II Puc Physics Board Material

PES PU COLLEGE
II PUC
PHYSICS BOARD MATERIAL
INDEX
Marks
Sl No Subject Page No
Allotted
1 Electric Charges and Fields 8 01 to 13
2 Electrostatic Potential and Capacitance 8 14 to 27
3 Current Electricity 13 28 to 42
4 Moving Charges and Magnetism 9 43 to 54
5 Magnetism and Matter 6 55 to 61
6 Electromagnetic Induction 6 62 to 70
7 Alternating Current 8 71 to 78
8 Electromagnetic Waves 2 79 to 82
9 Ray Optics and Optical Instruments 8 83 to 103
10 Wave Optics 8 104 to 116
11 Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter 6 117 to 122
12 Atoms 4 123 to 129
13 Nuclei 6 130 to 139
14 Semiconductor Electronics 10 140 to 151
15 Communication System 3 152 to 156
16 Previous Year Question Paper 157 to 168

PES PU COLLEGE PES MEDICAL & IIT ACADEMY
CHAPTER – 1
ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELDS
 Electrostatics :
It is the branch of physics which deals with the charges which are at rest.
 Charge is a physical quantity which is responsible for electric forces.
 Fundamental charge (e)  1.6  1019 coulomb (c)
 Any body can be charged either by adding electrons or by removing electrons.
1. What is Electrification and explain the methods of electrification?

It is the process of charging a body
It is of 3 types:
a) Charging by friction : (for insulators)

When two insulators are rubbed against each other at the point of contact charges will be
transferred from one body to another body. The body which looses electrons becomes
positively charged and which gains electrons becomes negatively charged.
b) Charging by conduction (for metals or conductors) :
It is the process of charging an uncharged body by keeping it in contact with a charged body.
Consider an uncharged conductor which is kept in contact with a positively charged body as
shown in a figure. Than the charges will transfer from high potential to low potential till both
the body will gain equal charge.
Conduction results repulsion
c) Charging by induction : (for metals or conductors)
Consider an uncharged conductor A on an insulating stand. [Fig 9.1(a)]. When a charged body
B is brought .close to this uncharged conductor, opposite charges are produced at the nearer end
and an equal amount of similar charges are produced on the farther end of the conductor [Fig.
9.1 (b)]. Thus the conductor A is charged by induction, without coming in contact with the
charged body B:
When the farther end of A is connected to ground the electric charges on that end are
neutralised, but the electric charges on the nearer end remain on the conductor [Fig. 9.1(c)].
When the conductor A is disconnected from the ground, the charge continues to remain at the
nearer end. [Fig. 9.1 (d)]. When the charged body B is removed, the electric charges spread
over the entire surface of A. [Fig 9.1 (e)]
Induction results attraction
II PUC BOARD MATERIAL Electric Charges and Fields Page 1

2. During lightning you are safer inside a house than under a tree. Why?
When we stand under a tree, we provide an easy path for the lightning to pass through our body.
But when we are in the house, discharge due to lightning may be conducted to the ground
through iron pipes / walls etc. Therefore we are safer.
3. Mention the properties of charges.

i) Like charges repel each other and unlike charges attract each other.
ii) Charge is a scalar quantity.
iii) Charge is independent of velocity.
iv) Charge cannot exist without mass but mass can exist without charge.
v) Charge is always present on the outer surface of conductor.
vi) Charge is conserved i.e. total charge of an isolated system remains constant.
vii) Charge is quantized i.e. charge acquired by any body by any process is integral multiples of
fundamental charge.
i.e. q   ne where e is fundamental charge
Prob : How many number of electrons are present in one Coulomb of charge
Soln : q   ne
q
n
e
1
n
1.602 1019
1
n  1019
1.6
10
n   1019
16
n  0.625  1019
n  6.25  1018
4. State and explain Coulombs law?
Consider two charges q1 and q2 which are separated by a distance of ‘d’ then, according to
Coulombs law
The force between the two charges is directly proportional to product of the charges and
inversely proportional to square of the distance between the two charges.
qq
i.e. F  1 22
d
q1q2
FK 2 where ‘k’ is constant of proportional which depends upon
d
system of units and the medium between the two charges.
For free space or vacuum

1
k  9 109 N  m2 / cou 2
4 0

Where  0  8.85 1012 cou 2 / N  m2 which is permittivity of free space.
1 q1q2
 Fa  ;
4 0 d 2
For any other material medium,
1 q1q2
Fm  ;  is permittivity of medium or absolute permittivity.
4 d 2
5. Define the Dielectric Constant or Relative Permittivity

It is the ratio between absolute permittivity and permittivity of free space.

r 
0
1 q1q2
 Fm 
4 r  0 d 2
 For air or vacuum  r  1
 For any other material medium  r  1
 For any metallic medium  r    F  0
6. Define S.I unit of coulomb

From coulombs law
1 q1q2
F
4 0 d 2
Let q1  q2  1 coulomb and d  1 m
1 1 1 1
F 
4 0 1 4 0
F  9 109 Newtons
i.e. 1 coulomb of charge is that which when placed at rest in vacuum at a distance of 1m from
an equal and similar charge which repulse it with a force of 9 109 newtons.
7. What are the limitations of coulombs law?

(i) It is applicable for stationary point charges.
(ii) It is not universal law.
 In vector form coulombs law can be written as

 1 q1q2 ˆ
F d
4 0 d 2
[Where d̂ is unit vector in th
the direction of force]

 1 q1q2  ˆ d
F d d  
4 0 d 3  d
 Vector representation of force:

1 q1q2
F12  F21 
4 0 d 2
 F12   F21
 The sure test of electrification is repulsion
 If ' f ' is the force between two charges which are separated by a distance of ‘d’ in vaccum.
Then for what distance between the two charges the force will be same if they are present in
medium of dielectric constant  r or k
1 q1q2
F
4 0 d 2
1 q1q2
F1 
4 0 r r 2
F  F1
1 q1q2 1 q1q2
2

4 0 d 4 0 r r 2
rr2  d 2
d
r
r
8. Define electric field
It is the space surrounding a charge where other charges can experience electrostatic force.
9. What is test charge  q0  ?
It is a unit positive charge which doesn’t effect the existing electric field.
10. Define electric intensity or electric field strength
It is the force experienced by a test charge which is placed in electric field.
or
Force experienced by unit positive charge
F
E Newton/coulomb
q0

 F
E  N / cou
q0
11. Derive the expression for electrical field due to a point charge
Consider a point charge of ‘q’. Let ‘P’ be point which is at a distance of ‘d’ from ‘q’. Let ‘ q0 ’
be the test charge which is placed at ‘p’.
1 qq0
F
4 0 d 2
F
E
q0
1 q
E 
4 0 d 2
 Electric field due to positive charge is directed away.
 Field due to negative charge is directed towards.

 Acceleration of a charged particle in the presence of electric field is given by
F  Eq
Ma  Eq
Eq
a
m
 If a charged particle of mass ‘m’ and charge ‘q’ is suspended in a uniform electric electric field.
Then gravitational force should be balanced by electric force i.e.
mg  Eq
 The distance covered by a charged particle which is at rest initially by the application of electric
field is
1
s  ut  at 2
2
1 eq
s  0   t2
2 m
eq 2
s t
2m
 Final velocity of the charged particle
v  u  at
eq
v  0  t
m
eq
v t
m
 Null point : It is the point at which net electric field or force is zero.
1 q1
E1 
4 0 x 2
1 q2
E2 
4 0  d  x  2
1 q2
E2 
4 0  d  x  2
E  E1  E2  0
E1  E2
q1 q2

x2  d  x 2
2
d  x 
q2
2
x q1
2
d x q2
  
 x  q1
dx q
 2
x q1
d q2
1 
x q1

d q
 2 1
x q1
d
x
q2
1
q1
 If the charges are unlike then the null point lies outside the two charges & it is nearer to smaller
charge then
d
x
q2
1
q1
 oulombs is split into two parts such that the force between then is maximum
If a charge of q coulombs
then
q1  q / 2
q2  q / 2
 If electric field is applied in a direction perpendicular to a charged particle then it will take
parabolic path.
 Dielectric constant:

r 
0
1 q1q2
Fa 
4 0 d 2
1 q1q2
Fm 
4 0 r d 2
Fa E
 r  a
Fm Em
12. What is dipole?
It is a system of two equal and opposite charge which are separated by small distance.
13. Define dipole moment

It is the product of distance between the two charge and m
magnitude
agnitude of any one of the charge.

i.e. P  2aq
 It is a vector quantity and it is directed from –ve
ve charge to +ve charge.
14. Derive the expression for electric
lectric field along the axia
axial line of dipole
Consider an electric dipole of dipole

moment  p   2aq. Let ‘p’ be a point
which is at a distance of ‘d’ from the
centre along its axis.
 Electric field because of ‘+ve’ charge is given by

1 q
E1  which is directed away
4 0  d  a  2

 Electric field due to negative charge is given by
1 q
E2 
4 0  d  a  2
Which is directed towards.
 net electric field E  E1  E2
E  E1  E2
1 q 1 q
E 
4 0  d  a  4 0  d  a 2
2
q  1 1 
E  2
 2

4 0   d  a   d  a  
2 2
q  d  a  d  a 
E  
4 0   d  a  2  d  a 2 
q 4da
E
4 0  d 2  a 2  2
 If d > > a than a 2 can be neglected

q 4da
E
4 0 d 4
1 2  2qa

4 0 d 3

 1 2P
E
4 0 d 3

lectric field along the equatorial line of dipole

Consider an electric dipole of dipole moment P  2aq. Let ‘p’ be a point which is
i at a distance
of ‘d’ along its equatorial line.
Electric field because of +ve charge is given by
1 q
E1  which is directed away
4 0  d  a 2 
2
Electric field due to ‘-ve’

ve’ charge is given by
1 q
E2  which is directed to wards
4 0  d  a 2 
2
 net electric field  E1  E2 

E0  E1 cos   E2 cos 
E  2 E1 cos 
1 q a
E  2
4 0  d  a  d  a 2
2 2 2
1 P
E
4 0  d  a 2 3/2
2

If d  a
1 p
E
4 0 d 3
Along the axial line angle between dipole mom ent and resultant electric field is 00 and along the
moment
equatorial line it is 1800.
16. Derive the expression for torque

orque acting on a dipole:
Consider an electric dipole of dipole moment p which is placed in a uniform electric field as
shown in the figure.
Since both the forces are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction they constitute a couple.
Therefore moment of couple or torque is given by
  F  Perpendicular distance
  Eq  2a sin 
  PE sin 
  
  P E
 If   0, then
 = 0  stable equilibrium
0
 If   180 , then
 = 0  unstable equilibrium
 If   900 , then
 is maximum
i.e.,  max  P.E.
17. Whatt are electric field lines and mention their properties?
It is an imaginary line along which a unit positive charge is supposed to move in the presence of
electric field.
If the electric field is due to a single charge then the line of force are straight aand if the field is
due to multiple charges then the lines force are curved.
 Properties :
 Lines of force starts from +ve charge and terminate at –ve charge.
 The tangent drawn at any point for the field line

ne gives the direction of electric field at the
point.
 Lines of force are together w
where the field is maximum and they are separated where
w the
field is minimum.

 They never form closed loops.
 Lines of force are always perpendicular to the surface of conductor.
 Two lines of force will never increas
increased
ed each other. If they do so at the point of intersection
we can draw two tangents i.e two directions for electric field at a given point which is not
possible.
 Linear charge density :
It is the charge per unit length
q dq
i.e.   
l dl
 Surface ce charge density :
It is the charge per unit area
q dq
i.e.   
A dA
1
 2
R
 Change accumulates more at curved ends that
  curvature.
18. Define electric flux  

It is the total
al number of electric lines pas
passing
sing through a surface normally. It is a scalar quantity.
 Outward flux is taken as ‘+ve’ and inward flux is
taken as ‘–ve’.
 Total flux can be calculated as
   d   d
19. State gauss law

1
Statement : The total flux enclosed by any closed surface is equal to times total charge
0
enclosed by that surface that
1
 q
0
q

0
 Applications:
lectric intensity du
duee to an infinitely charged wire by using
Gauss law.
Consider a positively charged long conductor let ‘p’ be a point which is at a distance of ‘r’ from
the conductor. To calculate electric intensity at the point ‘p’ imagine a cylindrical surface as
gauss ion surface.
For both the circular faces flux enclosed is zero. Since   900 1  0 2  0
Flux enclosed by curved surface is given by

3  Eds cos    00 
3  Eds
3  E 2 rl
 Total flux   1  2  3
 0  0  3
  3
  E 2 rl  1
From gauss law
q
    2
0
From eq. (1) & (2)
q
2 rl  E 
0
q   q
E
2 rl 0
or
2 0 r
;   l 

lectric intensity due to a charged conductor by using Gauss law
(conducting sphere)
Consider a +vely ly charged conductor of radius R let ‘q’ be the charge present on the surface of
the conductor.
Let ‘p’ be a point which is at a distance of ‘‘r’’ from the centre of the sphere. To calculate electric
intensity at the point ‘p’ imagine a sphere of Radius ‘r’’ as gauss ion surface
d  Eds cos 
d  Eds   00 
 Total flux
   d   EdS
  E  ds
  E 4 r 2  1
According to Gauss law
q
    2
0
From equation (1) and (2)
q
E 4 r 2 
0
q
E
4 0 r 2
1 q
E
4 0 r 2
 If point ‘p’ is present on the surface then
1 q 1 q 
E 2
 2
E
4 0 R  0 4 R 0
 If the point ‘p’ is present
esent insides the sphere then
E = 0 (Since there are no charges inside)

lectric intensity due to an infinite plane sheet by using Gauss
law (Thin sheet)
Consider a positively charged plan
plane sheet. Let ‘q’ be the charge present on it.
To calculate electric intensity imagine a cylindrical surface of area ‘‘A’’ which is passing through
plane sheet.
 Electric flux enclosed by curved surface is 0   900  and electric flux enclosed by both the
circular faces is same and it is given   Eds cos 
  EA cos  0
  EA   00 
There for total flux enclosed by the cylinder is
  2 EA  1
According to gauss law
q
    2
0
From eq. (1) & (2)
q
2 EA 
0
q
E
2 A 0

E
2 0
q
 A chargee of ‘q’ coulombs is kept at the centre of cube then flux enclosed by the cube 
0
q
Flux passing through any one of its face 
6 0
 If a charge of ‘q’ coulombs is kept at the corner of a cube then
q
The flux encloseded by cube 
8 0
23. Define dielectric strength
It is the maximum value of applied field at which dielectric breakdown will takes place.
For free space (Air) its value is 3 106 N/cou
24. What are dielectrics (Insulators) and mention its types?
These are of two types i.e. polar molecules and non
non-polar molecules.
1) Polar molecules:
In these molecules the centres of both +ve and –ve
ve charges are separated by certain
distance.

P0
ex: H 2O, N 2O, HCl etc
2) Non-polar molecules:
These are the molecules in which both +ve and –veve charges coincides each other that

P0
Ex: H 2 , N 2 , O2 etc

 The process of concerting a non-polar molecule into polar molecule by the application of
electric field is known as dielectric polarization.
 Electric field due to non-conducting sphere : (ex: nucleus)

 Inside the sphere (r < R):
Consider non conducting sphere of charge q and radius R.
Consider a point ‘p’ which is at a distance of ‘r’ from the centre of the sphere. To calculate
electric field at the point ‘p’ imagine a sphere of radius ‘r’ as the Gaussian surface.
d  Eds   900 
   Eds
  E  ds
  E 4 r 2  I
According to gauss law
q1
 where q1 is charge enclosed by inner sphere
0
4
q1   r 3  
3
4
q   R3  
3
qr 3
 q1  3
R
qr 3
  3   2 
R 0
qr 3
E 4 r 2  3
R 0
qr
E
4 R3 0
1 qr
E
4 0 R 3
 On the sphere :
rR
1 q
E 
4 0 R 2
 Out side the sphere (r > R):
1 q
E
4 0 r 2

PROBLEMS:
1. 2 point charges, are 5 times as strong as the other repel each other with a force of 1.8x10–5 N.
When separated by a distance 1 m. Calculate the value of charges.
2. Two point charges 3C and 6C are separated through a distance of 1 m in air. Find the
resultant electric intensity at the mid way between them.
3. ABC is a equilateral le of side 0.1 m. Charges of 3 nC and –3 nC are placed at the vertices A
and B respectively. Calculate the resultant electric intensity at a point C.
4. ABC is an equilateral triangle of side 0.1 m. Charges of 4 nC and –8 nC are placed at the
corners A and B respectively. Calculate the resultant electric intensity at the corner C.
5. ABCD is a square of side 2 m charges of 2 nC, 3 nC, 4 nC and 5 nC placed at the corners A,
B, C and D respectively. Calculate the resultant electric intensity at the centre of the square
where the 2 diagonals meet?
6. Two point charges qA = 3 μC and qB = –3 μC are located 20 cm apart in vacuum.
(a) What is the electric field at the midpoint O of the line AB joining the two charges?
(b) If a negative test charge of magnitude 1.5 × 10–9 C is placed at this point, what is the force
experienced by the test charge?
7. A system has two charges qA = 2.5 × 10–7 C and qB = –2.5 × 10–7 C located at points
A: (0, 0, –15 cm) and B: (0,0, +15 cm), respectively. What are the total charge and electric
dipole moment of the system?
8. An electric dipole with dipole moment 4 × 10–9 C m is aligned at 30° with the direction of a
uniform electric field of magnitude 5 × 104 NC–1. Calculate the magnitude of the torque acting
on the dipole.
9. Consider a uniform electric field E = 3 × 103 î N/C. (a) What is the flux of this field through a
square of 10 cm on a side whose plane is parallel to the yz plane? (b) What is the flux through
the same square if the normal to its plane makes a 60° angle with the x-axis?
10. Two large, thin metal plates are parallel and close to each other. On their inner faces, the plates
have surface charge densities of opposite signs and of magnitude 17.0 × 10–22 C/m2. What is E:
(a) in the outer region of the first plate, (b) in the outer region of the second plate, and
(c) between the plates?

CHAPTER – 2
ELECTRIC POTENTIAL AND CAPACITANCE
1) Define electric potential.

It is the workdone is bringing a unit positive charge from infinity to a point in a direction
opposite to electric field.
w
i.e. v  joule/coulombs or volt.
q
It is a scalar quantity:
2) Define potential difference
It is the workdone in moving a unit positive charge between two given points in a direction
opposite to electric field
w
i.e., dv 
q
3) Derive the relation
elation between electric field and ele
electric potential
Consider two points A and B which are separated by small
distance dx
Imagine a unit positive charge at the point ‘B’.
The workdone in moving the unit positive charge from B to A is given by
dw  Fds cos 
dw   Eqdx   1800   F  Eq 
dw   Fdx  q  1
dv   Edx
dv
E
dx
That is electric
lectric field is negative potential gradient.
v
 Relation between electric field and electric potential is E 
d
4) Derive an expression for electrical
lectrical p
potential due to a point charge
Consider a positive
itive charge of magnitude ‘Q’ Let ‘p’ be a point which is at a distance of ‘d’ from
‘q’.
To derive potential imazine a unit positive charge which is at a distance of ‘‘x’ from ‘q’.
Electric field due to ‘q’’ at a distance ‘‘x’ is given by

1 q
E
4 0 x 2
If d  is the workdone in moving the unit positive charge through a distance ' dx ' in a direction
opposite to electric field then
d    Edx
II PUC BOARD MATERIAL Electric Potential and Capacitance Page 14

Then the
he total workdone is moving the un
unit
it positive charge from infinity to the point ‘p’ is
given by
x d
w   dw    Edx
x 
x d
q 1
w  .dx
4 0 x 
x2
q 1 
w   0
4 0  d 
1 q
w
4 e0 d
1 q
 Potential v 
4 0 d
 Two spheres of radius r1 and r2 , charges q1 and q2 are connected by a wire,
ire, then the charge on
each sphere is given by
V1  V2
1 q1 1 q2

4 0 r1 4 0 r2
q1 r1

q2 r2
q1 r1
1  1
q2 r2
qr2
q2 
r1  r2
qr1
similarly q1 
r1  r2
5) What is equipotential surface
It is the locus of the points which are maintained at same potential

The shape of equipotential surface due to a point charge is sphere.
 Workdone in moving any charge between two points on an equipotential surface is zero (0).
 The shape of equipotential surface for a dipole is along equatorial line.
 The angle between electric field lines and equipotential surface is 900.
 No two equipotential surfaces will intersect.

 Null point
It is point at which net potential is zero.
 If both are like charges then there will be no null point.
 If both are unlike charges then there will be two null points one is in between the
charges and second one is outside the charges.
1 q1
v1 
4 0 x
1  q2 
v2   
4 0  d  x 
v  v1  v2  0
v1  v2
1 q1 1 q2

4 0 x 4 0 d  x
d  x q2

x q1
d q
1  2
x q1
d q2
 1
x q1
d
x
q2
1
q1
The distance of null point which lies outside the charges is
d
x
q2
1
q1
6) Derive an expression for potential due to a dipole
Consider an electric dipole of dipole moment

p  2aq
Let ‘p’ be a point which is at a distance of ‘d’
from the centre of the dipole such that the line
joining the point ‘p’ and centre of dipole makes
an angle ' ' with the axis of dipole.
Let r1 & r2 are the distances of point ‘p’ from
q and  q respectively.
Potential at point ‘p’ due to +q charge is given
by
1 q
v1 
4 0 r1
Similarly due to negative charge
1  q 
v2 
4 0 r2
 The total potential v  v1  v2

q 1 1
v     1
4 0  r1 r2 
From geometry
r12  d 2  a 2  2ad cos 
 a 2 2ad cos  
r12  d 2 1  2  
 d d2 
2
 a 2a cos  
r12  d 2  1  2  
 d d 
If d  a
 2a cos  
r12  d 2 1  
 d 
1/2
 2a cos  
r1  d 1  
 d 
1/ 2
1 1  2a cos  
 1  
r1 d  d 
1 1  a cos  
 1    according to binomial theorem 
r1 d  d 
similarly
1 1  a cos  
 1  
r2 d  d 
by substituting above two eq. in eq. 1
q  2a cos   1
we get V   
4 0  d d
1 p cos 
V
4 0 d 2
1 p
For axial line   00  V 
4 0 d 2
For equatorial   900  V  00
7) Derive an expression for electrostatic
lectrostatic potential energy
energy:
It is the total workdone in bringing individual charges from infinity to form a system.
a) For a system of two charges
Let ' w1 ' be the workdone in bringing q1 from infinity then w1  0.
Let ' w2 ' be the workdone is bringing q2 from infinity then
w2  v1q2
1 q1
w2  q2
4 0 r
Therefore, potential energy U  w1  w2
U  w1  w2
1 q1q2
U
4 0 r

b) For a system of three charges:
Workdone in bringing ‘q1’ from infinity w1  0
Workdone in bringing ‘q2’ w2  v1q2
1 q1
w2  q2
4 0 r12
Workdone is bringing ‘q3’ w3   v1  v2  q3
1  q1 q2 
w3    q3
4 0  r13 r23 
 Potential energy U  w1  w2  w3
1 q1  1 q1 q2 
U  0 q2    
4 0 r12  4 0 r13 r23 
1  q1q2 q1q3 q1q3 
U    
4 0  r12 r13 r23 
8) Derive an expression for electric potential energy due to a dipole placed in a uniform
electric field.
Electric potential energy of an electric dipole is the
Work-done in rotating the dipole ffrom zero energy
position to the desired position in the electric field.
Torque acting on the electric dipole placed in the
external electric field
eld is given by
  p E sin    1
where p is the electric dipole moment,
E is the electric intensit
intensity,
 
 is the angle between p and E
This
is torque rotates the dipole.
Small work done in rotating the dipole through an angle d without acceleration is given by
dW   d     2
1 in  2  dW  p E sin  d
The total work done in rotating the dipole from 1 to 2 is given by
2
W   dW     3 
1 NOTE
2 W  F s
 2 in  3   W   p E sin  d W  Fr s  r 
1
2 W  F r  
W pE  sin  d
1

W  p E   cos  2
1
W  p E    cos 2  cos 1  
W  p E cos 1  cos  2 
This work done is stored in the dipole as potential energy.

U  p E cos 1  cos 2 
he dipole is oriented perpendicular to the direction of E 1  900  and then
If initially the
brought to an angle  2    , the potential energy of the dipole will be
U  p E cos 900  cos  
U   p E cos 
Special cases
Consider the relation, U   p E cos  ----->(1)
Case-1: Position
ion of stable equilibrium.
 
When the p is parallel to E ie   00 , then, cos 00  1
 1  U   p E
This is the minimum potential energy. In this position, the dipole will be in the stable
equilibrium.
Case-2 : Position of unstable equilibrium.
 
parallel to E ie   1800 , then, cos1800  1
When the p is anti-parallel
 1  U   p E
This is the maximum potential energy. In this position, the dipole will be in the unstable
equilibrium.
Case-3: Position
on of zero potential energy.
 
When the p is perpendicular to E ie   900 , then cos1900  0
 1  U  0
In this position the potential energy of the dipole is zero.
9) What is electrostatic shielding?

The electric field
eld inside the cavity of a conductor is
always zero. That is, the cavity of conductor remains
shielded from outside electric field. This is called
electrostatic shielding.
10) Mention the applications of electrostatic shielding

1) Electrostatic shielding iss used to protect sensitive components of electronic devices from
externall electric disturbances.
2) In thunderstorm accompanied by the lightning, it is safer to sit in a car or in a bus, rather
than, under a tree or on the open ground. The metallic body of tthe car or bus becomes
electrostatic
atic shielding from lightning.
3) Electrostatic shielding is used to design TV cables, etc
etc.
11) What is Van de Graaff generator?

It is a machine used to produce very high voltages (about 107V ).
12) On what principle of Van de Graaff generator works?

Van de Graaff generator Works on the basis of following phenomena.
1) Discharging action of points (corona discharge).

2) If a charged conductor is placed inside a conducting shell and brought into contact, all the
charge present on the conductor flows to the shell whatever may be the charge on the shell.
13) Explain the construction and working of Van de Graaff generator. Draw the labelled
diagram of Van de Graaff generator.
Construction
A schematic diagram of Van de
Graaff generator iss as shown in the
above figure. A large spherical
conducting shell of a few metres
radius is supported at a heightight of
several metres above the ground on
an insulating column. A long
narrow endless belt made of
insulating material like rubber or
silk, is wound round to two pullies P1 and P2 The pulley P1 is mounted at the ground level and
P2 is mounted at the centre of the shell. A metal brush B1 is held near the lowerend
lower of the belt. It
is connected to high tension battery. Another metal brush B2 is held near ar the upper end of the
belt such that its pointed ends touch the belt and the other end is in contact with the inner
surface of the shell.
Working
The belt is made to run with the help of an electric motor by driving the pulley P1. When a high
positive potential
otential is applied to the brush B1, it sprayes the positive charge on the belt. The belt
carries this positive charge and transfers to the shell through the brush B2. Then the charge
spreads uniformly on the outer surface of the shell. As the charge on the th shell increases, its
potential increases. In this way potential differences of 6 to 8 million volts with respect to
ground can be built up.
14) Use of Van de Graaff generator.

It is used to accelerate charged particles.
(charged particles  electrons, protons, ions etc.. )
Capacitance:
1) Define capacitance of a conductor
It is the amount of charge required to raise the potential of conductor by 1 volt. i.e.
Q
C  coulomb/volt or farad arad
V
2) Derive the expression for capapacitance of spherical conductor
Consider a positively charged spherical conductor of radius ‘r’.
1 q
V
4 0 r
Q
C
V
q
C
1 q
4 0 r

q 4 0 r
C
q
C  4 0 r
 Capacitance of earth
C  4 0 r
1
C 9
 6400 103
9 10
C  711.1 106
C  711  f
 If C  1 f then r =?
C  4 0 r
1
106  r
9 109
r  9 103 m
r  9 km
Therefore conductors are not suitable devices to store electrical energy.
3) What is a capacitor?
It is a device which is used to store electrical energy or charge.
It consist of two parallel conductor which are separated by some dielectric medium.
4) Define capacitance of capacitor

It is the ratio between charge on the capacitor to its potential difference i.e.
Q
C
V
5) Explain the principle of capacitor
Consider positively charged straight conductor of capacitance
Q
C
V
When an uncharged conductor
is placed nearer to it negative
charges will be induced on the
nearer side and positive charges
will be induced on the farther
side since negative charges are
near its effect will be more i.e.
potential decreases and hence
capacitance increases.
Now if we give ground connection to the positive side of uncharged conductor all the charges
will be neutralized then its potential decreases and therefore capacitance increases.
6) Derive an expression for capacitance of parallel plate capacitance

Consider parallel plate capacitor such that is the distance between the two plates. Let ‘q’ be the
charge present on both the plates and ' ' be the surface charge density on each plate.

Surface charge density on each plate is
q

A
 q  A
Electric intensity between two plates at any point is given by
 
E 
2 0 2 0

E
0
Potential
ntial difference between the two plates is the workdone moving a unit +ve charge from
one plate to another plate is direction opposite to electric fields it is given by
V  Ed

V d
0
q
Capacitance C 
V
q
C
V
A
C
d
0
0 A
C
d
7) How do you increase the capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor
a) Increasing area
b) Decreasing the distance between two plates
c) Using a dielectric medium of high dielectric constant.
 If the gap between the plates is completely filled with a dielect

dielectric
ric medium of dielectric
constant K.
K 0 A
C1 
d
1
C  K .C
C1
K
C
 If ‘C’ be the capacitance of a parallel plate air capacitor with ‘d’ is the distance between the
plates then for what distance between the same plates capacitance is same if the gap is filled
by dielectric medium of dielectric constant ‘K’.
 A
C 0
d
K 0 A
C1 
d1

 0 A K . 0 A

d d1
d 1  kd
 Capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor in the presence of a dielectric of thickness t and
dielectric constant ‘K’.  t  d 
d1
d
K
0 A
C1 
t
d t 
K
0 A

 1
d  t 1  
 K
 To maintain the same capacitance even in the presence of dielectric distance between the
1
plates should be increased by t  1  
K  
1
 For any metallic plate K   then C 
0 A
C1 
 1
d  t 1  
 
 A
C 1  0  Metallic medium 
d t
8) Derive an expression for energy stored in a capacitor
Consider two metal plates A and B which are connected to a battery of potential V through a
plug as shown in the figure.
As the key is closed electrons will st
starts flow from A to B.
through connecting wires.
This flow of charges will continue till the potential
difference
nce between the plates is equal to applied potential.
Then both the plates are said to be fully charged.
The workdone during this process is stored in the form of
potential energy.
The workdone in transferring a charge of ‘dq’ is given by
dw  vdq
q
dw  dq
C
 The total workdone in transferring a charge ‘Q’ is given by
 W   dw
q Q
q
W  dq
q 0
C
q Q
1
W  q.dq
C q 0

Q
1  q2 
W  
C  2 0
Q2
W
2C
Q2
 This work done is stored as ppotential energy U 
2C
2
Q
 U
2C
2
Q
U
Q
2
V
VQ 2
U
2Q
VQ
U
2Q
vQ 1
U  QV
2 2
2
Q
U
2C
CV 2
U
2C
1
U  CV 2
2
9) Combination of capacitors:
a) Series combination:
Twoo or more capacitors are said to be in series if they are connected end to end between two
points such that the charge stored by each capacitors is same and the total applied potential
difference is equal to sum
m of the individual potential differences .i.e.,
V  V1  V2
q q
V 
C1 C2
 1 1 
V  q     1
 C1 C2 
Now, Let the combination of all
the three capacitors is replaced by
an equivalent capacitor of capacitance  CS  then
q
V   2  from (1) and (2) equation
CS
 1 1  q
q   
 C1 C2  CS
1 1 1
 
CS C1 C2

C
 If all the capacitors are identical CS 
n
 q1 : q2 : q3  1:1:1
1 1 1
 V1 : V2 : V3  : :
C1 C2 C3
b) Parallel combination:
Capacitors are said to be parallel if they are connected between two same points such that
potential
otential difference across each capacitor is same
and the total charge stored is equal to sum of the
individual charges i.e.,
q  q1  q2
q  C1V  C2V
q  V  C1  C2   1
Let the combination of capacitors is replaced by an
equivalent capacitor of capacitance C P
q  CPV   2 
from (1) & (2) equation
V  C1  C2   C pV
C p  C1  C2
 If all the capacitors are identical C p  nC
 V1 : V 2 : V3  1:1:1
 q1 : q2 : q3  C1 : C2 : C3
 In series combination effective capacitance is less than the least capacitance.

capacitance
 In parallel combination effective capacitance is greater than the highest capacitance.
 If all the capacitors are identical then the number of combinations are 2n1
 Iff the given capacitors are not identical then the number of combinations possible 2n.
 Common potential
If two capacitors of capacitances C1 and C2 and potential V1 and V2 are connected in parallel
then their common potential is given by
Q Q  Q2
C.P   1
C C1  C2
C1V1  C2V2
V
C1  C2
Initial energy:
1 1
ui  C1V12  C2V22
2 2
1
u f   C1  C2 V 2
2
Loss in energy  u f  ui
1 C1C2 2
 V1  V2 
2 C1  C2

 Common potential if opposite terminals of capacitor is connected
Q Q1  Q2
C.P  
C C1  C2
C1V1  C2V2
V
C1  C2
1 1
ui  C1V12  C2V22
2 2
1
u f   C1  C2  V 2
2
1 C1C2 2
Loss of energy  u f  ui  V1  V2 
2 C1  C2
 Energy density of capacitor:
It is energy per unit volume
1
U  CV 2
2
1 0 A 2 2
U E d
2 d
U 1
 0E2
Ad 2
U 1 2
 0E2 
vol 2 2 0
 If ‘n’ identical drops each of radius ‘r’, charge q surface charge density ' ' , electric field ‘E’,
potential energy ‘u’ & capacitance ‘C’ are merge to form a bigger liquid drop then fro bigger
drop.
Charge for bigger liquid drop  Q  nq
Radius for bigger liquid drop  R  n1/3 r
Surface charge density  1  n1/3
 q
Electric field E1  n1/3 E  E  K 2 
 r 
Potential V 1  n2/3 .V .
Potential energy  U 1  n5/3U
Capacitance C1  n1/3C

PROBLEMS:
1. A metal sphere of radius 3 cm is charged to an potential of 30 KV and placed at corner ‘B’ as a
right angled triangle ABC. Given AB = 6 cm, BC = 3 cm. Find potentials at A and C. Also find
erring a charge of 20 C from A to C.
work done in transferring
2. Electric potential due to a point charge varies according to V  3x 2  2. Calculate the electric
intensity at x  0.1m and x  2 m.
3. ABCD is a square of side 2 m. Point charges of 2 nC, 4 nC, 5 nC are placed at the corners A,
B and C respectively, calculate the workdone in moving a charge of 2 C from the corner D to
the centre of the square.
4. ABCD is a square a side 2 m charges of 2 nC, –44 nC and 8 nC are placed at the corners A, B
and C respectively. Calculate the resultant potential at D.
5. If a parallel plate capacitor with air between the plates each plate has an area of 6  103 m 2 .
The distance between the plate is 3 mm. Calculate the capacitance of the capacitor of this
capacitor is connected to 100 V supply what is the charge of each plate of the capacitor.
6. Three capacitors each of capacitance 9  F are connected in series. What is the total capacitance
of the combination what is the potential difference across each capacitance if the combination is
connected to a 120 V supply?
7. Find the effective capacitance across A and B from the following figu
figure.
8. 2 capacitors connected in series has an effective capacitance of 12/7  F . When the same
capacitors are connected in parallel, their effective capacitance is found to be 7  F , calculate
the value of individual capacitances?
9. Find the effective capacitance across A and B in the following figure.
10. 600 pF capacitor is charged by a 200 V supply it is then disconnected from the supply and is
connected to another 600 pF capacitor. How much elect electrostatic
rostatic energy is lost in the process?
–8 –8
11. Two charges 5 × 10 C and –3 × 10 C are located 16 cm apart. At what point(s) on the line
joining the two charges is the electric potential zero? Take the potential at infinity to be zero.

CHAPTER – 3
ELECTRIC CURRENT
1) Define strength of electric current

It is the rate of flow of charges across any cross section i.e.
q
I = coulomb/sec or ampere.
t
∗ If the charge is varying with respect to time then
dq
I=
dt
∗ q = ∫ I .dt
∗ Direction of conventional current is high potential to low potential or the direction in which
positive charge will move.
∗ In metals or conductors charge carriers are electrons.
∗ In semi conductors charge carriers are electrons and holes.
∗ In electrolytes charge carriers are ions.
∗ If an electron completes one revolution around the nucleus than
q
I= {where ‘T’ is time period}
T
ne
I=
T
ne
I=
2π
w
qv  v
I= ∴ω = 
2π r  r
2) Electric current is a scalar quantity
Even though, electric current has both magnitude and direction, it is a scalar quantity. This is
because the value of electric current does not depend on its direction. That is the current in a wire
remain unchanged if it is bent, tied with a knot.
3) Define current density
It is the current passing through unit area of cross section.
i
J = ampere/m2
A
∗ It is a vector quantity.
4) Define drift velocity and give its formula
It is the average velocity of the electrons in the presence of electric field i.e.
v = u + at
Eq
vd = τ [∵ where τ = relaxation time u = 0 ]
M
∗ Drift velocity if of the order of 10 −4 m / s
5) Define relaxation time
It is an average time interval between two successive collisions of electrons with fixed atoms /
positive ions in a metal.
II PUC BOARD MATERIAL Electric Current Page 28
6) Derive the expression for currurrent passing through a conductor
Consider conductor of length ' l ' and uniform area ‘A’ then
Volume of the conductor = Al
Let ‘n’ be the number of electrons per unit volume (electron density)
Total number of electrons present in the conductor is
N = vn
N = A ln
If ‘e’ be the charge of an electron then the total charge
q = A ln e
If the conductor is connected across a battery an electric field is developed as a result all the
electrons will drift in a direction opposite to electric field with a velocity Vd .
Time taken by the electrons to cross the conductor is
l
t=
Vd
q A ln e
∴ current I = =
t l
vd
I = nAevd
7) Define mobility and give its formula
It is the drift velocity per unit electric field.
V
i.e. µ = d
E
8) State Ohm’s law
Current passing through a conductor is directly proportional to applied potential difference
when all other physical conditions remains constant.
I ∝V
1
I= V
R
V = IR {where R is resistance off by the conductor}
9) Define resistance and mention the factors on which it depends
It is the effective opposition offered by the conductor to the flow of current.
Units are ohm’s ( Ω ) or volt / ampere
∗ It depends on nature of the material, temperature and dimensions of the conductor i.e.
l
→R∝
A
ρl
→R= {where ‘ ρ ’ is resistivity or specific resistance}
A
ρl
∗ R=
A
ρl ρ
→R= ×
A l
ρl 2
R=
Al

ρl 2
R= ⇒ R ∝ l2
v
ρl 2d l2
R= ⇒R∝ [where ‘d’ is density]
M M
i.e. if a wire is stretched such its length is increased by ‘n’ times then its resistance increases by
n2 times.
ρl
∗ R=
A
ρl A
R= ×
A A
ρ lA
R= 2
A
ρV 1 1
R= 2 ⇒R∝ 2 ∝ 4
A A r
i.e. if a wire is stretched such that its radius decreased by ‘n’ times then is resistance increased
by n4 times.
∆R ∆l
∗ R ∝ l2 ⇒ =2
R l
1 ∆R ∆r
∗ R∝ 4 ⇒ = −4
r R r
10) What are the limitations of ohm’s law
∗ It is applicable for only metals or conductors
∗ It is not a universal law
∗ It is not applicable for semiconductors
∗ It is applicable when the temperature and other physical conductor remains same.
11) Define conductance and give its formula
1
It is the reciprocal of resistance i.e. G = units are ohm–1 or siemen.
R
12) Define resistivity
el
R=
A
If, l = 1m
2
and A = 1m then
R=ρ
i.e. resistivity is resistance per unit dimensions.
∗ Units are ohm meter.
13) Define conductivity

It is the reciprocal of resistivity i.e.
1
σ=
ρ

14) Derive the expression for conductivity
I
Current density J =
A
nAevd
J=
A
Eeτ
J = ne.
m
ne 2τ
J= E
m
ne 2τ
J = σ E {where σ = which is known as electrical conductivity}
m
∗ J = σ E is the another form of ohm’s law in vector form.
∗ Ralloy > Rs.c > Rmetal
∗ Nichrom, manganin and constantan are the alloys whose resistance is very high i.e. there will be
o change in their resistance with respect to temperature.
∗ Nichrom is used in heating elements because of its high resistivity and high melting point.
∗ Fuse wires are made by the combination of tin and lead because of low resistivity and low
melting point.
∗ For non-ohmic devices like semiconductor, diodes etc. V –I graph will be non-linear.
∗ For metals or conductors R ∝ T
1
∗ For semi conductors R ∝
T
15) Define temperature coefficient of resistance and give its formula

R − R0
α= t
R0 ∆T
It is the ratio between change is resistance to its original
resistance per unit rise of temperature.
∗ Units are K −1 or celsius −1
∗ If R1 and R2 are the resistances at temperatures T1 and T2
R1 = R0 (1+ ∝ t1 )
R2 = R0 (1+ ∝ t2 )
R2 − R1
∝=
R1t2 − R2t1
∗ For metals or conductors ' ∝ ' is +ve.
∗ For semiconductors ' ∝ ' is –ve
∗ For alloys ' ∝ ' is practically zero. (10 −5 or 10−6 )

16) Explain about colour coding
Colour Digit Multiplier Tolerance
Black 0 100
Brown 1 101
Red 2 102
Orange 3 103
Yellow 4 104
Green 5 105
Blue 6 106
Violet 7 107
Grey 8 108
White 9 109
Gold 10–1 ± 5%
–2
Silver 10 ± 10%
None – ± 20%
∗ For any colour coding 1st colour will be taken as 1st digit & 2nd colour is 2nd digit 3rd colour is
multiplier and 4th colour is tolerance
Ex: 1) Red, Black, Green
20 ×105 , ± 20%
2) yellow brown silver gold
41× 10 −2 ± 5%
∗ Combination of resistors:
1) Series combination:
Resistors are said to be in series I f they are connected end to end between two points such
that by applying a potential difference across the combination current passing through each
resistor will be same and total applied potential is equal to sum of the individual potentials.
V = V1 + V2 + V3
V = IR1 + IR2 + IR3
V = I ( R1 + R2 + R3 ) → (1)
Let the combination of resistor is replaced by an equivalent resistor of resistance (RS).
V = RS → (1)
from (1) & (2) equation
I ( R1 + R2 + R3 ) = IRS
RS = R1 + R2 + R3

∗ If all the resistance are identical RS = nR
∗ I1 : I 2 : I 3 = 1:1:1
∗ V1 : V2 : V3 = R1 : R2 : R3
∗ Parallel combination:
Resistors are said to be in parallel if they are connected between two same points such that
potential difference across each resistor is same and the total current is equal to sum of the
individual were
I = I1 + I 2 + I 3
V V V
I= + +
R1 R2 R3
 1 2 3 
I =V  + +  → (1)
 R1 R2 R3 
Let the combination of resistors is replaced equivalence resistor of resistance ( RP )
V
I= → ( 2)
RP
1 1 1  V
V + + =
 R1 R2 R3  RP
1 1 1 1
= + +
RP R1 R2 R3
R
∗ If all the resistors are identical RP =
n
∗ V1 : V2 : V3 = 1:1:1
1 1 1
∗ I1 : I 2 : I 3 = : :
R1 R2 R3
∗ A wire of resistance R Ω is cutting to ‘n’ equal parts and then they are connected in parallel
then its effective resistance is
R
R1 = R2 = R3 ....... =
n
R
RP ⇒
n
n
R
RP ⇒ 2
n

17) Distinguish between series and parallel combinations of resistors.
Series combination Parallel combination
1 It is the end to end connection of It is the connection of two or more
two or more resistances. resistors between two common points.
2 The current is same iin all the The potential difference is same across
resistors. all the resistors.
3 It is a potential divider circuit It is a current divider circuit
4 V = V1 + V2 + V3 + ..... + Vn I = I1 + I 2 + I 3 + ....I n
5 Rn = R1 + R 2 + R 3 + .... + Rn 1 1 1 1 1 
= + + + .... 
Rp  R1 R 2 R3 Rn 
6 This combination increases the This combination decreases the
effective resistance. effective resistance.
18) Cell or battery

It is a two terminal device which consist of two electrodes which are dipped is electrolytic
solution.
Primary cell Secondary cell

Which converts Which converts electrical
chemical energy energy into chemical energy
into electrical and then stored chemical
energy energy will be utilized as
electrical energy.
Internal resistance Internal resistance is less
is more
They cannot be They can be recharged
recharged
19) Define internal resistance (r)

It is the effective opposition offered by electrolyte to the flow of current.
∗ For an ideal cell r = 0
20) Define E.M.F
It is the potential difference across the terminals of a cell when it is in open mode (or).
Workdone in moving a unit positive charge one complete round a circuit.
21) Derive the expression for current in a circuit by using ohm’s law
Consider a resistor of resistance ‘R’ is connected across a battery as shown in the figure.
E = V + V 1 {Where V is energy required to over come
external resistance and V 1 is energy required to over come
internal resistance}
E = IR + Ir
E = I (R + r)
E
I=
R+r
22) Define terminal potential difference and give its formula
Potential difference across the terminals of a cell when it is in closed circuit
i.e. V = E − Ir
∗ When a battery is getting charged then terminal potential difference V = E + Ir
23) Derive the expression for effective EMF when cells in series
Cells are said to be in series if they are connected end to end between two points such that
current passing through each cell is same
Potential difference across first cell

VB − VA = E1 − Ir1
Potential difference across second cell
VC − VB = E2 − Ir2
Potential difference across the combination
VC − VA = ( E1 + E2 ) − I ( r1 + r2 ) → (1)
Let the combination of cells is replaced by an equivalent cell then
VC − VA = ES − IrS → ( 2 )
By comparing equations (1) and (2)
ES = E1 + E2
rS = r1 + r2
∗ If there are ‘n’ identical cells than
ES = nE
rS = nr
∴ the total current
ES nE
I= =
R + rS R + nr
∗ Out of n cells in series if ‘m’ cells are wrongly connected then the effective EMF is
( n − 2m ) E
24) Derive the expression for effective EMF when cells in parallel
Cells are said to be in parallel if they are connected between two same points such that potential
difference across cell is same.
Potential difference across first cell

E1 − V
V = E1 − I1r1 ⇒ I1 =
r1
Potential difference across second cell is
E −V
V = E2 − I 2 r2 ⇒ I 2 = 2
r2
From diagram I = I1 + I 2
E1 − V E2 − V
I= +
r1 r2
E1 V E2 V
I= − + −
r1 r1 r2 r2
E1 E2 1 1
I= + −V  + 
r1 r2  r1 r2 
1 1 E E
V + = 1 + 2 −I
 r1 r2  r1 r2
 r + r  E r + E2 r1 − I ( r1r2 )
V 2 1= 1 2
 r1r2  r1r2
V ( r2 + r1 ) = E1r2 + E2 r1 − I ( r1r2 )
E1r2 + E2 r1 rr
V= − I 1 2 → (1)
r1 + r2 r1 + r2
Let the combination of cell is replaced by an equivalent cell
V = EP − IrP → ( 2 )
By comparing equation (1) and (2)
E r + E2 r1
EP = 1 2
r1 + r2
r1r2
rP =
r1 + r2
∗ If there are ‘m’ identical cells is parallel then the
EP = E
r
RP =
m
∴ current passing through circuit is
EP R mE
I= ⇒ ⇒
R + rP r mR + r
R+
m
∗ In mixed grouping of cell (‘n’ cells are in series and ‘m’ rows)
nE
I=
nr
R+
m
mnE
I=
mR + nr
∗ Total number of cells = nm

∗ In any circuit current and hence power is maximum if external resistance is equal internal
resistance.
mnE
∴I =
mR + nr
mR = nr
25) Explain about electric power (Electrical energy)
When a current is passing through a circuit energy will be released in the form of heat and it is
given by
W = Vq
W = VIt
Q = VIt
Q = I 2 Rt
V2
Q= t
R
Electric power:
w
P=
t
P = VI
P = I 2R
V2
P=
R
1 1 1
∗ If bulbs are connected in series than = +
P P1 P2
∗ If they are connected is parallel P = P1 + P2
∗ Kirchoff’s laws:
The circuits which cannot be analysed by using ohm’s law can be analysed by using Kirchoff
laws.
26) Electrical network

It is the complicated arrangement of circuit elements such as resistors and cells.
27) Junction in an electrical network or Node in an electrical network

It is a point in an electrical network at which more than two currents meet.
28) Electrical loop or mesh

It is the closed path for circulation of current in an electrical network.
29) State and explain Kirchoff’s current law

The algebraic sum of all the current at any node is equal to zero.
i.e. ∑ I = 0.
∗ The currents which are entering the node are taken as positive and which are leaving the node
are taken as negative.
∴ I1 + I 2 = I3
∗ Significance is conservation of charge.

30) State and explain Kirchoff’s voltage law
In algebraic sum of potential differences in any closed loop is equal to zero.
i.e. ∑ IR + ∑ E = 0
∗ Sign conventions are

1. The directions of currents are indicated arbitrarily.
2. The IR product is taken as positive, if the direction of observation is opposite to the
direction of current through given resistor.
3. The IR product is taken as negative, if the direction of observation is in the direction of
current through given resistor.
4. The e.m.f. of the cell is taken as positive, if the direction of observation across the cell is
from negative terminal to positive terminal.
5. The e.m.f. of the cell is taken as negative, if the direction of observation across the cell is
from positive to negative terminal.
31) Derive the balancing condition of Wheatstone’s bridge or network

It consist of 4 resistors P, Q, R, S which are connected in the form of quadrilaterals ABCD as
A battery of EMF (E) is connected between the opposite terminals A & C. A galvanometer of
resistance ‘G’ is connected between the remaining two opposite terminals.
By applying Kirchoff’s first law at ‘B’
→ I1 = I 3 + Ig → (1)
⇒ At point D → I 2 + I g = I 4 → ( 2 )
⇒ By applying Kirchoff’s 2nd law in
ABDA
→ − I1 P − I g G + I 2 R = 0 → ( 3)
BCDA → − I 3Q + I 4 S + I g G → ( 4 )
The network is said to be balanced if the galvanometer shows zero deflection .
i.e.I g = 0
(1) → I1 = I 3 → ( 5 )
( 2) → I2 = I4 → (6)
( 3) → I1 P = I 2 R → ( 7 )
( 4 ) → I 3Q = I 4 S → ( 8 )
By dividing equation (7) and (9)
I1P I 2 R
=
I 3Q I 4 S
P R
∴ =
Q S
P R
∗ In balanced network = and I g = 0 then we can neglect the galvanometer then the circuit
Q S
will be

∴ Effective resistance between A & C
R1 = P + Q, R2 = R + S
R1 R2
R=
R1 + R2
R=
( P + Q )( R + S )
P+Q+ R+S
1 1
⇒ I1 : I 2 = : = R2 : R1
R1 R2
R2 (R + S) I
(branch currents) I1 = I=
R2 + R1 P+Q+ R+S
R1 ( P + Q) I
(branch currents) I 2 = I=
R2 + R1 P+Q+ R+ S
VA − VB = I1 P
VA − VD = I 2 R
∴VB − VD = I 2 R − I1P
1
=
P+Q+ R+ S
( ( P + Q ) IR − ( R + S ) IP )
I ( QR − PS )
VB − VD = {which is the potential difference across galvanometer}
P+Q+ R+ S
∗ If QR > PS then VB > VD then the current flows from B to D.
∗ If QR < PS then VB < VD then the current flows from D to B.
∗ If QR = PS the VB = VD there is no current.
∗ In wheatstones network if galvanometer and battery are interchanged then also there is no
change in balancing point.
32) Explain about the working of metre bridge

Principle : Wheatstone network
The wire whose resistance is to be calculated is conducted in the left gap and standard
resistance box connected in the right gap. A sliding contact is connective to the terminal ‘B’
through a galvanometer.
P R
At balancing point =
Q S
R l
=
S 100 − l
Sl
R=
100 − l
{Where ' l ' is balance in length in cm}
Uses:
1. It is used to calculate unknown resistance.
2. It is used to calculate resistivity of a wire.

3. It is used to compare two unknown resistances.
33) Potentiometer
It is a device which is used to calculate EMF of a cell accurately.
Or
It is used to calculate potential difference between any two points of a wire when a constant
current if flowing through it.
∗ Potentiometer can calculate EMF of a cell or potential difference without drawing any current is
hence it is a better device than volt meter.
∗ Principle: When a constant current is flowing through a wire of uniform cross section potential
difference between any two points is directly proportional to length of that potion of a wire.
Or potential gradient remains constant
⇒V ∝ l
V
⇒ = constant
l
⇒ φ = constant
∗ Uses :
∗ It is used to calculate EMF of a cell.
∗ It is used to compare EMF of cells.
∗ It is used to calculate internal resistance of a cell.
To compare the EMF’s:

If l1 is the balancing length when key 1 is closed 2
is opened then E1 = φl1
If l2 is the balancing length when key 2 is closed &

1 is opened then E2 = φl2
E l
∴ 1 = 1
E2 l2
∗ If l1 and l2 are the balancing lengths corresponding to two cells when they are connected in
secondary circuits first they support each other and oppose each other then
E1 + E2 l1
=
E1 − E2 l2
E1 l1 + l2
=
E2 l1 − l2
∗ To calculate the internal resistance of cell
If l1 is the balancing length when k2 is open then
E = φ l1
if l2 is the balancing length when k2 is closed then
v = φ l2
E l1
∴ = →I
V l2

E = I (R + r)
V = IR
E R+r
= → II
V R
R + r l1
=
R l2
r l1
l+ ≠
R l2
r l1
= −1
R l2
l 
r = R  1 − 1
 l2 
34) Why do we prefer a potentiometer to measure emf of a cell rather than a voltmeter?
A potentiometer does not draw any current from the cell whose emf is to be determined, where
as voltmeter always draws some current. Therefore emf measured by voltmeter is slightly less
than actual value of emf of the cell.
PROBLEMS:
1. The number density of conduction electrons is 9.5 × 1028 m −3 . Calculate the time taken by an
electron to drift from one end of the 4 m long to the other end. The area of cross section of the
wire is 1.8 × 10 −6 m 2 and is carrying a current of 5 ampere.
2. You are provided with 3 resistors each of value 4Ω in how many ways we can connect them
and calculate the effective resistance in each case?
3. Find the effective resistance across A and B in the following figure.
4. Find the equivalent resistance across A and B in the following

figure.
5. Find the effective resistance across A and B in the following figure.
6. The effective resistance of two resistors is 9 Ω when in series and

14/9 ohms when in parallel find the values of resistors.
7. Find the current flowing through the circuit and also calculate
across 3 Ω resistor.

8. A battery of emf 10 V and internal resistor 3 Ω is connected to a resistor. If the current in the
circuit is 0.5 A. What is the resistance of resistor. What is the terminal voltage of battery when
thermodynamics circuit is closed?
9. Two cells of emf 1V and 2V having internal resistance 2 Ω and 1Ω are connected in parallel so
as to send a current through an external resistance of 4 Ω in the same direction. Find the current
through the cells and the current through the external resistance.
10. Resistances 1 Ω, 2 Ω, 1 Ω and 2 Ω are connected in cyclic order in a Wheat stones network.
The resistance of the galvanometer is 10 Ω. The emf of the cell is 2 V and its internal resistance
is negligible. What is the current through the galvanometer?
11. At room temperature (27.0 °C) the resistance of a heating element is 100 Ω. What is the
temperature of the element if the resistance is found
fou to be 117 Ω, given that the temperature
coefficient of the material of the resistor is 1.70 × 10–4 °C–1.
12. Determine the current in each branch of the network shown in figure.
13. (a) In a metre bridge, the balance point is found to be at 39.5 cm from the end A, when the
resistor Y is of 12.5 Ω. Determine the resistance of X. Why are the connections between
resistors in a Wheatstone or meter bridge made of thick copper strips?
(b) Determine the balance point of the bridge above if X and Y are interchanged.
(c) What happens if the galvanometer and cell are interchanged at the balance point of the
bridge? Would the galvanometer show any current?
14. A storage battery of emf 8.0 V and internal resistance 0.5 Ω is being charged by a 120 V dc
supply using a series resistor of 15.5 Ω. What is the terminal voltage of the battery during
charging? What is the purpose of having a series resistor in the charging circuit?
15. In a potentiometer arrangement, a cell of emf 1.25 V gives a balance point at 35.0 cm length of
the wire. If the cell is replaced by another cell and the balance point shifts to 63.0 cm, what is
the emf of the second cell?
16. The number density of free electrons in a copper conductor estimated is 8.5 × 1028 m–3. How
long does an electron take to drift from one end of a wire 3.0 m long to its other end? The area
of cross-section of the wire is 2.0 × 10–6 m2 and it is carrying a current of 3.0 A.

CHAPTER – 4
MOVING CHARGES AND MAGNETISM
 Current carrying conductor produces magnetic field in its surrounding region which is known as
magnetic effects of electric current.
It was discovered by Oersted
1) State ampere’s
mpere’s swimming rule
According to this if a person is imagined to swim in the direction of current by facing magnetic
needle then, the north pole of the needle show
shows deflection towards his left hand.
 A small portion of current carrying conductor is known as current element.
2) State and explain Biot-savart’s

savart’s law (Laplace law)
Consider a current carrying conductor let ‘P’ is a point which is at a distance of ‘‘r’ from the
conductor let ‘dl’ be the length of the current element which is making an angle ‘‘d’ with the
line joining to the point ‘P’.. Then
 Magnetic
agnetic field at point ‘P’ is directly proportional to strength of
the current that dB  i
 Directly
irectly proportional to sine of the angle between current element
and line joining to the point ‘P’. dB  sin 
1
 Inversely proportional
rtional to square of the distance dB 
r2
 Directly proportional to length of current element dB  dl
idl sin 
 dB 
r2
0 idl sin 
dB  space 0  4 107 H / m
; 0 is the permeability of free spac
4 r2
 In vector form Bio-savart’s
savart’s law can be written as
 

 0i dl  r
dB 

4 r 3
The direction of magnetic field is perpendicular to the plane which is containing both current
element and the point.
3) State and explain ampere’s ci circuit law

According to this line integral of magnetic field induction around any closed path is equal to 0
times total current enclosed by that path.
 
 B  dl   i 0
The currents which are into the plane are taken as +v

+vee and which are out of the plane are taken
as –ve,
 
  dl  0  i1  i2  i3  i4  i5 
B
II PUC BOARD MATERIAL Moving Charges and Magnetism Page 43

4) Derive the expression for m magnetic
agnetic field due to straight conductor by using ampere’s
circuital law
 Consider a straight wire which is carrying a current of ‘I’ ampere in ververtically upwards
direction
on then according to ampere law
law.
 
 B  dl   i 0
 Bdl cos   i 0
 Bdl   i   0   cos 0

0 0
0  1
B  dl   i 0
0 i
B
2 r
5) State right hand thumb rule

According rule if a straight conductor is hold with your right hand such that thumb is in the
direction of current then the direction in which remaining fingers enclose the conductor gives
the direction of magnitude field.
6) Derive the expression for m magnitude field along
ong the axis of a circular coil
Consider a current carrying circular coil of radius ‘r’ let ‘p’ be a point which is at a distance of
‘x’ along its axis.
To calculate magnetic field at the point ‘p’ consider two diametrically opposite elements of
length ‘dl’
Magnetic field at the point ‘p’ due to the current element CD is given by
0 idl sin 
dB  2
;   900  which is directing perpendic
perpendicular
ular to the plane containing both CD and
4 a
point P.
Similarly,
 0 idl sin 
Magnetic field due to point P, due to C1D1 is given by dB    900  which is
4 a 2
directly perpendicular to the plane containing both C1D1 and point P.
According to resolution of vector net magnetic field at the point ‘P’ is due to both current
elements is 2dB sin 
 Total magnetic field at point ‘P’ due to entire coil is given by
B   2dB sin 
0 idl r
B  2
4 a 2 a
2 idlr
B 0 3
4 a
 2ir
B  0 3  dl
4 a
 2ir 2 r
B 0 3
4 a 2
0 2 ir 2
B
4  r 2  x 2 3/2

 If the coil is made up of ‘n’ number of ter
ternss the magnetic field along the axis is given by
0 2 nir 2
B ;
4  r 2  x 2 3/ 2
 For circular coil, field is maximum at its centre that is

 2 ni
x  0  BC  0
4 r
0 i
 General formula : BC    (if n = 1)
4 r
 In a circular coil, if the current is in clock wise direction then the magnetic field is directed
away from the observe.
 If the current is in anticlockwise direction, then the magnetic field is directed towards the
observe.
7) Explain how circular coil carrying current act as a dipole

Magnetic field along the axis of a circular coil is given by:
0 2 ir 2
B
4  r 2  x 2 3/2
If x  r
 2iA
B  0 3    1
4 x
Electric field along the axial line of a dipole is given by
1 2P
E     2
4 0 d 3
By comparing (1) and (2)
iA can be known as magnetic dipole moment which is represented by ‘M’.
 2M
B  0 3
4 x
Therefore, current carrying coil act as magnetic dipo
dipole.
8) Derive the expression for m

magnetic moment of revolving electron
Consider an electron which is revolving in a circular path of radius ‘r’ around the nucleus.
Then its magnetic moment.
M  iA
q
M A
t
q v
M  r2
2 r
q.v.r
M
2
Orbital angular momentum L  m v r

M qvr
 
L 2
mvr
M qvr 1
 
L 2 mvr
M q

L 2m
M 1q

L 2m
M  1
   Gyro magnetic ratio   specific charge
 L  2
1 q L
 M
2 m
qL
M
2m
According to Bohr’s postulate,
nh
L
2
nqh
M
4 m
For first Bohr’s orbit
n 1
q.h
M   9.23  1024 which is known as Bohr Magnetron.
4 m
9) Force acting on a charged particle in the pressure of magnetic field.
Consider a particle of charge ‘q’ which is moving with a velocity ‘v’ such that it is making an
angle ' ' with the direction of magnetic field. Then, force experienced by the particle is given
by:
F  q B sin 
  

F  q  B 
 If   00  F  0 i.e., particle is un deviated
 If   1800  F  0 i.e. particle is un deviated
 If   900  F is maximum i.e. Fman  B.q.
Which will provide necessary centripetal force for the particle i.e. it takes circular path.
Fmax  B.q.
m 2
B q 
r
m
 r
Bq
P
 r
Bq

2mK .E.
 r
Bq
2mqV
 r
Bq
2
 Time period T 

2 r


2 m
 which is independent of velocity.
Bq
 If  is other than 00, 1800 and 900 then path followed by the particle is helix.
Radius of the helix
m.v.sin 
r
Bq
 Distance covered by the particle is one rotation of the helical path is known as pitch of the
Helix.
i.e. S   cos   T
2 m
S   cos  
Bq
2 m
S   cos 
Bq
10) Explain about the principle of velocity selector

The force experienced by a charged particle in the presence of both electric and magnetic field
is known as Lorentz force i.e.,
   

F  Eq  q V  B ; 
Principle:
Consider a particle of charge ‘q’ is moving with a velocity ‘v’ in space where both electric and
magnetic fields are acting perpendicular to each other.

Electrical force, FE  Eqjˆ
  

Magnetic force, FB  q    B 

 
FB  qvB  ˆj
 particle is undeviated if both electric and magnetic forces are
equal in magnitude.
FE  FB
i.e., Eq  qvB
E/B

11) Explain the construction and working of cyclotron.
Construction
Above figure represents the cyclotron.
It consists of two D-shaped hollow, evacuated
semicircular metal chambers D1 and D2 called dees.
The dees are arranged as shown in the figure with a
small gap between them. A source of positively
charged particles P is located near the midpoint of
the gap between the dees. The dees are connected to
the terminals of high frequency alternating voltage
source which provides high frequency electric field
across the gap of the dees. The whole apparatus is
placed between the poles of a strong electromagnet
which provides a magnetic field perpendicular to the
plane of the dees.
Working
The positively charged particle is released at the centre P. Suppose, at that instant, D1 is at
positive potential and D2 is at negative potential, .the positively charged particle will be
accelerated and enters D2. The positively charged particle inside the dees is shielded from the
electric field. But the perpendicular magnetic field makes it to move in circular path inside D2.
After a time interval T/ 2, the charged particle arrives at the gap. Exactly at the same moment,
D1 is at negative potential and D2 is at positive potential. Hence the positively charged particle
accelerates and enters D1 and moves in a circular path within D1. Again the charged particle
arrives at the gap in time interval T/ 2. Thus, the positively charged particle will go on
accelerating every time interval T/ 2 when it arrives at the gap between the dees. Due to this
acceleration, the speed of the charged particle and radius of the path described by the charged
particle will go on increasing and hence the path becomes spiral. When the radius of the path of
the charged particle become approximately equal to the radius of dees, it is pulled out through
an exit slit using deflecting plate. The positively charged particle emerges out with high kinetic
energy.
12) Mention the use of Cyclotron.

1) It is used to accelerate the charged particles.
2) The accelerated charged particles are used to synthesize new materials.
3) The accelerated charged particles are used to produce radioactive material for medical
diagnosis and treatment.
13) Derive the expression for force acting on current carrying conductor
Consider a straight conductor of length ‘ l ’ and area ‘A’ which is carrying a current of ‘I’
ampere placed in a uniform magnetic field which is
directed into the plane.
Let; ‘n’ be the number of electrons per unit volume.
Volume of the conductor  A  l
 Total number of electron s  nAl
Force experienced by each particle  Bq   900 

 Force experienced by the conductor F  Bq  nAl
F  Bq  nAl
 I  nAq 
F  BIl
 If the conductor makes an angle ' ', with the direction of magnetic field, then
F  BIl sin 
14) State Flemings left hand rule

According to this, if the first three fingers of the left hand are stretched perpendicular to each
other with fore finger is in the direction of magnetic field
field, middle finger is in the direction of
current then, thumb gives direction of force.
15) Derive the expression for force

orce between 2 parallel straight conductors
Consider 2 long straight conductors PQ & RS S which are carrying currents I1 and I2 amperes in
same direction Let ‘r’ be the distance between the 2 conductors.
Magnetic field at any point on second conductor due to I1 is
0 I1
B1  which is directed into the plane
2 r
The force experienced by 2nd conductor is F2  B1 I 2l
0 I1 I 2l
F2     1 which is directed towards the first conductor
2 r
in accordance with Fleming’s left hand rule.
Magnetic field at any point on first conductor due to I2 is
I
B2  0 2 which is directed towards the observe
observer
2 r
The force experienced by 1st conductor is
F1  B2 I1l
0 I 2 I1l
F1      2  which is directed towards the second conductor in accordance with
2 r
Fleming’s left hand rule.
From (1) and (2)
Both the conductors experience the same force, and it is given by:
IIl
F 0 1 2
2 r
Force per unit length is given by
II
Fl  0 1 2 Nm 1 ;
2 r
Definition of ampere:
II
Fl  0 1 2
2 r
0 4 107
Let I1  I 2  1A and r  1m then Fi    2  10 7 Nm 1
2 2
i.e.
 Current is said to be 1A which when it is flowing through 2 long straight conductor separated
by a distance of 1m in free space which causes a force of 2 107 N / m length of each of the
conductor.

 If the currents are in same direction, force is attractive and if they are in opposite direction force
is repulsive.
16) Derive the expression for torque

orque acting on a rectangular coil
Consider, rectangular coil PQRS which is carrying a cu current
rrent of I amperes is placed is a uniform
magnetic field as shown in the figure.
The force experienced by both the horizontal sides is zero, and the force experienced by both
the vertical sides is equal in magnitude and opposite in direction and itt is given
giv by
F  BIL   90 
0
These 2 forces form a couple and the moment of couple or

torque is given by
  F  perpendicular distance
  BIL  b
  BIA
  MB
17) Explain about construction and working of M Moving coil Galvanometer
It is a device by using
ng which is used to measure small currents and it works on the principle that
current carrying rectangular coil experiences torque when it is kept in a uniform magnetic field.
Construction:
It consists of a rectangular coil of large number of turns
of insulated
ulated copper wire, which is fixed freely between
2 concave magnetic pole pieces. The rotation of the
coil is controlled by 2 springs one above and the other
below the coil. A soft iron cylinder is used to increase
the strength of the magnetic field. A thi
thin long pointer is
freely at the centre of the coil which can move on a
circular scale.
Working:
When current is passing through the coil, it experiences
torque, which is also known as deflecting couple i.e.
C D  NIAB; N  number of turns.
Because
use of this deflecting couple, coil rotates which
results restoring couple in the spring, and it is directly
proportional to deflection of the coil.
Cr    r  C ; C is proportionality constant which is known as restoring couple per unit
twist.
Finally, the pointer shows steady deflection if the deflecting couple is balanced by restoring
couple.
Cd  Cr
NIAB  C
C
I
NAB
C C
I   I ; [ is the constant for galvanometer]
NAB NAB
18) Define current
ent sensitivity and giv
give its formula
 NAB
It is deflection per unit current of the galvanometer i.e.,  ; division/ampere.
I C
19) Define voltage sensitivity and give its formula

 Current sensitivity
It is deflection per unit potential difference across the galvanometer i.e., 
V Resistance
20) Explain how to convert Galvanometer into ammeter

A galvanometer can be converted into ammeter by connecting very low resistance iin parallel
combination.
VG  VS ( they are in parallel)
I gG   I  Ig  S
IgG
S
I  Ig
 If the range of the galvanometer is increased by ‘n’ times, then;
IgG G G
S  
I  Ig I
1 n 1
Ig
G
S
n 1
21) Explain how to convert Galvanometer into voltmeter
A galvanometer can be converted into voltmeter by connecting very high resistance in series
combination.
V  I g G  R 
V
GR
Ig
V
R G
Ig
 Resistance of ideal ammeter is O.
 Resistance of ideal voltmeter is 
Solenoid:
 It is a cylindrical conductor with large number of turns of insulated
coper wire.
 Solenoid is said to be ideal, if its length is very much greater than
its radius.
 It is a device which is used to produce uniform magnetic field.

magnetic
agnetic field at any point inside the solenoid
 N
length ' l ' having ‘n’ number of turns per unit length.  n  
Consider an ideal solenoid of len
 l 

To calculate magnetic field inside the solenoid,
imagine a rectangular loop ABCD of length ‘h’ as
Then, number of turns present in the closed loop
 nh.
If I is the current passing through the solenoid
then current enclosed by the loop is
I e  nhI
Magnetic field due to the side CD is zero  it is present outside the solenoid.
Magnetic field due to both vertical section is O. since there is no vertical component of
magnetic field.
Magnetic field due to the section AB is given by
 
  dl  0 I e
B
 Bdl cos    I
0 e
 Bdl   I
0 e (   00  AB length parallel to magnetic field)
B  dl   nhI
0
Bh   0 nhI
B  0 nI
 Toroid: It is a hallow circular ring having large number of turns of insulated copper wire
23) Derive the expression for magnetic field of a toroid

Magnetic field in the inner and outer spaces of the toroid is zero, since there is no current
enclosed. Magnetic field at any point inside the toroid is given by
 
  dl  0 I E
B
 Bdl   NI
0
Bl  0 NI
0 NI
B
l
B  0 nI
24) Mention the expression for magnetic field due to a straight conductor
I
B  0  sin   sin  
4 r
 If the conductors is of infinite length, then
    900
2 I I
B 0 B 0
4 r 2 r
 If the point is nearer to one end of infinite long wire
  00
  900
I
B 0
4 r
 Distance of null point due to a long straight wire

 Null point: It is always to nearer to the conductor which carries less current.
B1  B2  0
B1  B2
I1 I
 2
x dx
d  x I2

x I1
d I
1  2
x I1
d I2
 1
x I1
d
x
I2
1
I1
 If the currents are in opposite direction then the null point lies outside the conductor i.e.,
d
x
I2
1
I1
 A long straight conductor which is carrying a current of I1A is fixed between 2 rigid supports.
Another conductor of length ' l ' carrying a current of I2 is present at a distance of ‘r’ from this
conductor. Then, the condition for which 2nd conductor remains stationary is.
F  mg
0 I1 I 2l
 mg
2 r
PROBLEMS:
1. In a chamber, a uniform magnetic field of 6.5 G 1g  10 4T  is maintained. An electron is shot
into the field with a speed of 4.8  106 m / s normal to the field. Explain why path of the
electron is a circle. Determine the radius of the circular orbit.
e  1.6  10 19
C , me  9.1  10 31kg 
2. A coil of 10 turns and mean radius 0.04m carries a current of 1.5 A. What is the resultant
magnetic field at a point distance 0.03 m from the centre and along the axis of the coil?
3. A circular coil of 5 turns carries a current of 1.15 A. The circumference of the coil is 51.4 cm.
What is the magnetic field produced at the centre of the coil?
4. Two circular coils of mean radii 0.1 m and 0.05 m consisting of 5 turns and 10 turns
respectively are arranged concentric to one another with their planes a right angles to each
other. If a current of 2A is passed through each of them, calculate the magnitude of the resultant
magnetic field at their common centre.
5. A rectangular coil of sides 0.25 m and 0.1 m carrying current 12 A is placed with its longer side
parallel to a long straight conductor 0.02 m apart carrying a current of 20 A. Calculate the net
force on the current loop.
6. The coil is placed in a vertical plane and is free to rotate about a horizontal axis which coinsides
with its diameter. A uniform magnetic field of 2T in the horizontal direction exists such that

initially the axis of the coil is in the direction of the magnetic field. The coil rotates through an
angle of 900 under the influence of the magnetic field. (c) What are the magnitudes of the
torques on the coil in the initial and final positions?
7. A galvanometer of resistance 80  a current of 1 mA for full scale deflection. How to convert it
into an voltmeter of range 0 – 10 and an ammeter of range 0 – 5 A.
8. A horizontal overhead power line carries a current of 90 A in east to west direction. What is the
magnitude and direction of the magnetic field due to the current 1.5 m below the line?
9. Two long and parallel straight wires A and B carrying currents of 8.0 A and 5.0 A in the same
direction are separated by a distance of 4.0 cm. Estimate the force on a 10 cm section of wire A.
10. A closely wound solenoid 80 cm long has 5 layers of windings of 400 turns each. The diameter
of the solenoid is 1.8 cm. If the current carried is 8.0 A, estimate the magnitude of B inside the
solenoid near its centre.


CHAPTER – 5
MAGNETISM AND MATTER
 The earth is acting as a magnet because of the metallic fluids, which are present in the outer
core of the earth.
 If a magnetic needle is suspended freely at any point on the earth surface, it comes to rest
position nearer to geographic north and geographic south.
 The tip of the magnet which is nearer to geographic north is known as magnetic north and tip of
the magnet which is nearer to geographic south is known as magnetic south.
 Naturally occurring magnet is called as load stone.
 Bar magnet:
 For a bar magnet, distance between its ends is known as geometric length.
 The distance between its poles is known as magnetic length.
5
 Magnetic length   geometrical length.
6
1) What are magnetic field lines and mention its properties?

It is the direction in which a unit north pole is supposed to move in the presence of magnetic
field.
Properties:
i) The tangent drawn at any point for a magnetic
line, gives the direction of magnetic field.
ii) It forms closed loops.
iii) Field lines are more where the strength of the
magnetic field is more and less where it is
weak.
iv) Two field lineses will never intersect each other.
v) Inside the bar magnet, they are directed from south to north and outside they are directed
from north to south.
2) Define magnetic flux
It is the total number of magnetic lines passing through unit area normally.
 
  B. A
 It is a scalar quality.
 Units are weber
3) What is magnetic flux density?
It is the flux per unit area i.e.,
B  / A
 Units are weber per m2 or Tesla.
4) Explain how a solenoid
olenoid act as a bar magnet
Consider an ideal solenoid of length ‘2l’ and radius ‘r’.
Let ‘P’ be a point along its axis which is at a distance of ‘d’ from its centre. To calculate
magnetic field at the point ‘P’. Consider a small portion of solenoid of thickness ‘‘dx’ which is
at a distance ‘x’’ from the centre.
II PUC BOARD MATERIAL Magnetism and Matter Page 55

Magnetic field at the point ‘P’ due to the selected element is
0 2i r 2 ndx
dB  3/2
4 r 2   d  x 2
 
 d  r
0 2iAn
dB  dx
4 d 3
 Total magnetic field B   dB
 2nIA
B 0 2l  N  n2l 
4 d 3
 2  IAN   2M
B 0 3
B 0 3  M  NIA
4 d 4 d
This equation is similar to magnetic field along the axial line of Bar magnet and hence solenoid
act as bar magnet.
5) State Gauss law of magnetism

According to this, total magnetic flux enclosed by any closed
surface is zero.
 
i.e.  B  ds  0
6) Derive the expression for time period of a bar magnet

Consider magnetic needle of magnetic moment ‘M’ which is placed in a uniform magnetic field
such that its axis is making an angle ' ' with the direction of magnetic field.
Then the torque acting on the needle
   MB sin 
If the angles are very small
   MB
   MB
 MB
 ;
I
ml 2
Where I is moment of inertia for bar magnet I 
12
By comparing this equation with the acceleration of S.H.M
a   2 y
MB
We get  2 
I
MB
 
I
2
 Time period T 

2
T
MB
I

I
T  2
MB
7) Mention the expression for magnetic potential energy stored in the magnetic needle
rotated in the magnetic field and discuss the special cases
 
U  m B cos     1 In vector form, U  m B
where m is the magnetic dipole moment of the needle (magnetic dipole)
B is the magnetic field strength applied on the needle
 is the angle between the directions of m and B.
Special cases
Case-1: when   00  cos 00  1  1  U  m B    minimum potential energy
Case-2: when   1800  cos1800  1
 1  U   m B    maximum potential energy
Case-3: when   900  cos 900  0  1  U  0    zero potential energy
8) Geographic meridian
Geographic meridian at a place is the vertical plane passing through the geographic poles of
earth.
9) Magnetic meridian
Magnetic meridian at a place is the vertical plane passing through poles of freely suspended
magnet.
10) Explain about earths magnetic elements

The value of magnetic field at any point on the earths
surface can be measured by using earths magnetic
elements.
a) Declination   :
It is the angle between geographic meridian and magnetic
meridian.
b) Inclination / dip   :
It is the angle between total magnetic field of earth and
horizontal axis of magnetic meridian.
c) Horizontal component of earth’s magnetic field (BH):
It is the component of earths magnetic field along the
horizontal axis of magnetic meridian.
11) What is dynamo effect

Earths magnetic field is due to the electrical currents produced by the convective motion of
metallic fluids in the outer core of the earth. This phenomenon is known as dynamo effect.
12) Define intensity of magnetization

It is magnetic dipole moment per unit volume.
M
I  ; units Am 1
V

13) What is magnetising field
It is the ratio between magnetic induction field and permeability of free space i.e.,
B B B
H  0  for any other medium  
0 H H
14) Define magnetic susceptibility

It is the ratio between intensity of magnetization and magnetizing field.
I
i.e., x 
H
It is a dimensionless physical quantity.
15) Define relative permeability


It is the ratio between absolute permeability and permeability of free space. i.e.,  R  (no
0
units)
16) Derive the relation between r and 

Consider a long hallow solenoid carrying a current of i. ‘  ’ with ‘n’ be the number of terms
per unit length then, magnetic field inside the solenoid is given by
B0  0 nI  0 H
Now, if a magnetic material is kept inside the solenoid, then its magnetic field is
B  B0  Bm
Where, BM is magnetic field due to magnetic material and it is
BM  I
BM  0 I
B  B0  BM
B  0 H  0 I
 I 
B  0 H 1  
 H
B
 0 1   
H
  0 1   

 1 
0
r  1  
 Types of magnetic materials:

I. Diamagnet:
 These are the substances which are repelled by a bar magnet. Magnetic moment of each
dipole will be zero.
 When if is kept in a non-uniform magnetic field, it tends to move from strong magnetic
field to weak magnetic field region.

 When a dia-magnet is kept in a magnetic field, magnetic lines will be expelled out of the
substance.
 Susceptibility is very small and negative.
 Relative permeability is less than one.
 Eg: Bismuth, Silicon, nitrogen, water etc.
 Susceptibility is independent of temperature.
II. Paramagnet:
 These are the substances which are weakly attracted by a bar magnet.
 Net magnetic moment of all the dipoles is zero.
 When it is kept in a non-uniform magnetic field it tends to move from weak to strong
magnetic field region.
 When a para magnet is kept in a magnetic field, some of the lines will pass through them.
 Susceptibility is very small and positive.
 Relative permeability is greater than
 Susceptibility is inversely proportional to temperature.
 Ex. Oxygen, Sodium, Calcium, Aluminium.
III. Ferromagnet:
 These are strongly attracted by a bar magnet.
 Net magnet moment is high.
 When it is kept in a non-uniform magnetic field, it tends to move from weak to strong
magnetic field region.
 When a ferromagnet is kept in a magnet field, most of the lines will pass through them.
 Susceptibility is very high and positive.
 Relative permeability is very much greater then.
 Susceptibility is inversely proportional to temperature
 Ex. Iron, Cobalt, Nickel.
17) What is curie Temperature

When a ferromagnet is heated, at one particular temperature, it will be converted into
 1
paramagnet. This temperature is known as curie temperature    
 T
18) State and explain Curie’s law. .
The susceptibility of paramagnetic material is inversely proportional to its absolute temperature.
1 C
That is,   
T T
where C is the Curie constant
19) Explain Curie- Weiss law

Above the critical temperature, the susceptibility of the material is described by Curie-Weiss
law. Below critical temperature (TC), the material is in the ferromagnetic state.
1

T  TC

C

T  TC
where C is a constant and T is the given temperature
20) Explain about hysteresis curve

When a ferromagnetic substance is taken through a complete cycle of magnetization. I changes
with H. This I-H curve is known as hysteresis curve.
Consider an unmagnetised ferromagnetic substance let it
be subjected to a complete cycle of magnetization.
If H = O then I =O. As H is increasing gradually I starts
rising and becomes maximum at a particular field which is
represented by point ‘A’ in graph. Now, if we remove the
‘H’ instead of becoming zero, I follows the path AB.
“This intensity of magnetization which is retaied by
ferromagnetic substance, when magnetizing field is zero is
known as residual intensity”.
As ‘H’ is increased in negative direction residual intensity
becomes zero at the point ‘C’. This demagnetizing field at which residual intensity is zero is
known as coercive field.
As ‘H’ increased further in negative direction, I increases and becomes maximum at point D.
Now if we remove the demagnetizing field, intensity follows the curve ‘DE’.
If we increase ‘H’ again in +ve direction, intensity reaches to the point ‘A’ again, which
completes the curve.
This phenomena in which intensity of magnetization lagging behind ‘H’ when a ferromagnetic
substance is taken through a complete cycle of magnetization is known as hysteresis.
 Area covered by I-H curve gives hysteresis loss, by using which we can determine
electromagnets and permanent magnets.
21) Define retentivity and coercivity

Retentivity: This is the property of ferromagnet because of which it retains intensity when
magnetizing field is zero..
Coercivity: It is the amount of reverse magnetic intensity required to remove the residual
magnetism.
22) What are permanent magnets and mention their properties with examples
These are the substances which retain their magnetic properties for long time.
They should have high permeability, high retentivity and high coersivity.
Ex. Alnico, Cobalt steel
23) What are electromagnets and mention their properties with examples
These are the substances which are used to produce high magnetic fields. They should have
high permeability, low retertivity and low coersivity.
Eg. Soft iron.

Uses of electromagnets
1) They are used in the electric bells,
2) They are used in the loud speakers,
3) They are used in the telephone diaphragms,
4) They are used in the cranes
(to lift machinery and bulk quantities of iron and steel).
24) Which material is used in the core of transformer and why?
Soft iron is used in the core of transformer.
This is because, it has high permeability, low retentivity and low hysteresis loss.
 A bar magnet of magnetic moment ‘M’ is cut into ‘n’ parts along its length, then magnetic
moment of each part is
M  lm
m
M1  l
n
M
M1  ;
n
If it is cut into n parts perpendicular to its length.
M  lm
l
M1  m
n
M
M1  ;
n
 If ‘n’ identical magnets each of magnetic moment ‘M’ are arranged in the form of a closed
polygon with unlike poles in contact then net magnetic moment is zero.
PROBLEMS:
1. A short bar magnet placed with its axis at 300 to a uniform magnetic field of 0.2 T experiences a
torque of 0.06 Nm. (i) Calculate the magnetic moment of the magnet. (ii) Find out what
orientation of the magnet corresponds to its stable equilibrium in the magnetic field.
2. The horizontal and vertical components of earth’s field at a place are 0.22  104 T and
0.38  104 T respectively. Calculate the angle of dip and resultant intensity of earth’ field.
3. A magnetizing field of 1500 A/m produces a magnetic flux of 2.4  105 weber in a bar of iron
of cross section 0.5 cm2. Calculate permeability and susceptibility of the iron-bar used.
4. A solenoid of 500 turns/m is carrying a current of 3A. Its core is made of iron which has a
relative permeability of 5000. Determine the magnitudes of the magnetic intensity,
magnetization and the magnetic field inside the core
5. A closely wound solenoid of 2000 turns and area of cross-section 1.6 10 4 m 2 , carrying a
current of 4.0 A, is suspended through its centre allowing it to turn in a horizontal plane. (a)
What is the magnetic moment associated with the solenoid? (b) What is the force and torque on
the solenoid if a uniform horizontal magnetic field of 7.5  102 T is set up at an angle of 300
with the axis of the solenoid?
6. A short bar magnet placed in a horizontal plane has its axis aligned along the magnetic north-
south direction. Null points are found on the axis of the magnet at 14 cm from the centre of the
magnet. The earth’s magnetic field at the 0.36 G and the angle of dip is zero. What is the total
magnetic field on the normal bisector of the magnet at the same distance as the null-point (i.e.,
14 cm) from the centre of the magnet? (At null points, field due to a magnet is equal and
opposite to the horizontal component of earth’s magnetic field).

CHAPTER – 6
ELECTRO MAGNETIC INDUCTION
 It is the phenomena is in which a current can be generated by using changing magnetic field.
 It was discovered by Faraday and Henry.
1) State Faraday’s Laws

(i) Whenever there is a change in magnetic flux linked with any circuit there will be an
induced E.M.F and hence induced current.
(ii) The magnitude of induced emf is directly proportional to rate of change of magnetic flux
linked with the circuit i.e.,
d
e
dt
2) Explain about Coil oil and Magnet Experiment
Consider a circular coil large number of turns
which is connected to a sensitive galvanometer
as shown in a figure. Let a bar magnet is
placed just beside the coil.
Experimental observations ons are:
(i) There is no deflection in the
galvanometer when both coil and magnet
are at rest.
(ii) Galvanometer is showing +Ve deflection
when the magnet is moving towards the coil (or) when the coil is moving towards the
magnet.
(iii) Galvanometer is showing opposite deflection when the magnet is moving away from the
coil (or) when is the coil is moving away from the magnet.
(iv) The deflection in the galvanometer is more when the magnet is moving with momore velocity
either towards or away ffrom the coil.
 From the observations I, ii, iii, we can conclude that there is an induced current if there is
change in magnetic flux, which is faraday’s first law.
 From the IVth observation, we can conclude that induced emf is more if there is more chang
change is
nd
magnetic flux with respect to time, which is faraday’s 2 law.
3) Explain about Coil and Coil experiment

C1 and C2 are the two coils. C1 is connected to a galvanometer (G) and the C2 is connected to a
battery(Ba).
1) When the coil C2 is pushed towards
the coil C1, the galvanometer shows
deflection in one direction. This
indicates that the currentt is induced
in the coil C1.
2) When the coil C2 is pulled away from
the coil C1, the galvanometer shows
defection in opposite direction. This
indicates that the current is induced in the coil C1, in the opposite direction.
II PUC BOARD MATERIAL Electro Magnetic Induction Page 62

3) When the coil C1 is moved suddenly towards or away from the coil C 2, the same effects are
observed.
4) When the two coils are held at rest .or moved with zero relative velocity
velocity, the deflection in
the galvanometer
vanometer reduces to zero.
5) The deflection of the galvanometer is large when the coils are moved faster towards or away
from each other.
 Direction of induced current is given by Lenz law
4) State and explain Lenz law

Statement: According to this direction of induced current is always opposite to the reason which is
 d
producing it i.e., e  .
dt
Explanation:
According to Lenz law, when the north pole of the magnet is moving towards the coil, then the face
of the coil which is towards the magnet will act as a north pole, so that the
theree will be repulsive force
between magnet and the coil.
Thus is due to the fact that, current passing through the coil is in anti
anti-clockwise
clockwise direction, so that it
act as North Pole.
When the north pole of the magnet is moving away from the coil, then the face of the coil which is
towards the magnet will act as South Pole, so the there will be an attractive force between the
magnet and coil. This is due to the fact that current passing through the coil is in clockwise
direction so that it acts South Pole.
From the above two observations, we can conclude that direction of induced current is always
opposite to motion of the magnet.
 Significance of Lenz law of conservation of energy:
5) Derive the expression for m motional EMF

Consider a uniform metallic rod of length ‘l’ which is moving with a velocity ' ' in a uniform
magnetic field which is directed into the plane. Let dx be the distance covered by the rod in a
time of ‘dt’ seconds.
Area covered by the rod is:

A  l dx
Then flux linked with the rod is
 
d  B. A.
d  B A cos 
d   Bldx   1800 

 d
 Induced EMF 
dt
dx
e  Bl
dt
e  Bl
  

Motional EMF, e  B. l  
  

e l . V  B 
 In the above equation, if any 2 vectors are in same direction, then e=0
 If the conducting rod is a part of any closed circuit of resistance ‘R’ then there will be induced
current and it is
e
i
R and its direction is given by Fleming’s right hand rule.
Blv
i
R
6) State Fleming’ss right hand rules

According to this rule, if the first 3 fingers of the right hand are streteched  er to each other with
fore finger is in the direction of magnetic field, thumb is in the direction of velocity, then middle
finger gives the direction of induced current.
 Force experienced by the conductor
F  BIl
Blv
F  B. .l
R
B 2l 2 v
F
R
 Power loss in the circuit is :
P e I
Blv
P  Blv 
R
2 2 2
Bl v
P
R
7) What are eddy currents and mention their uses?
The currents which are induced in a conductor when it is subjected to changing magnetic field are
known as eddy currents.
Advantages:
i) Induction furnace (melting of
metals in industries)
ii) Electric breaks
iii) Localized heating of tissues in
human body.
iv) Dead beat galvanometer.

8) Explain about self induction
It is phenomena in which EMF is induced in a coil by changing the current through the same
coil itself.
When the key is closed, current starts rising from zero to maximum because of which, there will
be an increase in magnetic flux and hence there is an induced EMF which opposes growth of
current in the circuit. So, this EMF is known as back EMF.
When the key is open, current starts decreasing from maximum to zero because of which there
will be decease in magnetic flux and hence there is induced EMF, which opposes the decay of
current in the circuit. So, this EMF is known as forward EMF.
 I
  LI ; L is constant of proportionality which is known as self inductance its units are
weber /A or Henry.
9) Define self inductance
 d
Induced EMF, e 
dt
 LdI
e
dt
dI
If  As 1 , then e   L
dt
i.e., Self inductance is numerically equal to magnitude of induced EMF when rate of change of
current is 1 AS 1
10) Explain mutual induction

It is the phenomena in which EMF is induced in secondary coil by changing the current in
primary coil.
 I
  MI ; ‘M’ is constant of proportionality which is known as mutual inductance its units are
Henry [waber/A]
11) Define mutual inductance

d
Induced EMF, e 
dt
di
e  M
dt
di
if  1As 1 , then e   M
dt

i.e., Mutual inductance of a pair of coils is numerically equal to magnitude of induced EMF in
second coil when the rate of change of current in first coil is equal to 1 As 1 .

mutual inductance of co-axial solenoids
axial solenoids of length ' l ' as shown in the figure. Let N1 and N 2 are the
Consider two co-axial
number of turns in S1 and S2 . Let n1 and n2 are the number of turns per unit length in S1 and S2 .
0 N 2 I 2
Magnetic field because of the coil S2 is given by B2 
l
Because of B2 , there will be a change in magnetic flux in S1
i.e.,   m12 I 2
N1 AB2  m12 I 2
 N I
N1 A. 0 2 2  M 12 I 2
l
 N N .A
M 12  0 1 2
l
Similarly we can prove that mutual inductance of S2 because of S1 is:
0 N1 N 2 A
M 21 
l
 Mutual inductance of a pair of solenoid is
NN
M 12  M 21  M  0 1 2  0 n1n2 Al
l
 If 2 inductors are in series, then L  L1  L2
1 1 1
 If they are in parallel,  
L L1 L2
 If L1 and L2 are the self inductances of 2 coils, then their mutual inductance is:
M  K L1 L2 ; K is known as coefficient of coupling and its value is less than or equal to 1.
13) Derive the expressionion for energy stored in a coil

Consider, a coil of self inductance ‘L’ which is connecte
connectedd to a cell through a plug key as shown
in figure.
If ' dw ' be the work done in establishing a small current, then:
dw  Pdt
dw  eIdt
di
dw  L. Idt
dt
dw  LIdI
 Total work done in establishing a current from O  I A.
I
w   dw
0
I
w  L. I dI
0

I2
w  L.
2
1
w LI2
2
This workdone will be stored as potential energy.
1
  LI2
2
 Magnetic flux   NAB cos 
d
 Induced EMF e  
dt
e
 Induced current I 
R
1 d 
 ,
R dt
 Induced charge is given by:
dq 1 d

dt R dt
 d
dq  ; which is independent of time.
R
 If a uniform conducting rod of length ' l ' is rotating is a uniform magnetic field about its one
end, then;
  BA cos 
   BA   180 0
1 2
 r B
2
d
 induced EMF, e  
dt
1 2 d
e Br
2 dt
1
e  Br 2
2
1
e  Bl 2
2
Alternating Voltage or Current:

If the current or voltage, changes harmonically with time, then it is said to be alternating.

14) Explain the working of AC - Generator
Alternating current or voltage can be generated if a rectangular coil is rotating with a constant
angular velocity in a uniform magnetic field.
Consider, a rectangular coil, which is rotating about an aaxis
is passing through its center with a
constant angular velocity ‘w’ in a uniform magnetic field.
Let,
t, ‘A’ be the area and ‘N’ be the number of turns
Let ' ' be the angle covered by the coil in a time of ‘t’ seconds then, magnetic flux linked with coil
is
  nBA cos 
  nBA cos wt
Induced EMF is given by
d
e
dt
d
e   NBA cos t.
dt
e   NBA   sin t  .
e  NAB sin t
V  NAB sin t
V  V0 sin t.
Where V0  NAB which hich is maximum induced voltage iff the coil is part of a circuit of resistance
‘R’ then the induced current is given by
V
I
R
V
I  0 sin t
R
where I  I 0 sin t.; which is maximum induced current.
V0
where I 0 
R

15) Explain the construction and working of ttransformer
It is a device which is used to very AC voltages.
Principle: Mutual Induction
Circuit symbol
Construction: It consists of 2 coils which are known as primary and secondary which are
wound on a soft iron core. The AC voltage which is to be varied is applied across primary and
output voltage is obtained across the secondary coil.
Working: As the voltage across the primary coil changes magnetic then linked with secondary
coil also changes, which results an induced voltage across the secondary coil, which is the
output voltage.
This output voltage depends upon input voltage and the number of turns in both primary and
secondary coils i.e.,
Vs N s
  T which is turns ration.
Vp N p
i) If T  1, then N s  N p  Vs  V p i.e., output voltage is greater than input voltage such
transformers are known as step up transformers.
ii) If T  1, then N s  N p  Vs  V p i.e., output voltage is less than the input voltage. Such
transformers are known as step down transformers.
 Power losses in transformer

i) Loss due to heating
When an alternating current is passed through the primary coil, the coil gets heated due to
its resistance.
ance. Thus some amount of energy is lost in the form of heat energy. This loss can
be minimized by using thick wire of high purity.
ii) Loss due to flux leakage
In actual transformers all the flux produced by the primary coil does not link with the
secondary coil. Thus some amount of energy is wasted. This loss can be minimized by
winding the coils one over the other.
iii) Loss due to eddy currents
Alternating magnetic flux induces eddy currents on the surface of the core.
Due to these eddy currents, energy is lost in the form of heat. This loss can be minimized by
using laminated soft iron core.
iv) Loss due to hysteresis
The ‘alternating
ating current flowing
owing through the coils magnetizes and demagnetizes the iron
core repeatedly. During each cycle of magnetization some ene energy
rgy is lost in form of heat.
This loss can
an be minimized by selecting the material, which has low hysteresis loss.

 For an ideal transformer, output power is equal to input power (efficiency is 100%).
P0/ p  Pi / p
Vs I s  V p I p
Vs I p

Vp I s
If Vs  V p , then I p  I s i.e., a step up transformer will steps down the current
If Vs  V p , then I p  I s i.e., a step down transformer will steps the current.
PROBLEMS:
1. The magnetic flux linked with a coil varies as   3t 2  4t  9. What is the magnetic of the emf
induced at t=2 seconds.
2. Current in a circuit falls from 5.0 A to 0.0 A in 0.1 s. If average emf of 200 V is induced, give
an estimate of the self-inductance of the circuit
3. A horizontal straight wire 10 m long extending from east to west is falling with a speed of
5 ms–1 at right angles to the horizontal component of the earth’s magnetic field
0.3 104 Wb m2 . What is the instantaneous value of the emf induced in the wire?
4. A conducting wire of 200 turns is wound over and near the centre of a solenoid of 100 cm
length and 2 cm radius having 600 turns. Calculate the mutual inductance of the two coils.
5. A 1.0 m long metallic rod is rotated with an angular frequency of 400 rad s –1 about an axis
normal to the rod passing through its one end. The other end of the rod is in contact with a
circular metallic ring. A constant and uniform magnetic field of 0.5 T parallel to the axis exists
everywhere. Calculate the emf developed between the centre and the ring.
6. A jet plane is travelling towards west at a speed of 1800 km/h. What is the voltage difference
developed between the ends of the wing having a span of 25 m, if the Earth’s magnetic field at
the location has a magnitude of 5 × 10–4 T and the dip angle is 30°.


CHAPTER – 7
ALTERNATING CURRENT
 Circuit symbol of AC generator is
1) Instantaneous value of current.

It is the value of alternating current at a given instant of time.
2) Mention the expression for instantaneous/peak value of alternating current.

I  I 0 sin t
Where I is the instantaneous value of alternating current
I 0 is the peak value of alternating current.
3) Mention the expression for instantaneous peak value of alternating voltage.

V  V0 sin t
where V is the instantaneous value of alternating voltage,
V0 is the peak value of voltage.
4) Peak value of a.c (maximum value of a.c. or amplitude of a.c.)

It is the maximum value of a.c in either half cycle of a.c.
5) Mean value of a.c (or Average value of a.c)

It is the mean of all the instantaneous values of alternating current taken over either half cycle.
2
Relation between mean value and peak value. Mean value =  peak value

6) Relation between mean value and peak value of current.

2
Mean value, I m  I 0 where I 0 is the peak value of current

7) Relation between mean value and peak value of voltage .

2
Mean Value, Vm  V0 where V0 is the peak value of voltage

8) Root mean square value or rms value of a. c.

It is the square root of the mean of the squares of all the instantaneous values of alternating
current taken over a complete cycle.
Peak value
9) Relation between rms value and peak value. rms value =
2
10) Relation between rms value and peak value of current.
I0
rms Value, I rms  where I 0 is the peak value of current
2
11) Relation between rms value and peak value of voltage.
V0
rms Value Vrms  where V0 is the peak value of voltage
2
II PUC BOARD MATERIAL Alternating Current Page 71

12) Derive expression for induced current when an AC sourcerce connected across a resistor
Consider an alternating voltage source which is connected across a resistor as shown in the
figure.
The voltage applied by the AC source is given by

v  v0 sin  t    1
Induced voltage across the resistor is given by
VR  v0 sin t
V v sin t
There fore induced current I  R  0
R R
 I  I 0 sin t     2 
V0
[Where I 0  which is the maximum current]
R
From equation (1) and (2) phase difference between applied voltage and induced current is zero.
13) Derive the expression for induced current when an AC source connected to inductor
Consider alternating voltage source which is connected across ind
inductor of self inductance ‘L’.
The voltage applied by AC source is given by

v  v0 sin  t    1
Induced EMF across the coil is
dI
e   L.
dt
According to Kirchoff’s second law
ve0
v  e
dI
v0 sin t  L.
dt
v0
dI  sin t.dt
L

By integrating the above equation
v0
I sin t.dt
L
v0   cos t 
I
L 
v  
I  0 sin  t  
L  2
  v
 I  I 0 sin  t       2  {Where I 0  0 which is maximum current across the coil}
 2 L

From equation (1) and (2) current is la lagging behind the voltage by radians.
2
14) Define inductive reactance and give its formula

v0 v
I0   0
 L xL
v0
xL   L
I0
It is the effective opposition offered by the coil for the flow of AC through it
It’s units are ohm
15) Derive the expression for induced current when an AC C source connected to capacitor
Consider an alternating voltage source which is connected to a capacitor of capacitance ‘c’ as
Voltage applied by AC source is given by

V  V0 sin  t    1
Induced voltage across the capacitor is
VC  V0 sin t
Induced charge q  cvc
 cv0 sin t
dq
 Induced current I 
dt

d
I  Cv0  sin t 
dt
 Cv0  cos  t  
 
I  CV0 sin  t  
 2
 
I  I 0 sin  t       2 
 2
[Where I 0  CV0 ]

 From equations (1) and (2) current is leading the voltage by radians.
2
16) Define capacitive reactance and give its formula

I 0  cv0
1 v0

c I 0
1 v0
xc  
c I 0
It is the effective opposition offered by the capacitor for the flow of AC.
17) What are Phasor diagram

Alternating voltage or current can be represented by rotating vectors which are known as
phasor’s.
Length of the vector represents maximum value and its projection on to y-axis represents
instantaneous value.
18) Derive the expression for Impedence of LCR series circuit

Consider an inductor of inductance ‘L’ capacitor of
capacitance ‘c’ and a resistor of resistance ‘R’ which
are connected in series across an AC source as shown
in the figure.
The voltage applied by AC source is v  v0 sin t
If ‘I’ is the instantaneous current passing through the
circuit than IR, IX L and IX C represents instantaneous
voltages across resistor, inductor and capacitor.
If VL ,VC & VR are the peak voltages across inductor,
capacitor and resistor then
VR  I 0 R  which is in phase with I 0
VC  I 0 RC  which is lagging behind I 0 by 900.
VL  I 0 xL  which is leading I 0 by 900.

If VR ,VL & VC are represented by OA, OB and OC then resultant of VR & VC is VL  VC and
from the parallelogram law resultant of VL  VC & VR is given by the diagonal which is the peak
applied voltage V0 .
From the phasor diagram and from pythagorus theorem.
2
V02  VR2  VL  VC 
2
V02  I 02 R 2   I 0 X L  I 0 X C 
2
V02  I 02 R 2  I 02  X L  X C 

V02  I 02 R 2   X L  X C 
2

V02
I 02  2
R2   X L  X C 
V0 V0 2
I0   {Where z  R 2   X L  X C  which is known as impendence}
R2   X L  X C 
2 Z
VL  VC
From the phasor diagram tan  
VR
XL  XC
tan  
R
V0 VRMS
 R  X L  XC  Z  
I 0 I RMS
VRMS V
 Z  I RMS  RMS
I RMS Z
19) What is resonant frequency and derive its expression

It is the frequency at which inductive reactantce is equal to capacitive reactance. It is the
frequency at which current passing through the circuit is maximum.
At f  f 0 , X L  X C
1
L 
C
1
2 
LC
1
4 2 f 02 
LC
1
f 02  2
4 LC
1
f0 
2 LC
 At resonance current is maximum  I RMS  I 0 
 Impedance is minimum  z  R 
 Circuit behaves as pure resistive circuit.
 Phase difference between voltage and current is zero.

20) What is resonance curve
It is the graph between RMS current and frequency of AC.
Band width f  f 2  f1
21) Define quality factor and give its expression

The sharpness of resonance curve is measured by a physical quantity which is known aw Q
Q-
factor.
It is defined as the ratio between resonance frequency and band width.
f0 X L X C
Q  
f R R
1 L
Q
R C
 Power: Rate of doing electric work.
P  VI
P  V0 sin t I 0 sin t   
P  V0 I 0 sin t sin t   
V0 I 0
P 2sin t sin t   
2
Therefore average power over one complete cycle is given by
T
1
Pave  p.dt
T 0
v0 I 0
Pave  cos 
2
Pave  vrms I rms cos 
R
Where cos   which is known as power factor.
Z
22) Define power factor and give its value

values
It is the ratio between resistance and impendance
 For resistor   0, cos   1 Pave  VRMS I RMS which is the maximum power loss.
 For inductor or capacitor   900 there for pave  0
 Hence inductors or capacitors are the suitable devices to check the flow of AC.
23) What is wattless current

Since Pave  0, current passing through inductor or capacitor is known as watless current.

24) Show that when a capacitor is discharged through an inductor of negligible resistance, the
discharge and current are oscillatory and simple harmonic.
Consider a capacitor of capacitance C initially carrying as maximum
charge q0. When a pure inductor of inductance L is connected to the
capacitor, the charge on the capacitor begins to decreases, giving rise to
current in the circuit, As q decreases, I increases.
dq
Therefore, I      1
dt
dI
Induced emf across the inductor at any instant is given by, e  L     2
dt
q
Potential difference across the capacitor at that instant is given by, V      3 
C
According to Kirchhoff’s loop rule,
dI q
L  0
dt C
d 2q q  dq dI d  dq  d 2q 
L  0  I         
dt 2 C  dt dt dt  dt  dt 2 
d 2q 1
On dividing by L, we get, 2
 q 0
dt LC
d 2q  1 
 r2q  0  r 
2

dt 2  LC 
d 2x
This equation similar to  r2 x  0. This equation represents the SHM of a particle.
dt 2
Therefore, the charge varies sinusoidally with time as
q  q 0 cos  r t        4 
where q 0 is the maximum value of charge and  is the phase angle.
In the present case, when t = o, q = q 0 ,
1  q 0  q 0 cos  r 0   
1  cos     cos 1 1    0     2
(5) in (4)  q  q 0 cos r t
d
From (1), the current, I   q 0 cos r t 
dt
   q 0  sin r t 
 q 0 r sin r t
I  I 0 sin r t Where I 0  q 0r
1
Therefore, the charge oscillates sinusoidally with an angular frequency r 
LC
25) Mention the advantages of AC over DC

 AC voltages can be varied by using transformer.
 AC can be converted easily into DC by using rectifiers.
 AC devices are more durable because of less power loss.
 Power transmission in the form of AC is more efficient.
 AC is more economical than DC.

PROBLEMS:
1. An alternating emf V  100 sin 628t is applied to device which offers a resistance of 10 .
calculate the rms value and the average value of the current.
2. A 44 mH inductor is connected to 220 V, 50 Hz, ac supply. Determine the rms value of current
in the circuit.
3. A resistance of 30  and a coil of inductance of 0.127 H are connected in series with 220 V, 50
Hz AC source. Calculate the power factor of circuit.
4. A 230 V, 50 Hz supply is applied to a coil of 0.08 H inductance and 2.5  resistance
connected in series with 6.8 F capacitor. Calculate (i) Current impendance (ii) Circuit current
(ii) Phase angle.
5. A coil of resistance 100  and inductance 200  H is connected is series with a 100 pF
capacitor. The circuit is connected to a 10 V variable frequency source. Calculate (i) resonant
frequency (ii) current a resonance (iii) voltage across L and C
6. An arc lamp requires 20 A current at 120 V dc source. If this lamp has to be used on an ac
source at 220 V, 50 Hz, find the value of the inductance of an inductor that must be connected
with the lamp in order to maintain the same current.
7. A resistor, an inductor and a capacitor are connected in series with a 120 V, 100 Hz ac source.
Voltage leads the current by 350 in the circuit. If the resistance of the resistor is 10  and the
sum of inductive and capacitive reactance is 17  , calculate the self inductance of the inductor.
8. A sinusoidal voltage of peak value 283 V and frequency 50 Hz is applied to a series LCRI
circuit in which R  3 , L  25.48 mH and C  786  F . Find
(a) Impedance of the circuit.
(b) The phase difference between the voltage across the source and
the current.
(c) The power factor
9. Calculate the resonant frequency and Q factor of a series LCR circuit containing a pure,
inductor of inductance 3H, capacitor of capacitance 27  F and resistor 7.4 


CHAPTER – 8
ELECTRO MAGNETIC WAVES
 According to EMI changing magnetic field produces electric current.

 The converse of this effect i.e. changing electric field produces magnetic field which is
explained by Maxwell by doing little modification to ampere’s circuital law.
1) What is conduction current

It is the current passing through a conductor due to the flow of charges.
2) Mention the inconsistency of Ampere’s circuital law.

Ampere’s circuital law is used to determine the magnetic field produced by the conduction
current and vice versa. But fails to determine magnetic field produced by displacement current
which is due to time varying electric field. This is inconsistency of Ampere’s circuital law.
3) Mention the need for displacement current.

To determine the magnetic field produced by time varying electric field, Maxwell considered
displacement current.
4) Define displacement current and derive its expression

It is the current which is produced due to changing electric field.
Consider a parallel plate charged capacitor. Let ‘P’ be a point which is outside the plates and at
a distance of ‘R’ from the conducting wires. To calculate the magnetic field at point ‘P’ imagine
a closed path as shown in the figure.
Between the plates of capacitor conduction current is zero (i.e.=0)
But there is a current because of changing electric field.
Electric flux between the plates is given by
q

0
d 1 dq

dt  0 dt
d 1
 id
dt  0
d
id   0
dt
5) Write Maxwell’s equations

1) Gauss law in electricity:
  q
  ds   0
E
2) Gauss law in magnetism:

 
 B  ds  0
3) Faraday’s law:
  d
 E  dl  dt
II PUC BOARD MATERIAL Electromagnetic Waves Page 79

4) Maxwell’s Ampere Law:
   d 
  dl  0  ic  id 
B id   0


dt 
6) Explain about electromagnetic waves and mention its properties

These are the waves which are produced by accelerated charged particles.
It consist of mutually perpendicular and time varying electric and magnetic fields.
E  E0 sin  t  kx 
B  B0 sin t  ky 
   2 f
2
K



K
Properties:
 They travels with speed of light.
 They doesn’t required any medium for their propoagation.
 They are transverse in nature.
 They show interference, diffraction and polarization.
 They effect photographic plate.
1
 According to maxwell’s theory speed of light in vacuum is given by C 
0 0
1
In any other medium  

c
Refractive index : n   r  r
v
For material other than ferromagnets
r  1  n   r
1
 Electric energy density: U E   0 E 2
2
B2
 Magnetic energy density: U B 
2 0
 Intensity of electromagnetic wave is amount of energy emitted per unit are a per second.
1
I E   0 E 2C
2
B2
IB  C
20
7) What is pointing vector and give its formula

Intensity of electromagnetic wave is measured by a physical quantity which is known as
pointing vector.

 
 E  B EB
i.e S  
0 0
 Momentum of electromagnetic wave when it is incident on any surface is
U
P
C
2U
If it is perfectly reflecting surface then P 
C
8) Define radiation pressure and give its formula

It is the pressure exerted by electromagnetic wave on any surface on which it is incident.
F S
P 
A C
If it is perfectly reflecting surface then
2S
P
C
 Electromagnetic spectrum:
Scientist name Wave length
1)   rays: Becquerle -  103 nm
2) x – rays: Rontgen - 103 nm to 1.nm
3) Ultraviolet rays: Ritter - 1 nm to 400 nm
4) Visible rays : Newton - 400 nm to 700 nm
5) Infra red : herschell - 700 nm to 1 mm
6) Microwaves: Hertz - 1 mm tp 0.1 m
7) Radio waves: Marcony - > 0.1 m
9) Mention the uses of gamma rays.

1. They are used in the treatment of cancer.
2. Gamma rays are used in the treatment of skin diseases.
3. They are used to sterilize surgical instruments.
4. They are used to find the thickness of materials.
5. They are used to find the defects in burried petroleum pipes.
6. They are used in  -ray microscope.
10) Mention the uses of X-rays

1. X-rays are used to detect foreign bodies in the human body.
2. They are used to detect fractures and dislocations of bones.
3. They are used in the treatment of brain tumor, skin diseases and cancer.
4. They are used to test the quality of welding in industry.
5. They are used in the crystal structure analysis.
11) Mention the uses of UV-rays.

1. UV-rays are used in the treatment of skin diseases and certain bone diseases.
2. They are used in production of Vitamin D.
3. They are used in the sterilization of air, water and surgical instruments in hospitals.
4. They are used to detect adulteration of food.
5. They are used to distinguish between real and artificial gems.

6. They are used to detect forged documents.
7. They are used to activate rate of chemical reactions.
8. They are used in high resolving power microscopes.
12) Mention the uses of visible rays.

1. Visible rays are used to see the things around us,
2. They are used in photosynthesis,
3. They are used in photocells.
13) Mention the uses of IR-rays.

1. IR-rays are used in long distance photography.
2. They are used to treat sprains, muscular pains and skin diseases.
3. They are used to diagnose tumors and to cure bone fractures.
4. They are used to stimulate blood circulation and infantile paralysis.
5. They are used to protect foodstuffs from decaying.
6. They are used to produce dehydrated fruits.
14) Mention the uses of microwaves.

1. Micro waves are used in micro ovens.
2. They are used in radar system.
3. They are in long distance communication system via geostationary satellites.
15) Mention one use of radio waves

Radio waves are used in communication and broadcasting.


CHAPTER – 9
RAY OPTICS AND OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS
 Optics is a branch of physics which deals with nature, properties and effects of light.
 It is broadly classified into two types i.e.
1) Ray optics
2) Wave optics
 Ray optics deals with simple properties of light and optical instruments by assuming that light
travels in straight line path.
 Ray of light is a straight line along which light propagates.
 Beam of light is group of light rays. If may be convergent, divergent and parallel.
1) What is reflection and mention the laws of reflection

It is the phenomenon of light in which light ray bounces back into same medium when it is
incident on a reflecting surface.
Law’s:
i) Incident light ray, reflected light ray and normal all lies in same plane.
ii) Angle of incidence is equals to angle of reflection i.e. i  r.
d  180   i  r 
d  180  2
 Image formation: After reflection if both the reflected light rays will converge then the image
is real or they appears to diverge then the image is virtual.
 For reflection through plane mirrors objects distance is equal to image distance and size of the
object is equal to size of the image.
 To see the full image of a person of height ‘h’ we require a mirror of height h/ 2.
II PUC BOARD MATERIAL Ray Optics and Optical Instruments Page 83

 een two mirrors which are inclined at an angle ' ' then the number
If an object is kept in between
360
of images are n 

i. Of n is even number then the number of images are n  1 (for all positions of object)
ii. If ‘n’ is odd number then
Case (1) : If the object is not on the bisector then the images are ‘n’ only.
Case (2) : If the object is on the bisector then the number of are n  1
iii. If ‘n’ is a fraction then the number of images are only in integral part.
 Spherical mirror:
 It is of two types
1) Convex
2) Concave
1) Pole : It is the midpoint of any spherical mirror.

2) Principle axis: It is a straight line which is joining pole and of curvature.
3) Principle focus: It is point where a parallel beam of light converge or ap appears to diverge after
reflection.
4) Focal length : It is distance between pole and focus.
5) Focal length of concave mirror is –ve and convex mirror is +ve.
2) What are the sign conventions for reflection through spherical mirrors
 All the distances are measured
asured from the pole and along principle axis.
 The distances which are measured in the direction of incident light are taken as +ve and which
are opp to incident light are taken ab –ve.
 Vertically upward heights are +ve and downward heights are –ve.
3) Derive
ve the relation between f and R
Consider a parallel beam of light which is incident on a concave mirror as show in the figure.
If the angles are very small then
MP
From  MPF tan 2 
FP
MP
2     I
FP

MP
From  MPC tan  
PC
MP
    II
PC
MP MP
From I and II 2 
CP RP
1 1
2 
R f
R
f 
2
4) Derive mirror equation

 AB = object of height h
 A1 B1  image of height h1
 PA object distance  u
 PA1  image distance  
 PF  focal length  f
 PC  radius of curvature  R
From similar A1 B1 F and MPF
A1 B1 B1F

MP FP
1 1
AB B1F
 I
AB FP
From similar  les A1 B1P and ABP
A1 B1 B1 P
  II
AB BP
B1 F B1 P

FP BP
v f v

f u
v v
1 
f u
v v
 1
f u
1 1 1
 
f u v
 Linear magnification:
h1
It is the ratio between size of the image and size of the object i.e. m 
h
From equation (2)

A1 B1 B1P

AB BP
1
h v

h u
1
h v

h u
1
h v
 
h u
5) Draw the ray diagram showing the formation of image by a concave minor when the
object is beyond centre of curv
curvature
ature (C). What is the nature of the image?
The image is formed between F and C. It is real,
inverted and diminished.
v
(Magnification, m    1  v  u  diminished)
u
6) Draw the ray diagram showing the formation of image by a concave mirror when the
object is at centre of curvature(C). What is the nature of the image?
The image is formed at C. It is reel inverted and
same in size.
v
(Magnification, m    1
u
 v  u  Image size = object size
size)
object is in between centre of curvature (C) and principal focus (F). What is the nature of
the image?
The image is formed beyond C. It is real,
inverted and magnified.
v
(Magnification, m   1
u
 v  u  magnified)
object is in at principal focus (F). What is the nature of
the image?
The image is formed at . It iis real, inverted and
greatly magnified.
v 
(Magnification, m    
u u
greatly magni
magnified)

object is in between the principal focus (F) and the pole (P). What is the nature of the
image?
After reflection,
ection, the rays appears to
diverge from the point A '.  The image is
formed behind the mirror. it is virtual,
erect and magnified.
v
(Magnification, m    1  magnified)
u
10) Draw the ray diagram showing the formation of image by a convex mirror when the
object is in at infinity. What is the nature of the image?
The image is formed at F behind the mirror. It is virtual erect
and greatly diminished.
(Magnification
v v
m    0. That is, point in size).
u 
11) Draw the rays diagram showing the formation of image by a convex mirror when the
object is anywhere between the infinity and the pole? What is the nature of the image?
The image A ' B ' formed
rmed by the convex mirror when the
object A B it placed anywhere
nywhere betw
between infinity and pole. The
image is always virtual, erect and diminished. It is formed
behind the mirror in between pole and principle focus.
12) Nature of the image formed by the concave mirror.
Position of the object Position of the image Nature of the image

1 At  At the principal focus (F) Real, inverted and Greatly diminished
2 Beyond centre of Between C and F Real, inverted and Diminished
curvature (C)
3 At C At C Real, inverted and Same size
4 Between C and F Beyond C Real, inverted and magnified
5 At F At  Real, inverted and Greatly magnified
6 Between F and P (pole) Behind the mirror Virtual, erect and Greatly magnified
Nature of the image formed by convex mirror.
1 At  At F Virtual, erect and Greatly
diminished
2 At any point between Behind the mirror Virtual, erect and Diminished
 and P between F and P
v
 For concave mirror
For plane mirror
(B) 2f For spherical

f mirror
O f 2f u
(A)

 Arial magnification: It is the ratio between are of image to area of object i.e.
AI v 2
Ma  
AO u 2
MA  M2
 If an object is moving towards the mirror then the image will move away from the mirror.
1 1 1
 
f u v
By differencing this equation w.r.
w.r.t time
1 du 1 dv
O 2 
u dt v 2 dt
1 dv 1 du
2
 2
v dt u dt
2
dv v du
 2
dt u dt
vI  m 2 .v0
13) What is refraction and mention the laws refraction
It is phenomenon of bending of light ray when it is travelling from one medium to another
medium.
 Laws:
a) Incident light ray, refracted light ray and normal all lie
lies same plane.
b) Snell’s law: Ratio between sin of angle of incidence to sin of angle refraction is constant i.e
sin i 
 constant  2
sin r 1
1 sin i   2 sin r
4 3
 a  1 ,   , g 
3 2
1
  and   

 2 1 1
 
1 2 2
14) Define absolute
bsolute refractive index and give its formula
It is the ratio between speed of light in vaccum and speed of light in any given medium.
c
  1
v

 Optical path: It is the equivalent distances covered by a light ray in air within the same time in
which it is travelling in a medium of thickness ' x ' and refractive index  and it is given by
O.P   x
x
 Time taken by the light ray is t 
c
x
 Number of waves present in any medium of thickness ' x ' is n 

15) Define lateral shift and give its formula
It is perpendicular distance between incident light ray and emergent light ray when it incident
on any rectangular glass plate.
t sin  i  r 
LS 
cos r
According to snell’s law
 sin   constant
1 sin i    sin r  1 sin e
sin i  sin e ie
i.e. incident light ray is parallel to emergent light  d  0 
 For small angles LS  t  i  r 
16) Define normal shift and derive its formula

It is the apparent shift in the position of object due to refraction of light when it is viewed
normally from one medium to another medium.
1) Rarer to denser:
R.D  OM rarer
A.D  IM
N S  OI  R.D  A.D
t denser
R.D x

A.D
R.D
N S  R.D 

t  1
NS  t   t 1  
  
t1 t2
 For a group of mediums total apparent depth  
1  2
 N S  N1  N 2  N 3  ......
 A microscope is focused on an ink mark which is present at the bottom now the beaker is filled
with water till a height ‘h’ then by what distance the microscope has to be raised to focus the
 1
ink mark again is h  1  
 

 Denser to rarer:
 Then the image appears to be ffar away
N S  A.D.  R.D
A.D

R.D
N S     R.D  A.D  N S   .R.D.  R.D
N S  t    1
17) Define critical angle

gle and derive the relation between refractive index and critical angle
It is the angle of incidence in denser medium for which angle of refraction is 90 0.

By applying snell’s law in above diagram
1 sin C  2 sin 900

sin C  2
1
If second medium is air
1
sin c 

  
sin C  r  d  d
 d  r r
18) Explain about total internal reflection

It is the phenomenon is which light
ray will bounces back into same
medium when angle of incidence is
greater than critical angle in denser
medium.
 Conditions for T.I.R:
1) Light ray should travel from
denser to rarer medium.
2) Angle of incidence should be greater then critical angle.
 Application:
1) Sparkling of diamond
2) Optical fibre
3) Mirage

19) What is mirage and explain about its formatiformation
It is an optical illusion due to refraction of light in ho
hotter regions.
In deserts, during hot days the air near the sand becomes hotter than the air at higher levels. To
understand this concept, the air above the sand is assumed to be made up of several layers. The air
layers closed to ground becomes very hot and hence less dense. The density of air layers increases
increase
with increase in the height.
The rays from distant object like a tree, traveling downwards (from denser medium to rarer
medium) undergo go series of refractions.
At each refraction, they bend away from the normal. The angle of incidence increases at
subsequent layers. When the angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle, the rays
undergo total internal reflection.
ection. Thus to aan observer, the rays appear to come from the sand.
Therefore the observer will observe an inverted image of tree (object) as if reflected
re from the
pool of water. This optical illusion of water is called as mirage.
20) What is total reflecting prism?

It is an isosceles right angled prism works on the principle of total internal reflection. It is used
to bend the light by 90° or 180°.
21) On which principle total reflecting prisms work? Total internal reflection.
ection.
22) Draw the diagrams of total reflecting prisms which bends the image (rays),
(a) Through 90° (b) Through 180°
23) Draw the diagrams of total reflecting prisms which invert an image without the deviation
of the ray.
24) Mention one use of total reflecting prisms.

They are used in prism binoculars aand periscopes.

25) What is an optical fibre?
It is a device works on the principle of total internal re
reflection.
ection. It is used to transmit the light in
desired path.
26) On which principle the optical fibre works? Total internal reflection
27) What is a light pipe? (or What hat is an optical pipe?)
It is a bundle of optical fibres
28) Explain construction and working of Optical fibres
Construction
Optical fibres
bres are fabricated with high quality flexible
exible glass or quartz. Each fibre consists of
core and cladding. The refractive
ctive index of the material of the core is greater than that of cladding.
For providing safety and strength, the core cladding is enclosed in a plastic jaccket.
Working
A signal in the form of light made to fall at one end of the fibre at suitable angle. The
Th entered light
will incident on the core-cladding
cladding interface at an angle greater than the critical angle. Hence the ray
undergoes repeated total internal reflections along the length of the fibre
bre and finally comes out at
the other end as shown in the figurgure.
e. There is no appreciable loss in the intensity of light even the
ray undergo repeated total internal rereflections. The optical fibres
bres packed such that the free ends of
the fibre
bre on both sides of the bundle are at the same relative positions
29) Mention the applications / advantages / uses of optical fibres
1) Optical fibres
bres are used in telecommunication.
2) They are used to transmit audio and video signals.
3) They are used in decorative table lamps.
4) They are used in endoscopes t.o view the interior parts human body.
Refraction through spherical surface:

elation between  , u, and R
30) Derive the relation
Consider a spherical refracting surface of refractive index '  2 ' which is surrounded by a
medium of refractive index ' 1 '.
Let ' O ' be a point object on the principle axis which is at a distance of ‘u’ from the pole. Then
‘I’ be the real image which is formed due to refraction which is at a distance of ' ' from the
pole.
If the angles are very small then tan   
MP

OP

MP

PC
MP

PI
From OMC
i   
From IMC
  r 
r   
From snell’s law
1 sin i   2 sin r
1i   2 r (since the angle are small)
1      2     
 MP MP   MP MP 
1     2   
 OP PC   PC PI 
1 1  
  2  2
OP PC PC PI
1 2 2 1
  
OP PI PC PC
1  2  2  1
 
u  R
2 1 2  1
 
 u R
 For refractionn through any spherical surface
 I 0  I  0
 
I .d o.d R
Lens : It is the homogeneous optical medium bounded by two surfaces of which at least one is
spherical.
Types of lenses
 Refraction through lens:

1) Focus: It is the point where a parallel beam of light will converge or appears to diverge
after refraction.

1 1 1
 Lens equation or lens formula is  
f v u
h1 v
 Linear magnification m  
h u
31) Derive lens maker’s formula
Consider a convex lens which is made by two spherical refracting surfaces of radius R1 and R2
and refractive index  2 . which is placed in air ‘O’ be the point objects in air which gives final
image ‘I’ in air.
 For refraction at first surface:
For refraction at first surface ‘O’ is the object which forms a real image at I 1 in denser
medium.
2 1 2  1
   1
v1 u R1
 For refraction at second surface:
For refraction through 2nd surface I 1 will act as object which in denser medium which forms
final image at I in rarer medium.
1  2 1   2
    2
v v1 R2
By adding equations (1) and (2)
1 1 2  1 1  2
  
v u R1 R2
1 1 1 1 
1      2  1    
v u  R1 R2 
1  2  1 1 
   1  
f  1  R1 R2 

32) Define power of a lens and give its formula
1
It is the reciprocal of focal length i.e P   meter 1
f
 Units of power are dioptre
100
 P if ' f ' is in cm.
f
 If any lens is surrounded by rarer medium than its nature will not change.
 If any lens is surrounded by denser medium than its nature will be alteraltered i.e. convex will
behave as concave (or) concave will behave as convex.
33) Linear magnification

cation of a lens (or Magni
Magnification of a lens)
It is the ratio of i the height of the mage produced by the lens to the height of the object.
Height of the image
Magnification 
Height of the object
hi
m 
h0
34) Derivee the expression for effective focal length when two thin lenses are in contact
Consider two convex lenses of focal lengths F1 and F2 which are in contact as shown in the
figure.
Let ‘O’ be the point object which gives a final image at ‘I’.
For refraction through first lens ‘O’ be is the object and I1 be the image
By using lens equation
1 1 1
   1
f1 v1 u
For the second lens I1 will act as object which gives the final image at ‘I’.
By using lens equations
1 1 1
    2  by adding equation (1) and (2)
f 2 v v1
1 1 1 1
  
f1 f 2 v u
1 1 1
 
f1 f 2 f
1 1 1
 
f f1 f 2

P  P1  P2
 If the lenses are separated by distance ‘d’ then
1 1 1 d
  
f f1 f 2 f1 f 2
P  P1  P2  dP1 P2
 Effective magnification:
m  m1  m2
35) Factors on which the focal length of a lens depends.

The focal length of a lens depends on
1) The refractive index of material of the lens,
2) The refractive index of the medium surrounding the lens,
3) Radii of curvature of lens surfaces,
4) The wavelength of light used.
 Refraction through prism:

 Prism is an optical medium which is bounded with 3 rectangular faces
and two triangular faces.
 The edge which is common to both the refer acting surface is known as
refracting edge.
 The angle between both the refracting surfaces is known as refract
angle or angle of the prism.
 Any part of the prism which is perpendicular to refracting edge is known as principle section.
36) derive the expression for refractive index oof prism

 Let ABC is the principle section of a prism of refractive index '  ' Let PQ be the incident light
ray, QR be the refracted light ray and RS be the emergent light ray.
 From QNR r1  r2  Nˆ  1800
From cyclic quadrilateral AQNR
Aˆ  Nˆ  1800
From above two equations
A  r1  r2  1 (angle of prism)
Total deviation of the incident light ray is given by
d  d1  d 2  i1  r1  i2  r2
d  i1  i2  A   2  (deviation produced by any prism)
The graph between angle of deviation and an angle of
incidence is as follows
From the graph for any deviation there are two angle of
incidences i.e. i1 and i2 but at m
minimum deviation
d  D, i1  i2  r1  r2 (from snell’s law)

A
Then 1  A  2r  r 
2
 2   D  2i  A
A D
i
2
From snell’s law
sin i

sin r
 A D 
sin  
  2 
A
sin
2
 At minimum deviation r1  r2 i.e. refracted light ray is parallel to base of the prism.
37) What is thin prism

If the angle of the prism is about 100 than it is said to be thin prism.
38) Derive the expression for deviation of thin prism

Deviation is given by d  i1  i2  A
According to snell’s law
sin i1
  i1   r1
sin r1
sin i2
  i2   r2
sin r2
d   r1   r2  A
d    r1  r2   A
d  A A
d  A    1
1 1
 d   and    d  for violet deviation is more and for red derivation is less
 
39) What is dispersion
It is the phenomenon in is which white light splits into all the 7 colours when it is incident on
optical medium.
40) Define angular dispersion and give its formula

It is the difference between any two deviations
dV  d R   V  1 A    R  1 A
dV  d R   V   R  A

41) Define mean deviation and give its formula
It is the average deviation of any two colours.
d  dR   R
dm  V   m  1 A where M  V
2 2
42) Define dispersive power and give its formula

It is the ratio between angular dispersion and mean deviation.
d  d R V   R fV  f R
i.e   V  
dM M  1 fY
 Dispersive power is independent of angle of prism.
43) Write the conditions for dispersion without deviation
1) Both the prism should be made by different materials

2) Both the prisms should be arranged in such way that their refracting angles are opposite to
each other.
3) But d   n  1 A and d '   n ' 1 A '
  n  1 A   n ' 1 A '
44) What is scattering of light? Give one example
It is the phenomenon of absorption and re-emission of light by the particles of optical medium.
Example: Rayleigh’s scattering.
45) What is Rayleigh’s scattering?

It is the scattering of sun light by the particles of atmosphere.
46) State Rayleigh’s law of scattering.

The intensity of scattered light is inversely proportional to fourth power of the wavelength
present in the scattered light.
1
Explanation. I  when size of the scattering particles << 
4
Where  is the wavelength of scattered light.
47) Why sky appears blue? Explain

It is due to the scattering of sunlight by the particles of atmosphere.
1
According to Rayleigh’s law, I 
4
where I is the intensity and  is the wavelength of scattered light.
The sunlight is composite light. ,When it propagates through the atmosphere, the light of shorter
wavelength scatters with more intensity. Among the shorter wavelengths, blue colour is more
sensitive to the human eye. Therefore, the sky appears blue.

48) Why sun appears reddish during sunrise and sunset? Explain.
It is due to the scattering of sunlight by the particles of atmosphere.
1
According to Rayleigh’s law, I 
4
where I is the intensity and It is the wavelength of scattered light.
The sunlight is composite light. When the light propagates longer distance through the
atmosphere, the light of shorter wavelength scatters away from the line of sight. The least
scattered colour is red and reaches the observer. Therefore the sun appears red during sun rise
and sun set.
49) What is a rainbow?
It is the spectrum produced by refraction, dispersion and internal reflection of sun light by the
rain drops.
50) What are the conditions to observe rainbow?
1) Rainbow is observed during the rainfall or after the rainfall.
2) The back of the observer must be towards the sun.
{The sun should be shining in one part of the sky (say near western horizon) and while raining
in the opposite part of the sky (say eastern horizon)}
51) Types of rainbow 1) Primary rainbow 2) Secondary rainbow
52) Distinguish between primary and secondary rainbows.

Primary rainbow Secondary rainbow
1 It is formed due to two refractions and one It is formed due to two refractions and
internal reflection of light incident on the water two internal reflections of the light
drop. incident on the water drop.
2 Outer edge is red and inner edge is violet. Outer edge is violet and inner edge is red.
3 Intensity is more. Intensity is less.
4 Violet light emerges from the drop at an angle Violet light emerges from the drop at an
of 40° with respect to incoming sunlight and red angle of 50° with respect to incoming
emerges at an angle of 42°. sunlight and red light emerges at an angle
of 53°.
53) Explain about working of eye
The above figure shows the different parts of eye which is natural optical instrument.
Eye lens
It is a double convex lens situated behind the iris. It is composed of fibrous, jelly like material.
The lens is held in position by the ciliary muscles. By contracting or relaxing, the ciliary muscles
can change the curvature and hence the focal length of the lens.
Retina
It is a sensitive membrane of nerve fibres on the inner side of the back wall of the eye. The
retina contains light sensitive cells called rods and cones. The rods are sensitive to intensity of light

and cones are sensitive to colours. These cells change the light energy into electromagnetic signals
and transmit to the brain via the optic nerves.
Sclerotic
It is a tough, opaque white cover which protects and holds the eye ball.
Cornea
It is the transparent front surface of the eye. It is slightly bulges out. The light from the object
enters into the eye through the cornea.
Iris and pupil.
Iris is an opaque circular diaphragm having the small hole at its centre. Pupil is the small at the
centre of the iris. Under the muscular action of the iris, the size of the pupil becomes smaller in
bright light and larger in dim light.
Eye lens.
It is a double convex lens situated behind the iris. It is composed of fibrous, jelly like material.
The lens is held in position by the ciliary muscles. By contracting or relaxing, the ciliary muscles
can change the curvature and hence the focal length of the lens.
Aqueous humour and Vitreous humour
Aqueous humour is a salty fluid which fills the space between the cornea and the eye lens.
Vitreous humour is a jelly like fluid which fills the space between the retina and eye lens.
54) Accommodation or accommodating power
It is the ability (or property) of the eye lens due to which it can change its curvature and hence
its focal length to see the objects clearly situated at different distances.
55) Least distance of distinct Vision or near point (D)
It is the minimum distance from the eye at which the eye can see the object clearly and
distinctly without any strain. For a normal human eye, its value is 25cm
56) What is Myopia? or what is near-sightedness?
It is a vision defect due to which a person cannot see far objects clearly.
57) How Myopia is corrected?
It is corrected by using a concave lens of suitable focal length between the eye and the object.
If a person has myopic eye, the rays coming from the object will focus in front of the retina as
shown in the figure-1. To form clear image of an object, the rays must focus on the using a concave
lens as shown in the figure-2.
58) What is Hypermetropia (far-sightedness)?
It is a vision defect due to which at person cannot see near objects clearly.
59) How Hypermetropia is corrected?
It is corrected by using a convex lens of suitable focal length between the eye and the object.
If a person has Hypermetropic eye, the rays coining from the object will focus behind the retina
as shown in the figure-1. To form clear image of an object, the rays must focus on the retina using a
convex lens as shown in the figure-2.
60) What is Presbyopia and how it can be corrected
These people cannot see both near objects as well as for objects. This is due to the reason that
their near point is more than 25 cm and for point is less than infinity.
It can be corrected by using a suitable bifocal lens.
61) What is astigmatism and how it can be corrected
This defect is due to the improper spherical nature of eye lens. These people cannot see the
objects in mutually perpendicular planes.
 It can be corrected by using a cylindrical lens.
 Optical instruments:
1. Simple microscope:
Case (1) : Object is at the focus image is at infinity.
When the image is at infinity we have to define angular magnification and it is defined as
the ratio between angle made by the image to the angle made by the object when it is at near
point.

i.e. m  i
0
h1
tan i   i

h1 
m 
h u
1 h h
i  .   u   f 
 u f
h
0 
D

m i
0
h/ f D
 
h/D f
Case (2) : Object distance is less than the focal length image is formed at near point.
h1 
Linear magnification is given by m  
h u
 1 1 
m     
u  f 

m  1
f
D
m  1     D 
f
 The maximum magnification can be produced by a simple microscope is  9.
2. Compound microscope: It uses two lenses which are known as objective lens and eye
piece such that focal length of objective lens is very much smaller than the focal length of
eye piece.
 The working of eye piece is similar to working of simple microscope.
h1 
Magnification of objective lens m0  or 0
h u0
h1 h
tan   
L f0
h1 L
mO  
h f0
D D
Magnification of eye piece me  or 1 
fe fe
 Total magnification of compound microscope
m  m0  me
3. Telescope: It is used to magnify distance objects. It uses two lenses one is objective and
other is eye piece such that the size of objective lens is greater than eye piece.
Angular magnification is angle made by the image at eye to the angle made by the object at
lens.

m

h
tan    
fe
h
tan   
f0

m

f
m o
fe
Length of the telescope or tube length L  f 0  f e

4. Reflecting telescope: (Casse grain telescope)
Construction
The above figure shows a Cassegrain reflecting telescope. It consists of a large parabolic
concave mirror with a narrow hole at the centre. This mirror is called the primary mirror. There is a
small convex mirror near the focus of the primary mirror. This convex mirror is called as the
secondary mirror .A eye piece is fitted to the hole of the primary mirror as shown in the figure.
Working
The parallel rays from the distant object fall on the primary mirror. After reflection theses rays
tend to converge at the focus of this mirror. But before converging at the focus, the rays are
reflected by the secondary convex mirror and are converge to a point just outside the hole. The final
image is formed on the eye piece. This image is inverted with respect to the object.
5. State some advantages of reflecting telescope over a retracting telescope
1) The final image is very bright.
This is because, in reflecting telescopes, the absorption of light coming from the object is
less.
2) The resolving power is very high.
It is due to the large aperture of the objective mirror.
3) It is free from chromatic aberrations.
4) It is free from spherical aberrations.
5) Its cost is less.
It is easy to mount the mirrors than the lenses.
PROBLEMS:
1. A small candle, 2.5 cm in size is placed at 27 cm in front of a concave mirror of radius of
curvature 36 cm. At what distance from the mirror should a screen be placed in order to obtain a
sharp image? Describe the nature and size of the image. If the candle is moved closer to the
mirror, how would the screen have to be moved?
2. A 4.5 cm needle is placed 12 cm away from a convex mirror of focal length 15 cm. Give the
location of the image and the magnification. Describe what happens as the needle is moved
farther from the mirror.
3. A small bulb is placed at the bottom of a tank containing water to a depth of 80 cm. what is the
area of the surface of water through which light from the bulb can emerge out? Refractive index
of is 1.33 (Consider the bulb to be a point source.)
4. A prism of certain material produces an angle of minimum deviation for a monochromatic ray
equal to the angle of prism. If the refractive index of the material of the prism is 1.53, calculate
the angle of the prism.
5. A ray of light incident on one face of an equilateral prism made of glass of RI 1.54 undergoes
grazing emergence at the other face. Calculate the total deviation suffered by the ray.
6. At what angle should a ray of light be incident on the face of a prism of refracting angle 60 0 so
that it just suffers total internal reflection at the other face? The refractive index of the material
of the prism is 1.524.
7. Double-convex lenses are to be manufactured from a glass of refractive index 1.55, with both
faces of the same radius of curvature. What is the radius of curvature required if the focal length
is to be 20 cm?
8. A beam of light converges at a point P. Now a lens is placed in the path of the convergent beam
12 cm from P. At what point does the beam converge if the lens is (a) a convex lens of focal
length 20 cm, and (b) a concave lens of focal length 16 cm?
9. A compound microscope consists of an objective lens of focal length 2.0 cm and an eyepiece of
focal length 6.25 cm separated by a distance of 15 cm. How far from the objective should an
object be placed in order to obtain the final image at (a) the least distance of distinct vision (25
cm), and (b) at infinity? What is the magnifying power of the microscope in each case?
10. A small telescope has an objective lens of focal length 144 cm and an eyepiece of focal length
6.0 cm. What is the magnifying power of the telescope? What is the separation between the
objective and the eyepiece?

CHAPTER – 10
WAVE OPTICS
 Wave optics is a branch of optics which explains about the properties of light such as
interference, diffraction and polarization by considering that light propagates in the form of
waves.
 Newton’s corpuscular theory: According to this theory light consist tiny particles which are
known as corpuscles.
 This theory successfully explain about rectilinear propagation of light and reflection.
 According to Newton’s theory speed of light in denser is more than in rarer medium which is
wrong.
1. What is wave front and mention its types.

It is the locus of all points which are
maintained at same phase.
 For a point source wave front is spherical
 For a linear source wave front is
cylindrical
 For a distant source wave front is parallel.
2. Write the postulates of Huygen’s wave theory

1) According to this light is propagating in the form of
longitudinal waves in a hypothetical medium which is
known as ether.
2) Each and every point on the primary wave front will
acts as secondary sourcee of disturbance.
 Huygen’s theory successfully explained about propagation, reflection, refraction,
refraction interference
and diffraction.
3. Explain about reflection phenomena by Huygen’s theory

Consider a plane wave front AB which is incident on a plane mirror by making an angle of
incidence i as shown in the figure. The light ray which is incident at the point A reflects along
AD such that AD  vt. Within the same time let the light ray at ‘B’ is reaching the points then
BC   t. Now the reflected wave front can be constructed by drawing a perpendicular from C
to d.
Since DAC and BAC are congruent triangles their opposite angles are equal i.e. i  r. (Which is
law of reflection).
II PUC BOARD MATERIAL Wave Optics Page 104

4. Explain about refraction of light by using Huygen’s theory and hence derive Snell’s law
Consider a plane wave front AB which is incident on a plane which is separating two mediums
of refractive index 1 and  2 by making an angle of incidence i, as show in the figure.
Let the refracted light ray is travelling from A to E in a time of ‘t’ sec. then AE   2t within the
same time that let the light ray at ‘B’ is reaching the point ‘C’ the BC  1t. The refracted wave
front can be constructed by drawing a perpendicular from point C to E.
From right angled triangle ABC
BC
sin i 
AC
From triangle AEC
AE
sin r  divide above
AC
sin i AC

sin r AE
sin i 1t sin i 1
  
sin r 2t sin r 2
Since i  r , 1   2 i.e. speed of light in rarer medium is greater than speed of light indenser
medium.
C  
Absolute refractive index    2 1
 1 2
There fore equation (1) becomes
sin i 2
 {Which is snell’s law}
sin r 2
5. Draw the shape of the refracted wavefront when a plane wavefront is incident on the
prism.
AB is the incident wavefront and A ' B ' is the refracted wavefront.
Explanation
Different parts of the wavefront travel different thickness of the prism.
The velocity of light in rarer medium is greater than that in the denser
medium.
The upper part of the wavefront
avefront A travels minimum thickness and slowed down for short time.
The lower part of the wavefront B travels maximum thickness and slowed down for long time.
This explains the tilting of the plane wavefront after refraction through a glass prism as shown
in the figure.
6. Draw the shape of the refracted wavefront when a plane wavefront is incident on the
convex lens.
AB is the Incident wavefront and A ' B ' is the refracted
Wavefront.
Different parts of the wavefront travel different thickness of the
lens. The velocity of light inn rarer medium is greater than that in
the denser medium. The uppupper and lower parts of the wavefront
travel minimum thickness and slowed down for short time. The

middle part of the wavefront travels maximum thickness and slowed down for long time.
This explains the tilting of the plane wavefront after refraction at the edges and forms a
spherical wavefront and converges to the principal focus F as shown in the figure.
7. Draw the shape of the reflected wavefront when a plane wavefront is incident on the
concave mirror.
AB is the Incident wavefront and A ' B ' is the reflected wavefront.
A plane wavefront AB is incident on a concave mirror with the pole
at P. The middle of the wavefront has to travel the largest distance to P
before it get reflected.
ected. The peripheral portion of wavefront has travel
the smallest distance before getting re
reflected. Therefore, the reflected
wavefront is converging as spherical wavefront A ' B ' . The
corresponding rays are shown by dotted lines.
8. State Doppler
oppler effect and hence define red shift and blue shi shift
It is the apparent
pparent change in frequency of light if the there is relative motion between source and
observer.
 When the source is moving towards a stationary observer apparent frequency increases,
wavelength decreases therefore all the colours in visible spectrum will shift towards less wave
length which is known as blue shift.
 When the source is moving away from a stationary observer apparent frequency decreases,
wavelength increases therefore all the colours in visible spectrum will shift towards higher
wavelength which is known as red shift.
f vs
  { ' f ' inversely proportional to '  ' }
f c
f 

f 
9. What are the coherent sources

sources? Give example.
These are the sources of light, which emit the light waves of same wavelength and having
hav
constant phase difference.
Examples: Young’s double pin holes, Young’s double slits.
10. What is interference of light

It is the phenomenon of modification in the intensity of light due to overlapping of two coherent
waves.
 The points at which two crests or two troughs will overlap intensity is maximum which is
known as constructive interference.
 The points at which crest of one wave overlaps with trough of another wave their iintensity is
minimum which is known as distructive interference.
11. Mention the conditions for sustained interference

 Both the sources should be coherent ((constant phase difference or zero phase difference).
 Both the sources should be very nearer to each othe
other.
 Sources should be narrow.
 Amplitudes of both the waves should be equal or very near.

12. Explain about theory of interference
Consider two coherent sources of light whose displacements are given by
y1  A1 sin t
y2  A2 sin t   
According to principle of super position net displacement y  y1  y2
y  A1 sin t  A2 sin t   
y  A1 sin t  A2  sin t cos   cos t sin  
y  A1 sin t  A2 sin t cos   A2 cos t sin 
y  sin t  A1  A2 cos    A2 cos t sin 
y  sin t  A1  A2 cos    A2 sin  cos t
Let A1  A2 cos   R cos   1
A  sin   R sin    2 
y  sin tR cos   R sin  cos t
y  R sin t   
 By squaring and adding equation (1) and (2) R 2  a12  a22  2a1a2 cos 
R  a12  a22  2a1a2 cos 

 Resultant intensity I  I1  I 2  2 I1 I 2 cos 
13. Write the conditions for constructive interference

R  a12  a22  2a1a2 cos 
 R is maximum if cos   1    0, 2 , 4 ,....
  2n n  0,1, 2,...
i.e. phase difference is even multiplies '  '
2
  x  x  path difference


.x  2n  n  0,1, 2,3,.........
2

i.e. path difference is even multiples of
2
Rmax  a1  a2
2
I max   a1  a2 
 if a1  a2 Rmax  2a
I max  4a 2
I max  4 I
14. Mention the conditions for destructive interference

If R is minimum if cos   1     ,3 ,5 ,......
i.e.    2n  1   n  0,1, 2,....
i.e. phase difference is equal to odd multiples of 
2
  x


x   2n  1
2

i.e. path difference is odd multiples of
2
Rmin  a1  a2
2
I min   a1  a2 
If a1  a2 Rmin  0  dark band 
I min  0
1) Describe Young’s double slit experiment to demonstrate interference of light.
Young’s double slit apparatus consists of a narrow rectangular slit S. It is illuminated by a

monochromatic light. The light emerging from S illuminates the two identical close slits S1 and
S2 which acts as coherent sources. The waves emerging from S1 and S2 get superposed and
interference fringes are produced as shown on the observation screen.
The interference pattern will have the following characteristics.
1) It has alternate bright and dark fringes.
2) The width of bright fringe is equal to the width of dark fringe.
3) The intensity of all the bright fringes is same.
4) The intensity of all the dark fringes is zero.
Bright fringes are formed on the screen due to the superposition of crests of two waves or
troughs of two waves. Dark fringes are formed due to the superposition of crest and trough of
two waves. At the centre of the screen always bright fringe is formed. This is because, all the
waves meeting at the centre of the screen have the zero path difference and zero phase
difference.
15. Define fringe width and hence derive its expression

It is the distance between two alternate bright bands or two alternate dark bands.
Consider a point source of light which is emitting light waves. Let S 1 and S2 are 2 narrow slits
which are separated by distance of ‘d’.

Let a screen is placed at a distance of ‘D’ from the slits. Let ‘p’ be a point which is at a distance
y if from the centre of the screen. Then at ‘P’ path difference is equal to S 2 P  S1 P
From triangle S1 PA.
2
2 2 d
S1 P  D   y      1
 2
From triangle S 2 PB
2
2 
2 d
S2 P  D   y       2 
 2
(2) – (1)
2 2
 d  d
S 2 P  S1 P  D   y    D 2   y  
2 2 2
 2  2
2 2
2 2  d  d
S2 P  S1P   y     y  
 2  2
d
 S2 P  S1P  S2 P  S1 P   4. y.
2
2 y.d
 S2 P  S1 P  
S 2 P  S1 P
2 yd
S2 P  S1P 
S 2 B  S1 A
2 yd
S2 P  S1P 
DD
2 yd
S2 P  S1P 
2D
yd
S2 P  S1P 
D
yd
 Path difference, 
D

 For bright band, path difference is even multiples of
2

P.d  2.n
2
P.d  n
Yd n D
 n  YB 
D d
 For first bright band, n  1
D
 Y1 
d
nd
For 2 bright band, n  2
2 D
 Y2 
d

 fringe width   y2  y1
D

d
 For dark band,

Path difference   2n  1
2
 yd
 2n  1 
2 D
 D  2n  1
YD 
2d
st
For 1 dark band,
n0
D
 y1 
2d
nd
For 2 dark band
n 1
D
y2  3.
2d
   y2  y1
D

d
 If the entire apparatus of young’s double slit experiment is immersed in any liquid of refractive
index  , then the new fringe width is
D

d
1D
1 
d
1
 1

 

1 

 In Y.D.S.E intensity at any point on the screen is given by:
R  a12  a22  2a1a2 cos 
R 2  a12  a22  2a1a2 cos 
If a1  a2
R 2  2a 2  2a 2 cos 
R 2  2a 2 1  cos  
 
R 2  2a 2  2 cos 2 
 2

 
R 2  4a 2 cos 2  
2
 
R 2  I max cos 2  
2
 
I  I max .cos 2  
2
 Geometrical shadows of any object is due to rectilinear propagation of light.
16. What is diffraction and mention its types?

It is the phenomena of bending of light at the
corners of an object and eneter into
geometrical shadow region.
 Diffraction is classified into two types i.e.,
(1) Fresnal Diffraction
(2) Fraunhofer diffraction
 Diffraction effects can be observed if the size of the object is compared to wavelength of
incident light.
17. What is Fresnel distance?

It is the distance between slit and the screen for which the diffraction spread of a beam is equal
to size of the aperature.
18. Distinguish between Fresnel Diffraction and Fraunhofer Diffraction

Fresnel Diffraction Fraunhofer
ofer Diffraction
i) Both source and screen are at finite distance i) Both source and screen are at infinite
fro m the slit. distance from the slit.
ii) He used either spherical or cylindrical wave ii) He used plane wave front.
front.
iii) Lenses are not required. iii) Convex lenses are used.
19. Explain about Fraunhoferr diffraction (Diffraction at single slit)

Experimental setup consists of a slit of width ‘d’ and two convex lenses L1 and L2 such that
source is placed at the principle focus of L1 and screen is placed at the principle focus of L2.
The secondary waves which are incide
incident on L2 without any deviation will reach to the point ‘o’
on the screen which results central maxima.

The secondary waves which are diffracted by an angle ' ' will reach to the point ‘p’ on the
screen.
The path difference between the waves which are reaching to the point ‘p’ is given by
P.d  d .sin 
After developing the screen it is observed that there are 3 types of bands i.e., central maxima,
minima and secondary maxima whose intensity decreases gradually.
 For the waves which are reaching to the point ‘o’ on the screen.
  0.
 for central maxima path difference = 0.
 For minima, path difference
d sin   n  n  1, 2,...
 For secondary maxima,

Path difference d sin    2n  1 ;  n  1, 2,...
2
20. Distinguish between interference and diffraction.
Interference Diffraction
i) It is due to overlapping of two coherent i) It is due to overlapping of infinite number of
sources secondary waves.
iii) All the bright bands are of same intensity iii) Intensity of bright bands decreases
gradually.
iv) All the bands are separated by equal iv) They are not equal spaced
distance
v) Path difference for bright band is even v) Path difference of secondary maxima is
 
multiple of odd multiples of
2 2
vi) Path difference for dark band is odd vi) Path difference for monima is even
 
multiples of multiples of
2 2
21. Define limit

mit of resolution of microscope ((dx)
It is the minimum linear distance between the two object ts so that they are just resolved.
22. Define resolving power of microscope and give its formula
It is the reciprocal of minimum linear distance between the two
objects
cts so that they are just resolved.
1 2 sin 
R.P  
dx 1.22
23. Define limit of resolution of telescope  d 
It is the minimum angular separation between the two objects so that they are just reolved.
24. Define resolving power of telescope and give its formula
It is the reciprocal of minimum angular separation between
the two objecs so that they are just resolved.
1.22
Limits of resolution 
D
1 D
R.P  
d 1.22

25. What is polarization of light?
It is the phenomenon in which the vibrations of light wave are restricted to one plane
perpendicular to the direction of propagation.
26. What is Plane-polarized

polarized light?
It is the light wave having the vibrations
ibrations in one plane perpendicular to the direction of
propagation.
27. Which field vector, electric or magnetic, is used to represent the polarization of an
electromagnetic wave? Ans: Electric field vector.
28. Representation of unpolarized light

29. Representation of plane polarized light
30. Give the experimental proof for transverse nature of light

Consider two turmoline crystals which are cut along their crystallographic graphic axis are placed
parallel to each other. Let an unpolarised light is incident on first crystal as shown in the figure.
Experimental observations are

 There is no change in the intensity of lifht after ‘B’ when both the crystals are parallel to each
other.
 As ‘B’ is rotated, intensity decreases gradually and becomes zero when both ‘A’ and ‘B’ are
perpendicular.
 If ‘B’ is further rotated, intensity increases gradually and becomes maximum, when both ‘A’
and ‘B’ are antiparallel.
From the above observations if light waves are longitudinal, there should not be any change in
intensity after ‘B’ when it is rotated.
Therefore, they are transversese in nature.
31. State and explain Malus law

The intensity of light after analyse
analyser is directly proportional to square of ‘cos’ of angle between
polarise and analyser.
I  cos 2 
I  I 0 cos 2 
A0
A cos 
2

32. Define polarizing angle
It is the angle of incidence at which reflected light is completely polarized.
33. State Brewster’s law
According to this refractive index of the medium is equal to tangent of polarizing angle.
i.e.,   tan  P
34. By using Brewster’s
ster’s law show that reflected and refracted light rays are perpendicular
each other.
Consider an unpolarised light which is travelling from air to a medium of refractive index  at
polarizing angle.
From Broosters law
  tan  P
sin  P
    1
cos  P
From snell’s law
sin i

sin r
sin  P
 --- (2)
sin r
sin  P sin  P

cos  P sin r
cos  P  sin r
sin  90   P   sin r
90   P  r
90  r   P
From the figure,
 P    r  1800
90    1800
  900
 Both reflected and refracted rays are perpendicular to each other.
35. Derive Brewster’s law

If   900
Then  P  r  900
r  90   P
From Snell’s law
sin i sin  P
 
sin r sin r
sin  P

sin  90   P 
sin  P

cos  P
  tan  P

36. What are uses of polaroids
 It is used to produce polarized light.
 They are used in windows of vehicles.
 They are in the headlig ht of vvehicles.
 They are used to improve the colour contrasts in ol
old paintings.
37. Polarization by scattering
Dots are the vibrations of electric field

eld vector perpendicular to plane of paper and
Double arrows are the vibrations of electric field vector parallel to plane of paper.
Sun light is unpolarized light. When sun light falls on the air molecule, the electrons in the
molecule begin to vibrate in these planes. The electrons vibrating parallel to the double arrows
cannot send energy towards the observer looking perpendicular to the direction of incident light.
This is because light is a transverse wave. But the electrons vibrating parallel to the dots can send
energy towards the observer. It is plane polarized light which contains only dots.
PROBLEMS:
1. The ratio of the intensities of light waves from two coherent sources is 16 : 9. Find the ratio of
the amplitudes of the interfering waves?
2. In Young’s double slit experiment the ratio of the two w waves
aves is 9 : 1. Calculate the ratio of the
intensities at the maximum and minimum.
slit experiment the angular width of a fringe is found to be 0.2 0 on a screen placed 1
3. In a double-slit
m away. The wavelength of light used is 600 nm. What will be the angular wi width of the fringe if
the entire experimental apparatus is immersed in water? Take refractive index or water to be
4/3.
4. In Young’s double-slit
slit experiment distance between the slits is 1 mm. The fringe width is found
to be 0.6 mm. When the screen is moved th through
rough a distance of 0.25 m the fringe width becomes
0.75 mm. Calculate the wavelength of the light used.
5. Light of wavelength 6000 A 0 is used to obtain interference fringe of width 6 mm in a young’s
double slit experiment. Calculate the wavelength of light required to obtain fringe of width 4
mm if the distance between the screen and slits is reduced to half of its initial value.
ate the distance between the centres of 4 th and 7th bright fringes in an interference pattern
6. Calculate
produced in Young’s double slit experiment. Given : separation between the slits =
3
1.1  10 m, wavelength of light used = 589.3 nm, distance o off the screen from the slits = 1.3 m.
7. In a Young’s double-slitslit experiment using monochromatic light of wavelength  , the intensity
of light at a point on the screen where path difference is  is K units. What is the intensity of
light at a point where path difference is  /3?

8. A beam of light consisting of two wavelengths 500 nm and 400 nm is used to obtain
interference fringes in Young’s double slit experiment. The distance between the slits is 0.3 mm
and the distance between the slits and the screen is 1.5 m. Compute the least distance of the
point from the central maximum, where the bright fringes due to both the wavelengths coincide.
9. In young’s double slit experiment two coherent sources are 1.2 mm apart. Interference fringes
are formed on a screen at a distance of 2 m from the sources. If wavelength of light used is 5400
A 0 . Find the number of fringes in the interference pattern which is 7.2 mm long.
10. A beam of light consisting of two wavelengths 650 nm and 520 nm is used to obtain
interference fringes in a Young’s double-slit experiment.
a) Find the distance of the third bright fringe on the screen from the central maximum for
wavelength 650 nm.
b) What is the least distance from the central maximum where the bright fringes due to both
the wavelengths coincide? (d = 2mm; D = 1.2 m)
11. The angular separation between two stars is 4.8  106 rad, when they are just resolved, by a
telescope. Find the resolving power and the radius of the objective of the telescope, wavelength
of light is 650 nm.


CHAPTER – 11
DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION AND MATTER
1. Explain the types of electron emission

Electron emission can occur in 3 ways.
a) Thermionic emission :
When the metal is subjected to high temperature than electron emission can occur this
process is called as thermionic emission.
b) Field emission :
When the metal is subjected to high electric field like 10 8 v/m then electrons can be ejected
from the metal surface.
Eg: Discharge of electricity in the form of spark is an example for field emission.
c) Photoelectric emission :
When certain metals are subjected to suitable frequency then electrons are ejected from the
metal surface.
2. Define work function

The minimum amount of energy required to eject electron from the metal surface is called work
function of that metal.
Note : Least work function of metal is ceasium with 2.14 eV.

Highest work function of metal is platinum with 5.65 eV.
3. Define electron volt

The energy possessed by the electrons when it is accelerated through 1 volt potential difference
is called one electron volt.
One electron volt  1.602  1019 J
 Electron volt is used to measure energy in atomic physics and nuclear physics.
4. Write Hallwachs observations

 When a neutral zinc plate is exposed to UV radiations then zinc
plate acquired +ve charge.
 When negative charged Zn plate exposed to UV radiations it
becomes neutral by loosing electrons.
 When UV light is incident on +vely charged zn plate it is gaining
+ve charge.
 So he concluded that when metal surfaces are exposed to suitable
frequencies than they will eject electrons.
5. What is photo electric effect

Emission of electrons from a metal plate when light of suitable frequency is incident on it is
known as photo electric effect.
 Metals like zinc, cadmium, magnesium response to UV light.
 Alkali metals response to visible light.
 Heavy metals response to x-rays.
 Semi conducting devices response to infrared rays.
II PUC BOARD MATERIAL Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter Page 117
6. Describe an experiment
xperiment to study about photoelectric effect
The experimental arrangement to study photoelectric effect is as shown in the above figure. T is
the evacuated glass tube. The side tube T1 is fitted with quartz window (W).
C and A are the electrodes. C is the emitter coated with photosensitive material. A is the
collector. C is connected to negative terminal of the HT battery and A is connected to positive
terminal through a micro
cro ammeter.
The UV radiations are allowed to fall on emitter. The emitter emits electrons. These emitted
electrons are collected byy the collector due to the electric field created by the battery. Therefore,
ows through the circuit which is indicated by the micro ammeter   A  .
photoelectric current flows
The potential difference between C and A is measured by the voltmeter meter (V).
 Experimental observations
i) Photoelectric effect is instantaneous i.e. there is no time gap between incident light and
galvanometer deflection (10–9 sec)
ii) Effect of intensity :
It is found that photo electric current is directly proportiona
proportional to intensity of incident light.
iii) Effect of potential :

As the positive voltage given to anode increases current also rises till it reaches to maximum
value which is known as saturation current. After the current reached to maximum value
even if we increase the voltage the current
remains constant. Now by using commutator
–ve
ve voltage is given to anode. As the –ve
voltage decreases, current decreases rapidly
is becomes zero at a particular voltage which
is known as stopping potential.
iv) Effect of frequency :
For a given photo metal al sstopping
opping potential is found to depends on frequency of incident
light.
From the graph at a particular frequency 0
stopping potential is zero i.e., photoelectric
current is zero which is known aas threshold
frequency.
7. Define stopping potential
It is the minimum – ve voltage given to anode at which photoelectric current is zero.
8. Define threshold frequency
It is the minimum frequency of incident light below which there is no photoelectric current.
9. Define threshold wavelength
It is the maximum wavelength of incident light above which there is no photoelectric current.
10. What are the laws of photo electric effect
 Photo electric effect is instantaneous
 For every photo metal there is certain frequency below which there is no photoelectric
current which is known as threshold frequency.
 Above threshold frequency photo electric current is directly proportional to intensity of
incident light.
 Above threshold frequency stopping potential (K.E.) is directly proportional to frequency of
incident light but it is independent of intensity.
According to work energy theorem change in kinetic energy = change in potential energy.
Kinetic energy in electron volts is equal to stopping potential in volts.
11. Write Einstein photo electric equation and hence explain the laws of photo electric effect
by using it.
 According to Einstein out of total energy incident on the metal plate same of the energy is
utilized as work function and remaining energy will be utilized as kinetic energy of photo
electrons.
i.e. E  W  K .E.
1
hv  hv0  mv 2
2
1 2
mv  hv  hv0
2
1 2 hc hc
mv  
2  0
Laws:
i) According to Einstein photo electric effect is due to collisions between photons and
electrons since both are micro particles this collision takes place for a short period of time.
Hence photo electric effect is instantaneous.
1 2
ii) mv  h  v  v0 
2
If v  v0 than K.E. is negative which is not possible i.e. there is a certain frequency below
which there is no photoelectric effect which is known as threshold frequency.
iii) As the intensity increases more number of photons will be released which causes more
number of photo electrons and hence increase in photo electric current i.e. current is directly
proportional to intensity.
iv) From the equation
1 2
mv  h  v  v0 
2
vs q  h  v  v0 
 K.E. and stopping potential are directly proportional to frequency of incident light.
12. Write the properties of photons
 In interaction with matter photons behaves like particles.
 They travels with light velocity  3  108 
 They are electrically neutral.
 They are not deflected by either electric field or magnetic field.
 There rest mass is zero(0).
 h 
 They have energy  E  h  and momentum  p  
 c 
13. What is de-Broglie hypothesis?
or
What considerations led de-Broglie to suggest that material particles can also have wave
properties?
De-Broglie made a bold and novel suggestion “like radiation, matter also has dual nature”.
According to him, matter (like electrons) exhibits wave properties under suitable conditions.
This logic is based on the following consideration.
Nature manifests in two fundamental forms: matter and energy. If radiant energy shows dual
nature, then out of symmetry considerations, matter should also exhibit dual nature.
14. What are de-Broglie waves

The waves which are associated with moving particles are known as matter waves.
15. Derive the expression de-Broglie wavelength
Energy of photon is given by E  h
According to Einstein’s mass – energy relation
E  mc 2
hc
mc 2 

h

mc
According to de-Broglie if any material particle is moving a velocity ‘v’ then its wavelength is
h
given by  
m
Note :
h
     in terms of velocity
mv
h
      in terms of momentum
p
h
     in terms of K.E.
2 m K .E .
h
     in terms of stoping potential
2 m vs q
12.27 0
 For electrons   A
vs
h h
 For gas molecules   
mvRms 3mKT
16. By using Davisson and Germer experiment show that fast moving electrons will behave as
waves.
 Principle : To prove that fast moving electrons are behaving as waves.
 Description :
Apparatus consist of filament which is
connected to low w tension battery. When the
filaments get heated is produces electrons. These
electrons are accelerated to required velocity by
using high tension battery of range  44v  68v  .
these electrons are passing through a narrow
cylinder to produce a sharp beam of electrons.
There electrons are made tto fall on a nickel
crystal. Then the electrons are scattered in all
directions. These scattered electrons are
collected by a detector which can move on a
circular scale which in turn is connected to galvanometer. The entire apparatus
appa is enclosed is a
vaccum chamber.
 Observations :
By moving the detector on circular scale the intensity of the
scattered electrons is measured at all positions. The variation of
intensity with scattering angle is measured at different voltages. It is
observed that a strong peak in the intensity for   500 and
V  54 v
 Result :
The intensity is maximum at a particular voltage is due to the constructive interference
inte of
scattered electrons, and aaccording
ccording to electron diffraction experiments wavelength of matter
waves is found to be 0.165 nm.
According to Davisson & Germer
12.27 0
 A
vs
12.27 0
 A
54
 1.67 A0
 0.167 nm
Since both results are in well agreement we can conclude that electrons are behaving as
waves.
17. State Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle

According to the principle, it is not possible to measure both the position and momentum of an
electron (or any other particle) at same time exactly.
PROBLEMS:
1. A photon of frequency 5.2 1014 Hz is incident on a metal surface of threshold frequency
4.4 1014 Hz calculate.
(a) Energy of the incident photon.
(b) Photoelectric work function.
(c) Maximum kinetic energy of photoelectrons.
(d) Maximum velocity of photoelectrons.
2. The threshold frequency for a certain metal is 3.3  1014 Hz. IF the light of frequency
8.2  1014 Hz is incident on the metal, predict, the cut off voltage for the photoelectric emission.
3. Light of frequency 7.211014 Hz is incident on a metal surface, electrons with a maximum

speed of 6.0 105 m / s are ejected from the surface. What is the threshold frequency for
photoemission of electrons?
4. Light of wavelength 488 nm is produced by an argon laser which is used in the photoelectric
effect. When light from this spectral line is incident on the emitter, the stopping (cut off)
potential of photoelectrons is 0.38V. Find the work function of the material from which the
emitter is made.
5. A photon of wavelength 540 nm is incident on a metal of threshold wavelength 600 nm.
Calculate (a) maximum kinetic energy of photoelectrons (b) stopping potential (c) maximum
velocity of photoelectrons.
6. When wavelength of radiation incident on a metal surface is increased from 410 nm to 620 nm.
The maximum kinetic energy of liberated electrons is found to decrease from 2.63eV to 1.6eV.
Calculate the value of Planck’s constant.
7. A 100 W sodium lamp radiates energy uniformly in all directions. The lamp is located at the
centre of a larger sphere that absorbs all the sodium light which is incident on it. The
wavelength of the sodium light is 589 nm. (a) What is the energy per photon associated with the
sodium light? (b) at what rate are the photons delivered to the sphere?

CHAPTER – 12
ATOMS
 According to J.J. Thomson all the elements are having –vely charged particles known as
electrons and atom is electrically neutral
 According to J.J. Thomsons atomic model (1898) the entire mass of an atom and its +ve charge
is distributed uniformly and electrons are present like seeds in watermelon.
1. Explain about Rutherford’s   scattering experiments

At the suggestion of Rutherford, Geiger and Marsden performed   scattering experiment.
  particles emitted by radioactive source are made to fall on a lead slit. Then a narrow beam
of   particles is emerged from lead slit. Then the beam of   particles is allowed to fall on
thin gold foil of thickness about 2.1  107 m. The alpha particles scattered in different
directions are observed with the help of a rotatable detector which consists of a zinc sulphide
screen and a microscope.   Particles produce bright flashes when strikes the screen. Theses
flashes are observed through the microscope and counted at different angles from the direction
of the incident beam. The angle of
deviation of alpha particle from its
initial direction is called as the
scattering angle. The whole
apparatus is enclosed in an
evacuated chamber to avoid
scattering of alpha particles by air
molecules.
 Experimental observations:
 Most of the   particles are reaching the screen without any deviation.
 Only 0.14% of incident   particles are deflected by more than 10.
 About 1 in 8000 of incident   particles is undergoing backwards scattering.
 Result :
According to Rutherford this backward scattering is possible if the entire +ve charge and most
of its mass is located at the centre of atom.
2. What are the Postulates of Rutherford’s atomic model

 Electrons are of –ve charge and nucleus is of +ve charge.
 Electrons are revolving around the nucleus is circular orbits and the necessary centripetal
force is provided by electrostatic force of attraction between electrons and nucleus.
3. What are the demerits of Rutherford’s theory

 He failed to explain the stability of atom.
 He failed to explain the spectral series of hydrogen atom.
4. Define impact parameter

It is the perpendicular distance of
initial velocity vector of
  particle from the centre of gold
nucleus.
II PUC BOARD MATERIAL Atoms Page 123

5. What are the postulates of Bhor’s atomic model
Neils Bhor has given atomic model by using Rutherford’s atomic model and planks quantum
theory.
Postulates :
1) Electrons are revolving around nucleus in circular orbits and the necessary centripetal force
is provided by electrostatic force of attraction between electrons and nucleus.
mv 2 1 q1q2

r 4 0 r 2
mv 2 e  ze 

r 4 0 r 2
2) An electron can revolve around the nucleus in particular orbits without radiating energy
which are known as stationary orbits.
3) Atom will emits energy if any electron jumps from higher energy state to lower energy
state. i.e. E2  E1  hv (Bhor’s frequency condition)
h
4) Orbital angular momentum of an electron in a particular orbit is integral multiples of
2
nh
i.e. mvr   n  1, 2,3,... (Bhor’s quantum condition)
2
6. Derive the expression for Radius of an electron
According to Bohr’s Ist postulate
mv 2 ze2
  1
r 4 0 r 2
ze2
mv 2 r    2
4 0
According to Bohr’s quantum condition
nh
mvr    3
2
n2h2
m 2v 2 r 2    4
4 2
 4   n 2 h 2 / 4 2
 2  z 2 / 4 0
n 2 h 2 0
nr 
 ze 2
n 2 h 2 0
r
 mze2
 For hydrogens 1st orbit (z = 1, n = 1)
h 2 0
r1 
 me2
r1  0.53 A0
 For any other atom
0 n2
rn  0.53 A 
z

 R1 : R 2 : R3  1: 4 : 9
7. Derive the expression for velocity of electron
eq.  2  mv 2 r ze 2 / 4 0
 
eq.  3 mvr nh / 2
ze 2 / z 0
v
nh
ze 2
v
2nh 0
 For hydrogens 1st orbit ( z = 1, n = 1)
e2
v1 
2h 0
c
v1  2.18 106 m / s  m/s
137
z
for any atoms vn  2.18 106 
n
 Time period of electron
 2 r
T 
 v
r
T
v
n3
T 2
z
8. Derive the expression for energy of an electron

Consider an electron which is revolving around the nucleus in a circular orbit of radius ‘r’.
Since the electron is revolving around the nucleus under electrostatic force it posses both
potential and kinetic energy i.e.
1 q1q2
P.E 
4 0 r
 ze 2
P.E 
4 0 r
1 2
Kinetic energy (K.E)  mv
2
1
K .E.  mv 2
2
1 ze2
K .E  (From bohr’s postulates)
2 4 0 r
 Total energy E  P.E  K .E
 ze 2 1 ze 2
E 
4 0 r 2 4 0 r
ze 2  1
E  1  
4 0 r  2

ze 2  1 
E
4 0 r  2 
1 ze 2
E 
2 4 0 r
 ze 2  mze2
E
8 0 n 2 h 2 0
 mz 2 e 4
E
8 02 n 2 h 2
 For hydrogen first orbit
E1  13.6eV
 For any other atom
z2
En  13.6eV 
n2
z2
 Ionization energy  13.6eV 
n2
NOTE
1) Negative sign indicates that the electron is bound to the nucleus and energy must be supplied to
remove the electron from an atom.
2) As n increases 1/n 2 decreases 1/n 2 increases. Then an electron in a higher orbit will have
more energy.
3) If E1 and E 2 are the energies of electron in the orbits n1 & n 2 of the two atoms whose atomic
E1 Z12 n 22
number are Z1, Z 2 respectively, then  
E 2 Z 22 n12
If Ek and E p are the kinetic energy and potential energy of an electron in an atom then,
PE
E p  2E k  Total energy, TE  Ek or TE  
2
9. What is wave number and derive its expression

Number of waves present in one meter length of any medium is known as wave number i.e.
1
v

According to Bohr’s frequency condition
hc
E2  E1 

mz 2 e 4  1 1  hc
  
8 02 h 2  n22 n12  
1 mz 2 e4  1 1 
   
 8 02 h3c  n12 n22 
For hydrogen atom
1 me 4  1 1 
 2 3  2  2   sin ce z  1
 8 0 h c  n1 n2 

1  1 1 
 R 2  2 
  n1 n2 
me4
Where R  2 3  1.097 107 m 1 Which is Rydberg constant
8 0 h c
 1 1 
 wave number  v   R  2  2 
 n1 n2 
10. Explain about spectral series of hydrogen atom
1. Lyman series
This series is due to the transition of electrons from any higher orbit to first
rst orbit.
1 1 1
n1  1 & n 2  2,3,4,....  R 2  2
 1 n 2 
2. Balmer series
This series is duel to the -transition
transition of electrons from any higher orbit to second orbit.
1 1 1
n1  2 & n 2  3,4,5,....  R 2  2
 2 n2 
3. Paschen series
This series is due to the transition of electrons from any higher orbit to third orbit
1 1 1
n1  3 & n 2  4,5,6,....  R 2  2
 3 n2 
4. Brackett series
This series is due to the transition of electrons from any higher orbit to fourth orbit
1 1 1
n1  4 & n 2  5,6,7,....  R 2  2
 4 n2 
5. Pfund series
This series is due to the transition of electrons from any higher orbit to fifth
th orbit.
1 1 1
n1  5 & n 2  6,7,8,9,....  R 2  2
 5 n2 
11. Draw Energy level diagram of spectral series of hydrogen
 Closest distance of approach:

It is the minimum distance between   particle and gold atom such that K.E. of   particle is
balanced by electrostatic potential energy between the two nucleus i.e.

1 2
mv  K .E.
2
1 2 1 q1q2
mv 
2 4 0 r
Where r = closest distance
12. What is series limit
It is the wavelengths corresponding to last spectral line  n2    of any series.
 In any series first line will have maximum wavelength and last line will minimum wavelength.
 In the Balmer sieries, the spectral lines are named as H  , H  , H  .....
Ist line of Balmer series is H line For H line n1  2 and n 2  3

IInd line of Balmer series is H  line For H  line n1  2 and n 2  4
IIIrd line of Balfner Series is H  line. For H  line n1  2 and n 2  5
For series limit of any line n 2  
 When an electron jumps from nth orbit, number of possible spectral lines emitted,
n n  1
N 
2
13. What are the Merits of Bohr’s atomic model
 Explained the stability of atom.
 Explained about spectral series of hydrogen atom.
 It has given the value of Rydberg constant in terms of all universal constants.
14. What are the demerits of Bohr’s atomic model

1) Bohrs theory is applicable only to hydrogen and hydrogen like atoms (single electron
system, Z= 1).
2) It could not explain the fine structure of spectral lines.
3) It could not explain relative intensities of spectral lines.
4) It could not explain elliptical orbits of electron.
5) It could not explain Stark effect.
6) It could not explain Zeeman effect.
7) It could not explain wave nature of electrons.
15. Give de Broglie’s explanation for Bohr’s postulate

According to de-Broglie, the electron in a circular orbit around the nucleus exhibits wave
nature.
For an electron moving in the nth circular orbit of radius r
with a speed v, total distance traveled = circumference of
the orbit = 2  r
For stable orbit, 2  r = integral multiple of de-Broglie
waves
 n     1
where  is the de-Broglie wavelength and n = 1, 2, 3,
h
We have, de-Broglie wavelength,       2
mv

h
 2 r  n
(2) in (1) mv
nh
mv r 
2
nh
But mvr  L  angular momentum,  L 
2
This is the Bohr’s quantization condition.
PROBLEMS:
1. Calculate the longest and the shortest wavelengths of Lyman series of hydrogen spectrum
 R  1.097 10 m 
7 1
or calculate the wavelength of the first member and the series limit of
Lyman series of H 2  spectrum.
2. The first member of Balmer series of hydrogen spectrum has wavelength 6563 A0 . Calculate
the wavelength and frequency of the second member of the same series. Given: C  3  8 ms 1
3. An electron in hydrogen atom in the ground state is excited to n  4 state. Calculate the energy
absorbed and the wavelength of the electromagnetic radiation emitted when the atom comes to
ground state. (Given : Ground state energy of H 2  13.6 eV )
4. The electron, in a given Bohr orbit has a total energy of 1.5 eV . Calculate its (i) Kinetic
energy, (ii) Potential energy and (iii) the wavelength of light emitted, when the electron makes a
transition to the ground state. Ground state energy = 13.6 eV .
5. A 12.5 eV electron beam is used to bombard gaseous hydrogen at room temperature. What
series of wavelengths will be emitted?


CHAPTER –13
NUCLEI
 Size of the nucleus is given by Rutherford and its value is 1 fermi = 10 15 m
1. What is a.m.u and give its value
1
it is th of mass of 1 atom of carbon.
12
1 a.m.u  1.66 1027 kg
2. What are isotopes and give example

The nucleus having same atomic number but different mass number.
e.g.: 1 H 1 , 1 H 2 , 1 H 3 are the isotopes of hydrogen
3. Explain discovery of neutron by Chadwick (1932)

Chadwick has discovered emission of neutral matter when   particle are made to incident on
berrylium nucleus. If this neutral matter is of photons they should have very high K.E. than the
incident   particles. Which was through wrong. Therefore he concluded that inside the
nucleus there are other neutral particles which are named as neutrons by Chadwick.
By using conservation principles of momentum and energy. He calculated mass of neutron i.e.
mn  1.675 10-27 kg
4. What are Isobars? Give one example.

The nucleus having same mass number but different atomic number.
Eg: 6 C14 , 7 N 14
5. What are Isotones? Give one example.

These are the nucleus which are having same number of neutrons
Eg: 7 N 14 , 8O15
6. Isomers: These are the nuclei having same atomic number and same mass number but different
internal structure.
7. Mirror nuclei: These are the nuclei having same mass number but with the interchange of
proton number and neutron number. Example: 1 H 3 and 2 He 3
8. What is fractional atomic weight?
It is the average atomic masses of all the isotopes of element.
9. Calculate the fractional atomic weight of chlorine.
Chlorine has two isotopes having masses 34.98 u and 36.98 u. The relative abundances of these
isotopes are 75.4 and 24.6 percent, respectively. The mixture gives the average atomic weight
of 35.47u which is fractional weight of chlorine
34.98  75.4 36.98  24.6
Fractional atomic weight of chlorine    35.47u
100 100
10. What is atomic number (Z)
Number of electrons or number of protons present in an atom.
11. What is mass number (A)
Total number of protons and neutrons present inside the nucleus.
II PUC BOARD MATERIAL Nuclei Page 130

PES PU COLLEGE
 Number of neutrons: N = A – Z
12. Explain about properties of nucleus
1) Nuclear size :
The size of any nucleus depends upon its mass number i.e.,
V  A
4 3
R  A
3
R3  A
R  A1/3
R  R0 A1/3
 where; R0  1.2 1015 m to 1.5  1015 m 
2) Nuclear charge :
It is the total charge of all the protons present inside the nucleus i.e.
Q  ze  where e  1.6  1019 C 
3) Nuclear mass :
It is the total mass of all the nucleons i.e.
M  zm p  nmn
mn  m p  m  1.67  1027 kg
M  Z  N m
M  Am
4) Nuclear density :
It is the ratio between nuclear mass and nucleus volume.
M
N 
V
M 3 Am
N  
4 3 4  R03 A
r
3
 N  2.3 1017 kg / m3
 Nuclear density is independent of mass number and it is same for all the elements in periodic
table.
13. What are the properties of nuclear forces

Nuclear forces are of 3 types i.e. Force between proton – proton, proton – neutron and neutron –
neutron.
1. These are the strongest forces in nature  FG : FE : FN  1:1036 :1038 
2. Nuclear forces are attractive that the force between any two nucleus is attractive for a
particular distance, when distance decreases the forces will become repulsive.
3. Nuclear forces are short range that they exist with in 10–15 m only.
4. Nuclear forces are charge independent that FPP  FNN  FPN
5. Nuclear forces are spin dependent.
6. Nuclear forces are non-central forces.
7. Nuclear forces shows the property of saturation.

PES PU COLLEGE
8. Nuclear forces are exchange forces.

 Yukawa’s theory
According to his theory nuclear forces are due to exchange of   mesons   ,   ,  0 
P  n
n     P i.e. force between proton & neutron is due to the exchange of   or   meson.
Force between p & p, n & n is due to the exchange of  0  meson.
 Einstein’s mass energy relation :
According to this mass is equivalent to energy and it is given by
E  mc 2
 Positron is the opposite particle of electron that it has same mass but opposite charge.
 Pair anhilation:
When an electron and positron comes together they destroy each other and their mass is
converted into energy according to E  2mc 2  1.02 MeV .
 Pair production: when a proton of sufficient energy (1.02 MeV) is incident on any nucleus it
produces electron and positron pair. Which is known as polar production.
 If the incident photon has more energy than 1.02 MeV then it will be utilized as K.E. of both
the particles.
14. Show that 1 a.m.u = 931 MeV

From Einstein’s mass energy relation
E  mc 2
2
E  1.66 10 27   2.9979 108  J 1 amu  1.66 1027 kg 
14.94 1011
 ev
1.602 1019
 9.312 108 ev
 931.2 106 ev
 931 MeV
15. What is mass defect and give its formula

It is the difference between total mass of the nucleons and rest mass of the nucleus
i.e., m   Zm p  Nmn   M
16. What is binding energy and give its formula

It is the energy required to break the nucleus completely (or) it is the energy required to bind all
the nucleons together.
B.E  m  c 2  Joule
B.E.  m  931 MeV
17. What specific binding energy and give its formula

It is the energy required to remove one nucleon from the nucleus (or)
Binding energy per mass number
B.E
i.e. S .B.E. 
A
PES PU COLLEGE
 Specific binding energy measures the stability of atom.

18. What is binding energy curve and mention its characteristics
It is the graph between specific binding energy and mass number (A).
Characteristics :
 Specific binding energy is very less for all
lighter nucleus whose mass numbers are less
than 20.
 Starting from less value specific binding
energy increases rapidly and becomes 8MeV
around a mass number of 20.
 For mass number greater than 20 specific
binding
ding energy increases gradually and reaches to a maximum value of 8. 8.75 MeV for Iron
56
(Fe) . Whichh is the highest stable element
element.
 For mass number greater than 170 bi binding
ding energy decrease gradually and becomes 7.6 MeV
238
for U .
 Above 170 specific binding energy gradually decreases which indicates ind that all those
nucleus are unstable.
19. What is nuclear fission
This is the process in which heavy nucleus split into two lighter nucleus with the emission of 2
or 5 neutrons and some amou amount of energy.
 Fission is possible only with thermal neutron (0.025 eV)
235
92 U  0 n1  92U 236  56 Ba141  86 Kr 92  30 n1  E  200 MeV 
 The average number of neutrons released in fission are 2.5.
20. What is chain reaction and mention its types

It is a self propagating process in which number of neutrons get multiplied indefinitely.
If is of two types i.e.,
1) Controlled chain reaction (Nuclear reactor)
2) Uncontrolled chain reaction (atom bomb)
21. Controlled Chain reaction

It is the chain reaction in which neutrons are built up to a certain level and there after the fission
producing neutrons are kept co constant. Using controlleded chain reaction, controlled supply of
energy can be obtained in the nuclear reactor.
22. Uncontrolled Chain reaction

It is the chain reaction in which are allowed multiply inde
indefinitely
nitely and releasing enormous
amount of energy in a short interval of time.
The enormous amount of energy is released in atom bomb comes es from uncon
uncontrolled chain
reaction.
23. Define neutron multiplication factor

It is the ratio between numbers of neutrons is one event to the number of neutrons in the
previous event.
 If K = 1 then the reaction is controlled.
 If K > 1 then the reaction is uncontrolled.

PES PU COLLEGE
24. Define critical size of a fissionable mass

It is the size of the fissionable material for which multiplication factor is one.
25. What is nuclear fusion
This is the process in which combining of two lighter nucleus to form heavier nucleus which is
having high stability.
2 2 4
1 H  1 H  2 H  E  24 MeV 
 Fusion is possible at very high temperatures (109 K) and hence these are known as thermo
nucleus reactions.
26. Distinguish between nuclear fission and fusion
Fission Fusion
This is the process in which a heavy nucleus Two lighter nucleus will combine to form a
split into two lighter nucleus. heavier nucleus.
This is possible at room temperature This possible at very high temperature
Nuclear waste is obtained No nuclear waste
Uranium is of high cost Deuterium is of cheep cost.
Energy released per reaction is more i.e. Energy released per reaction is less i.e.
(200 MeV) (24 MeV)
 200   24 
Energy per unit mass is less   0.8 MeV  Energy per unit mass is more   6 MeV 
 236   4 
27. What is stellar energy and give P-P cycle

The energy which is radiated by sun and stars is known as stellar energies.
 P-P cycle: (Bethe)
In this reactions 4 hydrogen atoms fuse together to form Helium nucleus with the emission of
2-positrons (e+) and some amount of energy.
2 1 H 1  2 1 H 1  2 1 H 2  2 1e0  E
2 1 H 1  2 1 H 2  2 2 He3  E
2 He3  2 He3  2 He4  2 1 H 1  E
4 1 H 1  2 He4  2 1e0  E  24.7 MeV 
28. Explain about the parts of nuclear reactor
It works on the principle of control chain reaction.
The essential parts of reactor are

 Nuclear fuel:
The fissionable material which is used in the reactor is known as nuclear fuel. The commonly
used fuel is natural uranium which contains U235 to an extent of 0.7%. Which is sealed into
graphite block.

PES PU COLLEGE
 Moderator:
The neutrons which are released in the fission have K.E. of 2 MeV. To produce further fission
reaction these neutrons have to be slow down. This is the function of moderator.
The commonly used moderators are water, D2O and graphite.
 Control rods:
The controlling system is used to control the number of neutrons released in the moderator. By
adjusting the length of the control rods into the moderator control chain reaction can be
achieved.
The commonly used control rods are cadmium (cd) or Boron (B).
 Neutron reflector:
Most of the reactors are provided with reflectors so that the neutrons which are having high
energies will not escape from the reactor.
 Cooling system:
When the fission fragments are slow down in the reactor energy will be released in the form of
heat, which should be extracted, this is the function of coolant. Some coolant liquid such as
water absorb all the heat in the reactor and exchanges this heat with heat exchanger and
converts into steam. This stram will be used to run steam turbines which will generate electric
power.
 Safety system:
All the reactors are provided with thick concrete sheet to avoid the effect of harmful radiations.
29. What is radioactivity

This is the phenomenon of spontaneous disintegration by emitting certain high penetrating
reactions, associated with heavy elements whose mass numbers are greater than 206.
 The phenomenon of radioactivity is unaffected by external factors like temperature, pressure,
electric and magnetic field etc.
30. What are the properties of  ,  and  rays

1)   particle :
 Charge is equal to two times the charge of proton.
 Mass is equal to four times the mass of proton.
 They are deflected by both electric and magnetic fields.
c
 They travels with a speed of m/s.
20
 They have least penetrating power.
 They have highest ionizing power.
 They effect the photographic plate.
2)   particle:
 Charge is equals to charge of electron.
 Mass is equal to mass of electron.
 They are deflected by both electric &
magnetic fields but opposite to   particles.
 They travels with speed of 0.3 c to 0.9 c.

PES PU COLLEGE
 They have moderate penetrating power.

 They have moderate ionizing power.
 They effect the photographic plate
3)   particle:
 They are electrically neutral.
 Their rest mass is zero.
 They are not deflected by both electric & magnetic fields.
 They travel with light velocity.
 High penetrating power.
 Least ionizing power.
 They effect the photographic plate.
31. State and explain radioactive decay law

Statement :
The rate of disintegration of a radioactive substance is directly proportional to number of
atoms present at that instant of time.
Let N 0 be the initial number of atom Let ‘N’ be the number of atoms left after a time of ‘t’
sec then according to decay law.
dN
N
dt
dN
  N
dt
Where  is decay constant
dN
  dt
N
By applying integration both the sides
dN
 N    dt
log N  t  c
Where ‘c’ is integration constant and it can be calculated by applying initial conditions
i.e. t  0, N  N 0
log N 0  C
log N  t  log N 0
log  N / N 0   t
N
 e  t
N0
 N  N 0 e  t
32. Define decay constant
From decay law N  N 0 e t
1
If t 

N  N 0 e1
N0
N
e

PES PU COLLEGE
 0.37 N 0
 37% N 0
i.e., decay constant is the reciprocal of the time in which number of atoms reduced to 37% of its
original value.
33. Define half life and derive its expression

It is the time in which number of atoms reduced to half of its initial value.
 N  N 0 e  t
N0
 N 0 e  t
2
1
  e  t
2
 2  et
 t  log 2e
 t  2.303  log102
t  2.303  0.3010
t  0.693
0.693
t

0.693
T1/ 2 

NEET: The number of atoms left after one half life is

N
N 0
2
N
After two half lifes N  20
2
N
After three half lifes N  30
2
N0
After ‘n’ half lifes N  n where n= number of half lifes.
2
Total time t
n 
Half life times T1/ 2
Number of half Percentage of atoms Percentage of atoms
lifes disintegrated left
One 50% 50%
Two 75% 25%
Three 87.5% 12.5%
Four 93.75% 6.25%
34. Define mean life time and give its formula

It is the time in which number of atoms reduced to 37% of its original value.
1
i.e.,  


PES PU COLLEGE
35. Give the relation between half life and mean life
0.693
T1/ 2 

T1/ 2  0.693  
36. Define activity and give its formula

It is the rate of disintegration of a radio active substance that
dN
A
dt
A  N
 S.I unit of activity is Becquerel or disintegration per second
 Practical unit of activity is curie.
1c i  3.7 1010 dis / sec
 1 year  3.15 107 sec
37. Define becquerel

Activity of a radioactive substance is said to be 1 Bq, when 1 atom disintegrates in 1 second.
38. Define cuire
Activity of a radioactive substance is said to be 1 curie, when 3.7  1010 atoms disintegrates in
1 sec.
39. Explain about   Decay
Because of   decay atomic number is decreased by 2 and mass number is decreases by 4 and
the position of the new nucleus will be shifted two steps left in periodic table

Z x A   2 He4  Z 2 y A4
40. Explain about   Decay

Because of   decay atomic number will be increased by one and there is no change in mass
number.
A 
Z x   e   Z 1 y A
 Equations of  decay are
n  p   e  v  anti neutrino 
p  p   e  v  neutrino 
41. Explain about   decay

After  and   decay the daughter nucleus will be in exited state. While it is coming to
ground state the difference in energy will be released in the form of   ray photon. Therefore
because of   decay there is no change in atomic number and mass number.
42. What are the uses of radio isotopes

 Radio isotope of iodine is used to verify whether thyroid gland is working properly or not.
 Radio isotope of cobalt is used to kill the cancerous tissues.
 Radio phosphorous is used to select the best fertilizer for a given plant.
 Radio carbon or radio uranium is used to estimate the age of old specimens.

PES PU COLLEGE
PROBLEMS:
1. Calculate the mass defect and specific binding energy of 7 N 14 . Given: The rest mass of
nitrogen nucleus is 14.00307 amu, m p  1.00783 ama, mn  1.00867 amu.
2. Calculate the amount of energy released during   decay? 92 U 238  90

234
Th  2 He4 . Given,
atomic mass of 92 U 238  238.05079 amu; Atomic mass of 90 Th 235  234.04363 amu; Atomic
mass of 2 He 4  4.00260 amu; 1 amu  931.5 MeV
3. Calculate the energy released in kilowatt-hour (kWh) when 0.2 kg of 92 U 23 undergoes fission
completely. Assume that the average energy released per fission of : 92 U 235 nucleus is 200
MeV.
4. Write nuclear reaction equations for

226 242
(i)  decay of 88 Ra (ii)  decay of 94 Pu
(iii)   decay of 32
15 P (iv)   decay of 210
83 Bi
(v)   decay of 11
6 C (vi)   decay of 97
43 TC
120
(vii) electron capture of 54 Xe
60
5. Obtain the amount of 27 Co necessary to provide a radioactive source of 8.0 mCi strength. The
60
half-life of 27 Co is 5.3 years.
90
6. The half life of 38 Sr is 28 years. What is the distintegration rate of 15 mg of this isotope?
7. Activity of 1 gm of radium 226 is 3.7 1010 distintegrate per second. Calculate half-life of
radium 226 in seconds. Given: Avogadro number  6.022 1023.
239 235
8. The fission properties of 94 Pu are very similar to those of 92 U . The average energy released
per fission is 180 MeV. How much energy, in MeV is released if all the atom in 1 kg of pure
239
94 Pu undergo fission?


PES PU COLLEGE
CHAPTER – 14
SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS
1. Explain about band theory of solids

Any electron in any atom will have certain energy corresponding so that there will be an energy
level. In the cube of any solid many atoms will be present and each electron will interact with
other electrons strongly because of which each energy level will split into group of energy
levels. Group of energy levels is known as energy band.
 They are of two types i.e.
1) Valence band
2) Conduction band
Valence band: The bands which are completely filled at zero Kelvin are known as valence
bonds.
Conduction band: The bands which are having higher energies are known as condition band.
Band gap: The energy gap (in eV) between the valence band and conduction band is known as
band gap.
2. Distinguish between conductors, insulators and semiconductors

According to band theory of solids materials are classified into 3 types i.e.
1) Conductors
2) Insulators
3) Semiconductors
1) Conductors: These are the substances which conducts
electricity.
In metals valence band is completely filled and conduction
band is partially filled or completely empty and the band
structure is as shown in the figure.
Ex: Sodium, zinc etc
They possess very low resistivity (or high conductivity).
ρ ~ 10–2 – 10–8 Ω m
σ ~ 102 – 108 S m–1
2) Insulators: these are the materials which doesn’t
conduct electricity.
For insulator the valence band completely filled and
conduction band is completely empty and both are
separated by an energy gap of greater than 3 eV.
Ex: Diamond, glass etc
They have high resistivity (or low conductivity).
ρ ~ 1011 – 1019 Ω m
σ ~ 10–11 – 10–19 S m–1
 Even by increasing the temperature also the electrons which are present in valence band can’t
get sufficient energy to jump to conduction band hence there will be no conductivity.
3) Semiconductors: These are the materials whose conductivity is
in between metals and insulators. In semiconductors valence
band is completely filled and conduction band is completely
empty and they are separated by an energy gap of less than 3 eV.
II PUC BOARD MATERIAL Semiconductor Electronics Page 140

PES PU COLLEGE
Ex: Silicon, germanium etc

They have resistivity or conductivity intermediate to metals and insulators.
ρ ~ 10–5 – 106 Ω m
σ ~ 105 – 10–6 S m–1
 For silicon band gap is 1.1 eV.
 For germanium band gap is 0.6 eV
3. Explain about intrinsic semiconductors
If we bring a semiconductors to
room temperature some of the
covalents bands will break and
those electrons will jump from
valence band to conduction band.
Because of this vacancies will be
created in valency band which are
known as holes and hence
conductivity is due to the flow of
both electrons in conduction band is
holes in valence band. In intrinsic semiconductors number of electrons are equal to number of
holes. It is the semiconductor without any impurities. Conductivity is less.
4. What is doping
It is the process of adding impurities to a pure semiconductor to increase its conductivity.
5. What are extrinsic semiconductors
These are known as impure semiconductors.
 The number of electrons and holes are not equal.
 Conductivity is more.
6. Distinguish between Intrinsic and extrinsic Semiconductors
Intrinsic Semiconductors Extrinsic Semiconductors
1. These are the pure semiconductors. These are the impure semiconductors.
2. Electron density is equal to the hole Electron density is not equal to the hole
density density.
3. Conductivity is low. Conductivity is high.
4. Conductivity depends on the Conductivity depends on the temperature and
temperature. also doping level.
5. Ex: Germanium. Ex: Doped germanium.
7. Distinguish between n-type and p-type semiconductors

n – type p – type
These are the semiconductors which can be These are the semiconductors which can be
obtained by adding pentavalent atoms to a obtain by adding trivalent atoms to a pure
pure semiconductors. semiconductors.
Majority charge carriers are electrons. Majority charge carriers are holes.
Minority charge carriers are holes. Minority charge carriers are electrons.
These are known as donor type These are known as acceptor type
semiconductor. semiconductors.
Electrically neutral Electrically neutral
Ex: Phosphorous, antimony, arsenic Ex: boron, alluminium

JNANA VIKASA PU COLLEGE SAMARTHA MEDICAL & IIT ACADEMY
8. Describe the working of pn Junction

If an intrinsic semiconductor is allowed to grow by adding pentavalent impurities then we will
get n-type semiconductor. After certain time if the same crystal is allowed to grow in the
presence of trivalent impurity then we will get p-type semiconductor at the other side.
Because of imbalance in charge concentration holes will diffuse from p-type to n-type and
electrons will diffuse from n – type to p – type. When p – types semiconductor is loosing one
hole it becomes ‘-ve’ ion and by accepting this hole n – type semiconductor will become + ve
ion. These ions forms a dipole at the junction because of which there will be an electric field
and hence an electric potential which further prevents diffusion of charge and hence it is known
as barrier voltage.
9. What is depletion layer: It is the region in PN – junction which is free from charge carriers.
10. Define barrier voltage: The voltage across depletion layer is known as barrier voltage.
 For silicon berrier voltage is 0.7V and for germanium 0.3V.
11. Distinguish between forward bias and reverse bias

Forward bias Reverse bias
Diode is said to be in forward bias if p – type Diode is said to be in reverse bias if p – type is
is connected to ‘+ve’ terminal and n – type is connected to ‘-ve’ terminal.
connected ‘-ve’ terminal.
Width of the depletion layer decreases. Width of the depletion larger increases.
Diode conduct electricity There will be no current because of majority
charge carriers.
12. Draw V-I characteristics of p-n junction diode
13. What is cut-in-voltage or What is knee voltage?

It is the forward bias voltage at which the current through the diode starts to increase rapidly
with small increase in forward bias voltage.
14. What is break down voltage?

It is the reverse bias voltage at which the reverse bias current increases sharply.
15. What is reverse saturation current.

It is the reverse bias current which remain constant with increase in bias voltage.

PES PU COLLEGE
 Circuit symbol of PN-Junction diode is:
Arrow mark indicates direction of conventional current.

 Since diode conduct electricity in only one direction it can acts as a switch.
16. What is rectification: It is the process of conducting AC to DC.
17. What is rectifier: It is a device which converts AC to Dc.
18. Explain the working Half Wave Rectifier with neat circuit diagram
Construction: The circuit consist of a step down transformers and a PN junction diode which is
connected in series with a load resistor in secondary of the transformer. The AC voltage which
is to be rectified in connected across primary and output DC voltage is obtained across the load
resistor.
Working: During ‘+ve’ half cycle of ‘AC’ transformer out put will also be ‘+ve’ half cycle
which is connected to the diode at point A then the diode is in forward bias and it conducts
electricity and hence there will be output voltage.
During negative half cycle diode will be in reverse bias and it doesn’t conduct electricity and
hence there will be no out put voltage.
Thus half wave rectifier gives output DC voltage only during ‘+ve’ half cycle of input ‘AC’
 Efficiency of hale wave rectifier is 41%
 Frequency of output DC voltage is same as input AC.
1
 Average value of output DC is v0

19. Explain the working of Full wave rectifier with neat circuit diagram
Construction: Circuit consists of two diodes D1 and D2 such that one end of both the diodes is
connected to a load resistor and other ends of both diodes are connected to a centre tapped
transformer. The voltage which is to be rectified is connected across primary and output DC
voltage is obtained across load resistor.

Working: The centre tap transformer divides the transformer output voltage into two halfs such
tha they are out of phase each other.
 During positive half cycle of AC, D1 is in forward bias and D2 will be in reverse bias. Due
to forward bias of D1 there will be current and hence an output voltage.
 During negative half cycle of AC, D1 is in reverse bias and D2 will be in forward bias
because of D2 there will be electric current and hence an output voltage.
Thus, in full wave rectifier there will be an output voltage for each and every half cycle of input
AC.
 Efficiency of full wave rectifier 82%.
2
 Average value of output DC voltage is V0 .

 Frequency of output DC is twice that of the input.
 The output of full wave rectifier is not completely DC i.e. pulsating DC. The remaining AC
components in this output voltage can be eliminated by using filter circuits (capacitors).
20. What is Zener diode: It is a pn – junction diode which is manufactured by heavy dopping.
Circuit symbol of Zener diode is given by
21. Explain how Zener diode act as voltage regulator

Zener diode acts as voltage regulator in reverse bias at breakdown region.
Unregulated voltage is connected to zener diode which is in
series with a resistors such that diode is in reverse bias.
Out put voltage is obtained across a load resistor which is
connected in parallel with the zener diode.
 If the input voltage is more current passing through
series resistor and zener diode increases then the voltage
drop across series resistor is more but the zener voltage remains same. This is due to at
break down voltage for any changes in current Zener voltage remains same.
 Similarly if the input voltage is less current passing through series resistor and zener diode
decreases. Which results less voltage drop across the resistor but the zener voltage remains
same.
Thus the increase or decrease in the input voltage appears as more or less voltage drop acroos
RS but the zener voltage remains constant and hence it acts as voltage regulator.
22. What is transistor and mention the type and give circuits symbols
It is a three terminal electric device which is
made by connecting two pn junction diodes back
to back. They are of two types i.e. npn and pnp

Emitter:
It is moderate in size and more in dopping concentration which emits majority charge carriers.
Base:
It is narrow in size and less in dopping concentration. It controls the flow of majority charge
carriers.
Collector: It is larger in size and moderate in doping connection and it collects the remaining
charge carriers from the base.
Working: For any transistor working inout circuit
should be connected in forward bias and output
circuit should be connected in reverse bias. If the
applied voltage is greater than barrier voltage then
transistor conduct electricity such that I E  I B  I C
Current gain: It is the ration between change in
collector current to change in emitter current i.e.
I
 C
IE
 IC
  1.
 IE
23. Explain about input and output characteristics of transistor in CE configuration

Circuit consist of NPN transistor such that it is in
common emmitor configuration. There are two ‘DC’
batteries, such that input circuit is in forward bias and
output circuit is in reverse bias. IB (Base current) is
input current which is measured by micro ammeter
and IC is output current which is measured by milli
ammeter.
Input characteristics:
It is graph between current and input voltage at constant output
voltage.
Since VCE  VCB  VBE any increase in VCE appears acroos collector
base junction such that VBE is same always (0.6 V) and hence there
is only one curve in input characteristic.
Output characteristics:
It is the graph between output current and output voltage when
input current is constant.
As IB increases, IC also increases and hence there are many
curves in output characteristics.
Current gain (or) current amplification factor:

It is the ratio between change in collector current to change in base current i.e.
I I
  C  C  1.
I B I B

 Relation between  and  :
I E  I B  IC
Divide with IC
I E I B IC
 
IC IC IC
IE IB
 1
IC IC
1 1
 1
 
1 1 

 


1 
24. Explain how transistor act as a switch
Circuit consist of an NPN transistor which is in
common emitor configuration such that input
circuit is in forward bias and output circuit is in
reverse bias.
Transistor can acts as a switch either in cut of
region or in saturation region.
 By applying Kirchoff’s voltage law for input
circuit
VBB  I B RB  VBE
Vi  I B RB  VBE
 By applying Kirchoff’s voltage law for output circuit
VCC  I C RC  VCE
VCE  VCC  I C RC
V0  VCC  I C RC
The variation of output voltage with respect to input voltage is shown below.
 For silicon if the input voltage is less than 0.6 then I B  0  I C  0  V0  VCC which is the
maximum output voltage then the transistor will be in switch off state.
 If input voltage is little greater then 0.6 than the transistor concucts and it is said to be in
active region and output voltage decreases gradually.
 When the input voltage is very much greater than 0.6 than the transistor conducts heavily so
that it will be in saturation state and output voltage is minimum. Then the train is said to be
in switch on state.

PES PU COLLEGE
25. What is amplification

It is the process of increasing the stre
strength of AC signal without changing any of its properties.
26. Explain how npn transistor act as an amplifier in CE configuration

To operate the transistor as an amplifier we have to
fix its operating point somewhere in the middle of
active region.
Circuit consist of NPN transistor
ransistor which is in
common emitterr configuration
configuration, such that input is in
forward bias and output circuit is in reverse bias.
The AC voltage which is to be amplified is connected across base emi
emitteer junction and output
voltage is obtained across collector emi
emitter junction.
There are two capacitors which are used to block the DC Voltage.
From input circuit Vi  I B RB
 By applying Kirchoff’s voltage law to output circuit
VCC  I C RC  VCE
VCE  VCC  I C RC
VCE  VCC  I C RC
The change in IB causes change in IC which causes change in VCE and also the voltage drop
across RC since VCC is fixed VCE  0  I C RC
v0  I C RC (negative sign indicates that output voltage is out of phase with input)
Therefore voltage gain is given by
v I C RC
Av  0 
vi I B RB
RC
Av   
RB
Since   1,  0  vi and hence the i/p voltage is amplified.
P0
 Power gain AP   Av  
Pi
27. What is an oscillator?

It is a device which produces electrical oscillations of constant frequency without any input
signal.
28. Explain the working of n-p--n transistor as an Oscillator

The circuit diagram of transistor as an
oscillator is shown in the above figure. Here
L-C
C circuit is inserted in emitter
emitter-base circuit
of transistor which is forward biase
biased with
battery VBB. The collector emitter circuit is
reverse biased with battery VCC. A coil L3 is
inserted in a collector-emitter
emitter circuit. It
coupled with a coil L1 in such a way that if
increasing magnetic fluxux is linked with L3, it will support the forward
ard bias of emitter base

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circuit and if decreasing magnetic flux is linked with L3, it will oppose the forward bias of
emitter base circuit.
Working.
When key K is closed, IC starts growing through L3. Since L3 is inductively coupled to L1,
increasing IC through L3, induces voltage (feedback) across L1 in such a way that base-emitter
base
circuit becomes forward biased. This causes increase in IC at a faster rate and induced voltage
increases further across L1. Due to this capacitor C1 gets charged. When the transistor
t reaches
saturation state, the IC increases at lesser rate and thus induced voltage across L1 decreases. Now
the capacitor starts discharging making the base of the transistor negative. Discharging of capacitor
drives the transistor in cult off st
state so that IC becomes zero. This process repeats again
aga and again
and thus sustained electrical oscillations in the output are produced.
29. Draw the block diagram of Transistor as an oscillator
30. What are optoelectronic devices

These are the devices which uses the technology of both optics and electronics. These are
1) LED
2) Photo diode
c) Solar cell
1) LED: (Light emitting

ting diode
diode)
Principle:: Energy is required to produce electron
electron-
hole pairs in a semiconductor, similarly energy will
be released when an electron will recombin
recombine with
hole in the form of heat. By adding suitable
impurities we can get visible radiation.
Uses:
 They are used in the manufacture of signal lamps,
display devices, calculators.
 They are used as indicators for power on, over load and short circuit etc.
 They are used in optical fibre communication.
2) Photodiode: It is pn-junction
junction diode which works in reverse bias.

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Uses
 They are used in measurement of intensity
 They are used as switching circuits
 They are used in optical communication
 They are used as ligh metres in cameras.
3) Solar cell:
It is a pn junction which is used to generate EMF and it works on the same principle as
photodiode except that there will be no external bias.
Construction: It consist of A pp-type silicon wafer
above which a thin layer of N N-type silicon is
deposited. The other end of pp-type is coated with a
ES metal
metal which actsacts
which as back contact.
as back contact.
On top layer of N-type
type a metallic grid will be arranged
such that it occupies very lesless area of the solar cell
which acts as front contact.
Working:: When sunlight is incident on solar cell
electron hole pairs will be generated. These electron hole pairs are separated by electric field of
depletion layer such that electrons will be pushed ttowards n side and holes will be pushed
towards p-type
type which are collected by front contact and back contact. Therefore front contact
will become ‘-ve’
ve’ charged and back contact will become ‘+ve’ charged which generates EMF.
Uses of solar cell

1) Solar cells are used in arti
artificial satellites,
2) They are used in space vehicles,
3) They are used in calculators,
4) They are used in remote, radio and telephones,
5) They are used charging
ging storage batteries,
6) They are used to generate electrical energy in cooking food and pumping
ping water.
water
Digital Electronics
 Digital electronics circuits use binary numbers i.e. either ‘zero (0) or (1)’.
Zero represent low voltage i.e. zero volts and one represents high voltage i.e. 5 volts.
Logic gate: These are the digital circuits which perfor
perform
m certain logical operation between input
and output voltages.
31. What is Boolean equation?
It is an equation that describes the function of logic gate.
32. Draw the circuit symbols and write the truth tables of different logic gates
1) NOT gate:
YA

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2) OR gate:
3) AND gate:
4) NOR gate:
This is the combination of ‘OR’ gate and ‘NOT’ gate.
5) NAND gate:
It is the combination of AND gate and NOT gate.
 If both the inputs are same both nor and NAND gates behaves as not gate.
 Construction of AND gate by using NAND gates.
 Construction of ‘OR’ gate from NAND gates.
 We can construct NOT, OR, AND gates by using NOR, NAND gates therefore these two gates
are known as universal gates.

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33. Integrated circuits (IC’s)

The circuit consisting of many components like resistor, inductor, capacitor, diode transistor
etc. is constructed on a small single block of
semiconductor (chip). Such, resulting circuit is ca
called
integrated circuit.
IC’s are more reliable and shockproof. The most
widely used technology in constructing integrated
circuits is monolithic. Monos means single and lithos
means stone.
34. Dimensions of IC’s

IC’s dimensions are 1 mm x 11mm or still small.
35. Types of IC’s depending on nanature of input signals

1) Analogue or linear IC’s. They process analogue signals
2) Digital IC’s. They process only digital signals.
36. Types of IC’s depending upon the level of integration

(Level of integration= number of logic gates used to fo
form IC’s)
1) Small scale integration(SSI),
ration(SSI), logic gates < 10
2) Medium scale integration(MSI), logic gates < 100
3) Large scale integration(LSI), logic gates < 1000
4) Very large scale integration(VLSI),
on(VLSI), logic gates > 1000.


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CHAPTER-15
COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
1) Communication
It is the process of sending and receiving information from one place to another.
another
There are two basic modes of communication.
1) Point to point communication mode and 2) Broadcast communication mode
2) Point to point communication mode.

In this mode, message is transmitted over a link between a single transmitter and a receiver.
Example: telephony.
3) Broadcast
adcast communication mode.
In this mode, there is large number of receivers corresponding to single transmitter.
Example: Radio and television.
4) Mention any three types of transmission media.

Air medium, water medium
medium, copper cables, optical fibres,
bres, vacuum etc...
5) Mention the main parts of communication system.

1) Transmitter 2) Medium (or channel) and 3) Receiver.
6) Block diagram of generalized communication system.
7) Basic terminology used in the electronic communication system

1. Signal. 7. Ampli
Amplification.
2. Transducer. 8.. Range
Range.
3. Noise 9. Bandwidth.
4. Transmitter. 10. Modulation.
5. Receiver. 11. Demodulation.
6. Attenuation. 12. Repeater.
8) What is signal in communication system?

It is the electrical form of information (message) suitable for transmission.
9) What is transducer in communication system?

It is a device which converts en
energy from one form to another.
Examples: 1) A photo detector converts light signals into electrical signals.
II PUC BOARD MATERIAL Communication Systems Page 152

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2) A microphone converts speech signals into electrical signals.

10) What is noise in communication system?
It is the unwanted signal that tends to disturb the transmission and processing of message
signals in communication system.
NOTE : The source generated noise may be located inside or outside the system.
11) What is transmitter in communication system?

It is a device which converts the message signal into a signal suitable for transmission through
the channel.
NOTE
12) What is channel in communication system?
It is the link between the transmitter and receiver. Ex: copper cables, optical fibres, wireless.
13) What is receiver in the communication system?

It is a device which receives transmitted signal from the channel and reproduces the message
signal.
14) What is attenuation in the communication system?

It is the loss of strength of a signal while propagating through a channel.
15) What is amplification in the communication system?

It is the process of increasing the strength of a message signal using amplifier.
NOTE: Amplification is done at a place between the source and the destination wherever signal
strength becomes weaker than the required strength.
16) What is range in the communication system?

It is the largest distance between the transmitter and the receiver where the signal is received
with sufficient strength.
17) What is bandwidth in the communication system?
It is the range of frequencies over which the communication system works.
18) What is modulation in the communication system?

It is the process of superimposing the low frequency message signal on a high frequency wave.
19) What is carrier wave?

It is the high frequency wave used to modulate a low frequency wave
(low frequency wave is message signal).
20) What is the need for modulation?
Need for modulation
1) To reduce the size of the antenna / aerial
2) To increase the effective power radiated by antenna.
3) To avoid mixing up of signals from different transmitters.
4) To propagate low frequency signals cannot be propagated to long distances.

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21) What is demodulation in the communication system?

It is the process of retrieval of information from the modulated wave at the receiver.
22) What is repeater in the communication system?

It is a device which receives the signal from the receiver, amplifies and retransmits it to the
receiver.
Note: A repeater is the combination of receiver, amplifier and transmitter.
23) Mention the frequency range of signals for speech. 300Hz to 3100Hz.
24) Mention the bandwidth of signals for speech. 2800Hz .
(For reference: Band width = 3100 – 300 = 2800Hz)
25) Mention the bandwidth of TV signals for transmission. 6MHz
26) Mention the bandwidth of signals for digital data. Infinity
27) Mention the bandwidth of transmission medium for coaxial cable. 750MHz
28) Mention the bandwidth of transmission medium for free space. 105Hz to 109Hz
29) Mention the bandwidth of transmission medium for optical fibers. 1011Hz.
30) Propagation of electromagnetic waves

The radio waves are the electromagnetic waves of frequency range 500 KHz to about 1000
MHz. These waves are used in the field of radio communication. In communication using radio
waves, the transmitting antenna radiates the electromagnetic waves, which travel through the space
by different modes and reach the receiving antenna. Based on mode of propagation, the radio waves
are classified into three types. They are 1) ground / surface waves, 2) Sky waves and 3) Space
waves.
31) What are ground / surface waves?

These are the radio waves which propagate from transmitting antenna to receiving antenna after
reflection from the earth surface.
32) Important points on ground waves

1. Ground wave glides the surface of the earth.
2. This mode of propagation is called surface wave propagation.
3. The frequency of ground waves required for transmission is less than few MHz.
4. A ground wave induces current in the ground over which it passes and it is attenuated as a result
of absorption of energy by the earth. The attenuation of ground waves increases very rapidly
with increase in frequency.
33) What are sky waves?

These are the radio waves which propagate from transmitting antenna to the receiving antenna
after reflection from the ionosphere.
34) Important points on sky waves
1. This mode of propagation is called sky wave propagation.
2. This mode of propagation is similar to the total internal reflection in optics.
3. The sky wave propagation is used by short wave broadcast services.

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4. The frequency range of sky waves required for transmission is 3 MHz to 30 3 MHz.
35) What are space waves?
These are the radio waves which propagate in straight line from transmitting antenna to the
receiving antenna.
36) Important points on space waves
1) Space wave is used for line-of
of-sight
sight (LOS) communication as well as satellite communication.
2) The frequency of space waves for transmission is above 440 MHz
3) Space wave communication is the communication done by space wave.
37) What is line-of-sight distance

stance in space communication?
It is the maximum distance between the transmitting antenna and the receiving antenna at which
they can see each other.
line-of-sight distance  dm  and radio horizon dT  of the

38) Draw the diagram which shows line
transmitting antenna.
39) Mention the expression for 1ine

1ine- of- sight distance in space communication.
dM  2RhT  2Rh R
where R is the radius of the earth,
hT is the height of the transmitting antenna from the ground,
h R is the height of the receiving antenna from the ground.
40) What is the radio horizon of the transmitting antenna?

It is the distance between
etween the transmitting antenna and the horizon.
41) Mention the

he formula for radio h
horizon of the transmitting antenna?
dT  2RhT
where R is the radius of the earth,
hT is the height of the transmitting antenna from the ground.
42) What is meaning

aning of amplitude modulation?
It is the process of changing the amplitude of carrier wave in accordance with the amplitude of
message signal.
43) Block diagram of AM (amplitude modulation) transmitter

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44) Block diagram off AM receiver NOTE: (IF =Intermediate frequency)
45) Block diagram of simple modulator for obtaining an AM signal


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PHYSICS SMART PAPER - 1

General Instructions :
a) All parts are compulsory
b) Answer without relevant diagram/figure/circuit wherever necessary will not carry any marks.
c) Numerical problems solved without writing the relevant formulae carry no marks.
PART - A
I. Answer ALLthe following questions. Each carries 1 Mark 10×1M=10 M
1. Name the spectral series of hydrogen atom in the visible region of electro
magnetic spectrum.
2. A resistor is marked with colours red. red, orange and gold. Write the value of
its resistance.
3. State Ampere's circuital law.
4. What is modulation ? What is its need.
5. State Lenz’s law and mention the significance of Lenz's law.
6. How does the power of a lens vary with its focal length ?
7. What is the conclusion of Davison and Germar experiment on the nature of an
electron?
8. who predicted existence of electro magnetic wave. What is its speed,
frequency, wave length.
9. Write an expression for displacement current.
10. What are applications of Polaroid’s?
PART - B
II. Answer anyFIVEofthe following questions. Each carries 2 Marks 5×2M=10M
11. Write Coulomb's law in vector form. Explain the terms.
12. State Ohm's law. Mention its two limitations.
13. Write two properties of magnetic lines of force/electric lines of force.
14. Write truth table for NAND/ NOR/ AND /OR gate and draw their logic
symbols.
15. Define eddy current. Write its uses.
16. What is myopia/hypermetropia? How to correct it.
17. What are isotopes and isobars.
18. Draw the block diagram of generalized communication system/
AM receiver / AM Transmitter.
PART - C
III. Answer anyFIVEof the following questions.Each carries 3 Marks 5×3M=15M
19. Explain with circuit diagram how to convert galvanometer into
ammeter/voltmeter.
20. What is rectification? Explain full wave rectifier.
21. State Kirchhoff’s rules and deduce expression for balance of a wheat stones
bridge.
22. Write the differences between dia,para and ferro magnetic substances.
23. Derive the expression for motional EMF induced in a conductor moving in a
uniform magnetic field.
24. Derive the relationship between electric field (E) and potential (V).
25. Distinguish between conductor, semiconductor and insulator on the basis of
band theory of solids.

26. Show that voltage leads current by when A.C. voltage applied to pure
2
inductor/capacitor (lags by ).
II PUC – Physics Previous Year Question Paper Page 157

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PART - D
IV. Answer any TWOof the following questions.Each carries 5 Marks2×5M= 10M
27. Define radioactive decay law. Show that N  N 0e t .
28. What is equivalent resistance? Derive the expression for effective resistance of
two resistors connected in parallel.
29. Define Biot-savart’s law. Derive an expression for magnetic field strength at
any point on the axis of a circular current loop using Biot-Savart’s law.
V. Answer any TWO of the following questions. Each carries 5Marks 2×5M=10M
30. Derive the expression for refractive index of the prism in terms of angle of the
prism and angle of minimum deviation.
31. Write Einstein’s equation of photoelectric effect. Give Einstein’s explanation of
photoelectric effect.
32. Define amplification with a neat circuit diagram, explain the working of an
NPN transistor in CE mode as an amplifier with input and output waveform.
VI. Answer any THREE of the following questions. Each carries 5Marks 3×5M=15M
33. Calculate the shortest (series limit) and longest wavelength of Balmer series of
hydrogen atom. Given  R  1.097  10 m  .
7 1
34. Two cells of emf 2V and 4V and internal resistance 1 and 2 respectively are
connected in parallel so as to send the current in the same direction through
external resistance of 10 . Find the potential difference across 10 resistor.
35. A sinusoidal voltage of peak value 283V and frequency 50Hz is applied to a
series LCR circuit in which R = 3  ,L = 25.58 mH, C = 786  F .Find a) inductive
reactance b) capacitive reactance, c) impedance, d) quality factor, e) resonant
frequency, f) power factor, g) rms current, h) voltage drop across resistor, i)
voltage drop across capacitor, j) voltage drop across inductor,k)time lag, l)
angular frequency, m) band width.
36. In a young’s double slit experiment distance between the slits is 1mm. The
fringe width is found to be 0.6mm . When the screen is moved through a
distance of 0.25m away from the plane of the slit, the fringe width becomes
0.75 mm . Find the wavelength of light used.
37. Determine the mass of Na22 which has an activity of 5 mCi. Half life of Na22 is
2.6 years. Avagadro number =6.23X1023 atoms.
***

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PART - A
III. Answer ALLthe following questions. Each carries 1 Mark 10×1M=10 M
1. How is v rms related to peak voltage?
2. Define mobility of an electron
3. Write the differences between intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors.
4. State curie’s law on magnetism
5. State faraday’s law of electric magnetic Induction.
6. Write the formula for malus law for polaroids
7. What are the properties of nuclear forces?
8. Write the types of electron emissions.
9. What are the properties of a photon?
10. What is the bandwidth of signals for TV/ communication/speech
signals/Optical fibre?
PART - B
IV. Answer anyFIVEofthe following questions. Each carries 2 Marks 5×2M=10M
11. Draw the ray diagram of image formation in compound microscope at a
normal adjustment position.
12. What is a cyclotron. Write its uses.
13. Write the differences between P-type and N-type semiconductors.
14. Draw the circuit symbol for PNP and NPN transistors.
15. What is a transformer. Mention any two sources of energy losses in
transformers.
16. Define total internal reflection and critical angle. Write an application.
17. On what factors does the capacitance of a parallel plate capacitors depend.
18. Write the condition for constructive and destructive interference.
PART - C
19. Derive the expression for energy stored in a capacitor.
20. Define magnetic declination, Dip, BH, magnetic susceptibility and
magnetization of a magnetic material.
21. write hallwitcheslenord observations of photoelectric effect and define work
function threshold frequency and stopping potential
22. Explain briefly the coil and magnet experiment to demonstrate electro
magnetic induction.
23. Derive the expression for the energy stored in current carrying coil.
24. Write the laws of photoelectric effect.
25. Write the Bohr’s postulates and its limitations.
26. Explain the working of Zener diode as a voltage regulator with a neat circuit
diagram.

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PART - D
27. Define drift velocity. Derive I = neAv d.
28. Derive an expression for equivalent focal length of two thin lenses kept in
contact.
29. Derive an expression for the force between two parallel conductors carrying
currents. Hence define ampere.
30. Obtain the expression for fringe width in case of interference of light waves in
YDSE.
31. Derive Lens Maker’s formula.
32. Derive the expression for total energy & radius in case of Bohr’s nth orbit in
hydrogen atom.
33. A beam of light consisting of two wavelengths 4200A0 and 5600A0 is used to
obtain interference fringes in Young’s double slit experiment. The distance
between the slits is 0.3 mm and the distance between the slits and the screen
is 1.5m. Compute the least distance of the point from the central maximum,
where the bright fringes due to both the wavelengths coincide.
34. Two point charges +1 nc, -4nc are 1 m apart in air, find the positions along
the line joining the two charges at which resultant potential is zero.
35. The activity of a radioactive substance is 4700 disintegrations per minute.
Five minute later the activity is 2700 disintegrations per minute.
Find a) decay constant and
b) half-life of the radioactive substance.
36. Calculate the charge on a parallel plate air capacitor consisting of two plates
each of area 200 cm2 separated by 1mm when plates are charged to potential
of 800 volts.
37. Find the binding energy per nucleon for the nuclei 6 C12 and 8 O16 having rest
masses 12.00 u and 16.00744u respectively. (given mn =1.00727u and mn
=1.00866u).
***

PES PU COLLEGE

PART - A
I. Answer ALLthe following questions. Each carries 1 Mark 10×1M=10 M
1. What is a transducer?
2. State the SI Unit of radioactivity.
3. What is the nature of force between two parallel conductors carrying currents
in the same direction.
4. What is a wave front?
5. Name the charge carriers in metallic conductors.
6. How can the resolving power of a telescope be increased.
7. What are matter waves (de-broglie) wave? /Write the expression for de-broglie
wave length.
8. Define mass defect.
9. Explain Gauss law in magnetism.
10. Define specific binding energy.
PART - B
II. Answer anyFIVEofthe following questions. Each carries 2 Marks 5×2M=10M
11. Write the properties of electric charges.
12. Explain the terms range and bandwidth using electric communication system.
13. Mention any two properties of equipotential surfaces.
14. Write the formula for limit of resolution for Microscope and Telescope.
15. Write the characteristics of nuclear force.
16. What is a photo diode and mention its uses.
17. Explain the types of transmission media.
18. What is a toroid? Mention an expression for magnetic field at a point in side
the toroid.
PART - C
19. Derive the expression for effective capacitance when they are connected in
parallel.
20. Derive the expression for potential energy of the system of charges, in the
absence of external electric field.
21. Derive the expression for capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor.
22. Write the differences between interference and diffraction.
23. Define the terms (i) Cut in voltage (ii) Breakdown voltage (iii) Reverse
saturation current.
24. Define input, output resistances and current amplification factor of a
transistor.
25. Define the following :
1) demodulation 2) Ground waves 3) sky waves 4) attenuation .

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26. Mention the use of UV-rays/ X-rays/ Micro-waves/ Infrared-rays and their
corresponding wave lengths.
PART - D
27. Derive an expression for the electric field at a point due to an infinitely long
thin charged straight wire using Gauss law.
28. Assume the drift velocity. Derive   ne 2 /m .
29. Derive the expression for magnetic field due to solenoid.
30. What is an electric dipole? derive the expression for electric field on axial
/equatorial line.
31. Derive the expression for resonant frequency in LCR series circuit.
32. State Gauss law in electrostatics. Derive the expression for electric field due to
a spherical shell.
33. Chares 2  C, 4  C and 6  C are placed at the three corners A,B and C
respectively of a square ABCD of side 1m. Find, what charge must be placed
at the fourth corner so that the total potential at the centre of the square is
zero.
34. A wire having length 2.0m, diameter 1.0mm and resistivity 1.963X10-8  m is
connected in series with a battery of emf 3V and internal resistance 1  .
Calculate the resistance of the wire and current in the circuit.
35. Two lenses of focal lengths 0.20m and 0.30m are kept in contact. Find the
focal length of the combination. Calculate the powers of the two lenses and its
combination.
36. The threshold wavelength of a photosensitive metal is 661.1nm. If this metal
is irradiated with a radiation of wavelength 331.3nm, find the maximum
kinetic energy of the photoelectrons. If the wavelength of radiation is increased
to 496.5nm, calculate the change of maximum kinetic energy of the
photoelectrons. [Plank’s constant, h=6.625x10-34Js and speed of light in
vacuum, c  3x108 ms 1 ]
37. Three resistors of resistances 2,3 and 4 are combined in series.
a) What is the total resistance of the combination?
b) If this combination is connected to a battery of emf 10V and negligible
internal resistance, obtain the potential drop across each resistor.
***

PES PU COLLEGE
MARCH - 2018 ANNUAL EXAMINATION

Instructions : 1. All Parts are compulsory.
2. Answer without relevant diagram/figure/circuit wherever necessary will not carry
any marks.
3. Numerical problems solved without writing the relevant formulae carry no marks.
PART-A
Answer all the following questions : (10 x 1 =10)
1) What is an equipotential surface?
2) Define ‘drift velocity’ of free electrons.
3) Give an application of cyclotron.
4) State Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction.
5) If the peak value of a.c. current is 4.24 A. what is its root mean square value?
6) Mention one power loss in transformer.
7) Two lenses of power +1.5D and –0.5D are kept in contact on their principal axis. What is the
effective power of the combination?
8) The decay of proton to neutron is possible only inside the nucleus. Why?
9) What is ‘depletion region’ in a semiconductor diode?
10)
What is the output of this combination?
PART-B
Answer any five of the following questions : (5 X 2 = 10)
11) Mention any two factors on which the capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor depends.
12) State Kirchhoff's laws of electrical network.
13) Define, magnetic ‘declination’ and ‘dip’ at a place.
14) Write the expression for magnetic potential energy of a magnetic dipole kept in a uniform
magnetic field and explain the terms.
15) Give any two applications of X-rays.
16) What is ‘myopia’? How to rectify it?
17) Draw the diagram representing the schematic arrangement of Geiger-Marsden experimental set
up for the alpha particle scattering.
18) Write any two characteristics of nuclear forces.
PART - C
Answer any five of the following questions : (5 x 3 =15)
19) Give three properties of electric charge.
20) State Ampere’s circuital law and arrive at the expression for the magnetic field near a straight
infinite current carrying wire.
21) What is hysterisis? Define the terms ‘coercivity’ and ‘retentivity’ of a ferromagnetic material.
PES PU COLLEGE
22) Arrive at Snell's law of refraction, using Huygen’s principle for refraction of a plane wave.
23) Write Bohr's postulates for the hydrogen atom model.
24) Derive the expression for the half-life of a radioactive nuclide.
25) Write any three distinctions between p-type and n-type semi conductor.
26) Draw the block diagram of generalized communication system.
PART-D
Answer any two of the following questions: (2 x 5 = 10)
27) Define electric potential due to a point charge and arrive at the expression for the electric
potential at a point due to a point charge.
28) Obtain the expression for the effective emf and the effective internal resistance of two cells
connected in parallel such that the currents are flowing in the same direction.
29) Derive the expression for the magnetic field on the axis of a circular current loop, using Biot-
Savart’s law.
Answer any two of the following questions : (2 x 5 = 10)

30) Arrive at the expression for the impedance of a series LCR circuit using phasor diagram method
and hence write the expression for the current through the circuit.
31) Deduce the relation between. n, u, v, R for refraction at a spherical surface, where the symbols
have their usual meaning.
32) What is a rectifier? With suitable circuit describe the action of a full wave rectifier by drawing
input and output waveforms.
Answer any three of the following questions : (3 x 5 = 15)

33) Three charges each equal to +4nC are placed at the three corners of a square of side 2cm. Find
the electric field at the fourth corner.
34) 100 mg mass of nichrome metal is drawn into a wire of area of cross-section 0.05 mm2.
Calculate the resistance of this wire. Given density of nichrome 8.4  10 3 kgm 3 and
resistivity of the material as 1.2  106 m.
35) A circular coil of radius 10 cm and 25 turns is rotated about its vertical diameter with an
angular speed of 40 rad S 1, in a uniform horizontal magnetic field of magnitude 5  102T .
Calculate the emf induced in the coil. Also find the current in the coil if the resistance of the
coil is 15 .
36) In Young's double slit experiment the slits are separated by 0.28 mm and the screen is placed at
a distance of 1.4 m away from the slits. The distance between the central bright fringe and the
fifth dark fringe is measured to be 1.35 cm. Calculate the wavelength of the light used. Also
find the fringe width if the screen is moved 0.4 m towards the silts, for the same experimental
set up.
37) Light of frequency 8.41  1014 Hz is incident on a metal surface. Electrons with their
maximum speed of 7.5  105 ms 1 are ejected from the surface. Calculate the threshold
frequency for photos emission of electrons. Also find the work function of the metal in electron
volt (eV). Given Planck's constant h  6.625  10 34 JS and mass of the electron
9.1  10 31 Kg.


PES PU COLLEGE
JULY - 2018 ANNUAL EXAMINATION

any marks.
PART-A
Answer all the following questions : (10 x 1 =10)
1) State Ohm’s law.
2) Define current sensitivity of a galvanometer.

3) Write the expression for force experienced by a straight conductor of length l carrying a steady

current I, moving in a uniform external magnetic field B .
4) What is ‘retentivity’ in magnetism?
5) Where on the earth’s surface is the magnetic dip zero?
6) State ‘Lenz’s law in electromagnetic induction.
7) Write the condition for ‘resonance’ of series LCR circuit.
8) What is ‘wattless’ current?
9) A blue ray of light enters an optically denser medium from air. What happens to its frequency
in denser medium?
10) 92U 238 undergoes   decay giving rise to thorium. What is the mass number of the daughter
nuclide?
PART-B
Answer any five of the following questions : (5 X 2 = 10)
11) Represent graphically the variation of resistivity with absolute temperature for copper and
nichrome metals.
12) Write the expression for cyclotron frequency and explain the terms.
13) State and explain ‘Curie’s Law’ in magnetism.
14) Mention any two factors on which the self inductance of a coil depends.
15) Give any two applications of ultraviolet radiation.
16) What is polarization of light? Name any one method of producing plane polarized light.
17) Calculate de Broglie wavelength associated with an electron moving with a speed of
2  10 5 ms 1. Given h  6.625  1034 JS , me  9.11  1031 kg .
18) Write any two advantages of Light Emitting Diode (LED) over conventional in candescent low
power lamps.
PART - C
Answer any five of the following questions : (5 x 3 =15)
19) Give any three properties of electric field lines.
20) Obtain the expression for effective capacitance of two capacitors connected in series.
21) Write any three differences between diamagnetic and paramagnetic materials.
22) Describe the coil and barmagnet experiment to demonstrate the phenomenon of electromagnetic
induction.
23) Derive the expression for effective focal length of two thin lenses kept in contact.
24) Write any three experimental observations of photoelectric effect.

PES PU COLLEGE
25) How zener diode is used as a voltage regulator? Explain.

26) What is the function of ‘receiver’ in communication system? Draw the block diagram of AM-
receiver.
PART-D
27) Using Gauss’s law in electrostatics, obtain the expression for electric field due to a uniformly
charged thin spherical shell at a point
i) Outside the shell and
ii) Inside the shell
ne 2
28) Derive   where the symbols have their usual meaning.
m
29) Obtain the expression for the force between two infinitely long straight parallel conductors
carrying current. Hence define “ampere” the SI unit of electric current.

30) Derive the expression for the fringe width of interference pattern in Young’s double-slit
experiment.
31) Describe with suitable block diagrams, action of pn-junction diode under forward and reverse
bias conditions. Also draw I-V characteristics.
32) Assuming the expression for the radius of electron orbit, obtain the expression for the total
energy of the electron in the stationary orbit of hydrogen atom.
Answer any three of the following questions : (3 x 5 = 15)

2
33) The plates of a parallel plate capacitor have an area of 100 cm each and are separated by 3 mm.
the capacitor is charged by connecting it to a 400 V supply.
a) Calculate the electrostatic energy stored in the capacitor.
b) If a dielectric of dielectric constant 2.5 is introduced between the plates of the capacitor,
then find the electrostatic energy stored and also change in the energy stored.
34)
In the given circuit diagram, calculate : (i) The main current through the circuit and (ii) Also
current through 9  resistor.
35) A 20  resistor, 1.5 H inductor and 35  F capacitor are connected in series with a 220 V, 50
Hz ac supply. Calculate the impedance of the circuit and also find the current through the
circuit.
36) The radii of curvature of two surfaces of a convex lens is 0.2 m and 0.22 m. Find the focal
length of the lens if refractive index of the material of lens is 1.5. Also find the change in focal
length, if it is immersed in water of refractive index 1.33.
37) The half life of a radioactive sample 38Sr 90 is 28 years. Calculate the rate of distintegration of
15 mg of this isotope.
Given Avogadro number  6.023  1023.

PES PU COLLEGE
MARCH - 2019 ANNUAL EXAMINATION

any marks.
PART-A
I. Answer ALL the following questions: (10 x 1 =10)
1) State Coulomb’s Law.
2) Define electrical resistivity of material of conductor.
3) Write the expression for force acting on a moving charge in a magnetic field.
4) What is magnetic susceptibility?
5) How the self inductance of a coil depends on number of turns in the coil?
6) For which position of the object magnification of convex lens is -1. (minus one)?
7) For which angle of incidence reflected ray is completely polarized?
8) Mention any one type of electron emission.
9) Write the expression for energy of an electron in electron orbit of hydrogen atom.
10) Write the relation between Half – Life and Mean-Life of radioactive element.
PART-B
II. Answer any FIVE of the following questions: (5 X 2 = 10)
11) Write any two basic properties of charge.
12) Write the expression for drift velocity interms of current, explain the terms used.
13) Define magnetic ‘dip’ and ‘declination’ at a place.
14) Write the expression for speed of light interms of “ 0 ” and “ 0 ”, explain the terms used.
15) Write the ray diagram for formation of image in the simple microscope.
16) What is diffraction of light?
17) Write the expression for de-Broglie wave length of electrons interms of electric potential and
explain the terms used.
18) Distinguish between n-type and p-type semi conductors.
PART - C
III. Answer any FIVE of the following questions: (5 x 3 =15)
19) Derive an expression for potential energy of electric-di-pole placed in an uniform electric field.
20) Write the expression for force per unit length between two straight parallel current carrying
conductors of infinite length. Hence define SI unit of current ‘ampere’.
21) Distinguish between ‘dia’ and ‘ferro’ magnetic materials.
22) Mention the three types energy loss in a transformer.
23) Write three experimental observations of photoelectric effect.
24) Writ the three postulates of Bohr’s atomic model.
25) Explain ‘Conduction band’ ‘Valance band’ and Energy gap’, in semi conductors.
26) What is modulation? Write the block diagram of the receiver.

PES PU COLLEGE
PART-D
IV. Answer any two of the following questions: (2 x 5 = 10)
27) State Gauss’s law. Derive an expression for electric intensity at a point outside the uniformly
charged shell.
28) Two cells of emf E1 and E2 and internal resistance r1 and r2 are connected in parallel such that
they send current in same direction. Derive an expression for equivalent resistance and
equivalent emf of the combination.
29) Derive an expression for the intensity of magnetic field at any point on the axis of a circular
current loop.
V. Answer any two of the following questions: (2 x 5 = 10)

30) Derive an expression for the impedance of a series LCR circuit, when an AC voltage is applied
to it.
31) Derive “Lensmaker’s” formula.
32) Explain the working of a n-p-n transistor in CE mode as an amplifier.
VI. Answer any three of the following questions: (3 x 5 = 15)

33) In a circular parallel plate capacitor radius of each plate is 5 cm and they are separated by a
distance of 2 mm. Calculate the capacitance and the energy stored, when it is charged by
connecting the battery of 200 V (given 0  8.854  1012 Fm 1 ).
34) Two resistors are connected in series with 5V battery of negligible internal resistance. A current
of 2A flows through each resistor. If they are connected in parallel with the same battery a
25
current of A flows through combination. Calculate the value of each resistance.
3
35) A conductor of length 3m moving in a uniform magnetic field of strength 100T. it covers a
distance of 70 m in 5 sec. its plane of motion makes an angle of 300 with direction of magnetic
field. Calculate the emf induced in it.
36) In a Young’s double slit experiment wave length of light used is 5000Å and distance between
the slits is 2mm, distance between the slits is 2mm, distance of screen from the slits is 1m. Find
fringe width and also calculate the distance of 7th dark fringe from central bright fringe.
37) Half life of U=238 undergoing   decay is 4.5 109 years. What is the activity of one gram of
U- 238 sample?
  

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PES PU COLLEGE

2 Electrostatic Potential and Capacitance 8 14 to 27

4 Moving Charges and Magnetism 9 43 to 54

5 Magnetism and Matter 6 55 to 61

9 Ray Optics and Optical Instruments 8 83 to 103

10 Wave Optics 8 104 to 116

11 Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter 6 117 to 122

12 Atoms 4 123 to 129

13 Nuclei 6 130 to 139

14 Semiconductor Electronics 10 140 to 151

15 Communication System 3 152 to 156

16 Previous Year Question Paper 157 to 168

1. What is Electrification and explain the methods of electrification?

a) Charging by friction : (for insulators)

Induction results attraction

II PUC BOARD MATERIAL Electric Charges and Fields Page 1

3. Mention the properties of charges.

4. State and explain Coulombs law?

For free space or vacuum

II PUC BOARD MATERIAL Electric Charges and Fields Page 2

5. Define the Dielectric Constant or Relative Permittivity

6. Define S.I unit of coulomb

7. What are the limitations of coulombs law?

 In vector form coulombs law can be written as

 Vector representation of force:

II PUC BOARD MATERIAL Electric Charges and Fields Page 3

II PUC BOARD MATERIAL Electric Charges and Fields Page 4

II PUC BOARD MATERIAL Electric Charges and Fields Page 5

13. Define dipole moment

 Electric field because of ‘+ve’ charge is given by

II PUC BOARD MATERIAL Electric Charges and Fields Page 6

 If d > > a than a 2 can be neglected

15. Derive the expression for electric

Electric field due to ‘-ve’

 net electric field  E1  E2 

II PUC BOARD MATERIAL Electric Charges and Fields Page 7

16. Derive the expression for torque

 The tangent drawn at any point for the field line

II PUC BOARD MATERIAL Electric Charges and Fields Page 8

18. Define electric flux  

19. State gauss law

II PUC BOARD MATERIAL Electric Charges and Fields Page 9

21. Derive the expression for electric

II PUC BOARD MATERIAL Electric Charges and Fields Page 10

II PUC BOARD MATERIAL Electric Charges and Fields Page 11

 Electric field due to non-conducting sphere : (ex: nucleus)

II PUC BOARD MATERIAL Electric Charges and Fields Page 12

II PUC BOARD MATERIAL Electric Charges and Fields Page 13

1) Define electric potential.

Electric field due to ‘q’’ at a distance ‘‘x’ is given by

II PUC BOARD MATERIAL Electric Potential and Capacitance Page 14

It is the locus of the points which are maintained at same potential

II PUC BOARD MATERIAL Electric Potential and Capacitance Page 15

II PUC BOARD MATERIAL Electric Potential and Capacitance Page 16

II PUC BOARD MATERIAL Electric Potential and Capacitance Page 17

II PUC BOARD MATERIAL Electric Potential and Capacitance Page 18

9) What is electrostatic shielding?

10) Mention the applications of electrostatic shielding

11) What is Van de Graaff generator?

12) On what principle of Van de Graaff generator works?

II PUC BOARD MATERIAL Electric Potential and Capacitance Page 19

14) Use of Van de Graaff generator.

II PUC BOARD MATERIAL Electric Potential and Capacitance Page 20