Geography: Sundaland-Doesn't Include Andamans But Only Nicobar
Geography: Sundaland-Doesn't Include Andamans But Only Nicobar
Geography: Sundaland-Doesn't Include Andamans But Only Nicobar
Llaneros Venezuela
Belize Reef
Carribean Reef on the UNESCO's list of threatened World Heritage Sites to be removed
2nd largest reef system, largest in N.Hemisphere
Mangroves help protect the reef, serve as breeding grounds for fishes
Blue Hole- subsurface voids that are found in islands/banks w/ limestone corals
o anoxic beyond certain depth due to poor water circulation- no life but bacteria
o Great Blue Hole, Belize is World Heritage; others- Dragon Hole (South China sea), Dean's Blue Hole
(Bahamas)
o blue color caused by high transparency of water, bright white carbonate sand
solar, lunar eclipses happen at ~same frequency but lunar more noticed, visible
Project Uncover
To probe deep-seated/concealed mineral deposits in collab. w. National Geophysical Reseach Institute and
proposed National center for Mineral Targeting (NCMT), Geoscience Australia
Molassis Basin
Mizoram made up of soft unconsolidated deposits
Karman Line
int'l line b/w atmosphere and outer space, at altitude of 100 km above sea level
World Magnetic Model- underlies all modern navigation, maintained by US's NOAA; updated every 5 y;
ESA's Swarm Mission for B-map
pole shift due to variation in liquid (NiFe) churning in outer core as deep flows change
in 2018, the pole crossed the International Date Line into the Eastern Hemisphere.
Pole Flipping- catastrophic effects, havoc on electric grids, higher amt. of solar radiations
o deleterious effect on satellites and astronauts
o climate change
northern magnetic pole is moving faster than the southern magnetic pole
weaker magnetic field would lead to display of aurora lights at relatively lower latitudes
Petroleum, Chemicals & Petrochemical Investment Region (PCPIR)
cluster based devt. model for setting up manufacturing facilities for both domestic consumption, exports
in petrol, chemicals and petrochemicals
o production units, logistics handling, env. protection, social infra, SEZ, FTZ, warehousing
economy of scale in petro sector due to use of common infra, support services, R&D facilities
Rat-Hole Mining
despite NGT ban, mining continues
o rat-hole is only viable option for such thin coal seam
o coal mining operates as shadow economy
o dependence of poor people for livelihood
o political influence- stakes in mining, transportation etc.
o inadequate policy- Megalaya Mines & Mineral Policy 2012 doesn't address
o use of violence by mining mafia
o lack of monitoring
o problems in legal framework- mining as state sub, mining safety is central
o misuse of 6th Sch. provisions- pvt. individuals undertaking commercial mining
advantages
o less capital intensive
o less polluting
o easy self-employment
-ve impacts
o env. degradation e.g. Lytein river
o worker exploitation- often children
o risk to miner's lives
o fuelling illegal acitivities- support insurgencies
poorest of poor suffocate, die of TB, breathing complications
mining is state sub. but mining safety is central
poisoned 3 rivers- Myntdu, Lunar, Lukha; (very high acidic levels)
coal mine safety-
o Mines Act 1952, Mine Rules-1955, Coal Mine Regulations 1957 under DGMS
o Coal Mines (Nationalization) Act 1973 but repealed
3 moons of Earth
Kordylewski Dust Clouds (KDC)- made of tiny dust particles less than 1 mm, reflect light faintly
located roughly at same distance as moon, found close to Lagrange Pt. L5
660 km boundary
separates upper and lower mantle
mountains, other topographies found
data from EQ > 7 sends shockwaves in all directions that travel thru core to other side
Hydroseismicity
quakes produced due to increase pressure when water seeps down into faults
common across Deccan plateau; recently at Palghar (Zone III), previously Latur EQ 1993
NC for seismology (NCS) categorized tremors as 'eq swarm'
o not limited to peninsula but also Himalayas
Milankovitch Cycles
episodic nature of the Earth's glacial and interglacial periods within present Ice Age caused primarily by
cyclical changes in Earth's circumnavigation of Sun.
Variations in 3 dominant cycles-
o Earth's eccentricity
o axial tilt
o precession
Bomb Cyclones
mid-latitude cyclone that intensifies rapidly- when atm. P in middle of storm drops >24 millibars over 24
hour
Sun Spots
temp. phenomena on Sun's photosphere that appear as spots darker than surrounding areas
o regions of reduced surface T caused by conc. of B flux that inhibits convection
o appear in pairs of opp. magnetic polarity
imp. to know effects on space weather- effect of radiation, particle flux, B flux can impact comm. systems,
satellite controls, air traffics over polar routes etc.
correlated w/ climate on Earth (during Maunder's Min. T fell over Europe, N.America)
follow cyclic pattern of growing in no., disappearing in 11 years; current 24th cycle (1755), peak to be in
2024
o Solar Cycle 25 to start in late 2019, continue thru 2030
Aditya-L1- ISRO's 1st exp. to measure coronal magnetic field from space platform
o 1st 100% Indian mission negotiating challenging orbit, for understanding of sun
Maunder like minimum- next cycle (25th) will show prolonged reduced sunspot activity
o refer to period of 1645 to 1715 when no. of sunspots reduced by factor of 1000
Asbestos
set of 6 naturally occuring silicate minerals which have in common eponymous asbestiform habit i.e. long
(roughly 1:20 aspect ratio), thin fibrous crystals, with each visible fiber composed of millions of microscopic
“fibrils” that can be released by abrasion and other processes.
commonly known by their colors, as blue asbestos, brown asbestos, white asbestos, and green asbestos
desirable physical properties- sound absorption, average tensile strength, affordability, and resistance to
fire, heat, and electricity
o fibres are soft and flexible yet resistant
can be found w/ talc (Mg silicate)
Bolivian Li Reserves
agreement for devt. & industrial use of Li- used to power EVs, phones
Bolivia has 60% global reserves but yet to start commercial production
o agreement for commercialization of Li Carbonate, K Chloride
India heavily dependent on China, Taiwan, Japan for import of Li-ion batteries
o no known reserves in India, zero Li-ion battery manufacturing capabilities
o 2nd largest manufacturer of phones, 30% EVs by 2030
Li Triangle- Chile+Argentina+Bolivia
Hyposometry- shows prop.of land area that exists at various elevations by plotting relative area against
relative height
Bathymetry- underwater equivalent to hypsometry or topography
10% reserve can serve erg needs for next 100 years
Kelp Forests
large brown algae seaweeds (cool water), grow in underwater forests in shallow oceans
o live further from tropics than corals, mangroves, warm-water seagrass
o some found in tropical deeps, need nutrient-rich waters unlike corals
o need hard substrate, high nutrients (upwelling), clear shallow coastal waters, light
most productive, dynamic ecosystems on Earth, high growth rate; Keystone species
imp. src of food, 60% C in coastal invertebrates, creates detrital biomass near shores
imp. src of potash, iodine, algin hydrate (tire manufacture, ice-cream industry)
slows down flow of waters, prevents coastal erosion, influence coastal oceanographic patterns
ocean warming will move conditions closer to T of max growth, increase productivity
o northern shift of kelp forests as ice retreats
o runoff from glaciers will lower salinity, increase turbidity to impact kelp
Canadian Arctic is longest Arctic coastline
Guano
Andean people have collected guano from small islands and points located off the desert coast of Peru for
use as a soil amendment
Greensand is a green mineral compound with a texture similar to fine sand
o inorganic (no living org.) but used by organic gardeners
Errors in 60 days
Indo-gangetic plain are the most youthful, monotonous region prone to tectonic forces.
Kutch and Kathiawar, though an extension of Peninsular plateau are treated as part of the Western Coastal
Plains as they are levelled
Tidal Bore
steep-nosed tide crest looks like a vertical wall of-water rushing upstream
favorable conditions- strength of the incoming tidal wave, slim and depth of the channel and the river flow.
common on Hoghly river; exception- Amazon
occur in relatively few locations worldwide, usually in areas with a large tidal range,
Antarctic Oscillations
low f mode of atmospheric variability in southern hemisphere- Southern Annular Mode
belt of westerly low P surrounding Antarctica which moves N or S as its mode of variability
+ve phase drives circumpolar current, -ve drives belt towards equator
ocean upwelling of warm circumpolar deep water that can destabilize ice sheets
Landforms
Landform: It is a small to medium sized part of earth's surface.
Landscape: Several related landforms constitute landscape
Endogenic Processes:
Three independent controls of evolution of landforms:
1. Sea level stability
2. Tectonic stability
3. Climate
Streams Streams are few with Streams are plenty with Smaller tributaries are few
and poor integration. good integration.
tributaries
Inter stream Broad and flat Broad and flat but w/o Broad and flat
areas with marshes swamps marshes and swamps. with marshes swamps and
and lakes. Stream divides turn lakes.
sharp
Erosional Landforms:
1. Valleys: V-shaped, Gorge and Canyon
Gorge Canyon
Sides Deep valley with very steep Also deep but step-like side slopes.
to straight sides.
Width Equal width at top and bottom. Wider at its top than its bottom
3. Incised or Entrenched Meanders: They are very deep and wide meanders formed by cutting hard
rocks. The meanders develop in the initial stages of development of streams with gentle slopes. The loops
formed get entrenched into rocks due to erosion or continued uplift of land over which they start. Over time,
they form deep gorges and canyons. They tell us about the original surface over which streams have
developed.
4. River Terraces: Surfaces marking old floodplain level. They are product of vertical erosion of floodplain.
Depositional Landforms:
1. Alluvial Fans: Broad cone shaped deposits. When streams flow from steeper slopes to gentle slopes, the
coarse load becomes too heavy for the streams to be carried over gentler gradients and is deposited in the
form of alluvial fans.
The streams flowing over alluvial fans shift their position across the fans forming many channels
called distributaries.
In humid areas: low cones with gentle slope (from head to toe)
In arid and semi-arid areas: High cones with steep slope
2. Deltas: They are formed in the last stages of rivers when they dump their deposits and spread into the sea.
In delta formation, the load of the river is deposited along the coast(not far into the sea) which spreads and
accumulates into a low cone.
Unlike in alluvial fans, the deposits of deltas are very well sorted with clear stratification. The coarsest material
settles first and the finer ones like silt and clay are carried out into the sea.
Natural Levees: Parallel ridges of coarse deposits along the banks of river. They are low and linear, slope gently
away from the river. They are formed during flooding as coarse deposits get deposited in the immediate vicinity of
banks as ridges.
Point Bars: point bars aka meander bars. The are found in the convex side (simultaneously concave side
erodes) of meanders and contain mix size of sediments.
4. Meanders:
Meander: It is not a landform but loop-like channel pattern developed over floodplains and deltaplains. It develop
due to:
(i) Gentle gradients
(ii) Unconsolidated nature of alluvial deposits
(iii) Coriolis force on water
There is active deposition along slip-off bank (convex side) and erosion along cut-off bank (concave side).
Meanders may get cut-off at inflexion points forming ox-bow lakes.
5. Braided Channels: Thread like streams. They are formed when load is more and discharge is less.
Deposition and lateral erosion of banks are essential for their formation.
II. Groundwater: It is the downward and horizontal movement of water that causes rocks to erode. Work of GW
can be seen only in certain rocks such as limestone or dolomite rich in calcium carbonate. Landforms are
developed through the chemical process of solution and precipitation.
Karst Topography: Produced by the action of groundwater on Limestone or dolomitic region through the process
of solution and deposition.
Erosional Landforms:
1. Swallow Holes: Shallow depressions on limestone surface through the process of solution.
2. Sink Holes: Circular opening in the top and funnel shaped towards the bottom. They are very common in
limestone/Karst topography. Often they are covered with soil and appear as shallow water pools (creating
quicksand like condition.)
3. Collapse Sink (aka doline.): Formed when the bottom of a sinkhole forms the roof of a cave/void, which might
collapse leaving a large hole opening into the cave/void below.
4. Uvalas or Valley Sinks: Long trenches formed due to merging of sinkholes and collapse sink.
5. Lapies: Ridges formed due to differential solution activity. The lapies may turn into limestone pavement.
6. Caves: Gaps formed due to dissolution of limestone or dolomite. Caves normally have opening through which
streams are discharged. Water moves horizontally along the bedding planes.
Caves having opening at both ends are called tunnels.
Depositional Landforms:
III. Glaciers:
Continental glacier, Piedmont glaciers (at the foot of mountains). Action through the process of plucking and
abrasion.
Erosional Landforms:
1. Cirques: They are deep, long and narrow basins surrounded by vertical walls. They are most common
landform in glaciated mountains. Often a lakes can be within the cirque called tarn lake or cirque lake.
2. Horns: Sharp pointed peaks formed through headward erosion of radiating cirques.
3. Aretes: Saw toothed ridges with zig-zag outline. They are also formed from cirques
Glaciated Valleys:
4. Hanging Valley: U Shaped glacial valley with broad floor.
5. Fjord: Glacial valley filled with sea water and making up shorelines
Depositional Landforms:
Glacial Till: Unsorted debris (mostly angular to sub-angular) dropped by melting glaciers.
Outwash Deposits: (Glacio-fluvial deposit) Small rock debris(rounded) carried by melt-water streams is washed
down and deposited as outwash deposits. Unlike till they are stratified.
1. Moraines: Ridges of deposits of glacial tills.
3. Outwash Plains: Plains containing glacio-fluvial deposit in the form merger of broad flat alluvial fans.
4. Drumlin: Smooth oval shaped ridge. They give and indication of direction of glacier movement.
Kame Terraces – Broken ridges or un-assorted depositions looking like hump in a till plain.
Kettle Holes – Formed when the deposited material in a till plain gets depressed locally and forms a basin.
Depositional Features:
1. Wave-built Terrace: In front of wave-cut terrace
2. Beaches: Temporary features composed of sediments coming mostly from streams and rivers of land.
3. Bars: Long ridges of sand parallel to the coast. They are submerged.
4. Barrier Bars: Bars above water
5. Spit: Barrier bars at the mouth of bay. (Barrier bars keyed up to end of the bay)
6. Bay: Water body enclosed on 3 sides by land, with a mouth opening into the sea. (Gulf is large bay and have
narrower mouth. All gulfs are bay but not vice versa. e.g. Hudson bay is a gulf while White bay being very small is
not gulf. Strait is a narrow waterway connecting two large water bodies while Isthmus is its land equivalent ,i.e.,
Narrow strip of land connecting two large landmasses.)
7. Lagoon: Closed Bay. When barrier bars and spits block a bay, lagoon is formed.
8. Coastal Plains: Lagoons filled up by sediments from land & beach give rise to a coastal plain.
1. Erosional Landforms:
1. Cliffs
2. Terraces
3. Sea caves
4. Sea Arch: When cave breaks
5. Sea Stacks: Isolated rock and remnant of cliff
6. Stump: Eroded Stack
2. Depositional Landforms:
1. Off-shore bars
2. Barrier bars
3. Spits
4. Lagoon
5. Beaches:
6. Sand Dunes: Long ridges of sand parallel to the coast. They are not submerged. They are just behind the
beach and are very common in sedimentary beaches.
Note: Coastal Off-shore bars act as first line of defence against Tsunamis. Then come barriers, beaches and
mangroves to absorb the destructive force of Tsunami.
V. Winds:
In deserts: Wind moves fine materials and mass erosion is accomplished by sheet flood(due to torrential rain)
Wind causes deflation, abrasion and impact.
Erosional Landforms:
4. Playas: Shallow lakes. (At the centre of basin due to deposition of sediment from basin margins, a nearly level
plain forms at the centre which may get filled with water forming temporary lake called playa.)
5. Akali Flats: The playa plains covered up by salts (due to evaporation)
6. Deflation Hollows (like Blow Outs): Shallow depressions in rocks created by wind.
7. Caves: Some blow outs become deeper and wider to become caves.
8. Mushroom: Mushroom shape remnant of rock with slender stalk. Top surface is broad like table top (9.).
Often the remnants stand out like pedestals (10.)
Depositional Landforms:
Wind is a good sorting agent and the depositional features made by it ascertains the same. Grains are moved by
rolling or saltation
Sand Dunes:
1. Barchans: Crescent shaped dunes. Wings are directed in downwind direction i.e., opposite to the direction of
wind.
2. Seif: Similar to Barchan but it has only one wing.
3. Parabolic Dunes: Reversed barchans with wings directed along the direction of wind. Formed when sandy
surface is partially covered with vegetation
4. Longitudinal Dunes: Low and long ridges of sand aligned along the direction of wind. Formed when supply of
sand is poor.
5. Transverse Dunes: Low and very long ridges of sand aligned along perpendicular to the direction of
wind. Formed when supply of sand is plenty.
Corals
small Ca secreting marine polyp that occurs in colonies, mainly in warm shallow waters
symbiotic relation- corals+zooxanthellae
distribution
>90% in Indo-Pacific
confined within 30 deg of equator
ambient conditions
stable climate
perpetually warm waters
shallow water- need good sunlight
clear salt water- both freshwater & saline water harmful
abundant plankton+adequate supply of oxygen
less pollution- highly fragile
measures taken
3D printed artificial reefs in Maldives to revive corals
TN govt. to restore Vaan Island in Mannar thru NAFCC
inclusion in CRZ-I for strict regulation of human activities under CRZ Rules
50 Reefs Initiative- Pvt. initiative to limit damage of cc to corals
Int'l Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI)- only global entity devoted to coral reef
STAPCOR 2018 conf. at Bangaram Islands, Lac. Is.
2018 declared as Int'l Year of Reef
geo-engineering solutions- dredging of seafloor by Kiribati to fortify atolls
outlining of permanent evacuation of atolls due to sea level changes
developing alt sustainable livelihood measures
o launch sites for low orbit sats- equatorial locations
o Tuvalu receives millions of dollars for its .tv domain name
About 34% of India's population now lives in urban areas, the U.N. World Urbanization Prospects 2018 report
Salient Features:
NITI Aayog w/ AP govt. created dashboard for real time monitoring open to public
States to provide personnel, facilitate resources; all 3 tiers of govt. need to contribute
Opened door to civil society, leverage Corporate social responsibility (CSR)
No financial packages, leveraging existing resources of govt. programs efficiently
Competitive Federalism to local level, new idea, energy from govt.
Delta Ranking: To identify sectors and indicator specific challenges for Team India to take corrective measures by
looking into specific aspects of SDGs and performance of districts.
based on: Health and nutrition, Education, Agriculture and water resources, Financial inclusion and skill
development, Basic infrastructure
2017 rankings: Dahod district of Gujarat improved to rank first, West Sikkim district stood
second, Bijapur district in Chhattisgarh is ranked 6th position
2018 rankings:
Concerns:
While Center has higher power of taxation, bulk of expenditure on welfare is done by states
Problems faced by small towns- lack of basic services, dilapidated infrastructure, overcrowded spaces and
dwindling job opportunities.
JNNURM, AMRUT schemes focus only on Class I towns (population > 1 lac)