their surroundings.
As a teacher, you can perform many simple experiments in the classroom also.
Some of them could be:
• Take two test tubes leveled as A and B. In test tube A, put some boiled
rice, and in B, put the boiled rice after chewing it for 3-5 min. Add 3-4
ml. water in both. Now pour 2-3 drops of iodine solution in them. Ask
the learners to observe the change. You can explain the role of saliva in
breaking of starch into sugar.
• Take one iron rod. Apply wax on it and attach some nails with the wax.
Start heating one end of the rod. Ask the learners to observe the changes.
You can help them to understand the concept of flow of heat.
These are just a few suggestions; you can plan a lot more activities based on the
content of the prescribed Science Textbook. The objective of discussion in this
section is to sensitize you about making teaching learning more inquiry based
and making the learner an active constructor of scientific knowledge.
After drawing conclusions, learners are expected to share and communicate the
results obtained. Communicating results is another important part of scientific
inquiry. Here it is not expected that learners should communicate the result in
same way as the scientists communicate their results, all though, they have to
learn to report their result in a sequential way in the light of objectives decided
earlier. The teacher can help learners to present the results of their inquiry in an
understandable form for others.
Solving problems
A learner of Science is expected to solve her/his day to day problems with a
scientific attitude. S/he should apply the process of scientific inquiry in
understanding, analyzing and solving a problem. As a teacher you have to create
situations, in which learners feel encouraged to analyze the problem in a scientific
process, apply scientific inquiry approach to understand it, formulate testable
questions and hypotheses, organize scientific investigation, draw a conclusion
and report it as a solution of the problem.
The question is how can we motivate learners towards it? Through a problematic
situation of their day to day life, incidents from their surroundings, news clips,
newspaper reports, natural disasters, linkage of scientific concept explained in
text book with the examples of their life experiences, we can motivate learners.
Here are some examples given in the box, where a scientific concept can be
explained with the help of every day experiences.
If you analyze the content given in your Science textbook, you can find many
such examples.
25
Understanding Science
Check Your Progress
Note: a) Space is given below to write your answer.
b) Compare your answer with the one given at the end of this Unit.
3) What are the types of questions in scientific inquiry?
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
4) What should be the characteristics of a good conclusion?
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
• Can you compare the society before and after the invention of mobile phone?
How mobile phone technology as changed the whole social structure.
• Can you compare the year when only books and newspapers were source of
information and now when internet and social media has become major
source of information?
26
• Can you imagine the contribution of Science in the area of medical Sciences, Science: Perspective and
Nature
where every day something new is being invented in form of vaccine,
medicines, surgical equipment, and diagnostic test kits, etc.?
• How do recent developments in Space and Atomic research affect the social
relationships in global world?
There are many such questions, which may emerge in your mind when you start
thinking about relationship of Science and society.
You will not find any aspect of social or personal life, which is not affected by
innovations and discoveries in Science.
Ask your learners to perform a small activity.
Ask your learners to list down various duties they perform as a member of
society, and also enlist the scientific discoveries/inventions which are helping
them in performing their duties:
You can organize many such activities where they can learn how important Science
is for the society. You can invite Doctors, Agriculture Experts, Engineers,
Environmentalists, etc. for talks so that learners can develop an understanding
of their contribution in the society.
Activity
Organize any of the following events at your school in collaboration with
society members:
• Science exhibition
• Discussion on role of various types of scientific discoveries/inventions
for benefit of society
• Small group projects on latest development in Science and technology
• Reading circles about contribution of various scientists to society
• Poster Competition on contribution of Indian Scientists to the world
Let us discuss few activities through which a Science teacher can inculcate values
among learners. You have to complete the following table.
With the help of this, activity you can understand that value development is
possible by visualizing and integrating value development with teaching-learning
process. You will also agree that a value cannot be developed by any one particular
activity or a section of content; continuous efforts are required for it. It is expected
from you being a teacher of Science that whenever you plan your teaching-learning
process for any content, you will also plan the value associated with it and also
the assessment strategy. If you keep it in mind during planning and transaction,
you will be able to develop desired values among your learners.
SCIENCE TEACHING-LEARNING
Structure
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Objectives
2.3 Aims of Science Education
2.4 Objectives of Science Teaching-Learning
2.5 Developing Learning Objectives
2.5.1 Anderson and Krathwohl’s Taxonomy
2.5.2 How to Write Objectives
2.6 Shift in Pedagogic Approach
2.6.1 Effect on Nature of Teaching-Learning
2.6.2 Effect on Planning
2.6.3 Effect on Methods and Strategies
2.6.4 Effect on Assessment
2.7 Let Us Sum Up
2.8 Unit End Exercises
2.9 References and Suggested Readings
2.10 Answers to Check Your Progress
2.1 INTRODUCTION
In unit one, we have discussed about the meaning and nature of science. This
unit aims to facilitate you in understanding the aims and objectives of science
teaching. As a science teacher, you should be aware of why science is placed in
secondary curriculum as an integrated area of study, how is it different from
elementary level, etc. The Unit will facilitate you in formulating learning
objectives according to Anderson and Krathwohl’s taxonomy. Unit also discusses
the shift in pedagogical approach from behaviourism to constructivism. How
constructivist approach has affected nature of science teaching-learning, planning,
methods and strategies and assessment, all such issues will be discussed in this
unit.
2.2 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be able to:
• understand aims and objectives of science teaching-learning;
• compare teaching of science at elementary and secondary level;
• formulate learning objectives in science;
• understand the shift in science pedagogy from behaviourist to constructivist
approach; and
• analyse impact of constructivist pedagogy on nature of science teaching-
learning, planning, methods and strategies and assessment, etc.
31
Understanding Science
2.3 AIMS OF SCIENCE EDUCATION
National Curriculum Framework (NCF-2005) proposed five guiding principles
for curriculum development:
i) connecting knowledge to life outside the school;
ii) ensuring that learning shifts away from rote methods;
iii) enriching the curriculum so that it goes beyond textbooks;
iv) making examinations more flexible and integrating them with classroom
life; and
v) nurturing an overriding identity informed by caring concerns within the
democratic polity of the country.
The entire teaching-learning process at school level revolves around these five
guiding principles. NCF emphasized that “teaching of science should be recast
so that it enables children to examine and analyze everyday experiences. Concerns
and issues pertaining to the environment should be emphasized in every subject
and through a wide range of activities involving outdoor project work. Some of
the information and understanding flowing from such projects could contribute
to the elaboration of a publicly accessible, transparent database on India’s
environment, which would in turn become a most valuable educational resource.
If well planned, many of these learner projects could lead to knowledge
generation.”
If you will analyze these aims in order to understand the nature of science teaching
learning at school level, you will find that:
Now it will be easy for you to understand the objectives of science teaching-
learning at different levels.
Emphasis is more on acquiring process skills so that learners are able to deal
with every changing and expanding world of science. Keeping these key points
in mind, science curriculum at different level has been organized.
At the upper primary level, the emphasis is on engaging the learner in learning
principles of science through familiar experiences, working with hands to design
simple technological units and modules and continuing to learn more on
environment and health through activities and surveys.
As a science teacher, you will agree that scientific concepts are learnt better if
learners explore them through activities and experiments. Learners should be
given opportunity to explore science in their everyday experiences. You should
engage learners (preferably in groups) in meaningful investigations -particularly
of the problems they perceive to be significant and important.
As a science teacher, you should encourage discussions with the teacher and
peers. You can ask your learners to gather information from newspapers,
knowledgeable persons in the neighbourhood, and from easily available sources
and discuss about them in class with peers and teachers.
Role play, skits, cooperative learning strategies should be adopted to ensure larger
participation and sharing of learning outcomes. It is advised that biographical
narratives of scientists and inventors can be used. You should keep in mind that
efforts should be continued for development of the process skills of science.
It is suggested that at the secondary stage, you should engage your learners in
learning science as a composite discipline. As a science teacher at this level, you
should provide them opportunity to engage in activities and analysis on issues
surrounding environment and health.
34
As secondary stage, systematic experimentation is suggested as a tool to discover/ Aims and Objectives of
Science Teaching-Learning
verify theoretical principles, and working on locally significant projects involving
science and technology.
Concepts, principles and laws of science should be introduced at this level with
an emphasis on comprehension and not on mere formal definitions. At this stage,
those concepts, which are beyond direct experience, should also be introduced
and learners should make understand that all scientific phenomena are not directly
observable; science also relies on inference and interpretation.
• Knowledge of specifics
o Knowledge of terminology
o Knowledge of specific facts
• Knowledge of ways and means of dealing with specifics
o Knowledge of conventions
o Knowledge of trends and sequences
o Knowledge of classifications and categories
o Knowledge of criteria
o Knowledge of methodology
• Knowledge of universals and abstractions in a field
o Knowledge of principles and generalizations
o Knowledge of theories and structures
COMPREHENSION
• Translation
• Interpretation
• Extrapolation
APPLICATION
ANALYSIS
• Analysis of elements
• Analysis of relationships
• Analysis of organizational principles
SYNTHESIS
• Production of a unique communication
• Production of a plan, or proposed set of operations
• Derivation of a set of abstract relations
EVALUATION
• Evaluation in terms of internal evidence
• Judgments in terms of external criteria
If you recall the objective statements, you will find that there were two major
components of an objective:
a) Some subject matter content (A Noun or Noun phrase)
b) A description of what is to be done with or to that content (A verb or verb
phrase)
For example, “a learner will be able to define motion.” In this objective
statement the noun phrase is “motion” and the verb is “define.” In original
taxonomy, noun and verb aspects was part of knowledge dimension.
37
Understanding Science In the revised taxonomy, first change is that noun and verb dimensions are
separate. The noun is providing the basis for the Knowledge dimension and the
verb is forming the basis for the Cognitive Process dimension.
In this dimension, like the original taxonomy, same number exists in the revised
taxonomy also. Let us see the following table to understand the changes in revised
taxonomy.
38
Aims and Objectives of
Science Teaching-Learning
In above table, you can see that ‘knowledge’ category is renamed as ‘remember’,
‘comprehension’ is renamed as ‘understand’, ‘Application, Analysis and
Evaluation’ are retained but in their verb form i.e. ‘apply, analyze and evaluate’.
Evaluation was last category in original taxonomy but here it is at 5th place and
‘synthesis’ is replaced by a new category named as ‘create’.
All these 6 categories are further divided into 19 subcategories and renamed as
cognitive processes. Let us have an overview of these cognitive processes.
Another very important aspect of revised taxonomy is that here every objective
is represented in a “two dimensional table”. The Knowledge dimension forms
the vertical axis, whereas the Cognitive Process dimension forms the horizontal
axis. See the following table:
The Cognitive Process Dimension
Remember Understand Apply Analyze Evaluate Create
The Knowledge Dimension
Factual
Knowledge
Conceptual
Knowledge
Procedural
Knowledge
Metacognitive
Knowledge
39
Understanding Science Let us examine following objectives:
1) Learners will be able to define the term speed.
2) Learners will be able to measure intervals of time in a wall clock.
3) Learners will be able to derive relationship between different units of speed.
Can you place all these objectives in the two dimensional table? If you start
placing them, you have to analyze every objective on knowledge dimension as
well as on cognitive process dimension. For example, in objective one, speed is
a concept, which will fall under conceptual knowledge and defining comes under
‘understand’ cognitive process, hence it will fall in as below. Try to analyze
other objectives also and fill the following table on your own.
The Cognitive Process Dimension
Remember Understand Apply Analyze Evaluate Create
The Knowledge Dimension
Factual
Knowledge
Conceptual Objective 1
Knowledge
Procedural
Knowledge
Metacognitive
Knowledge
Activity 1
Select any topic from a science textbook of class IX or X. Formulate objectives
keeping in mind the nature of concept and cognitive process associated with
it. Analyze your objectives by placing them in the two dimensional table.
40
2.5.2 How to Write Objectives Aims and Objectives of
Science Teaching-Learning
Discussion in section 2.5.1 will help to identify the cognitive processes and
knowledge dimension associated with any content. As a science teacher, you
have to formulate learning objectives in statement forms and also keep in mind
that they should be achievable.
Terms which are not clearly stating “action” should be avoided. Many such terms
like “understand, know, appreciate, comprehend, learn, recognize” should be
avoided while stating an instructional objective. Let see an improved version of
objective.
Objective 1A: Learners will be able to list the hot and cold items based on
their daily experiences.
If you analyze above statement in the light of three elements suggested by Mager,
you will find that this objective is clearly stating the expected learner outcome,
i.e. listing hot and cold items. This statement also hints at the circumstances i.e.
learners’ daily experiences, but this statement is lacking on third criterion i.e.
element to specify the level of proficiency because one learner may list 2 items
each whereas other may list 5 items. This objective statement can be refined
further as:
Objective 1B: Learners will be able to list the three hot and three cold items
based on their daily experiences at home.
Now this objective statement has refined second element i.e. hinting at the
circumstances and included the criterion i.e. element to specify the level of
proficiency by asking three items each.
Let us examine few sets learning objective statements and decide which one is
better:
1A. Learners will be able to learn about soil profile.
1B. Learners will be able to level four horizons of soil in a diagram showing
soil profile.
41
Understanding Science 2A. Learners will be able to differentiate between amphibians and aquatic
animals on the basis of their breathing organs.
2B. Learners will be able to differentiate between amphibians and aquatic
animals.
3A. Learners will be able to demonstrate image formation by concave lens.
3B. Learners will be able to draw a ray-diagram showing image formation of
an object placed at 2F by concave lens.
In all three sets of objectives, you will find that 1B, 2A and 3B are better written
objectives. Can you identify the condition, performance and criterion elements
in these objectives? Let us do an exercise.
Activity 2
Go through the objective 1B, 2A and 3B and enlist the elements in the following
table:
Objective Condition Performance Criterion
1B
2A
3B
Sometimes you may find that all three elements are not present is an objective
statement, but you should ensure that at least condition and performance elements
are present in your objective statement. If you ensure presence of criterion element,
it will help your assessment more effective and objective.
Present discourse of learning has broken this jinx. Nowadays, focus is more on
learning. Teaching is not a stand-alone activity rather teaching is to facilitate
learning. In the constructivist perspective, learning is a process of the construction
of knowledge. Teaching has occupied a facilitating role.
In the following table, Sandholtz, Ringstaff, and Dwyer, 1997 have identified
the shifts take place due to changing from a focus on teaching to a focus on
learning.
Now analyze your role as a science teacher in the light of shift discussed in the
above table. You will find that shift of focus from teaching to learning has created
more interactive learning environment where learners can be engaged in
construction of knowledge more meaningfully and actively. This has transformed
the traditional role of teacher as well as perception about learner. Nowadays,
learner is perceived as active learner.
For creating such learning environment, you as teachers need to acquire necessary
skills for planning, and designing learning situations where children can learner
on their own.
Cooperative learning strategy has brought a fresh air in the science teaching-
learning environment. Focus has been shifted to cooperative learning
environment. Social constructivist approach has emphasized that social contexts
of learning and the knowledge is mutually built and constructed. Peer tutoring
and cooperative learning become important methods of learning. You are expected
to follow these methods while designing learning experiences.
Different assessment strategies have been suggested for different levels. Focus
is on criteria based short tests in place of formal examination. It is also being
suggested to teachers that children’s own self-evaluation can be the part of report
card. Strategies like portfolio, worksheets, rubrics and informal observation are
being promoted for practicing assessment.
47
Understanding Science
UNIT 3 PROCESS SKILLS IN SCIENCE
Structure
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Objectives
3.3 Process Skills in Science
3.3.1 Basic Process Skills in Science
3.3.2 Acquiring Skills to Understand the Method and Processes of Science
3.4 Developing Scientific Attitude and Scientific Temper
3.5 Nurturing Aesthetic Sense and Curiosity
3.6 Interdependence of Different Aspects of Nature of Science
3.7 Let Us Sum Up
3.8 Unit End Exercises
3.9 References and Suggested Readings
3.10 Answers to Check Your Progress
3.1 INTRODUCTION
While discussing about aims of science education in Unit 2, you must have noticed
that now focus is on development of process skills among learners. National
Curriculum Framework-2005 has also emphasized on developing these scientific
skills learners so that they can construct their own understanding of science by
using inquiry. Unit will discuss how learners can develop scientific attitude and
scientific temper while learning science. You have to facilitate learners to develop
aesthetic sense while learning science. Unit will help you in it. Curiosity initiates
inquiry. How can you nurture curiosity among science learners? Unit focuses on
this aspect also. While discussing nature of science in Unit 1, you have studied
that science is a body of knowledge, a way of thinking (that needs development
of scientific attitude), and a process of inquiry (that needs nurturing of science
process skills). This unit will help you in exploring interdependence of all these
aspects.
3.2 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be able to:
• identify basic scientific process skills to be developed among learners;
• design and develop activities to help learners for developing process skills
in science;
• specify your role in nurturing scientific process skills among learners;
• describe the characteristic features of scientific attitude and scientific temper;
• suggest strategies to develop scientific attitude among learners;
• facilitate learners for nurturing aesthetic sense and curiosity; and
• explore the interdependence of various aspects of nature of science.
48
Process Skills in Science
3.3 PROCESS SKILLS IN SCIENCE
If you ask learners, what is science, you will find a common aspect in their
responses i.e. science is a process of inquiry. Science involves few processes
which may part of a “Scientific Method”. If you look into the way science is
done by scientists, you will find that there is no universal or specific scientific
method. Scientists approach problems by variety of ways which have several
processes common to them. These commonly used processes to conduct scientific
inquiries are termed as ‘Science Process skills’.
In simple words, Science process skills are the processes which are being used
by various scientists while doing science. Some common science process skills
are Observing, Classifying, Communicating, Measuring, Predicting and Inferring.
You may find in some examples some more advanced process skills sometimes
referred as integrated skills like identifying and controlling variables,
hypothesizing, interpreting data, defining operationally, experimenting and
constructing models. At secondary level, your focus should remain on developing
basic science process skills among learners.
Observing
Observing is the most basic process of science and creates a base for higher
scientific inquiries. If you ask your learners which sense they are using while
observing, many of them may reply: eyes.
49
Understanding Science You have to help them in understanding that “Observing means using our various
senses to obtain information (or data) about objects or events attended”.
Observations are not to be limited to seeing things only. We use more than one
sense organ to collect data (or information) about the objects in our daily acts.
Actions like- looking at the change of colour in litmus solution, feeling vibrations
in tongs by touching it, smelling odour of resultant gas during a chemical reaction,
hearing the change in pitch of sound in a musical instrument and tasting a solution
to find out if it has sugar or salt in it- involve observation using one or the other
sensory organ.
You must train your learners to use all their five senses (sight, hearing, taste,
smell and touch) in our science classes to help them become good observers.
That means, you should give them more and more observation based activities
to help them learn how to use sensory experiences to gather information about
their surroundings.
Properties of different objects like colour, size, shape, hardness, texture, lustre,
sonorous and density, etc. are all observable by using more than one sense.
Ms. Vandana, the science teacher in a secondary school in Noida, asked her
learners to fill in the table, what they will observe during following activities:
Activity Place of What do you Senses
Observation Observe? Involved
Cooking
Bird watching
Monitoring the class
Specimen of a fish
When they completed the table, she asked them to define observation in their
own words.
She further explained few characteristics of observation to her learners with
the help of examples from this activity.
Activity 1
Design some activities through which you can help your learners in
understanding that:
• Observation involves many senses.
• Observation is based on facts.
Classifying
Classification of objects (or events) is a process of imposing order on collection
of objects (or events) based on similarities, differences, and interrelationships. It
is good to organize our observations in ways that carry some special meaning.
Learners in a secondary class have basic understanding of grouping objects into
general categories. Such as, they can classify fruits and vegetables, round objects
and square objects, wooden articles and plastic articles, stationery items and
play material, etc. based on their everyday observations and experiences. But,
they need to be given specific training for learning how to classify objects or
events into scientific categories.
The more they become acquainted with scientific concepts, the better they become
in classifying things/ events in appropriate categories. For example, learners tend
to classify all plants together based on their general features like green colour,
rooted in soil, having leaves, stems and branches, etc. similar to almost every
plant. At times, they call all huge plants as “Tree” and all smaller plants including
bushes and grasses as “Plants” since they group them based on height only.
As a science teacher, you know that this classification is not scientifically correct;
“Plant” being the concept that includes all living organisms which produce their
food through photosynthesis. At elementary level, they have learnt in their science
classes about different ways of classifying plants, such as: trees, shrubs and herbs,
flowering and non-flowering plants etc. at secondary level you have to introduce
some higher order classifications like monocots and dicots.
You must provide the learners with ample number of experiences to observe
similarities and differences among variety of plants found in their surroundings.
Learners must be able to understand the basis of every classification scheme to
classify the objects into correct categories. It is usually a good idea to include
classification activities together with observation activities in your day to day
science classes.
It is critical to ask learners why they grouped objects the way they did to discover
their thinking about the process employed. It helps them to reflect on the act and
51
Understanding Science identify the sorting errors, if any. The extent of classification depends on the
depth of similarities and differences observed among a group of objects/events.
You may arrive at parallel classification system or hierarchical systems of
classification. Generally, learners learn parallel classification system in early
grades that results into simpler categories; such as, one given below for example-
ACIDIC BASIC
Lime Juice Baking soda
Vinegar Bleach
.......... ...........
Gradually you can teach them to evolve hierarchical classification schemes also
where they would be able to look at similarities and differences together in a
given set of items. In that case, they learn that the main group starts with the
most general feature and gradually proceeds towards the specific features of
each subgroup it has within it. For example, look at the scheme of classification
given below:
Activity 2
Ask your learners to classify the following materials as per the above shown
scheme:
Mercury, Soil, Table salt, Sugar, Rain Water, Coffee, Carbon-dioxide, Copper,
Tap water, 20 carat Gold, Iron, Glucose, Vinegar, Steel, Vegetable soup,
Urea, Fountain pen ink, Blood, Gravel
Activity 3
Ask learners to estimate the linear dimensions of their classroom in
centimeters, meters or inches and then tell them to measure it using meter
rod or inch-tape. Let the measurement be done by learners in groups and then
ask them to compare their results. They might not get uniform results in each
group. What could be the reasons? You should then discuss with them the
reasons of varying results and the ways to ensure accuracy in measurement.
Communicating
In most generalized form, communication means sending and receiving the
message through verbal or nonverbal means. People communicate in various
modes such as, speaking, writing, drawing, gesturing, acting, singing, modeling,
story telling, etc.
Activity 4
Ask your learners to collect some descriptions about medicines given in
packets of cough syrups or antibiotics, which they generally through when
they purchase such medicines. Similarly they should be asked to collect some
user manuals of electric equipments or mobile phone. They may be asked to
collect some reports on various diagnostics laboratories or ultrasounds.
Ask them to read all these and compare on following aspects’
Are all are written in same manner?
What are the similarities and differences in these reports?
Why a description of an antibiotic is not easily understandable to them where
as they read and understand a user manual well?
Inferring
Inferring is using logic to draw conclusions from what we observe and an
‘inference’ is an explanation to our observation about any object or event. In
other words, an inference is a person’s best guess about the cause of an
observation. It is generally based on some evidence also. Most of the time, our
inference is strongly conditioned by our past experiences and knowledge.
• When I walked today in garden, I noticed that most of plants and trees
were without flowers and fruits. This may be due to hot summers and sun
is shining brightly and there was no rain for last 2-3 months. Grass in the
garden has also turned brown; it is not as green as it looks in rainy days.
• Today Shabina mam asks us to visit the garden and prepare the report.
We visited the garden in small groups. In my group, there were 3 students.
We all divided the task on counting types of herbs, shrubs and trees. We
found that in garden, there are 4 types of herbs, 3 types of shrubs and 6
types of trees.
54
What do you understand by these examples? Are these simple reporting of facts Process Skills in Science
or do few learners try to infer something from observation. In second example,
learner explained her observation with some logic and facts. Here, she is trying
to draw inference whereas in other two examples learners have reported what
they observed.
You can give a variety of tasks to learners where they can practice skill of inferring.
Learners should realize that more than one inference can be drawn from a single
set of observations. Previous knowledge and contextual experiences could bring
this variation in inferences from person to person. For this, you should encourage
them to discuss their observations and logically explain their inferences to each
other. Also, they must gradually learn to accept that an inference can be revised
with newer observations and evidences. Such as, early experiences with floating
and sinking objects may lead to inference that heavy objects sink and lighter
ones float. But, when they are countered with other observations and their idea
of weight responsible for floating or sinking is challenged, then their inferences
about the floating/sinking behaviour of objects also get modified.
Predicting
Predicting is to forecast about what a future observation will be. Predictions are
based on our observations, measurements and inferences that we make about
relationships among various observed variables. They are our best guesses based
on the available information/data in hand. You can start with example of weather
forecasts, in which meteorologists predict the weather on the basis of available
information, observations, analysis and prior experiences.
It is essential to learn this skill of predicting for doing science and learners should
be encouraged to predict before they test something. For example, you can ask
them to predict:
• whether some object will sink or float;
• whether some object will be attracted or repelled by magnet;
• whether the bulb will glow or not in specific circuit;
• whether the seed get germinated in a specific condition or not, and so on.
You should help learners in bringing accuracy in prediction by encouraging them
to make careful observations and precise measurements.
of Science
Learners need to acquire basic science process skills in order to understand the
method and processes of science that are used by scientists to do science. Apart
from six basic process skills as described above, there are ‘integrated skills’ as
well in science- those are acquired later by learners once they have learnt using
basic process skills. Basic process skills are prerequisite for integrated skills.
Integrated process skills require higher order thinking and reasoning and hence
they are mainly practiced in upper grades. These integrated skills include:
• Identifying and controlling variables,
• Defining operationally
• Hypothesizing,
• Experimenting,
• Interpreting data,
• Constructing models, etc.
You cannot expect learners to excel in these skills unless they have experienced
or been allowed to practice them consistently. Instead you need to give them
multiple opportunities to work with these skills in different content areas and
contexts. In fact, you need to be patient with the learners having difficulties,
since it requires to have developed formal thinking patterns among them to
experiment in science successfully. The more you make your science classrooms
process oriented, more will be the possibilities for learners to learn ‘how science
is done’.
Your role as a teacher is very significant where you are required to keep in mind
few things while engaging learners in teaching-learning activities. For instance,
you should-
• train learners for use of senses to carry out focused and objective observations
in science;
• help learners learn to record their observations in both qualitative as well as
quantitative manner;
• enable learners to use measuring instruments precisely and using appropriate
units to present their data/ observations;
• encourage learners for communicating observations honestly without
hesitation and feeling no fear while reporting deviated results;
• use appropriate questions to guide learners for making authentic observations
and inferences;
• help learners to classify various objects or events and develop ability to
explain the underlying criteria;
• provide opportunities to use different means of communicating data/ results
of their investigations, such as charts, graphs, models, etc.;
• motivate them to share their observations and inferences with each other;
• encourage them to predict an event and then test it if it’s coming out to be
true or not;
57
Understanding Science • create ample opportunities for learners to use science process skills and
integrating them wherever is the scope.
In fact, it is tragic to note that many educated people including those with science
background lack scientific temperament. Hence, it is considered to be an important
goal to develop scientific attitude and temper among school learners so that they
might develop into rational and logical beings and enlightened citizens in future.
It becomes imperative for you as a science teacher to help your learners in
development of critical thinking and logical reasoning through learning science.
Let us first look at the two terms mentioned here- ‘Scientific Attitude’ and
‘Scientific Temper’. These terms are used interchangeably in field of science and
encompass similar traits or features that are required to be developed among
learners through science teaching. Attitudes can be defined as ‘mental
predispositions toward people, objects, subjects, events, and so on.’ (Martin, et
al., 1998, pp.14). The scientific attitude is indicated by certain tendencies or
mental processes in a person, which include- critical and logical thinking,
curiosity, creativity and inventiveness, respect for evidence, open-mindedness,
persistence, truthfulness and honesty in reporting observations, scepticism,
58
perseverance, objectivity, universalism and willingness to suspend judgement Process Skills in Science
unless having sufficient evidences.
Let us discuss these attributes in brief; it will help you to develop a clear
understanding.
Critical thinking
It is the ability to analyse our experiences and review our actions through reflecting
on them. It requires an abstract thinking to reflect on our actions. We use critical
thinking to evaluate whether something is adequate, correct, useful or desirable.
You can nurture critical thinking among your learners by encouraging them to
review their work for further improvement. You should discuss with them about
the failures or mistakes in previous work. Also, discuss the alternate ways of
approaching a given problem if one doesn’t seem working. It is better if you ask
open ended questions to encourage your learners to analyze the information and
critically think on the various aspects of a given problem or experience.
59
Understanding Science Logical thinking
It requires thinking with logical reasoning. Logical thinking is the essence of
having scientific temper as it makes you focus on your observations and organize
them carefully through reasoning before arriving at any conclusion. You should
give enough opportunities to your learners to reason out their observations.
Learners start looking for patterns in terms of cause and effects before concluding
once they start developing logical thinking.
Objectivity
This is referred to the ability of looking at things without preconceived notions,
prejudices or subjective biases. Objectivity will also help in developing respect
for evidences, since an objective person will only rely on unbiased evidences. If
somebody sets for a scientific enquiry with some preconceived notions in mind
then there are obvious chances to obtain biased results. It is better if you help
your learners learn to accept any idea only after testing and verifying it against
sufficient number of evidences.
Open-mindedness
An open-minded person listens to others and is willing to change her/his mind if
warranted. Scientific temper demands that the person should be open-minded
and flexible in her/his approach. The person is required to evaluate all
observations, inferences and explanations carefully; and then accept the ones
which are consistent with the evidences and offers best possible explanation of
the phenomenon. Open-minded person will accept a new theoretical framework,
model or paradigm over the other when she/he identifies the inconsistencies in
the existing theories or the ways of approaching and explaining a phenomenon.
You can help your learners to become open-minded by letting them share their
viewpoints with each other and evaluate them collectively. They should be helped
to show respect for best explanations and review their own conclusions if found
inconsistent with the upcoming observations/evidences.
Scepticism
It is the ability to question accepted beliefs, ideas or facts prevalent in society on
the basis of scientific reasoning or investigations. You should help your learners
to develop this attitude of questioning widely accepted superstitions and myths
in our society in the name of religion, culture, magic and so on. It is better if you
give lot of space in your science classes about discussing such non-scientific
ideas and beliefs to help learners develop into logical and rational thinker.
Perseverance
It is the ability to carry out something with sustained and persistent efforts. History
makes it evident that lots of scientific inventions were the results of persistent
efforts of scientists and for some it took their lifetime even. You must help your
learners to accept their failures, learn from them and motivate for further trials.
Activity 6
Maintain a journal on “Major inventions in science”. Search for the scientists
and the stories behind those inventions from books, newspapers and internet
resources. Reflect on the attributes of scientific attitude and temper that were
evident in each story.
‘The world looks so different after learning science. For example, trees
are made of air, primarily. When they are burned, they go back to air,
and in the flaming heat is released the flaming heat of the sun which
was bound in to convert the air into tree, and in the ash is the small
remnant of the part which did not come from air, that came from the
solid earth, instead…These are beautiful things, and the content of
science is wonderfully full of them. They are very inspiring, and they
can be used to inspire others.’
Hence, the aesthetics and sense of wonder is significant for science learning.
You should be able to infuse this ability among your learners. You must encourage
them to read historical accounts of scientists and help your learners to appreciate
the aesthetic sense reflected in their work. While creating science models, toys
and gadgets to understand applications of science concepts, learners also derive
joy and satisfaction from their work. Such opportunities should be continuously
given to learners by you to nurture aesthetic sense among them.
62
Process Skills in Science
Activity 7
While teaching a science unit, ask your learners to evolve a list of different
questions out of curiosity that come to their mind related to that unit. You
can paste a chart on a wall of your classroom where each of them can write
and read everyone’s question. Discuss their questions after completion of
the unit and encourage them to investigate for the answers through devising
appropriate strategies. You can ask them to take up small investigatory
projects to be done in small groups. Mentor their investigations and help
them share and appreciate the findings.
64
Process Skills in Science
3.10 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1) Observing, Classifying, Communicating, Measuring, Predicting and Inferring
2) It is systematic.
Scientific languages are different in different areas.
Scientific communication varies keeping in mind the reader.
3) Answer on the basis on your understanding of section 3.3.1
4) Attributes of scientific attitude include- critical thinking, respect for evidence,
logical thinking, open mindedness, curiosity, truthfulness and honesty in
reporting observations, scepticism, perseverance, objectivity, creativity and
inventiveness, persistence, universalism and willingness to suspend judgment
unless having sufficient evidences.
5) Curiosity leads to the questions of ‘what’ and ‘why’ in the mind of learners.
In quest for searching answers to these questions, learners feel naturally
motivated and interested to learn science concepts. And, we know that
learners learn more easily if they are interested to learn. Science teacher
must take advantage of this natural curiosity among learners about their
world by engaging them in scientific processes and investigations.
65
Understanding Science
UNIT 4 SCIENCE IN SCHOOL CURRICULUM
Structure
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Objectives
4.3 Historical Development of Science Education in India
4.3.1 Science Education during Ancient and Medieval Period
4.3.2 Science Education during Modern Period
4.3.3 Science Education after Independence
4.4 Teaching of Science as Recommended in National Curriculum Framework-2005
4.4.1. Recent Trends in Science Curriculum
4.4.2. Science Curriculum at Various Stages
4.5 Correlation of Science with other Subjects/Disciplines
4.5.1 Types of Correlation
4.6 Let Us Sum Up
4.7 Unit End Exercises
4.8 References and Suggested Readings
4.9 Answers to Check Your Progress
4.1 INTRODUCTION
The National Curriculum Framework (NCF)-2005 provide sample scope for the
holistic development of the learners. The NCF-2005 curriculum recommends
various initiatives and approaches such as activity based learning, experiential
learning, collaborative learning and so on. Also, the present curricular framework
keeps learners as the key player of the teaching learning process. The present
day curriculum and syllabus of school education is based on the NCF-2005.
Keeping the relevance of NCF-2005, apart from discussing the various aspects
of NCF-2005 with regard to science curriculum, the present unit will also touch
upon the developmental stages of science education and changes in science
curriculum advocated by NCF-2005. As we know, science has correlation with
various other subjects like mathematics, social studies, art and music etc. Thus
the unit will also discuss the correlation of science with other subjects citing
different examples from secondary level.
4.2 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be able to:
• explain the developmental stages of science education;
• describe various aspects of teaching science recommended in NCF-2005;
• discuss the recent changes in science curriculum
• explain the recent trends in science curriculum;
• differentiate curriculum of science at various stages; and
• explain correlation of science with other subjects.
66
Science in School Curriculum
4.3 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENCE
EDUCATION IN INDIA
The famous scientist, C.V. Raman once said, “There is only one solution for
India’s economic problems and that is science, more science and still more
science”. As we know, the progress of any country has a close relationship with
the development of science. Being a science teacher trainee, you should be familiar
with the development of science education. The history of science has begun
with the human existence i.e. homo sapiens have utilized basic knowledge of
science for their existence while Palaeolithic’s tried to construct boats and houses
apart from crude stone arms for hunting, which is recognised as a science activity.
With the advent of human civilisation, people started to live in groups and science
has influence on much of their activities. They also began to admire movement
of heavenly bodies, invented mechanisms to calculate time, involved in
metallurgical associated bustles, invented medicines and so on. During 600 B.C,
science had grown as a theoretical entity. Excavations of Mohenjo-Daro, Harappa
and Indus valley civilisations show the existence of town planning, drainage
system etc.which require scientific skills and techniques.Aryabhatta,
Brahmagupta, Bhsakara, Varahmihira, Atreya, Susruta, Charaka, contributed to
the field of Mathematics, Medicine and Surgery. Thus we may conclude that,
most of the ancient day activities involve various concepts and ideas of science.
67
Understanding Science 4.3.3 Science Education after Independence
The education system prevailing in the country was influenced by the England
education system; but science education was not given much importance. The
University Education Commission (1948), though primarily constituted for
suggesting recommendations on higher education, emphasised inclusion of
general science as a course in secondary level. The Secondary Education
Commission (1953) advocated science subject, compulsory at both middle and
secondary level and diversification of science subjects at senior secondary level.
The All India Seminar on the teaching of science (1956) held at Tara Devi (Simla
Hills) discussed the probable difficulties of incorporating science at senior
secondary level and recommended a unique and uniform system of teaching
science across the country. Under the chairmanship of late Shri Lal Bahadur
Shastri, the Indian Parliamentary and Scientific Committee was set up in 1961
to study the problems of “Science Education in Schools”. In the 1963, the USSR
experts of UNESCO planning Mission, visited India and suggestive measures
were recommended to improve Science and Mathematics education. As a result,
the Department of Science Education started pilot projects in preparing new text
books and associated materials. The project was experimented in 20 schools in
Delhi.
Thereafter, Indian Education Commission (1964-66) recommended the following
measures for the improvement of science education;
• Science and Mathematics to be made compulsory subject during first ten
years of schooling
• Teaching is to be related with agriculture in rural areas and technology in
urban areas
• In lower classes, science should be taught by correlating it with environment.
• At higher classes, disciplinary approach is to be implemented
• Investigatory approach of teaching is advocated
• Science corner in lower classes and laboratory-cum-lecture room in higher
classes should be created
Then, based on the recommendations of Indian Education Commission, the
Ministry of Education and Social Welfare set up a committee to develop
curriculum for 10+2 pattern and NCERT developed a document titled “The
Curriculum for the Ten-Year School –A Frame work”. NCERT also prepared
syllabi and textbooks whichwere adopted by CBSE. But the textbooks have
invited lots of criticism for its theory dominated structure and limited scope for
experimental activities. To review the same, Ishwarbhai Patel Committee was
appointed in 1977. After that, based on the recommendations of Education Policy
(1968), NCF-1975 was developed. Then NCF 1988 was developed based on the
recommendations of Education Policy (1986) and was revised which resulted in
NCF-2000. In 2005, the National Curriculum Framework was put into practice
across the country. Based on NCF-2005, many state governments developed
state-wise curricular framework and the same is being followed till today. In
2014, the central government appointed a committee to draft new National
Educational Policy. The major recommendations of various NCFs have been
discussed in the coming sections of this unit.
68
Science in School Curriculum
Check Your Progress
Note: a) Space is given below to write your answer.
b) Compare your answer with the one given at the end of this Unit.
1) Discuss the major developments in science education after
independence?
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
• Content validity requires that the curriculum must convey significant and
correct scientific and correct information. Simplification of content, which
is necessary for adapting the curriculum to the cognitive level of the learner,
must not be so trivialised as to convey something basically flawed and/or
meaningless(NCF-2005). What does it mean? The content transacted in the
curriculum should be significant and scientifically accurate. We teach
periodic table to learners just as an arrangement of elements. But it is
meaningless until you expose learners to the scientific basis of ordering
elements based on the atomic number (number of protons), electron
configuration, chemical properties, etc. Many more logical factors contribute
to the arrangement of elements in the periodic table and that must be
convinced.
70
• Ethical validity requires that the curriculum promote the values of honesty, Science in School Curriculum
objectivity, cooperation, and freedom from fear and prejudice, and inculcate
in the learner a concern for life and preservation of the environment (NCF-
2005). For example while teaching the concept ‘nuclear bomb’; teachers
must be able to develop qualities like empathy, sympathy, etc. in learners.
72
...............................................................................................................
Science in School Curriculum
3) Discuss the recommendations of NCF-2005 made on teacher
empowerment.
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
The NCF of 1975 recommended 10+2 pattern of school education with general
education of 10 years; science as a core subject as activity based integrated subject
till class X. The National Curriculum for Elementary and Secondary Education
(NCESE) of 1988 also suggested general science as a core subject up to class X.
The curriculum should be ‘learner centred’ aiming to develop abilities in cognitive,
affective and psychomotor domain of the learners. The learning of science at
secondary stage should help learners to develop the skills of problem solving
and decision making along with comprehension of key concepts across various
disciplines. The National Curriculum Framework for school Education (NCFSE),
2000 recommended teaching of science and technology in classes VI to X as
single disciplines and disciplinary approach in senior secondary level. NCFSE
also suggested to include ‘technology; in science courses as technology has
influence on life in varied ways.
Activities
4) Organise a debate on the topic “employing ICT for teaching-learning at
higher secondary level”. Prepare the list of advantages and disadvantages.
5) Conduct an action research to find the difficulties of teachers in
organising classrooms based on collaborative learning approach. Prepare
a report on it.
78
4.5.1 Types of Correlation Science in School Curriculum
Correlation with other subjects: Teaching can be made more meaningful as you
understand the correlation of science with other subjects. Here in this section,
we will discuss the correlation of science with other subjects separately.
79
Understanding Science Correlation of Science with Social Studies: Social Studies are concerned about
historical events and happenings. Each discovery has a historical background.
But such stories are not paid explained in science classrooms. For example, the
stories of great scientists like Galileo, Pascal, Celsius, James Watt, Faraday,
Alexander Fleming, A.P.J. Abdul Kalam, C.V Raman, etc are unknown to learners.
The pain and struggle that the scientists put in to discover innovative theories/
machines has to reach the learners to develop a sense of inquiry and motivation
to pursue science. In geography, the evolution of different rocks and soils,
movement of heavenly bodies, change of seasons, phenomena like earthquakes,
landslides, eclipses, etc. are all related to science.
Correlation of Science with Language: The recent NCTE norms and standards
on teacher education (2014) emphasize “language across the curriculum” with
the view that language has importance in each subject. The theories and principles
of science, discovered after series of experiments must be expressed in a language
understandable to lay man/learner. Similarly, the same must be disseminated
and propagated for the betterment of the country and to develop a civilized society.
Thus language finds application at many places. The expressions, symbols,
formulas, theories, etc. that appear in every branch of science utilize language to
express it.
Correlation of Science with Art: Science and art are complimentary to each
other. How is it so? A science teacher , while drawing diagrams, charts, pictures
on the black board during teaching, need to know the basic skills of drawing
such as orientation of the figure, measurements, color combinations and so on.
At the same time, a professional artist has to have basic knowledge of length,
angle, 2D and 3D images etc. to draw a picture. The same is the case with
handcrafters, designers, beauticians, etc. In the case of musicians, they play
attractive music with the help of principles of sound and waves learnt in physics
and musical instrumentalist create beautiful rhythms applying the same principle.
81
Understanding Science NCERT.(2006). Position paper-National focus group on teaching of science.
New Delhi:NCERT.
NCERT.(2013).Pedagogy of science Textbook for B.Ed. New Delhi:NCERT.
82