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Fundamental Skills in Science: Observation

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 Fundamental Skills in Science:
Observation
David L. Haury
DIGEST
EDO-SE-02-05
September 2002
Clearinghouse for Science, Mathematics, and Environmental Education

We value our sight above almost everything else. The stability and change in scientific understanding. Writers associated
reason for this is that of all the senses sight makes with Project 2061 (AAAS, 1989) stated that sooner or later, the
knowledge most possible for us and shows us the many validity of scientific claims is settled by referring to observations
differences between things. of phenomena. Hence, scientists concentrate on getting accurate
Aristotle, Metaphysics, Book I data. Such evidence is obtained by observations and measure-
ments taken in situations that range from natural settings…to
You see but you do not observe. completely contrived ones (such as in the laboratory). To make their
Sherlock Holmes to Dr. Watson in A scandal in Bohemia observations, scientists use their own senses, instruments…that
Long before our ancestors invented writing, they created art enhance those senses, and instruments that tap characteristics
representing their observations, and detailed observations of the quite different from what humans can sense (such as magnetic
night sky were being systematically recorded nearly 3,000 years fields)….Because of this reliance on evidence, great value is
ago (Kavassalis, 2000). Though the early Greeks recognized the placed on the development of better instruments and techniques
importance of our senses in constructing knowledge, the primacy of observation, and the findings of any one investigator or group
of observations was formally put to the test by Galileo who faced are usually checked by others (pp. 26-27).
charges of heresy for supporting the heliocentric theory of the Shermer (1997) identified observation as accounting for
universe. Risking his life for the sake of ideas, Galileo not only the difference between science and pseudoscience and being
believed in what he observed through the newly invented telescope, the means by which scientific knowledge changes over time.
he believed in the newly emerging views of scientific knowledge He claims science is different from pseudoscience…not only in
based on reasoning and observations. evidence and plausibility, but in how [it changes]. Science [is]
De Duve (2002) has characterized science as being based cumulative and progressive in that [it continues] to improve and
on observation and experiment, guided by reason (p. 285), and refine knowledge of our world…based on new observations and
this combination is what distinguishes science from other paths interpretations (p. 38). Derry (1999) points out that science needs
to knowledge. Derry (1999) makes the same point by saying better observations and more precise measurements for progress
that well constructed scientific arguments, defending a scientific in understanding to occur.
conclusion, generally rests on two foundations: reliable empiri- Though human senses are limited in range and are easily
cal evidence and sound logical reasoning (p. 89). Martin (1972) deceived, observation remains at the heart of science and is the
was more explicit: final arbiter in constructing and testing scientific ideas. Observation
in science is more than seeing; it refers to skills associated with
Scientific theories are primarily tested against observation collecting data using all the senses, as well as instruments that
and accepted, rejected, or modified mainly because of obser- extend beyond the reach of our senses, and it is influenced by the
vational data. Observation is thus generally considered to assumptions and theoretical knowledge of the observer.
be the touchstone of objectivity in science; it seems to be
primarily observation that provides an independent standard Observation in Science Classrooms
for the evaluation of theories and hypotheses. If it were not For over three decades a focus on science process skills,
for observation, there would be little reason for choosing including the skill of observation, has been highly promoted in
between scientific theories and fictional accounts, between school science. Indeed, one influential elementary curriculum
science and pseudoscience, between warranted assertions developed during the science curriculum reform flurry of the
and fanciful hopes. 1960s—Science: A Process Approach—was organized around the
He goes on to caution, though, that observation clearly cannot development of skills (AAAS, 1975). More recently, curriculum
be maintained as infallible or certain. The existence of percep- standards in science related to observation have typically appeared
tual illusion, hallucinations, and other less dramatic perceptual in sections related to learning through inquiry. According to the
errors proves that people can be deceived by their senses (pp. National Research Council (NRC,1996), students in the earliest
112-113). grades should be expected to use simple tools—magnifiers, ther-
Despite the apparent centrality of observation to the devel- mometers, and rulers—to gather data and learn what constitutes
opment of scientific knowledge, there has long been a debate evidence (pp.122-123). Strategies for helping young students
about the exact role of observation and its supposed contribution make detailed observations have been described (i.e., Checkovich
to objectivity in science. It is acknowledged that observations & Sterling, 2001), and ways of linking observations to familiar
can be both unreliable and theory-dependent (Hodson, 1986). readings have been offered (i.e., Angus,1996).
Martin (1972) has made the argument that a trained observer with Students in the middle grades should learn to conduct sys-
certain knowledge and training can observe things that a person tematic observations, interpret data, use computers to collect and
without this knowledge and training cannot observe. Further, a display evidence, and base explanations on observations (NRC,
personʼs background will influence what properties he [or she] 1996; p. 145). In high school, students are expected to design
visually attends to in a particular object, or indeed whether he and conduct investigations that involve the use of equipment and
[or she] attends to any properties of the object at all. Finally, the procedures to collect data, the use of computers to analyze data, and
theoretical background of a scientist leads him [or her] to observe the development of models or explanations based on the evidence
noncognitively objects which the layman, because of his [or her] from investigations (p. 175). As an example of how to engage
lack of theoretical background does not observe at all (p. 107). students in constructing a model from data, Cummins, Ritger, and
Ironically, observations are seemingly at the heart of both Myers (1992) described an activity using observational data of the
moon to construct a model of the sun-earth-moon system.

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 ERIC/CSMEE Fundamental Skills in Science: Observation Page 2

More generally, everyone should acquire the ability to handle science learning process (Haslam & Gunstone, 1998). Evalua-
common materials and tools…for making careful observations, tion studies associated with the current trend toward increased
and for handling information. These include being able to do the proficiency testing in science will undoubtedly shed more light
following (AAAS, 1989): on student performance in using the tools of observation and the
• Keep a notebook that accurately describes observations made, level of skill development in observation techniques. Still there
that carefully distinguishes actual observations from ideas and will be open questions regarding the extent to which students can
speculations about what was observed, and that is understand- purposefully observe in a self-directed manner to gather evidence
able weeks or months later. in support of their ideas. This is at the heart of doing science,
• Store and retrieve computer information using topical, alpha- and we have little direct evidence of the extent to which students
betical, numerical, and key-word files, and use simple files of can couple observations with reasoning to construct models and
the individualʼs own devising. explanations of natural phenomena.
• Enter and retrieve information on a computer, using standard References
software. American Association for the Advancement of Science. (1989).
• Use appropriate instruments to make direct measurements Science for all Americans: A Project 2061 report on literacy
of length, volume, weight, time interval, and temperature. goals in science, mathematics, and technology. Washington, DC:
Besides selecting the right instrument, this skill entails using Author. [Available online at: http://www.project2061.org/tools/
a precision relevant to the situation. sfaaol/sfaatoc.htm]
American Assoication for the Advancement of Science. (1975).
• Take recordings from standard meter displays, both analog Science: A process approach. Lexington, MA: Ginn.
and digital, and make prescribed settings on dials, meters, and Angus, C. (1996, Fall). Sciencing with Mother Goose: Observation
switches (pp.137-138). activities with Chicken Little. CSTA Journal, 4-6.
Implications for Teaching and Research Checkovich, B. H., & Sterling, D. R. (2001, January). Oh say can
you see. Science and Children, 38 (4), 32-35.
In the view of the AAAS (1989), science teaching consistent
Cummins, R. H., Ritger, S. D., & Myers, C. A. (1992, March). Using
with the nature of scientific inquiry will: the Moon as a tool for discovery-oriented learning. Journal of
• Engage students actively. Students need to have many and Geoscience Education, 40 (2), 142-46.
varied opportunities for collecting, sorting, and cataloging; de Duve, C. (2002). Life evolving: Molecules, mind, and meaning.
observing, note taking, and sketching; interviewing, polling, New York: Oxford University Press.
and surveying; and using hand lenses, microscopes, thermom- Derry, G. N. (1999). What science is and how it works. Princeton,
eters, cameras, and other common instruments (p. 147). NJ: Princeton University Press.
• Concentrate on the collection and use of evidence. Students Gabel, D. (1993). Introductory science skills, 2nd Edition. Prospect
should be given problems—at levels appropriate to their matu- Heights, IL: Waveland Press. [ED 396 929]
rity—that require them to decide what evidence is relevant Haslam, F., & Gunstone, R. (1996). Observation in science classes:
and to offer their own interpretation of what the evidence Studentsʼ beliefs about its nature and purpose. Paper presented at
means. This puts a premium, just as science does, on careful the Annual Meeting of the National Association for Research in
Science Teaching (69th, St. Louis, MO, April). [ED 396 909]
observation and thoughtful analysis. Students need guidance,
Haslam, F., & Gunstone, R. (1998). The influence of teachers on student
encouragement, and practice in collecting, sorting and analyz- observation in science classes. Paper presented at the Annual Meet-
ing evidence, and in building arguments based on it. However, ing of the National Association for Research in Science Teaching
if such activities are not to be destructively boring, they must (San Diego, CA, April 19-22). [ED 446 927]
lead to some intellectually satisfying payoff that the students Hodson, D. (1986). The nature of scientific observation. School
care about” (p. 148). Science Review, 68, 28.
Typical of resources to assist teachers in these tasks is a handbook Kavassalis, C. (2000, December). The role of observation in the
(Gabel, 1993) that includes a section on observation as a basic history and philosophy of science. Online publication: http:
science skill to be taught in elementary school. Another teach- //www.softwareimpact.com/cathy/Observation1.htm
ing guide (Pauker & Roy, 1991) includes activities that present Martin, M. (1972). Concepts of science education: A philosophic
observing as a science process skill and thinking skill. Similar analysis. Glenview, IL: Scott, Forseman.
resources are available in many commercially available instruc- National Research Council. (1996). National science education stan-
dards. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. [Available online
tional materials.
at: http://books.nap.edu/html/nses/html/index.html]
Though curriculum standards and the professional literature of Padilla, M. (1990, March). The science process skills. Paper 9004 in
science education promote attention to science process skills, and the series, Science matters—to the science teacher, published by the
observation in particular, the research on student conceptions of the National Association for Research in Science Teaching. [Available
role of observation in science seems limited. Reviews of research online at: http://www.educ.sfu.ca/narstsite/research/skill.htm]
have shown that when science process skills are emphasized in Pauker, R. A., & Roy, K. R. (1991). Strategies for learning: Teaching
the classroom, student proficiency on individual skills increases, thinking skills across the curriculum through science. Analyzing
some transfer of skills to new situations is noted, and skills are information and data. Teacherʼs Edition. Annapolis, MD: Alpha
retained over time (Padilla, 1990). One study, however, (Haslam Publishing. [ED 388 505]
& Gunstone, 1996) provides evidence that students tend to view Shermer, M. (1997). Why people believe weird things: Pseudosci-
observation as a teacher-directed process rather than a self-directed ence, superstition, and other confusions of our time. New York:
pursuit of evidence. Student conceptions of evidence-based infer- W. H. Freeman.
ences also seem limited. Surprisingly, many students do not see Wilson, C. (1996, April). A classroom who-dunnit to sharpen sci-
the process of observation as being particularly relevant to the ence skills. Teaching PreK-8, 26 (7), 52-54.

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