Endocrine Glands & Their Hormones

The hormone or endocrine system provides, generally, a slower means of control over the
functions of the body than the nervous system. Like neurotransmitters, hormones are specialized
chemicals that change the activity of cells by attaching to receptors on the cells. To emphasize
the close relationships we will see between hormones and the actions of the nervous system, the
endocrine system is sometimes referred to as the neuroendocrine system. Most hormones are
released from specialized endocrine glands, and the rest from special cells within organs like the
kidney and stomach. Wherever the hormone is released from, it usually travels to its target
through the bloodstream
Hormones fall mainly into four different groups of chemicals. These are:
peptides and proteins; amino acids; fatty acids; steroids

The endocrine system is made up of the endocrine glands that secrete hormones. Although there
are eight major endocrine glands scattered throughout the body, they are still considered to be
one system because they have similar functions, similar mechanisms of influence, and many
important interrelationships.

Some glands also have non-endocrine regions that have functions other than hormone secretion.
For example, the pancreas has a major exocrine portion that secretes digestive enzymes and an
endocrine portion that secretes hormones. The ovaries and testes secrete hormones and also
produce the ova and sperm. Some organs, such as the stomach, intestines, and heart, produce
hormones, but their primary function is not hormone secretion.

Pituitary Gland
The pituitary gland or hypophysis is a small gland about 1 centimeter in diameter or the size of a
pea. It is nearly surrounded by bone as it rests in the sella turcica, a depression in the sphenoid
bone. The gland is connected to the hypothalamus of the brain by a slender stalk called
the infundibulum.

There are two distinct regions in the gland: the anterior lobe (adenohypophysis) and
the posterior lobe (neurohypophysis). The activity of the adenohypophysis is controlled
by releasing hormones from the hypothalamus. The neurohypophysis is controlled
by nerve stimulation.

Hormones of the Anterior Lobe (Adenohypophysis)

Growth hormone is a protein that stimulates the growth of bones, muscles, and other organs by
promoting protein synthesis. This hormone drastically affects the appearance of an individual
because it influences height. If there is too little growth hormone in a child, that person may
become a pituitary dwarf of normal proportions but small stature. An excess of the hormone in a
child results in an exaggerated bone growth, and the individual becomes exceptionally tall or a
giant.

Thyroid-stimulating hormone, or thyrotropin, causes the glandular cells of the thyroid to

secrete thyroid hormone. When there is a hypersecretion of thyroid-stimulating hormone,
the thyroid gland enlarges and secretes too much thyroid hormone.

Adrenocorticotropic hormone reacts with receptor sites in the cortex of the adrenal gland to
stimulate the secretion of cortical hormones, particularly cortisol.

Gonadotropic hormones react with receptor sites in the gonads, or ovaries and testes, to regulate
the development, growth, and function of these organs.

Prolactin hormone promotes the development of glandular tissue in the female breast during
pregnancy and stimulates milk production after the birth of the infant.

Hormones of the Posterior Lobe (Neurohypophysis)

Antidiuretic hormone promotes the reabsorption of water by the kidney tubules, with the result
that less water is lost as urine. This mechanism conserves water for the body. Insufficient
amounts of antidiuretic hormone cause excessive water loss in the urine.

Oxytocin causes contraction of the smooth muscle in the wall of the uterus. It also stimulates the
ejection of milk from the lactating breast.

Pineal Gland
The pineal gland, also called pineal body or epiphysis cerebri, is a small cone-shaped structure
that extends posteriorly from the third ventricle of the brain. The pineal gland consists of
portions of neurons, neuroglial cells, and specialized secretory cells called pinealocytes. The
pinealocytes synthesize the hormone melatonin and secrete it directly into the cerebrospinal
fluid, which takes it into the blood. Melatonin affects reproductive development and
daily physiologic cycles.

Thyroid Gland

The thyroid gland is a very vascular organ that is located in the neck. It consists of two lobes,
one on each side of the trachea, just below the larynx or voice box. The two lobes are connected
by a narrow band of tissue called the isthmus. Internally, the gland consists of follicles, which
produce thyroxine and triiodothyronine hormones. These hormones contain iodine.

About 95 percent of the active thyroid hormone is thyroxine, and most of the remaining 5
percent is triiodothyronine. Both of these require iodine for their synthesis. Thyroid hormone
secretion is regulated by a negative feedback mechanism that involves the amount of
circulating hormone, hypothalamus, and adenohypophysis.

If there is an iodine deficiency, the thyroid cannot make sufficient hormone. This stimulates
the anterior pituitary to secrete thyroid-stimulating hormone, which causes the thyroid gland to
increase in size in a vain attempt to produce more hormones. But it cannot produce more
hormones because it does not have the necessary raw material, iodine. This type of thyroid
enlargement is called simple goiter or iodine deficiency goiter.

Calcitonin is secreted by the parafollicular cells of the thyroid gland. This hormone opposes the
action of the parathyroid glands by reducing the calcium level in the blood. If blood calcium
becomes too high, calcitonin is secreted until calcium ion levels decrease to normal.
Parathyroid Gland
Four small masses of epithelial tissue are embedded in the connective tissue capsule on
the posterior surface of the thyroid glands. These are parathyroid glands, and they
secrete parathyroid hormone or parathormone. Parathyroid hormone is the most important
regulator of blood calcium levels. The hormone is secreted in response to low blood calcium
levels, and its effect is to increase those levels.

Hypoparathyroidism, or insufficient secretion of parathyroid hormone, leads to

increased nerve excitability. The low blood calcium levels trigger spontaneous and continuous
nerve impulses, which then stimulate muscle contraction

Adrenal Gland

The adrenal, or suprarenal, gland is paired with one gland located near the upper portion of
each kidney. Each gland is divided into an outer cortex and an inner medulla. The cortex and
medulla of the adrenal gland, like the anterior and posterior lobes of the pituitary, develop from
different embryonic tissues and secrete different hormones. The adrenal cortex is essential to life,
but the medulla may be removed with no life-threatening effects.

The hypothalamus of the brain influences both portions of the adrenal gland but by different
mechanisms. The adrenal cortex is regulated by negative feedback involving the hypothalamus
and adrenocorticotropic hormone; the medulla is regulated by nerve impulses from the
hypothalamus.

Hormones of the Adrenal Cortex

The adrenal cortex consists of three different regions, with each region producing a different
group or type of hormones. Chemically, all the cortical hormones are steroid.

Mineralocorticoids are secreted by the outermost region of the adrenal cortex. The principal
mineralocorticoid is aldosterone, which acts to conserve sodium ions and water in the body.
Glucocorticoids are secreted by the middle region of the adrenal cortex. The
principal glucocorticoid is cortisol, which increases blood glucose levels.

The third group of steroids secreted by the adrenal cortex is the gonadocorticoids, or sex
hormones. These are secreted by the innermost region. Male hormones, androgens, and female
hormones, estrogens, are secreted in minimal amounts in both sexes by the adrenal cortex, but
their effect is usually masked by the hormones from the testes and ovaries. In females, the
masculinization effect of androgen secretion may become evident after menopause,
when estrogen levels from the ovaries decrease.

Hormones of the Adrenal Medulla

The adrenal medulla develops from neural tissue and secretes two
hormones, epinephrine and norepinephrine. These two hormones are secreted in response to
stimulation by sympathetic nerve, particularly during stressful situations. A lack of hormones
from the adrenal medulla produces no significant effects. Hypersecretion, usually from a tumor,
causes prolonged or continual sympathetic responses.

Pancreas—Islets of Langerhans

The pancreas is a long, soft organ that lies transversely along the posterior abdominal wall,
posterior to the stomach, and extends from the region of the duodenum to the spleen.
This gland has an exocrine portion that secretes digestive enzymes that are carried through
a duct to the duodenum. The endocrine portion consists of the pancreatic islets, which
secrete glucagons and insulin.

Alpha cells in the pancreatic islets secrete the hormone glucagons in response to a low
concentration of glucose in the blood. Beta cells in the pancreatic islets secrete the hormone
insulin in response to a high concentration of glucose in the blood.
Gonads
The gonads, the primary reproductive organs, are the testes in the male and the ovaries in the
female. These organs are responsible for producing the sperm and ova, but they also secrete
hormones and are considered to be endocrine glands.

Testes

Male sex hormones, as a group, are called androgens. The principal androgen is testosterone,
which is secreted by the testes. A small amount is also produced by the adrenal cortex.
Production of testosterone begins during fetal development, continues for a short time after birth,
nearly ceases during childhood, and then resumes at puberty. This steroid hormone is responsible
for:

 The growth and development of the male reproductive structures

 Increased skeletal and muscular growth
 Enlargement of the larynx accompanied by voice changes
 Growth and distribution of body hair
 Increased male sexual drive
Testosterone secretion is regulated by a negative feedback system that involves releasing
hormones from the hypothalamus and gonadotropins from the anterior pituitary.

Ovaries

Two groups of female sex hormones are produced in the ovaries, the estrogens and progesterone.
These steroid hormones contribute to the development and function of the female reproductive
organs and sex characteristics. At the onset of puberty, estrogens promotes:
  The development of the breasts
 Distribution of fat evidenced in the hips, legs, and breast
 Maturation of reproductive organs such as the uterus and vagina
Progesterone causes the uterine lining to thicken in preparation for pregnancy. Together,
progesterone and estrogens are responsible for the changes that occur in the uterus during the
female menstrual cycle.

Other Endocrine Glands

In addition to the major endocrine glands, other organs have some hormonal activity as part of
their function. These include the thymus, stomach, small intestines, heart, and placenta.

Thymosin, produced by the thymus gland, plays an important role in the development of the
body's immune system.

The lining of the stomach, the gastric mucosa, produces a hormone, called gastrin, in response to
the presence of food in the stomach. This hormone stimulates the production of hydrochloric
acid and the enzyme pepsin, which are used in the digestion of food.

The mucosa of the small intestine secretes the hormones secretin and cholecystokinin. Secreting
stimulates the pancreas to produce a bicarbonate-rich fluid that neutralizes the stomach
acid. Cholecystokinin stimulates contraction of the gallbladder, which releases bile. It also
stimulates the pancreas to secrete digestive enzyme.

The heart also acts as an endocrine organ in addition to its major role of pumping blood. Special
cells in the wall of the upper chambers of the heart, called atria, produce a hormone called atrial
natriiuretic hormone, or atriopeptin.

The placenta develops in the pregnant female as a source of nourishment and gas exchange for
the developing fetus. It also serves as a temporary endocrine gland. One of the hormones it
secretes is human chorionic gonadotropin, which signals the mother's ovaries to secrete
hormones to maintain the uterine lining so that it does not degenerate and slough off
in menstruation.