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History Notes F3
History Notes F3
The Late Stone Age was characterised by the use of bone, wood and stone tools. Tools of the Late
Stone Age were digging sticks, scrappers, clubs, flakes, stone tipped arrows, hand axes and stone
hammers.
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People began to make iron tools like hoes, arrow heads, spear heads, axes, knives, iron
swords, fishing hooks and the like. These were more efficient than wood and stone tools of
the Stone Age.
Iron tools enabled people to cut trees and clear more land for agriculture.
They began to grow crops like sorghum and millet using iron tools.
Production of food resulted in surplus.
There was food security.
Hunting was improved by the use of iron tools which were more efficient than stone tools.
Fishing was improved by the use of iron fishing hooks. They began to catch fish on a large
scale.
They began to domesticate animals like cattle, goats and sheep along river valleys.
They began to mine minerals like gold, copper, iron and tin, lead and silver.
They began to trade in gold, iron and ivory as well as with surplus products.
They began to raid each other for grain and cattle.
They began to pay tribute to the chiefs in form of grain, cattle, ivory and iron tools.
Basketry was introduced. They wove baskets like the winnowing basket.
Pottery was introduced. They made clay pots to carry and store water and milk.
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Cowpeas -Beans
Gourds -Rapoko
Melons -Pumpkins
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Contribution of iron technology to the rise of classes within the societies in Southern Africa
Iron technology engendered [resulted in] surplus production and emergence of haves and
have nots.
Iron technology led to the emergence of miners, blacksmiths and traders as separate classes.
Surplus production begot [resulted in] polygamy, a source of labour.
Craft workers such as potters, weavers, basket makers and the like, could concentrate on their
work.
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There was formation of states like Great Zimbabwe, Mutapa and Rozvi
There was emergence of kingship.
The king was the head of the state.
Kingship was hereditary.
The king was the chief judge.
The king was the religious leader.
The king controlled trade.
All subjects began to pay tribute to the king to show loyalty.
The king kept an army for raiding and for defence.
The king levied fines to his subjects who misbehaved.
Wars were arising out of disputes over succession.
The king appointed chiefs.
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Importance of the king’s role in the Shona states during the Late Iron Age
The king had overall authority.
The king appointed chiefs.
The provided security to his people.
The king gave royal fire to the chiefs.
The king commanded the army.
The king distributed land to the people.
The king controlled trade.
The king was the religious leader.
The king was the chief judge.
Other factors important in the Shona states during the Late Iron Age
Spirit mediums that chose and installed the kings
The army defended the state, protected the king and collected tribute
The army commander was also important
Council of advisers was also important
The ordinary people were also important for their allegiance
They reared animals like cattle, goats and sheep on a large scale.
They cultivated crops like sorghum, millet and Rapoko on a large scale.
They began to store grain for a long time in granaries.
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Lithium -Platinum
Asbestos
-Emeralds
Uses of gold during the Late Iron Age
Trade -status symbol
Payment of tribute -making jewellery like bangles and ear rings
The Great Zimbabwe state was one of the late Iron Age states in pre-colonial Zimbabwe. Its origin is
controversial or debatable or unclear. Two theories emerged in trying to explain the origins of this
state. [a] One school argued that Great Zimbabwe was built by foreigners. According to this theory
Great Zimbabwe was built by more civilised races than Africans. Some of these theorists argue that
Great Zimbabwe was built by Arabs. Some also argue that there is a Jewish influence on the origin of
Great Zimbabwe.[b] The other theory argues that Great Zimbabwe was built by Africans. According
to this theory Great Zimbabwe was local in origin, thus it was built by local people. This theory
argues that Great Zimbabwe was built by indigenous Shona speaking people between 1100AD and
1450AD. According to this theory artefacts found at Great Zimbabwe indicated Shona traditional
culture. More so, ceramics [pots] found at Great Zimbabwe are local and similar to those of recent
Shona speaking people. The few foreign ceramics found at Great Zimbabwe can be attributed to long
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distance trade. People who built Great Zimbabwe were cattle herders, crop growers, iron smelters and
designers of pottery as well as builders in stone work.
Reasons for the rise of Great Zimbabwe / Factors which led to the rise of Great Zimbabwe
There was availability of fertile soils in the area around Great Zimbabwe which promoted
crop cultivation.
Availability of good pastures which promoted livestock production [pastoralism] led to its
rise.
Abundance of minerals like gold [in the neighbourhood] for trade and iron for tool making led
to its rise.
Availability of game [fauna] for meat, skins and ivory in the area led to its rise.
Favourable climate, that is, good rainfall led to its rise.
Availability of water from nearby rivers such as Mutirikwi led to its rise.
The area was accessible to international trade with the Swahili, Arabs, Persians and Chinese
through Sofala.
Control of surplus production by leaders also contributed.
The area was free from tsetse flies thereby promoting animal rearing.
Polygamy which ensured adequate labour supply and soldiers led to its rise.
Loaning of cattle [kuronzera] helped to unify people and made the leaders strong and it also
attracted many people to come under their control.
The increase in population led to the rise of Great Zimbabwe.
Religion helped in unifying people within the state.
The hill was regarded as sacred for religious purposes.
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How important were political factors in the rise of Great Zimbabwe state?
To what extent did the economic factors contribute to the rise of Great Zimbabwe state?
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Weaving -Blacksmithing
Stone carving -Wood carving
Leather work -Making Jewellery
Drum making -Building in stone
They cultivated crops like millet, sorghum and gourds for food and brewing of beer.
Cultivation was done by hand using hoes.
They practised shifting cultivation.
Cultivation was mainly done by women.
They also reared domestic animals like cattle, goats and sheep for meat and milk.
It was the task of men to herd cattle.
They practised the transhumance system.
Cattle were normally slaughtered at ritual ceremonies like bira and rain making ceremonies.
They practised loaning of cattle.
They used the slash and burn system of cultivation.
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The king commanded universal respect since his position was a divine one.
Spirit mediums appointed the kings.
Spirit mediums stayed at the royal court providing advice and guidance to the king.
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Other Madzimbabwe
Naletale -Khami
Munekwani -Ruanga
Nhunguza -Tsindi
Chipadze
There were civil wars in the state, for example, between Nyatsimba Mutota and Chagwa
[1450] leading to Mutota’s migration.
Succession disputes in the ruling family forced losers to move.
The state became too big to be ruled by one ruler.
The rise of new states like Torwa and Mutapa led to its decline.
Corruption and disunity in the ruling class led to its decline.
There was emergence of ambitious people in the royal family like Nyatsimba Mutota who
also wanted to rule.
Wars and attacks from the Sotho and Tswana to the South West of Great Zimbabwe led to its
decline.
The Dande region was occupied by weak people such as the Tonga, Tavara and the Korekore.
Weaknesses of the army at Great Zimbabwe led to the decline of this state.
Outdated means of state control led to its decline.
There was emergence of rivalry in the ruling family.
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Exhaustion of minerals such as gold, copper and iron at Great Zimbabwe and its neighbours
led to its decline.
Exhaustion of game [fauna] for meat, skins and ivory led to its collapse.
The Dande area was rich in resources like game, especially elephants for ivory and also gold
and salt led to its decline.
There were poor harvests due to severe droughts.
The soil in Dande was rich.
Exhaustion of pastures
Exhaustion of soil
Exhaustion of fire wood, game and other resources.
Persistent droughts forced many people to move away.
Succession disputes also contributed.
Civil wars forced the defeated to migrate with their supporters.
There was also overpopulation at Great Zimbabwe.
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The state was one of the late Iron Age states. The origin of Mutapa state is not clear [is debatable].
According to oral tradition, Mutapa state was the direct successor of Great Zimbabwe state. Oral
traditions say Nyatsimba Mutota migrated from Great Zimbabwe to the north in search of salt and
settled in the Dande area. The shortage of salt represented a general shortage of resources at Great
Zimbabwe. The rapid growth of population at Great Zimbabwe could have resulted in a critical
shortage of such resources as firewood, pastures, fertile land, game and minerals. There was a decline
in trade with the East Coast and this could have forced people like Mutota to migrate northwards.
There was flourishing trade along the Zambezi River with the Arabs and Swahilis. Perhaps, this
forced people to leave Great Zimbabwe and moved north to control trade routes. Succession disputes
at Great Zimbabwe could have forced people to migrate and establish their own state. Mutota had a
strong army. He used his army to conquer the Tonga, Tavara and the Korekore. They gave him the
praise name ‘Munhumutapa’, meaning ‘lord of the conquered people’. He established his capital at
Chitako hills near mount Fura in the Dande area. Archaeologists however, argue that the direct
successor of Great Zimbabwe was the Torwa state whose capital was at Khami near Bulawayo. This
was evidenced by the type of ruins and the artefacts similar to those of Great Zimbabwe. But there is
no evidence to support when the Torwa state existed. Documents written by Portuguese suggest that
the Mutapa state existed before the collapse of Great Zimbabwe and these states were inter-related.
Despite the failure to find concrete evidence of Mutapa origins historians agree that that the state grew
into one of the largest and powerful states in pre-colonial Zimbabwe.
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-Overpopulation at Great Zimbabwe led to its rise. Formatted: List Paragraph, Bulleted + Leve
1 + Aligned at: 0.25" + Indent at: 0.5"
-Civil wars at Great Zimbabwe also contributed.
-Shortage of resources at Great Zimbabwe such as wood, salt, gold and land for cultivation.
-Exhaustion of soil at Great Zimbabwe led people to migrate northwards.
-Inability of Great Zimbabwe to hold different lineages.
-Succession disputes at Great Zimbabwe also contributed.
-Successive droughts at Great Zimbabwe led to the rise of this state.
-Mutota’s military prowess led to the rise of this state.
-Availability of gold deposits in Dande area.
-The need to start new states by some individuals like Mutota.
-Availability of game, especially elephants for ivory were found in abundance in Dande area. Formatted: List Paragraph, Bulleted + Leve
1 + Aligned at: 0.25" + Indent at: 0.5"
-Imperial ambitions of leaders also led to its rise.
-Availability of resources like pastures and fertile soils also contributed to its rise.
-The need to control long distance trade at the Zambezi valley.
-The weaknesses of the local people in Dande area played an important part in the rise of this
state.
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They grew crops like sorghum, millet, rapoko, beans, melons, pumpkins and later on maize.
Maize were believed to have been introduced by the Portuguese.
They kept animals like cattle, goats and sheep for meat and milk. Cattle were also used for
paying lobola.
They mined minerals like iron, gold, copper, tin, lead and silver.
They practised both internal and external trade. Externally they traded with the Swahili, Arabs
and Portuguese. They imported ceramics, jewellery, beads, knives, cloth, cowry shells and
guns.
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The subjects paid tribute to the king in form of gold, ivory, hoes, spears, grain, animal skins,
livestock, baskets and labour. Foreigners paid in form of curva for them to be allowed to trade
and also for their protection whist they were in the state.
They hunted animals like hares and kudus for meat, elephants and rhinoceros for ivory and
cheetahs and leopards for their precious skins.
They caught fish to supplement their diet.
They gathered fruits and vegetables.
They raided other states for grain, cattle, goats, women and boys.
They did art and craft, that is,
They did basketry, for instance, they made the winnowing basket.
Pottery.
They did blacksmithing.
They wove cotton into cloth.
Wood carving
Stone carving
Leather work
Jewellery making
Building in stone
Drum making
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-Loss of control of long distance trade to other states like Torwa and Rozvi.
-Influence of Swahili traders
-Growth of Portuguese control undermined the authority of the Mutapa kings.
-The prazo system led to loss of land by the local people.
-The Portuguese promoted civil wars.
-Interference in local politics by the Portuguese by installing puppet rulers.
-Interference from Arabs.
-Chikunda raids for manpower also contributed.
-Slave trade weakened the state.
-The spread of Christianity led to division in the state.
-The Portuguese refused to pay tribute.
-Maravi invasion also led to its decline.
-Invasion by mfecane groups caused its decline.
-The defeat by the Rozvi led to its decline.
-Colonisation by the British led to its final collapse.
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military force of their way into the interior. They also used the pretext of the death of Goncalo da
Silveira to directly interfere in Mutapa politics. They wanted to retaliate / revenge.
Puppet Mutapas
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Names of Portuguese nationals [people] who penetrated the Zimbabwean Plateau between the
sixteenth and seventeenth century
-Antonio Fernandez -Goncalo da Silveira
-Francisco Barreto -Vasco Fernandez
-Diego Simeos Madeira -Miguel Bernandes
-Vasco Homen -Antonio Caiado
-Gasper Boccaro -Joao dos Santos
-Diego da Menes -M Alveres Pereira
-S Bayao -Dona Katarina
Problems faced by Portuguese armies during their invasion of Mutapa state in the 1570s
-Diseases -Hunger
-Resistance from local people -Loss of lives
-Some soldiers were wounded -Heavy armour
-Failure to find gold -Attacks from hostile wild animals
-Crossing difficult rivers
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Contribution of the Prazo system to the growth of slavery in the Zambezi valley
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-They failed to avenge the death of Goncalo da Silveira. Formatted: List Paragraph, Bulleted + Leve
1 + Aligned at: 0.25" + Indent at: 0.5"
-They failed to convert many Africans into Christianity.
-They failed to permanently colonise Zimbabwe.
-They failed to locate and get the news of the Legendary Prester John. Formatted: List Paragraph, Bulleted + Leve
1 + Aligned at: 0.25" + Indent at: 0.5"
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the Zimbabwean Plateau. The Rozvi took over from the Mutapa as a new force to reckon with in the
Zimbabwean plateau. [b] Other historians have a simpler explanation on the origin of Rozvi. They say
that Rozvi was just a new name. They say Rozvi did not originate from a place outside the Torwa
state. They say that the Rozvi and the Torwa were the same people. They say that it was only the
name that changed. In other words, the Torwa state developed and changed its name to Rozvi. There
was no invasion or conquest which took place. The old Torwa state continued but it was just the name
which changed. Thus Dombo was a descendant of a Torwa Changamire.
-Baswi -Rupandamanhanga
-Gomoremvura -Gumboreshumba Formatted: List Paragraph, Bulleted + Leve
1 + Aligned at: 0.25" + Indent at: 0.5"
-Tohwechipi -Chirisamhuru II
-Rupengo -Dlembeu
Shona Chiefdoms conquered by Changamire Dombo
-Torwa -Seke Formatted: List Paragraph, Bulleted + Leve
1 + Aligned at: 0.25" + Indent at: 0.5"
-Manyika -Uteve
-Madanda / Sedanda -Mutema
-Chikanga -Mutasa
-Marange -Nyashanu
-Bocha -Zvimba
-Barwe -Chiweshe
-Duma -Makoni
-Buhera -Mbire
Expansion of Rozvi state Formatted: Underline
Formatted: No underline
Changamire Dombo broke away from Mutapa state under Mukombwe .There was a civil war and
Dombo was forced to migrate to the South-western Zimbabwe. He defeated the Torwa and Kalanga
people and established a powerful state in the Butua area. He built his capital at Danangombe in the
1680s. Dombo embarked on an expansionist policy conquering surrounding areas. He attacked and
reduced the Mutapa state into a very small state in Dande area. Dombo conquered the kingdoms of
Uteve and Manyika in the East in the 1690s. He also conquered and absorbed the Venda in the south.
Dombo also attacked, conquered and absorbed the people of Buhera, Bocha, Duma and the south
eastern highlands. Changamire Dombo drove away the Portuguese from their feiras at Dambarare,
Tete and Manyika in 1693. Dombo forged a military alliance with Mutapa Nyakunembiri and by 1695
the Portuguese had abandoned their trading stations in the interior. The Rozvi became the supreme
power on the Zimbabwean plateau. After these wars the Portuguese accepted Rozvi over lordship in
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the interior. Changamire Dombo died in 1695 leaving behind a very strong state. Chirisamhuru, his
son became the new Mambo and continued to expand the kingdom. By 1700 the Rozvi kingdom was
at its peak covering the whole of the Zimbabwean plateau from Zambezi to the Limpopo. The Rozvi
mambo maintained a very large army and forced many vassal states to pay tribute from the 1690s
until the period of Mfecane. The Rozvi succeeded to rule the whole of Zimbabwe directly or
indirectly through vassal chiefs.
Reasons for the rise and expansion of Rozvi state Formatted: Underline
-The Rozvi were skilful fighters Formatted: List Paragraph, Bulleted + Leve
-This enabled them to defeat several groups 1 + Aligned at: 0.25" + Indent at: 0.5"
-The ability of the Rozvi to defeat the Portuguese and drive them to their former settlements
at Masekesa.
-After they were defeated by the Rozvi, the Portuguese agreed to come under the authority of
the Rozvi.
-The chiefs who were defeated by the Rozvi began paying tribute to the Rozvi king.
-The Rozvi extended their rule to non Rozvi people
-The Ndau, Zezuru and Karanga voluntarily joined the Rozvi state for protection against
Portuguese
- The Rozvi were able to amass wealth and power and became the dominant state in the area
-The Rozvi controlled long distance trade along the Zambezi valley
-The Rozvi defeated the Torwa and subdued theme
-They did art and craft, that is, Formatted: List Paragraph, Bulleted + Leve
1 + Aligned at: 0.25" + Indent at: 0.5"
a] Pottery
b] Weaving Formatted: Indent: Left: 1.5"
c] Basketry
d] Blacksmithing
e] Wood carving
f] Stone carving
g] Jewellery making
h] Leather work
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i] Drum making
-Pigs -Sorghum
-Millet -Ostrich feathers
-Animal skins -Iron tools
-Pots -Baskets
-Goats -Pigs
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-They consulted their ancestors through spirit mediums in times of crisis like wars, droughts
and other disasters.
-They believed in divine kingship.
Importance of the Social Organisation in the Political System of the Rozvi Formatted: Underline
Formatted: No underline
-Religion was a unifying force. Formatted: List Paragraph, Picture bulleted
-The spirit mediums installed the king. Level: 1 + Aligned at: 0.25" + Indent at: 0
Other factors important in the Political system of the Rozvi Formatted: Underline
Formatted: No underline
-Tribute ensured loyalty to the king. Formatted: List Paragraph, Bulleted + Leve
-A strong economy ensured stability. 1 + Aligned at: 0.25" + Indent at: 0.5"
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Reasons for the Decline of Rozvi State Formatted: Font: 14 pt, Underline
Formatted: Centered
Formatted: Font: 11 pt, No underline
Internal reasons for the Decline
Formatted: Underline
Formatted: No underline
-Some vassal chiefs like Uteve and Madanda broke away and refused to pay tribute.
Formatted: List Paragraph, Bulleted + Leve
-Successive droughts in the late eighteenth and nineteenth century.
1 + Aligned at: 0.25" + Indent at: 0.5"
-Succession disputes within the ruling family
-Civil wars divided the state
-Overall economic decline
-The state became too big to be ruled by one ruler.
-Failure to fully incorporate some chiefdoms like Kalanga
-Disputes with Chikanga and Barwe
-The death of Changamire Dombo
-Dombo’s successors were weak and uncharismatic
-The Rozvi army became weak
-There was depopulation due to Nguni incursions
-Decline in gold production. Gold fields were now exhausted.
-Spirit mediums became too powerful
-Fall in trade
-Tumbare became too powerful
-Exhaustion of soil
-Exhaustion of hunting grounds
-Exhaustion of pastures
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b] Ngwato in 1802
c] Ngoni under Zwangendaba in 1830s
d] Ngoni under Nyamazana in 1836
e] Sotho under Mpango in 1829
f] Maseko-Ngoni under Nxaba in 1836
g] Gaza-Nguni under Soshangane
h] Ndebele under Mzilikazi in 1840
-The final destruction came with the British South Africa Company [BSAC] Formatted: List Paragraph, Bulleted + Leve
1 + Aligned at: 0.25" + Indent at: 0.5"
QN :To what extent did the political factors contribute to the decline of Rozvi state? Formatted: Font: 12 pt, Underline
Formatted: Font: 11 pt, No underline
-The death of Dombo led to the decline of the state Formatted: List Paragraph, Bulleted + Leve
1 + Aligned at: 0.25" + Indent at: 0.5"
-Dombo’s successors were weak and uncharismatic
-Succession disputes led to division within the state
-Civil wars also contributed
-Refusal by some chiefs to pay tribute caused its decline
-The state became too big to be ruled by one king
QN: To what extent was Mambo’s leadership to blame for the decline of Rozvi state? Formatted: Underline
Formatted: No underline
-Dombo’s successors were less charismatic Formatted: List Paragraph, Bulleted + Leve
-They appointed incompetent subordinates 1 + Aligned at: 0.25" + Indent at: 0.5"
-Succession disputes
-Clashes with the Portuguese
-Weak army
-Nguni incursions
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This was a period of plunder and destruction among the Nguni and the surrounding tribes. It was a Formatted: Font: Times New Roman, 11 pt
Underline
time of crushing wars accompanied by much suffering among the northern Nguni. The Nguni called it
mfecane, meaning time of trouble. The Sotho called it defeqane, meaning time of crushing. Mfecane
began towards the end of the eighteenth century. During mfecane tribes like the Ndwandwe,
Mthethwa and Ngwane were fighting against each other. Mfecane continued even during the time of
Tshaka. During the time of Tshaka, Zululand had become a storm centre. A number of people fled
from Tshaka and these included the Jere- Ngoni under Zwangendaba, Gaza-Nguni under Soshangane,
Khumalo under Mzilikazi, Kololo under Sebetwane and the Ngoni under Nxaba. The people who fled
from Tshaka knew his military tactics so they were able to defeat people in other areas. Soshangane
settled in Southern Mozambique and created the Gaza state. Zwangendaba destroyed the Rozvi capital
and crossed the Zambezi River into present day Malawi. Mzilikazi and the Khumalo fled north and
settled in the south-western part of Zimbabwe. Sebetwane and the Kololo settled in Zambia. All these
groups introduced their way of life and culture to the people they conquered.
-Zulu -Khumalo
-Qwabe -Ndwandwe
-Mthethwa -Swazi / Ngwane
-Hlubi -Mpondo
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Groups and their respective leaders which Tshaka fought during Mfecane
Causes of Mfecane
-The desire by some individuals like Dingiswayo, Zwide, Ngwane and Tshaka to dominate
others.
-Development of advanced military tactics promoted aggression.
-Overpopulation which resulted in pressure over arable land caused Mfecane.
-Powerful groups wanted to control some hunting grounds.
-Madhlatule drought of 1795 caused Mfecane.
-The desire to acquire more cattle through conquest
-The desire by some individuals to control trade with Portuguese at Delagoa Bay.
-Shortage of grazing land
-The need for creation of large states
-The rise of Tshaka also caused Mfecane.
-Emergence of power hungry men like Mzilikazi
-Bigger powerful states like Ndwandwe, Ngwane and Mthethwa wanted to control economic
and political activities of the people of Nguniland.
-Trade in ivory necessitated the creation of standing armies to hunt elephants and guard the
trade route.
-There was also need to control rivers.
-Boer expansion and Boer slave raids
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QN: To what extent was Mfecane caused by the ambitious leaders in Nguniland?
Ambitious leaders
-Tshaka
-Dingiswayo
-Zwide
-Mzilikazi
-Sobhuza
-Moshoeshoe
Other factors
-Need to control trade at Delagoa Bay
-Boer expansion and Boer slave raids
-Shortage of land
-Population explosion
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Tshaka came from a small Zulu chiefdom which had been absorbed into Dingiswayo’s Mthethwa.
Tshaka was born in 1787 and he was the son of Senzangakhona and a Langeni woman, Nandi.
Senzangakhona was a Zulu chief. Tshaka was disowned by his father, so he grew up among the
Langeni. At the age of 16, Tshaka was taken to the Mthethwa to stay with his father’s relatives. He
became a herd boy. At the age of 23 [in 1810] he was recruited into Dingiswayo’s army. He proved to
be a brave soldier and was promoted to commander of a regiment. He introduced his own military
innovations. He advised Dingiswayo on military matters. Senzangakhona [Tshaka’s father], died in
1816 and his son Sigujana inherited the Zulu leadership. Dingiswayo killed Sigujana and made
Tshaka the chief of the Zulu. Dingiswayo thus assisted Tshaka to takeover power. Tshaka was chief
of the Zulu as well as commander of the Zulu army. Dingiswayo died in 1818 and Tshaka became the
leader of the entire Mthethwa state. Dingiswayo was executed by the Ndwandwe. Tshaka conquered
Mthethwa and the combined Mthethwa, Zulu and other tribes to form the Zulu state. Tshaka united
about 100 chiefdoms under his rule. Tshaka continued Dingiswayo’s expansionist policy. He
conquered the Ndwandwe under Zwide and took over a large state extending from Pongola River to
Tugela River in the South. He also defeated the Ngwane under Sobhuza.
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-They did external and internal trade. Externally they traded with ivory at Delagoa Bay.
-They raided other states for women, children, grain and cattle.
-They grew crops.
-They kept animals like cattle, goats and sheep.
-They smelted iron to make iron tools.
-They mined minerals like iron, copper and gold.
-They hunted wild animals.
-All subjects paid tribute to the king in form of cattle, goats, sheep and grain.
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-Organisation along military lines strengthened the state against external aggression.
-Vassal chiefs obtained rewards.
-There was peace and security due to a standing army.
-Age regimental system fostered unity amongst people of the same age.
-Tribute payment ensured loyalty.
-Raids provided wealth in form of cattle and grain.
-It incapacitated vassal chiefs from rebelling thereby thwarting civil wars.
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Was Tshaka responsible for all the military reforms made in Zululand?
Tshaka’s initiatives
-He used spies
-He introduced the idea of total warfare
-He introduced a highly trained army
-He introduced female regiments
-He introduced assegais
-He introduced headgears
Initiatives of others
-Dingiswayo, Zwide and Sobhuza had initiated some of Tshaka’s innovations.
-The regimental system was already in use in the states.
-Long shields were adopted from Dingiswayo.
-The cow horn formation was borrowed from Dingiswayo.
-Banning circumcision was borrowed from Dingiswayo.
-Creation of a standing army was adopted from Dingiswayo.
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Benefits
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Non benefits
-Tshaka’s expansion characterised by violent warfare, plundering and raiding other states
created enemies for himself.
-Death of Nandi [Tshaka’s mother] created problems for him as he killed many people. This
created enemies for him. Even his sister suspected that he was responsible for the death of
Nandi.
-Tshaka had jealous relatives who ultimately killed him.
-High rates of executions created enemies for him.
-Mzilikazi rebelled against him in 1822.
-Tshaka had fear of further rebellions after Mzilikazi broke away.
-There were threats from expansionist Boers and the British who wanted to colonise the Zulu
kingdom.
-Tshaka battled to control the Delagoa Bay trade route.
-There was shortage of resources such as land.
-Tshaka was not trusted by his commanders.
-Tshaka’s incessant imperialism [wars] created hatred from soldiers and generals though they
could not show it for fear of being killed.
-Scarcity of land resulted in wars against the Boers and the British.
-Tshaka’s soldiers were tired of his military campaigns.
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-He survived the first attempt on his life in 1824 but was killed 4 years later.
-Tshaka’s death was plotted by Dingane, Mbopha, Mhlangana and Mkabayi.
-Dingane and Mhlangana were Tshaka’s brothers.
-Mkabayi was Tshaka’s father’s sister.
-After Tshaka’s death Dingane became the king of the Zulu state, but he was not as strong as
Tshaka. During his reign, Europeans began to enter Zululand.
-Dingane -Mhlangana
-Mkabayi -Mbopha
-Mfokazana
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Origins
Mzilikazi was the founder of the Ndebele state. The state was born out of Mfecane and originated
from Nguniland. Mzilikazi was the son of Matshobane. His mother Nompethu was Zwide’s daughter
Mzilikazi was of the Khumalo clan which was under Zwide’s Ndwandwe. Zwide was Mzilikazi’s
grandfather. Zwide killed Matshobane [Mzilikazi’s father] accusing him of allegedly plotting against
him in the Ndwandwe-Mthethwa wars of 1818. Mzilikazi succeeded his father in 1818. Mzilikazi
was helped by Zwide to become chief of the Khumalo. Mzilikazi quickly joined Tshaka’s Zulu state
and Tshaka was pleased and left Mzilikazi in charge of his Khumalo. The possible reasons for
Mzilikazi’s change of masters were that he was not happy that Zwide killed his father, Matshobane.
He had also foreseen the potential military strength of the Zulu under Tshaka. Mzilikazi was sent by
Tshaka in 1822 to go and raid a certain Sotho chief and capture him. Due to greediness he decided to
keep the loot for himself. When Mzilikazi denied submitting the loot, Tshaka sent a small force
[Izimpondo] to punish the Khumalo but was defeated by Mzilikazi. Tshaka then sent the fierce
Umbelebele to destroy Mzilikazi’s tribe. Both sides experienced heavy losses in the fight. Mzilikazi
escaped with about 300 men, a few women and children. They established their state in Western
Zimbabwe [1840].
-When the Ndebele escaped from Tshaka they crossed the Drankensburg Mountains and
settled in the Transvaal area in 1823.
-They raided the Pedi and Tswana.
-Mzilikazi established his capital Ekhupumuleni [resting place] near Oliphant river.
-This area was not suitable for grazing and they also experienced raids from the Pedi, Rolong,
Griqua and the Hurutshe.
-In 1825-1826 Mzilikazi went on to settle near present day Pretoria and established his capital
at Emhlahlandela. It is from here that Mzilikazi met Robert Moffat of the London
Missionary Society in 1829.
-In 1830 the Khumalo were attacked by Dingane’s Zulu, the Kora and the Khoisan forces, the
Rolong and the Griqua forces.
-Mzilikazi attacked the Kwena.
-Mzilikazi abandoned Emhlahlandela because it was too close to Zululand.
-In 1832 the Ndebele settled at Egabeni.
-They left Egabeni because of attacks from the Kora and Griqua.
-Between 1833 and 1837 they settled at Mosega.
-In 1836 the Ndebele were again attacked by Dingane’s Zulu while his Mzilikazi’s army was
away in Sotho land.
-In the same year, Mzilikazi was attacked by the Boers of Portgieter.
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-In 1837, a combined force of the Griqua, Kora, Tlokwa, Rolong and Boer warriors attacked
the Khumalo.
-Mzilikazi met Robert Moffat who advised him to move further north.
-Mzilikazi felt insecure and decided to abandon Mosega so as to protect his people.
-Before crossing the Limpopo, Mzilikazi split his group into two, one was led by Gundwane
Ndiweni Khalipi.
-This group consisted of old people, Mzilikazi’s wives, women, children and livestock.
-Nkulumane, the eldest son of Mzilikazi was also part of this group as well as Lobengula
[Mzilikazi’s son].
-The group took a direct route towards Zimbabwe and crossed the Limpopo River [1838].
-They followed the Umzingwane River and settled not far away from Matopo hills.
-The second group which was led by Mzilikazi himself crossed Limpopo River into
Botswana.
-They travelled through Ngwato territory.
-They turned northwards to the Zambezi in pursuit of the Kololo led by Sebetwane.
-They failed to defeat the Kololo and turned southwards in order to meet the main group.
-Mzilikazi heard of the installation of Nkulumane as king.
-After two years of separation, Gundwane’s group thought Mzilikazi would not come back so
he decided to choose another king. Nkulumane was made king.
-Mzilikazi quickly rushed to Matopo hills.
-When he rejoined the group in 1940, he regarded the act of installing Nkulumane as treason.
-He killed all those responsible. He summoned all chiefs and indunas who were involved in
the installation of Nkulumane and executed them at a place called Thabayezinduna.
-No one knows what happened to Nkulumane. Some say he was secretly executed while
others say he was exiled to Nguniland.
-Mzilikazi settled at Inyati, near modern Bulawayo.
-He went on to subdue and absorb members of the already crumbling Rozvi kingdom who
offered less resistance.
-He was able to build up the most powerful kingdom north of the Limpopo River.
-Mzilikazi married Nyamazana, a Ngoni leader who had broken away from Zwangendaba.
Settlements established by the Ndebele South of the Limpopo on their way to Western
Zimbabwe
-Ekhupumuleni -Mhlahlandela
-Endinaneni -Egabeni
-Enkunqwini -Mosega
-Tshwenyane
Pull factors
-The area was free from tsetse flies.
-The inhabitants of the area were weak.
-The area had good pastures.
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Push factors
-The area was far away from traditional enemies, that is, the Zulu, Boers, Kora and Griqua.
-They were advised by Robert Moffat.
Groups which clashed with the Ndebele during their migration south of the Limpopo
-Zulu -Hurutshe
-Sotho -Khoisan
-Boers -Kora
-Pedi -Tswana
-Taung -Tlokwa
-Thlapin -Rolong
-Griqua -Kgabo
-Kwena -Ngwaketse
-Ndzundza
QN: To what extent was the migration of the Ndebele caused by Mfecane
Contribution of Mfecane
-Mzilikazi left Zululand during Mfecane.
-He left Zululand after he was defeated by Tshaka.
-He abandoned settlements near Zululand.
-He was forced to cross Limpopo River due to attacks from Boers and other groups.
Other factors which caused the migration of the Ndebele from Nguniland
-Mzilikazi’s greediness
-Mzilikazi’s desire to form his own state
-Weaknesses of the Rozvi
-Moffat’s advise
-Fertile soils
-Availability of pastures
-Availability of gold
-Western Zimbabwe was free from tsetse flies
Problems faced by the Ndebele during their migration from Nguniland to Western Zimbabwe
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QN: To what extent did wars with other groups unite the Ndebele?
Unity as a result of war
-Failure to pay booty to Tshaka and defeat by Tshaka led Mzilikazi to flee Zululand.
-Ekhupumuleni was too close to Zululand and at this place there were threats from the Pedi.
-Ekhupumuleni was also meant to be a resting place.
-Ekhupumuleni lacked enough pastures especially during the drought of 1823.
-They abandoned Endinaneni because it was still too close to Zululand.
-Zulu warriors attacked the Ndebele in 1830.
-Other Ndebele enemies included the Kora, Griqua and Rolong who had guns and horses.
-They left Emhlahlandela because they were attacked the Zulu under Dingane, the Griqua,
Kwena, Khoisan, Boers and the Rolong.
-They left Mosega because they were attacked by the Griqua and Kora as well as by the Boers
under Portgieter in 1837.
-Finally they were attacked by the Boers, Griqua, Tlokwa, Kora and Rolong.
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To what extent did these settlements contribute to the building of the Ndebele nation?
QN: Did the Ndebele settlement in Western Zimbabwe bring security to the Ndebele state?
Security
-They settled in the Rozvi country where there was little resistance.
-Mzilikazi married Nyamazana, a Ngoni leader who had killed the Rozvi king, Chirisamhuru
II.
-The area was rich in resources.
-The neighbouring Tsana were weak.
-The area was far away from Boers, Griquas and the Zulu.
-The area was free from tsetse flies.
-The climate as good and the area had good fertile soils which produced good pastures.
Insecurity
-The Rozvi resisted the Ndebele intrusion, though the resistance was not stiff and some
moved away.
-Independent Shona chiefdoms to the East resisted Ndebele raids.
-The area was drought prone.
-Traders, hunters, explorers and concession seekers infiltrated the area.
-BSAP infiltrated the Zimbabwe plateau.
-He dealt with the rebellion of 1840 to 1842, killing Gundwane Ndiweni and other indunas
who had installed Nkulumane as king.
-He forced Nkulumane into exile
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-They did internal and external trade. Internally they traded among themselves. Externally
they traded with the Portuguese and later with the British. They mined minerals like gold for
trade, iron and copper for making tools.
-All subjects paid tribute to the king in form of grain, cattle, goats, sheep, skins, iron tools and
gold.
-They did art and craft, that is,
a] Pottery
b] Weaving
c] Basketry
d] Blacksmithing
e] Wood carving
f] Stone carving
g] Leather work
h] Jewellery making
i] Drum making
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-The Ndebele society was divided into 3 castes [classes], the Zansi, Enhla and Hole.
-Zansi was the highest class of the original Khumalo from Nguniland.
-Zansi was about 15% of the total population.
-Enhla consisted of the Sotho, Tswana, Pedi and Griqua captured on the way from Nguniland.
-This was the second class.
-Enhla consisted of about 25% of the total population.
-The Hole was the lower class.
-The Hole consisted of the San, Kalanga and the Shona captured in Zimbabwe.
-They were about 60% of the total population.
-Marriage across castes was discouraged. However intermarriage took place.
-They were polygamous.
-Cattle were used to pay lobola.
-The society was patrilineal.
-They practised loaning of cattle [Mafisa system].
-Ndebele was made the official language.
-Ownership of cattle was a status symbol.
-Women pierced their ears.
-The Ndebele believed in the High God [Unkulunkulu].
-They also began to worship the Sotho God, Mlimo and their ancestors Amadhlozi.
-They adopted the Shona Mhondoro rain making ceremonies.
-They practised the inxwala ceremony [first fruit ceremony].
-The Ndebele respected the mediums of the great Shona spirits.
-They believed in ancestral spirits.
-The common belief in Mlimo brought the Ndebele and the Sotho together.
-The common belief in God unified people.
-Inxwala ceremonies brought people together.
-The adoption of the Shona Mhondoro rainmaking ceremonies united the Ndebele and the
Shona.
-The Ndebele and the Shona worked together as a result of common beliefs and respect for
the great Shona spirits.
-Use of Ndebele language unified people.
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QN: Why Mzilikazi was able to lead the Ndebele for so long
-Mzilikazi had superior military tactics than those of most of his opponents.
-Military leadership of Mzilikazi also contributed.
-A strong military set up that emphasised loyalty to Mzilikazi.
-Defeated groups were incorporated into the Ndebele society.
-Mzilikazi was an absolute ruler who never tolerated any nonsense in his state.
-Most of the people trusted Mzilikazi as their leader.
-Shona chiefdoms had been weakened by Nguni incursions.
-The long trek forged unity in the state.
-Mzilikazi had migrated to beyond his main enemies in South Africa.
-Mzilikazi’s strong leadership also ensured his long stay in power.
-Mzilikazi prevented rebellions from Shona chiefs by incorporating young men and women
into regiments so as to prevent the Shona chiefs from forming their own armies.
-He loaned cattle to Shona vassal chiefs so as to win their support.
-Payment of tribute ensured loyalty of vassal chiefs.
-Organising the state along military lines was meant to deal with external aggression.
-He was well informed of what happened in provinces by female members of the royal family
who included his wives.
-Mzilikazi had superior weapons
-Mzilikazi was trusted by people he had led for many years and experienced problems
together
-Threats from external enemies kept them together
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-Between 1870 and 1891 Lobengula signed several treaties and concessions which eventually
led to the decline of the state.
Origins
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The Gaza state was a product of Mfecane. The founder of this state was Soshangane. The Gaza-Nguni
migrated from Nguniland in early 1820s. The Gaza people were part of the Ndwandwe people. When
Zwide was defeated by Tshaka in 1819, some of his generals fled northwards and these were
Soshangane, Zwangendaba and Nxaba. Thus Soshangane had fled from Tshaka. He fled from Tshaka
with about 100 followers. He established the Gaza state in Southern Mozambique and South-Eastern
Zimbabwe. During Soshangane’s migration northwards, the Ngoni absorbed the Swazi. After settling
in Southern Mozambique, Soshangane came into contact with the Ndau and other Shona speaking
peoples whom they defeated and took as their subjects and paid tribute to Soshangane. He established
the Gaza state between 1825 and 1845. Soshangane first established his capital at Chaimiti in the
Highlands of the Middle of the Save region. The capital was sometimes called Moyamuhle, meaning
cool breezes. From his capital, Chaimiti, he dispatched soldiers to invade the Manyika, the Ndau, the
Chopi and other peoples of what is now Mozambique. Soshangane named his state after his
grandfather, Gaza. Ndwandwe was the son of Gaza.
Groups of people which clashed with Soshangane during their migration and settlement in
Mozambique
-Pedi -Swazi
-Zulu -Tsonga
-Ndau -Manyika
-Msene-Ngoni -Portuguese
-Chopi -Rozvi
-Jere-Ngoni
-British
Expansion of the Gaza state
The expansion of the Gaza state was primarily based on military conquest. In 1442 Soshangane
defeated the Sofala Portuguese Prazeros and forced them to pay tribute to him. In 1444 Soshangane
overran the Gorongossa area and brought the whole area stretching from Sena to the Zambezi delta
area under his control. By 1449, 28 out of 46 Portuguese Prazeros paid tribute to Soshangane. He also
fought against the Manyika and Manungwe people and defeated them. This brought the whole area
between Maputo and the Zambezi River under his control. By the 1840s Soshangane was king
between 500000 to1000000 people. Soshangane was the leader of the Gaza state up to 1858 when he
died and his son Mawewe took over leadership.
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QN: To what extent did Soshangane’s political system unite the various groups in his state?
-Marriage alliances unified people
-System of centralisation unified people
-Payment of tribute
-Role of the army
Other factors
-Trade within the state unified people
-Nguni customs adopted by subject people
-Common religion
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-The society of the Gaza state was divided into 3 classes which are the Gaza-Nguni,
BaTshangane and BaThonga.
-The Gaza-Nguni [BaNgoni] were the original Nguni speaking people.
-They were the ruling class.
-BaTshangane were the absorbed / assimilated people who adopted Nguni culture and
language. BaTshangane recruits were divided into regiments with BaNgoni officers.
-They were the middle class.
-They were treated as less important people.
-They were discriminated against.
-They were put in the front line in battle.
-They identified themselves by wearing wax head rings and by having pierced ears.
-They were rewarded with wives for service.
-BaThonga were the lowest class and were also known as Amabuyandlela [Pathfinders].
-They consisted of local Ndau, Chopi and Manyika.
-They were those people who did not adopt Nguni culture and language.
-They were not allowed to join the regular army.
-They filed their teeth.
-The people of Gaza state practised loaning of cattle.
-Soldiers were not allowed to marry until the age of 40.
-There was division of labour.
-The society was patrilineal.
-They practised polygamy.
-They practised loaning of cattle.
-They paid lobola in form of cattle.
-All people were encouraged to speak Shangane.
-Women wore beads.
-They performed initiation ceremonies as well as ceremonial dances like Muchongoyo.
-They brewed beer
-They held rain making ceremonies.
-Cattle were a symbol of wealth.
-They believed in God.
-They believed in spirit mediums.
-They also believed in ancestral spirits
They believed in life after death.
-Gaza-Nguni [BaNgoni]
-BaTshangane
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-BaThonga [Amabuyandlela]
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Early missionary societies / organisations which worked in Zimbabwe between 1850 and 1900
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-Thomson
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QN: How successful was the Catholic missionaries in Zimbabwe in this period
Successes
-They established mission stations.
-They inoculated cattle.
-They reduced African language to written form [IsiNdebele and Shona].
-They translated religious and educational books.
-They introduced new crops and vegetables.
-New crafts and skills were introduced.
-They taught Africans to use ploughs.
Failures
-Before colonisation [1890] they made little impact to convert the Shona and Ndebele.
-Slave raiding and class system among the Ndebele influenced Ndebele kings to discourage
conversion.
-They faced the problem of diseases.
-There was poor communication.
-Missionary groups such as the Dutch Reformed Church [DRC] of South Africa, Paris
Evangelical Mission [PEM] of Lesotho and Berlin Missionary Society [BMS] employed
African catechists and evangelists to reach on the Shona.
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-PEM opened stations at Chivi, Mposi and Matibi. Expeditions were sent to Mudavanhu,
Chivi, Chingoma, Zimuto, Chilimanzi, Mugabe, Nyamhondo and Dzike. They made some
converts but chased by Lobengula.
-BMS missionaries like Madzima and Samuel opened stations at Mposi and Matibi. Knoth
and Schellnus joined them. They preached. They taught skills such as agriculture, reading,
carpentry and writing.
-DRC Evangelist, Michael Buys opened a station at chief Zimuto and Mugabe [Morgenster].
They opened another at Chivi. A resident missionary was appointed for chief Chivi.
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QN: To what extent were African rulers to blame for the problems of the early missionaries?
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Other factors
-Language barrier
-Missionaries were attacked by diseases.
-Lack of medicine was another problem.
-Lack of food they were used to.
-Poor transport and communication networks.
Ways used by Africans to resist missionary influence in Zimbabwe between 1850 and 1900
-They moved far away from missionary settlements.
-They continued to practise their traditional religions.
-Raids continued to take place in Zimbabwe.
-They refused to attend schools.
-Thy killed some missionaries.
-They refused to give missionaries food.
-They accused missionaries of being spies.
-They punished or killed some converts.
-They accused missionaries of using forbidden routes.
-They refused to work for missionaries.
-They refused to accept some gifts from missionaries.
-African leaders like Lobengula restricted missionary activities.
-Some Africans continued to practise Islam and trade with Moslems.
-African leaders discouraged Africans from attending church services.
-They expelled some missionaries
Successes
-Many people were not converted.
-Very few people attended schools.
-They killed some missionaries.
-Some converts were killed.
-They refused to learn the new language.
-Missionary activities were restricted.
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Failures
-Some people were converted.
-Other people were educated.
-Mission stations were established.
-Schools were built.
-Hospitals were built.
QN; Why African people resisted missionary influence in Zimbabwe between 1850 and 1900?
-They did not want to abandon their traditional religion.
-They feared that their trade would be disturbed.
-They did not want to learn a new language.
-Christianity denounced aspects such as raiding.
-Missionaries attacked African administrative systems.
-They suspected missionaries of having colonial aims.
-There was influence from traditional leaders.
-Missionaries were accused of natural disasters like cattle diseases and drought.
-Christianity denounced polygamy.
-Missionary teaching was meaningless to African traditional life.
-Learning was difficult.
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-Robert Moffat’s friendship to Mzilikazi paved way for missionaries, like J.S Moffat, C Helm
and other whites.
-The Moffat treaty of 1888 renewed the friendship between the Ndebele and the British
paving way for British colonisation.
-This treaty led to the cancellation of the Grobler treaty.
-The Moffat treaty led to the signing of the Rudd Concession which was used to occupy
Zimbabwe.
-Reverend Charles Helm persuaded the king to sign the Rudd Concession.
-Missionaries published economic prospects to their countries thereby generating interest in
colonial conquest.
-They invited their governments to end slavery.
-They published pagan practices by Africans which needed the attention of European
governments.
-Missionaries invited their governments to destroy African states after failing to get converts.
-Missionaries were interpreters and also wrote letters for the king falsifying some details.
-They were used as agents of imperialism in treaty making.
-They established mission stations which later helped to accommodate other whites like
concession seekers.
-Missionaries gave false, exaggerated reports about the wealth in the country to lure other
whites.
-They bribed Africans to persuade them to sign treaties.
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Economic reasons
Social reasons
-The need to settle population pressure
-Availability of quinine and tablets gave whites the confidence to venture into the interior of
Africa.
-There were good climatic conditions in Southern Africa which were favourable to the health
of some European nationals like Rhodes.
-The need to civilise Africans
-The need to educate Africans
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-The upset of balance of power led to the Scramble for Southern Africa.
-Southern Africa was colonised for prestige reasons.
-Southern Africa was colonised for strategic reasons.
-Diplomatic reasons also led to the scramble.
-The Berlin Conference also contributed.
-Influence of European agents
-The whites had superior weapons than Africans.
-Explorers encouraged colonisation.
-Public opinion and pressure
-Rhodes’ Cape to Cairo dream
-Encouraging reports from hunters and traders
-The need to spread political influence
-The Boers wanted to extend their territory beyond the Limpopo River to avoid being encircled by the
British.
Economic aims of Britain and Germany in the Scramble for Southern Africa
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QN: To what extent had Britain achieved her aims in Southern Africa by 1900?
Achievements
Failures
-She failed to completely dislodge the Boers in South Africa
-She failed to have access to the Indian Ocean via Mozambique
-She failed to create a federation of whites in South Africa
This conference was convened by Otto von Bismarck, the chancellor of Germany from 1871 to 1890
to chart ways of partitioning Africa peacefully. It was held in Berlin, in Germany. It was also meant to
curb the increasing conflicts over colonies. Africans were not invited. Countries which were
represented were Britain, France, Italy, Germany, Spain, Portugal and Belgium.
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Contribution of the Berlin Conference in stimulating the Scramble and partition of Southern
Africa
-It legalised the partition of Africa. It set rules of the game of partition. It legitimised the
occupation of Southern Africa
-Many treaties were signed with African chiefs leading to the eventual occupation of their
territories
-Chiefs were cheated or deceived
-European powers competed for unoccupied areas of Southern Africa
-There was also scramble to define and extend boundaries of existing spheres of influence by
the British, Portuguese, Boers and Germans.
Other factors
-The industrial revolution
-Weaknesses of Africans
-The discovery on minerals in South Africa
-Work of European agents like traders, missionaries, concession seekers, hunters and individuals like
Rhodes
-Strategic reasons
-Humanitarian reasons
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Ethnic groups that fought wars of resistance in Southern Africa between 1870 and 1900
-Zulu -Shona
-Ndebele -Herero
-Nama/Herero -Ngwato
-Gaza/Shangani -Pedi
-Swazi -Xhosa
-Sotho
Why Europeans were successful in colonising the African chiefdoms during this period
Advantages of Europeans
-They had superior weapons
-They had better communication
-They used tricks
-They used bribery
-They used dynamites
Disadvantages of Africans
-They had inferior weapons
-They had poor communication
-They had poor methods of fighting
-They were illiterate
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QN: To what extent were Africans to blame for the colonisation of Southern Africa
Other factors
-Illiteracy made Africans vulnerable during treaty making
-Forces of industrial capitalism were too strong, for example, Britain and Germany
-Europeans were very determined to colonise Africans
Methods used by Africans to resist colonisation in Southern Africa
-Wars [armed resistance], for example, Anglo-Ndebele war of 1893, the Zulu wars
-Diplomacy. They engaged in diplomatic engagements to postpone their down fall
-Friendship
-Protectorate status [Collaboration with Europeans], Lewanika collaborated with the British
-Migration
-Delegations-giving part of one’s power, rights, for a certain time
-Treaties and agreements
-Concessions, for example, Rudd Concession, Lippert concession and the like
-Killed whites in farms and mines
-Use of Christianity to resist colonisation, for example, Moshoeshoe against the Boers
-Britain and Boers-competed for the colonisation of the Ndebele state as shown by the signing of the
Grobler and Moffat treaty. The British ended up as winners after the signing of the Rudd Concession.
-Britain and Boers-competed for control of the diamond wealth in Kimberly. This led to the British
annexation of Orange Free State.
-The British desire to access Nguni labour force and to encircle Boers led to the annexation of Natal
and to declare a protectorate over Bechuanaland so as to preserve the missionary road and thwart
[stop] Boer expansion westwards. Boers had declared two republics of Stella land and Goshen.
-The Second Anglo-Boer war was part of the struggle to control the gold wealth at the Witwatersrand.
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-Britain and Portugal-competed for the control of Mashonaland which the Ndebele claimed to
control. The Portuguese intended to join Portuguese East Africa [Mozambique] with Portuguese West
Africa whilst Rhodes had the Cape to Cairo dream. The Anglo-Portuguese treaty of 1891 resolved
boundaries between Rhodesia and Portuguese East Africa.
-Germany and Britain-British influence was spreading from the South to the North whilst Germany
was expanding eastwards from the area she had, that is, South West Africa [Namibia]. Britain
declared a protectorate in Bechuanaland in 1885 to thwart German expansion and preserve the
missionary road.
QN: To what extent were the people of Southern Africa affected by this competition up to 1900?
Positive effects
-Some states gained protection and remained intact, for example, the Lozi of Lewanika and Khama’s
Ngwato.
-Some chiefs retained their power, for example, Lewanika.
-Many missionaries visited the state to convert people to Christianity.
-Trade with foreigners increased
-There was an end of ethnic wars, for example, the Ndebele versus the Shona or Ngwato; the Zulu-
Pedi clashes and so on.
-The Ndebele state remained intact up to 1893.
Disadvantages
-Loss of independence
-Erosion of African culture
-Lots of wealth, for example, raw materials was exploited
-It led to colonial wars and wars of dispossession
-There were high death rates due to the use of maxim guns
-Africans were cheated in treaties
-The Ndebele kings spent time dealing with concession seekers
Strengths of Britain
-The role of Lord Salisbury and others. Salisbury was the British Prime Minister.
-The British South Africa company [BSAC] got support from the rich.
-Britain was fully prepared for a war’
-Rhodes’ wealth
-Influence of missionaries
-Influence of traders, hunters and concession seekers
Other factors
-Germany was a late comer into the scramble for Africa
-Boers were militarily weak
-The Portuguese were weak
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-Weaknesses of Africans
-Other countries lacked foreign support
European agents [colonialist representatives] who participated in the Scramble for Southern
Africa
-Cecil John Rhodes -Herr Luderitz
-John Smith Moffat -Piet Grobler
-Charles Dunnel Rudd -Francis Thompson
-Rochford Maguire -Sir Sydney Shippard
-Edward Lippert -Thomas Baines
-Charles Helm
Colonial agents [whites] and their European countries who were involved in the scramble for
Africa
-Cecil John Rhodes Britain
-Karl Peters Germany
-Paul Krugger Boers
Economic reasons
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-The discovery of gold and diamond in the Transvaal made many whites to think that the gold belt in
South Africa stretched into Zimbabwe.
Political reasons
Social reasons
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-It was signed between Lobengula and the Boers. It was negotiated between Piet Grobler, Frederick
Grobler and Lobengula.
Terms of this treaty
-There was to be everlasting peace between the Ndebele and the Boers.
-A Boer permanent representative [a council] was to be stationed in Bulawayo to administer justice to
Boers who might violate Lobengula’s law.
-Boers carrying passports from the Transvaal were to be allowed entry into Zimbabwe.
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Did the Grobler treaty protect the Ndebele state from colonisation?
Protection
-The Grobler treaty protected the Ndebele state from invasion by the Boers or other Europeans
-It delayed the occupation of the Ndebele state by other groups
-The treaty created friendship between the Ndebele and the Boers
Limitations
-Lobengula faced threats from the Portuguese and the British
-The treaty could not prevent the British from entering into treaties with Lobengula
-Lobengula had to sign the Moffat treaty and the Rudd Concession which led to the colonisation of
Zimbabwe
-Military assistance was one sided
-It increased the scramble for Zimbabwe
-It was signed between Lobengula and John Smith Moffat representing Cecil John Rhodes.
-It was meant to repudiate [cancel] the Grobler treaty.
-Moffat enjoyed an advantage when he negotiated for this treaty with Lobengula because he had
worked among the Ndebele for long, Lobengula trusted him as an honest man, his father, Robert
Moffat was a close friend of Lobengula’s father, Mzilikazi and their fathers had signed a treaty, so
Lobengula thought he was renewing the old treaty.
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-It was signed between Lobengula and the British. Rhodes used the Moffat treaty to keep the
Germans, Boers and the Portuguese out of Matabeleland and Mashonaland. Rhodes sent Charles
Rudd, Francis Thompson and Rochfort Maguire to persuade Lobengula to grant them a
concession.
-Lobengula-was the king of the Ndebele who claimed to be having control over the area between
Zambezi and Limpopo [Zimbabwe].
-Charles Dunnel Rudd-was Rhodes’ business partner who came from South Africa in 1866 on
medical grounds. He was a diamond dealer who could trick anyone into submission. He was Rhodes’
best friend and head of Rhodes’ delegation to Lobengula.
-Francis ‘Matabele’ Thompson-was fluent in native languages. He was therefore responsible for
interpreting.
-Rochfort Maguire-was a lawyer by profession and was with Rhodes at Oxford University.
-John Dreyer-was the wagon driver who was also a signatory.
Other people who were present
-Charles Helm-was a missionary who interpreted and was also a trusted friend of Lobengula. He was
an agent of imperialism and he persuaded Lobengula to sign the Rudd Concession.
-John Smith Moffat-was a missionary and Lobengula friend.
-Sir Sydney Shippard
-Lotshe-was a trusted induna of Lobengula and was bribed by Thompson to urge Lobengula to sign.
-Sikombo
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QN: Did the Ndebele king benefit from the Rudd Concession?
Non-benefits
-Loss of land
-Loss of independence
-Loss of cattle
-Exploitation of minerals increased
-The treaty led to the invasion of the country
-The treaty legalised the occupation of Zimbabwe.
-It caused disunity in the state
-It led to the execution of Lotshe
-Lobengula stopped trusting his indunas
-Lobengula lost his life
-He never received the gun boats
QN: To what extent did the Rudd Concession contribute to the colonisation of Zimbabwe?
-It was used to obtain the charter which was used to colonise Zimbabwe.
-It excluded other competing powers
-It met the requirements of the Berlin West African Conference
-It gave unlimited powers to the BSAC
-It led to the creation of the pioneer column
Other factors
-The charter which was written permission to colonise
-Rhodes and British financiers financed the occupation
-Other treaties like Grobler treaty also paved the way
-Assistance of collaborators
Evidence to show that Lobengula was cheated in the signing of the Rudd Concession
-Instead of 10 men agreed, a column came and Lobengula was surprised.
-Lobengula was illiterate so he could not understand the legal language used.
-The Rudd team was made up of intellectual giants who had ventured into various works of life, battle
hardened men and economic heavy weights who could trick anyone.
-Bribes were common during the signing of the treaty.
-Items promised were never delivered.
-The Rudd team used Queen of England’s name.
-Sending of Babejane and Umshete to London to have the Rudd Concession clarified.
-The document given to the Queen was different from the one which Lobengula possessed
-Execution of all people who persuaded Lobengula to sign the treaty, for example, Lotshe.
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-The Rudd team quickly rode off after signing the treaty leaving Thompson behind who sneaked
during the night.
Evidence to show that Lobengula was not cheated
-Lobengula wanted to please his subjects by signing the treaty after getting goods like money and
guns.
-The desire to be protected by the British drove him into signing the treaty.
-He changed his mind afterwards, as a result of influence from other parties like the Germans, Boers
and Portuguese.
-Lobengula had a natural weakness for luxury goods.
-Lobengula claimed to be cheated after his diplomacy failed.
-Some Ndebele court officials collaborated with the whites, for example, Lotshe and Sikombo
persuaded Lobengula to sign the Rudd Concession.
-Lobengula, chief of the Ndebele signed treaties and concessions, whose contents he did not
understand, for instance, Moffat treaty, Rudd concession, Lippert concession
-Lobengula claimed to be chief of Mashonaland, thus facilitating the colonisation.
-Weaknesses of the Ndebele were exploited by the Europeans who had the maxim guns.
-The Shona did not resist the coming of the colonisers in 1890.
-Rivalry between the Shona and the Ndebele undermined the possibility of a united
resistance.
-Some Shona people collaborated with the whites in the Anglo-Ndebele war.
-Khama provided some auxiliary forces to assist the BSAC.
-He advised Lobengula o seek British protection from him.
-Some Africans accompanied the pioneer column from South Africa [Transvaal] into
Mashonaland.
-The Fingo people, also from South Africa accompanied Rhodes
-Hosting of colonial agent
-The greediness of some African leaders
-Some Shona chiefs also signed treaties with whites
-Lobengula restrained the Amajaha
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Whites who were involved in the signing of treaties and concessions in Zimbabwe between 1850
and 1891
-Thomas Baines -Sydney Shippard
-Piet Grobler -Frederick Grobler
-Charles Helm -Rochfort Maguire
-W Graham -Dreyer
-J.S Moffat -Charles Rudd
-F Thompson -E Lippert
-Van Wyk -E Maund
-C.J Rhodes -Paul Krugger
-J Swinburne
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Measures taken by Rhodes after obtaining the Rudd Concession to prepare for the occupation
of Zimbabwe up to 1893
-He published the Rudd Concession in South African, Canada and New Zealand.
-He held a meeting with the Parliamentarians
-He obtained the royal Charter from the Queen [1889]
-He formed the BSAC
-He obtained money from the rich of Britain to finance the occupation
-He planned the delay of Lobengula’s emissaries namely, Umshete and Babejane in South Africa
-He advertised the occupation of Zimbabwe
-He recruited the Pioneer column
-He bought the Lippert Concession
-Rhodes sought aid from Khama
-Rhodes sent Jameson to cure Lobengula so as to entice him for his support
-Invasion of Mashonaland [1890]
-Planned to fight the Anglo-Ndebele war [1893]
Other factors
-The British supported the move by Rhodes
-British financiers like Duke of Fife and Duke of Abercorn
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People who assisted Rhodes to get the British South Africa Royal Charter in 1889
-Duke of Fife -Duke of Abercorn
-Lord Grey -Lord Salisbury
-Baroness Burdette Coutts -Prince of Wales
-Queen Victoria
Lobengula’s reaction after discovering that he had been cheated in the Rudd concession
-E.A Maund informed Lobengula that he had been cheated.
-Lobengula wrote a letter to Rhodes complaining about the Rudd concession.
-He also wrote a letter to the High Commissioner in Botswana.
-He sent two emissaries to the Queen accompanied by E.A Maund.
-He executed Lotshe and Sikombo and their families.
-He invited a few explorers to explain the Rudd concession to him.
-Lobengula continued to emphasise on the verbal agreements of the Rudd concession to those at his
court.
-He signed the Lippert concession.
-He publicly renounced the Rudd Concession
-He sent a search part after Maguire.
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Lobengula’s weaknesses
-He cancelled the Grobler treaty.
-He depended on white interpreters.
-Illiteracy
-He did not have direct access to the queen or Rhodes.
-He put too much trust in missionaries.
-He trusted Lotshe and Sikombo too much.
-He was greedy for natural benefits like weapons
-He had a desire to keep out many whites
Other factors
-Rhodes was financially powerful
-Cheating by Lippert
-The Boers were unable to help Lobengula militarily
-The Shona and the British collaborated against the Ndebele
-After obtaining the charter, Rhodes recruited the pioneer column to occupy Zimbabwe.
-The pioneer column consisted of 200 pioneer men [settlers], most of which were below 30
years and 500 British South Africa Police [BSAP].
-The pioneer column set out from Macloutsie River in Botswana on 27 June 1890.
-Penne father was in command of the BSAP assisted by Borrow and Henry.
-Frederick Courtney Selous, the hunter was the guide.
-The first stop was at Shashe River where they built Fort Tuli.
-The pioneers thus established Forts as they travelled.
-The pioneers avoided the Ndebele state for fear of attacks.
-Lobengula protested at the pioneer invasion.
-Lobengula did not allow regiments to attack the pioneers.
-200 Ngwato people accompanied the pioneers.
-The Ngwato helped to make roads.
-They used ox-drawn wagons [117 wagons] to transport women, children and supplies.
-Scouts patrolled the areas ahead
-They travelled 12 miles per day and built a laager at the place of rest during the night.
-Pioneers often met small groups of Ndebele warriors.
-In August 1890 the pioneer column was in Masvingo where they built fort Victoria.
-Part of the pioneers branched to Melsetter while the other continued northwards and built
Fort Charter.
-They reached Fort Salisbury on 21 September 1890 where they hoisted the Union Jack.
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Security arrangements made by the pioneer column during its movement into Mashonaland in
1890
-Pioneers were given military training.
-Each pioneer member was armed.
-500 policemen accompanied the column
-They established forts on their way
-They had heavy guns-maxim guns and two seven pounders
-They used laagers when they camped for the night.
-They kept a big lamp burning when they camped night.
-They maintained patrols on horse backs.
-They had doctors to treat the sick.
-They used Selous as the guide.
-They avoided the Ndebele state.
-They were accompanied by the Ngwato auxiliaries
-They built forts
-Scouting parties were sent in advance.
-Powerful search light beams were used to scare away wild animals
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Other factors
-Rhodes financed the occupation
-Rhodes’s company recruited the settlers
-Lobengula prevented his soldiers from attacking pioneers
-The Shona did not resist colonisation
-Missionaries like Charles Helm and J.S Moffat also facilitated colonisation
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Negative effects
-Loss of land
-Los of livestock
-Ill-treatment of Africans
-Abuse of African women
-Loss of power by African chiefs
-Dilution of culture
-Lucrative trade with the Portuguese was disrupted
Positive effects
- There was creation of law and order by ending tribal wars.
-Infrastructure was improved by construction of roads, bridges and railways.
-Better means of transport were introduced, for example, vehicles, trains and aeroplanes.
-Improvement of communication, for example, radios and televisions.
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-This war was fought between the Ndebele and the British
-Failure to find the second rand in Mashonaland resulted in the whites anticipating that the
second rand was in Matabeleland.
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-The desire to acquire a hero status in Britain after the fall of the Ndebele state.
-The quarrel over the ownership of the Shona between the Ndebele and the whites.
-Rhodes’ Cape to Cairo dream
-The shifting of the boundary between Matabeleland and Mashonaland
-The fall of the BSAC share prices
-The desire to seize Ndebele cattle by the whites
-Rhodes wanted to facilitate the construction of a railway line cutting across Matabeleland
-The defeat of the Ndebele would herald the total colonisation of Zimbabwe
-Influence of missionaries
-Jameson’s warlike mood
-The killing of Lobengula’s peace envoys [emissaries]
-The need for cheap labour in Matabeleland
-Fear of a strong Ndebele state by the whites
-Ndebele raids disrupted farming and mining
-The Victoria incidents which are---
a] The cutting of telegraph wire which belonged to the whites by chief Gomora / Gomala
b] The death of chief Chivi [1891] who is said to have been skinned alive by Lobengula for
refusing to pay tribute
c] The death of chief Nemakonde / Lomagundi [1891] who also had refused to pay tribute to
Lobengula
d] Raiding of Lobengula’s cattle by chief Bere
-Umgandani-Lendy clashes led to the 1893 war
Why Lobengula was to blame for the outbreak of the Anglo-Ndebele war?
-He failed to control the regiments
-Raiding Mashonaland disrupted white farms and mines
-He refused to accept the shifting boundary
-He mobilised for war after the Victoria incident
-He killed chief Chivi and chief Nemakonde
Other factors
-The BSAC was determined to annex Matabeleland as in the 1889 charter
-The BSAC wanted to boost the value of its shares
-The by the BSAC to deal with the Ndebele once and for all
-The whites kept shifting the boundary
-The killing of Lobengula’s peace envoys
-The desire for the second rand
-The whites wanted political control of the Shona
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-Instead he dispatched Captain H.J Borrow with 20 men without instructing them whether they were a
support unit or another attacking force.
-Borrow’s force joined Wilson’s group on 4 December.
-Together, Wilson’s group and that of Burrow attacked Lobengula’s group.
-Lobengula’s group defended itself well and they defeated the combined forces of Burrow and
Wilson.
-Burrow and Wilson and a majority of other men were killed by Lobengula, except 3 scouts who
escaped.
-Forbes could not assist them because Shangani River was flooded.
-They never captured Lobengula.
-Forbes’ group retreated.
-Lobengula is said to have died of small pox on escape to the north.
-Lobengula’s forces surrendered and the war came to an end.
-The BSAC took over the burning city and raised a Union Jack.
Did the pursuit of Lobengula by the BSAC forces after the fall of Bulawayo benefit the BSAC?
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-This war was fought by the Ndebele and the Shona versus the British
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Military reaction of the white settlers in colonial Zimbabwe to the Ndebele uprising
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Ndebele benefits
-There was re-establishment of peace in Matabeleland.
-They received grain, food and planting seeds.
-The settler government recognised Ndebele chiefs and headmen.
-They were assured that no Shona police would work in Matabeleland without Ndebele approval.
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Strengths of whites
-The whites had better transport
-The whites got external support from South Africa.
-The whites had superior weapons like maxim guns.
-The whites used a lot of brutality that frightened the Ndebele.
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-In Mashonaland the war started in June 1896 after harvesting crops.
-It began with the killing of whites in Mashayamombe area.
-Two Indian traders were killed by Mashayamombe people who also killed the native commissioner
for Chegutu.
-By the end of June, over 10 whites had been killed.
-The whites were taken by surprise because they considered the Shona as a peaceful group.
-The whites responded by setting up laagers in places like Gweru, Bulawayo, Mberengwa, Mutare,
Harare and Charter.
-The Shona fighters blocked roads using trees.
-The Shona used guerrilla warfare tactics.
-Some Shona did not join the war.
-Chiefdoms in Masvingo, Chikomba, Buhera, extreme Eastern Zimbabwe and Northern Zimbabwe
stayed out of the war.
-The Shona chiefs fought the whites as separate entities.
-Some Shona fought on the side of whites.
-The Shona hid in caves
-The whites used dynamites to attack the Shona in caves.
-The spread of Chimurenga to other areas was done through spirit mediums and fire signals [on top of
mountains].
-Nehanda and Kaguvi were important spirit mediums who encouraged the Shona to fight, especially
in Mazoe and Chishawasha areas.
-The uprising rapidly spread to Harare, Mazoe, Charter, Marondera, Makonde and other eastern
districts of Zimbabwe.
-The settlers mounted patrols to rescue survivors and ferrying them to laagers in Harare, Mutare and
Charter.
-The whites were assisted by reinforcements from South Africa. British imperial forces were brought
in from South Africa under Lieutenant Colonel Alderson.
-The BSA forces under Alderson attacked and defeated Makoni’s Gwindingwi fortress.
-They also defeated Mangwende’s Maope fortress.
-Defeated Shona chiefs were executed, for example, Makoni.
-The whites adopted the scorched earth policy, destroying Shona grain stores, homes and water
sources to starve the Shona into submission.
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Religious leaders who were active in Mashonaland during the first Chimurenga
-Kaguvi -Nehanda [Chagwe]
-Zhanda -Gumboreshumba
-Chaminuka -Bonda
-Mponga
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Contribution of the execution of Nehanda and Kaguvi to the defeat of the Shona
-They were a source of motivation and courage of the Shona.
-They were leaders hence their death resulted in lack of leadership.
-They were coordinators during the war.
To what extent did lack of unity contribute to the defeat of the Shona?
-There was lack of coordination among the Shona.
-Some Shona chiefs did not join the war, for example, Mutasa.
-Some Shona chiefs assisted the whites.
-They had no common military strategy
Other factors
-The Shona had inferior weapons
-Whites were better organised
-Whites had faster transport
-The surrender of the Ndebele
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How were the settlers affected by the results of the First Chimurenga?
-Cheap labour was obtained from both Matabeleland and Mashonaland.
-They appropriated more land and cattle
-They now had more revenue base
-Security was enhanced
-The settlers were united
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