Curriculum content

Definition Of Curriculum - All the learning which is planned and guided by the school, whether it is
carried on in groups or individually, inside or outside the school.

3. Elements of Curriculum -Aims and objectives Content Evaluation Teaching Strategies

4. Definition of Content • Content is defined as “Information to be learned in school, another term

for knowledge (a collection of facts, concepts, generalization, principles, theories)”

• Content comes in any form (audio, text and video) and it informs, entertains, enlightens or teaches
people who consume it.

6. Subject-centered view of curriculum- The fund of human knowledge represents the repository of
accumulated discoveries and inventions of man down the centuries, due to man’s exploration of the
world.

7. Learner-centered view of curriculum • Relates knowledge to the individual’s personal and social
world and how he or she defines reality. • Jerome Bruner: “Knowledge is a model we construct to
give meaning and structure too”

10. Purposes of Content -To help organize materials To help a sequential relationship of material
To present material basic to a general understanding of a course.To furnish a source of valuable
information. To present application

12. The content is:  United with the goals and objectives of the basic education curriculum. 
Responds to the needs of the learner.  Includes cognitive skill and affective elements.

13. The content is:  Fully and deeply covers the essential to avoid the “mile-wide-and- inch-deep”
impression.  That is of use to the learners.  That is practical and achievable.

14. The content is: Facts are basic in the structure of cognitive subject matter. But content must go
beyond facts. Working out a process of conceptual understanding means teaching and learning
beyond facts. This can be done by the use of the thematic or the integrated approach.

15. The content is: Subject matter content integrates the cognitive, skill, and affective components.
The cognitive content includes facts, concept, principles, hypothesis, theories and laws. The skill
component dwells on thinking skill and manipulative skills.

16. Criteria for Content Selection

17. Criteria for content selection Self-sufficiency – According to Scheffler (1970) the prime guiding
principle for the content selection is helping the learners to attain maximum self sufficiency in
learning but in the most economical manner.

18. Criteria for content selection Economy means less teaching effort and educational resources, less
learner’s effort but more results and effective learning outcomes.

19. Criteria for content selection Significance – It is significant if  When content or subject matter
will contribute to basic ideas, concepts, principles, and geberalization to achieve the over all aim of
the curriculum.  It will develop learning abilities, skills, processes and attitude

20. Criteria for content selection Significance – It is significant if  It will develop the cognitive,
effective and psychomotor skills of the learners  The cultural aspects will be considered

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21. Criteria for content selection  Relevance to life: learning experience must be related to the
learner’s real life situations in and out of school;  Variety: learning experiences must cater to the
needs of different types of learners by providing different types of experiences;

22. Criteria for content selection  Suitability: learning experiences must be suitable to the learners
present state of learning and characteristics:

23. Criteria for content selection  Validity – it relates to the authenticity of the content selected. 
this refers to the relevance of the stated learning experience to the stated goals of the curriculum; 
Means two things, is the content related to the objectives, and is the content true or authentic;

24. Criteria for content selection Interest- the content should suit the personality and intellectual
capabilities of the students. Is the content interesting to the learner? Or can the content be made
interesting to learners?

25. Criteria for content selection • Utility – it is concerned with the usefulness of the content. Here
the question is whether the content selected is useful i.e. will lead to the acquisition of skills and
knowledge that are considered useful by society?

26. Criteria for content selection • Utility is the content selected such that learners can learn and
understand given their present level. • Learnability- this criteria emphasizes on the optimal
placement and appropriate organization and sequencing of the content

27. Criteria for content selection  Feasibility – it compels the planners to analyze and examine the
content in the light of the time and resources available to the students, costs involved, socio-political
climate etc.

28. Other considerations that may be used in the selection of the learning content As a guide,
subject matter or content can be selected for use if these are: a. Frequently and commonly used in
daily life. b. suited to the maturity levels and abilities of students.

29. As a guide, subject matter or content can be selected for use if these are: c. Valuable in meeting
the needs and the competencies of a future career; d. related with other subject areas; and e.
important in the transfer of learning

30. Organization of the content • It demands a thorough understanding of the teaching leaning
process. • Important aspects for this:- a) sequencing b) continuity c) integration

31. Organization of the content • a) Sequencing- it means putting the content and materials into
some sort of order of succession. • b) Continuity- content should provide continuity n learning and
prevent loss through forgetting. The students should be provided with experiences step by step. .

32. Organization of the content • c) Integration- learning is more effective when facts and principles
from one field can be related to another, esp when applying knowledge.

33. Selecting and Organizing Content • Planning curriculum similar to guided tour • Various options
of how to reach destination (broad program goals) • Planning itinerary in advance aids in avoidance
of confusion—saves time

34. Selecting and Organizing Content • Broadest level involves selecting, structuring subject matter
to be taught to reach broad program goals • Learning becomes development of a series of
connections among concepts that hold real meaning and relevance for learner

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WHAT IS LEARNING EXPEREINCE ? -It is defined as deliberately planned experienced in selected
situations, where students actively participate, interact, and which result in the changes of behavior
in the students

6. OBJECTIVES OF LEARNING EXPERIENCE Imparting the knowledge The acquisition of skills

Development of aesthetic sense or taste (Appreciation) 

8. CRITERIA FOR THE SELECTION OF LEARNING EXPEREINCES

 Learning experience selected should be consistent with the educational philosophy(*relevance)

 Learning experience should be varied and flexible

 Provide sufficient opportunity to practice or self-activity,

 It should provide opportunity for the development of independent thinking and study, decision-
making, good judgement, intellectual resourcefulness, self-discipline etc.

 Learning experience should be adapted to the needs and concern of the student

 learning experience are arranged in a manner that provides continuity, sequential development,
logistic manner, correlation and integration of theory, practice and clinical learning experience which
will facilitate effective learning.

9. Learning experience are selected and arranged to give the appropriate emphasis and weightage

 Learning experience is consistent with the aims of democratic society.

 Learning experience are structured so that general and specific objectives will be attained

 Encourage and promote motivation at appropriate time and in a manner that will stimulate
curiosity of the students  Provide variety of learning experience with selected content

 It has involve all the senses in the learning process to achieve maximum learning

Components

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Criteria -  By learning experience maximize the responsibilities of the learner  Utilize resources
and media in organizing learning experience  Create interest and desire for more learning 
Learning experience should be planned ahead of time  It will deeper and broader understanding &
increases skill on the students  It should be in chronological order  Use maximum of teaching in
planning learning experience

According to Wiles and Bondi (1989) these experiences can be classified as follows:

1 . Personal development of the individual

2. Skills for continued learning

3. Education for social competence.

.For the personal development phase the activities to be included could be physical activities
according to age and maturity, activities leading to a better understanding of the self etc. The skills
for continued learning would pertain to diagnosis of learning needs and the instructional programme
could be structured on-the basis of individual characteristics. The social competence category would
include learning experiences in the subject areas like Science, Mathematics, and Humanities etc.
Such a classification system would also be a guide to the classroom teachers to ensure provision of a
balanced instructional programme.

i) Valid in light of the ways in which knowledge and skills will be applied in out of

school situations.

ii) Feasible in terms of time, staff expertise, facilities in the school etc.

iii) Optimal in terms of students learning the content. Models of Curriculum

Designing and Development

iv) Capable of allowing students to develop their thinking skills and rational powers.

V) Capable of stimulating in stbdents greater understanding of their own existence

as individuals and as members of groups.

vi) Foster in the students openness to new experiences and tolerance for diversity.

vii) Facilitate learning and motivate students to continue learning.

viii) Capable of allowing students to broaden their interests and address their needs.

ix) Facilitate total development of students in cognitive, affective, psychomotor, social

and spiritual domains.

Such criteria will help in selection of appropriate learning experiences for a given set

of objectives.

Environmental organisation

Here we are focusing on environmental features internal to specic teaching/

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learning situations, not wider contexts such as community and socio-economic surroundings. For our
immediate purpose, we do not want to deal with the different types of learning environments.
Instead, we shall touch upon various learning environments familiar to us. We can easily identify the
following:

i) Self-contained classroom

ii) Departmentalisation

iii) Non-gradedness

iv) Open space

v) Open education

vi) Tutorial

vii) Community-based curricula

viii) Non-school education.

Though most of the ‘environments’ presented here are familiar to us and self-explanatory by
themselves, we shall say a few words about each of them in the given order.

i) Self-contained classroom: The most prevalent form of environmentalorganization at the

school/university level still is the self-contained classroom, comprising a teacher and a group of
students who remain together during the learning/teaching process which is usually obtained by
means of prescribed texts, etc.

ii) Departmentalisation: The characteristic organisational environment in the secondary and higher
educational setup nds teachers placed in departments based on their subject specialisations.

iii) Non-gradedness: Students should be enabled to progress through prescribed studies at their own
pace. This can be done by establishing exible mechanisms for students to engage in advisory
dialogue with teachers, to become aware of their own sense of direction, to learn individually and in
groups and to make use of a variety of personal and material resources for learning.

iv) Open space: The suggestion is that teaching/learning should take place in the open. By and large,
neither teachers nor curriculum leaders have favoured open space environments. While rare cases
of successful adaptation exist, the usual reaction is one of negation.

v) Open education: The philosophy of open education holds that students are active and learners
learn best when they pursue their own life problems.

vi) Tutorials: This old university tradition of learning through a process of one to one exchange is still
maintained successfully at a few institutions. Recent research by Bloom (1984) and his students
indicates that the tutorial may be the best setting for the achievement of mastery.

vii) Community based curricula: It is on the basis of work-study programmes that engage students in
academic study for half a day and then schedule them to work with a business or industry for the
rest of the day. The purpose of such programmes is to acquaint the students with the world and at
the same time ease their eventual transition into the job market. A considerably different image of
community - based curricula was developed under the title “school without walls”. The underlying
philosophy it proposed was that thecommunity itself is a better learning environment than the

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classroom. Thus,students were involved in expeditions to all parts of the country to learn fromthe
richness of experience it embodies.

viii) Non-school education: It does not teach lessons based on a formalized curriculum. To illustrate
this, we refer here to the implicit curricula and learning environments that saturate our culture
through television, radio, popmusic, church, scouting, movies, street gangs, homes, families, peer
groups,jobs and the like. Each of these is a learning environment.

Two significant models of curriculum development exist that training professionals can use to guide
their work: the product model and the process model.

Process model of curriculum development

A curriculum that has been developed using the process model will often prioritize active learning,
discussion, and individual student response. The thinking behind this model is that students will
learn a significant amount by engaging in activities and discussions.

• Content has its own value. Therefore, it should not be selected on the basis of the achievement of
objectives.

• Content involves procedures, concepts and criteria that can be used to appraise the curriculum.

• Translating content into objectives may result in knowledge being distorted.

• Learning activities have their own value and can be measured in terms of their own standard. For
this reason, learning activities can stand on their own.

• Content and methodology are derived from the goals. Each of them has outcomes that can be
evaluated.

• The evaluation results from the outcome are fed into the goals, which will later influence the
content and methodologies. Unlike the objectives model, there is no direct evaluation of the content
and methodologies.

Product model

The product model of curriculum development focuses on end results, with successful completion of
things like assessments and projects as the primary goal.

Each curriculum describes several and different approaches which reflect the developer’s view of
reality, philosophy, history, psychology, social issues, and the domains of Knowledge. For every
approach, it expresses an orientation or perspective about curriculumdevelopment which impacts

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on the design of the curriculum, the role of schools, administrators,teachers, learners, curriculum
specialists, and requirements for implementation and evaluationsuch as instructional materials,
equipment and facilities.There are two classifications of Curriculum Approaches1. Technical-
Scientific Approach2. Non-Technical/ Non-Scientific Approach

Technical-Scientific Approach

It views curriculum development as something similar to engineering or architecture.

The basis for the procedure is the scientific method which involves a logical step-by-stepprocedure
of problem solving.

The procedure is guided by well-defined objectives which are formulated based on theanalysis of
normative needs as defined by developmental and other psychologicaltheories, rather than
individual needs and interests.

It is a way of planning curricula to optimize students’ learning and to allow them to

increase their output.

According to Ornstein and Hunkins, the roots of technical-scientific approach are found

in the turn of Twentieth Century when schools attempted to “adapt the principles of

bureaucracy to the methods that could be considered scientific.

Ralph Tyler

- a well-known proponent of the technical-scientific approach discussed four basicprinciples in

curriculum development in his book

Basic Principles of Curriculum and Instruction published in 1949.

Ralph Tyler In his book Tyler presented the concept that curriculum should be: 1. dynamic 2. a
program under constant evaluation and revision.

Curriculum had always been thought of as a static, set program, and in an era preoccupied with
student testing, he offered the innovative idea that teachers and administrators should spend as
much time evaluating their plans as they do assessing their students.

5. • Since then, Basic Principles of Curriculum and Instruction has been a standard reference for
anyone working with curriculum development. • Although not a strict how-to guide, the book shows
how educators can critically approach curriculum planning, studying progress and retooling when
needed.

• Its four sections focus on setting objectives, selecting learning experiences, organizing instruction,
and evaluating progress. • Readers will come away with a firm understanding of how to formulate
educational objectives and how to analyse and adjust their plans so that students meet the
objectives. • Tyler also explains that curriculum planning is a continuous, cyclical process, an
instrument of education that needs to be fine-tuned.

6. • This emphasis on thoughtful evaluation has kept Basic Principles of Curriculum and Instruction a
relevant, trusted companion for over sixty years. •

Tyler's straightforward recommendations are sound and effective tools for educators working to
create a curriculum that integrates national objectives with their students' needs.

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THE TYLER MODEL • The Tyler Model is: ○ one of the best known models for curriculum
development. ○ known for the special attention it gives to the planning phases. ○ deductive for it
proceeds from the general (examining the needs of society, for example) to the specific (specifying
instructional objectives).

8. • Tyler recommends that curriculum planners identify general objectives by gathering data from
three sources: 1) the learners 2) contemporary life outside the school 3) subject matter. • After
identifying numerous general objectives, the planners refine them by filtering them through two
screens: 1. the philosophical screen 2. the psychological screen

9. • In the Tyler Model, the general objectives that successfully pass through the two screens
become what are now popularly known as instructional objectives. • Curriculum objectives indicate
both behavior to be developed and area of content to be applied. (Keating, 2006)

10. Tyler’s Four Fundamental Questions:

1. What educational purposes should the school seek to attain?

2. What educational learning experiences can be provided that are likely to attain these purposes?

3. How can these educational experiences be effectively organized?

4. How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained?

11. 1. What educational purposes should the school seek to attain? • Studies of the Learners
Themselves as a Source of Educational Objectives • Studies of Contemporary Life outside the School
• Suggestions about Objectives from Subject Specialists • The Use of Philosophy in Selecting
Objectives • The Use of a Psychology of Learning in Selecting Objectives • Stating Objectives in a
Form to be Helpful in Selecting Learning Experiences and in Guiding Teaching

12. 2. How can Learning Experiences be selected? Which are likely to be useful in attaining these
objectives? • Meaning of the Term “Learning Experience” • General Principles in Selecting Learning
Experiences • Illustrations of the Characteristics of Learning Experiences Useful in Attaining Various
Types of Objectives

13. 3. How Can Learning Experiences Be Organized for Effective Instruction? • What is meant by
“Organization?” • Criteria for Effective Organization • Elements to be organized • Organizing
Principles • The Organizing Structure • The Process of Planning a Unit of Organization

14. 4. How Can the Effectiveness of Learning Experiences Be Evaluated? • The Need for Evaluation •
Basic Notions Regarding Evaluation • Evaluation Procedures • Using the Results of Evaluation •
Other Values and Uses of Evaluation Procedures

15. Strengths of Tyler’s Model

Clearly stated objectives a good place to begin. Involves the active participation of the learner
(Prideaux, 2003) Simple linear approach to development of behavior al objectives (Billings &
Halstead, 2009)

16. Criticism of the Tyler Model: Narrowly interpreted objectives (acceptable verbs) Difficult and
time consuming construction of behavioral objectives Curriculum restricted to a constricted range of
student skills and knowledge critical thinking, problem solving and value acquiring processes cannot
be plainly declared in behavioral objectives (Prideaux, 2003)

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Hilda Taba (7 December 1902 – 6 July 1967) was an architect, a curriculum theorist, a curriculum
reformer, and a teacher educator. She wrote many books, especially in education, including The
Dynamic of Education (1932), Adolescent Character and Personality (1949), School Culture: Studies
of Participation and Leadership(1955), Action Research: A case study(1957), Curriculum
Development and Practice (1962), Thinking in Elementary School Children(1964) etc.

Taba contributed to the theoretical and pedagogical foundation of concept development and critical
thinking in social studies curriculum and helped to lay the foundation of education. She also created
a multipurpose teaching model that utilizes the use of multiple process i.e. Listing, grouping, re-
grouping, labelling, and synthesizing. Her model “Grassroot approach” is modified version of Tyler’s
model.

Taba’s definition of Curriculum

Taba defines ‘curriculum’ as a document containing a statement of the aims and of the specific
objectives; it indicates some selection and organization of content; it either implies or manifests
certain patters of learning and teaching. Because the objective demand or the content organization
requires it includes a program of evaluation of the outcomes.

Steps of Hilda Taba model of Curriculum Development

Hilda Taba is the developer of this model of learning. Taba believed that there is a definite logical
and sequential order in creating a curriculum. She promotes the “Down-Top model” or Grassroots
approach. Taba’s grassroots model has seven steps as listed below, advocating a major role for
teachers.

1. Diagnosis of Learners’ Needs:-

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The teacher who is also the curriculum designer starts the process by identifying the needs of the
students for whom curriculum is to be planned. For example; Majority of students are unable to
think critically.

2. Formulation of Objectives:-

After the teacher has identified the needs of learners that require attention, he or she specifies the
objectives by which needs will be fulfilled.

3. Selection of the Content:-

The objectives selected or created suggest the subject matter or content of the curriculum. Not only
objectives and content should match, but also the validity and significance of the chosen content
need to be determined. i.e. the relevance and significance of the content.

4. Organization of the Content:-

A teacher cannot just select content but must organize it in a Particular Sequence taking into
consideration the maturity of learners, their academic achievement and their interests.

5. Selection of Learning Experiences:-

Content must be presented to students and they must be engaged with the content. At this point
teacher should select appropriate instructional methodology that will involve the students with the
content.

6. Organization of Learning Activities:-

The learning activities be organized in a sequence depending both on content sequence and
learners’ characteristics. The teacher needs to keep in mind the students he or she will be teaching.

7. Evaluation:-

The curriculum planner i.e. the teacher must determine what objectives have been accomplished. To
assess the achievement of learning objectives, evaluation procedures need to be designed.

Strengths of using the Taba Model

This model taps into higher-order thinking skills

Builds comprehension skills such as inference, synthesizing and summarizing.

Gifted learners will thrive with the opportunities to explore questions with multiple correct answers.

Questioning is open ended, No clear right or wrong response.

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When grouped together students work collaboratively with others to build speaking and listening
skills.

Provides an opportunity for healthy classroom discussions before and after generalizations are
made.

Limitations of using the Taba Model

Can be difficult for some students to handle the open-ended aspect of the model.

Without clear direction it may be difficult for teachers to plan and prepare questions for the path of
the students take.

Difficult to adapt for all subjects, or at least for some types of texts.

Texts must be chosen in advance..

Last of oliver model -“The model accomplishes two purposes; 1)Suggests a system that curriculum
planners might wish to follow 2)Serves as the framework for explanations of phases or components
of the process for curriculum improvement

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To make the Oliva Model more simplistic, it can be set forth in 17 specific steps:

1. Specify the needs of the students in general.

2. Specify the needs of society.

3. Write a statement of philosophy and aims of education.

4. Specify the needs of students in your school.

5. Specify the needs of the particular community.

6. Specify the needs of the subject matter.

7. Specify the curriculum goals of your school.

8. Specify the curriculum objectives of your school.

9. Organize and implement the curriculum.

10. Specify instructional goals.

11. Specify instructional objectives.

12. Specify instructional strategies.

13. Begin selection of evaluation techniques.

14. Implement instructional strategies.

15. Make final selection of evaluation techniques.

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16. Evaluate instruction and modify instructional components.

17. Evaluate the curriculum and modify curricular components.

The Cognitive Thought Model is a model based on the process of thought itself. This model depicts
the thought process in a way that shows existing knowledge as the basis of cognition and new
thought as informational ques that tap into existing knowledge in a way that builds new knowledge
from existing knowledge. This model is highly dependent on the resources and context in which the
learner is taking on new information. This model occurs in real-time. Lastly, the Cognitive Thought
Model can operate in conjunction with other processes, in the form of information exchange, or
alone.

The Cognitive Thought Model Steps

In the Cognitive Thought Model there are seven steps. The steps in this model are not subject to
reordering and must be completed in the sequential order given in order to achieve the desired
outcome. The steps include the following: Learner Readiness, Starting-Up, The Main Process,
Possible Interpretation and Resumption, Purpose, Contemplation, and Final State.

From Ornstein and Hunkins (2004):

Step 1 - Learner Readiness is the ability of the learner to focus on the task at hand, be it physical or
mental, by ceasing other distractions.

Step 2 - Starting-Up, action initiation is made with conscious efforts by the learner.

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Step 3 - The Main Process is when cognition of new thought begins. Simply stated, this is where the
learner stops preparing and becomes engaged.

Step 4 - Possible Interpretation and Resumption. This step occurs while the learner is engaged. The
learner has the option at this point to decide if it is more advantageous to continue in the steps, if it
is necessary to stop and restart, or if it is permissible to stop without restarting.

Step 5 - Purpose. The point of this step is to allow the learner to make a determination of whether or
not the original intent of the learning is being fulfilled.

Step 6 - Contemplation. In this step the learner, assuming the all prior steps were worked
successfully, must now start to look for a conclusion in the physical or mental task that they have
been engaged in.

Step 7 - Final State. This step allows the learner to contemplate the results of the prior engagement
that is now completed.

Conclusion

The cognitive thought model was created using research from neurological studies. Neural control
systems have identical characteristics to those of cognitive thought. The basic model for this
approach is the same as the model that we use to control physical movement. The way we train
athletes is the same way that we can train students.

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Hunkins’s Decision making Model 

Curriculum conceptualisation and legtimization -various concepts of the curriculum are identified
and examined- considering social and cultural views. -conversing with various persons to interprete
the discourses generated in the field This step is unique to this model. Allows the ability to formulate
ideas and substantiate them by taking the norms, values and culture of our society into account in its
design

Diagnosis -translating needs into causes( what causes some needs) -generating goals and objectives
from the needs-these serve as guidelines or as statements of expected learning

Content selection

Organizes and selects the content and learning activity.

Allows the sequencing of the unit, topics and various subject and courses.

Refers to cognitive process that the procedures students to learn to apply their knowledge and skills.

To communicate with others.

• Experience selection -deals with instruction- how content should be delivered -what teaching
methods to be employed, what activities to make learning effective and enjoyable

• Implementation -1. initial piloting -2. final diffusion of the tested program

This step offers role clarification, provisions of support services, staff developments programs,
modifications of procedures and communication.

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• Evaluation - So as to decide to continue, modify or discontinue the program. The components of
this step include: course content, teacher guides, textbook, searching methods and evaluation
procedures.

Measures the effectiveness and efficiency of the curriculum.

The evaluation stage will summarize the good as well as the weakness of the program.

• Maintenance -educating new staff, ensuring supply of materials, supervisors assisting teachers
The maintenance stage offers permanent follow up and quality of the program.

This stage may reveal when some of the program should be altered or replaced.

Backwards Design

“To begin with the end in mind means to start with a clear understanding of your destination. It
means to know where you’re going so that you better understand where you are now so that the
steps you take are always in the right direction. Stephen R. Covey

Backward design is essentially starting at the end and working backwards. .It encompasses deciding
what your targeted goal is and then working backward to achieve success

Ralph W. Tyler introduced the idea of "backward design" (without using this particular term) in 1949
when referring to a statement of objectives

The backward design approach has been noted for being useful in helping teachers to design
curriculum to best meet students’ needs .The approach can be used across grade levels, students
with disabilities, and across content areas .The teacher needs to ask themselves how they will get to
the end result . Backward design is a method of designing an educational curriculum by setting goals
before choosing instructional methods and forms of assessment. Backward design of curriculum
typically involves three stages

1.Identify the results desired (big ideas and skills)

What the students should know, understand, and be able to do

Consider the goals and curriculum expectations

Focus on the "big ideas" (principles, theories, concepts, point of views, or themes)

2.Determine acceptable levels of evidence that support that the desired results have occurred
(culminating assessment tasks)

What teachers will accept as evidence that student understanding took place

Consider culminating assessment tasks and a range of assessment methods (observations, tests,
projects, etc.)

3.Design activities that will make desired results happen (learning events)

What knowledge and skills students will need to achieve the desired results

Consider teaching methods, sequence of lessons, and resource materials

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Backward design challenges "traditional" methods of curriculum planning. In traditional curriculum
planning, a list of content that will be taught is created and/or selected.[4] In backward design, the
educator starts with goals, creates or plans out assessments and finally makes lesson plans.
Supporters of backward design liken the process to using a "road map".[5] In this case, the
destination is chosen first and then the road map is used to plan the trip to the desired destination.
In contrast, in traditional curriculum planning there is no formal destination identified before the
journey begins.

The idea in backward design is to teach toward the "end point" or learning goals, which typically
ensures that content taught remains focused and organized. This, in turn, aims at promoting better
understanding of the content or processes to be learned for students. The educator is able to focus
on addressing what the students need to learn, what data can be collected to show that the
students have learned the desired outcomes (or learning standards) and how to ensure the students
will learn. Although backward design is based on the same components of the ADDIE model,
backward design is a condensed version of these components with far less flexibility.

Design-A framework for improving student achievement, emphasizing the teacher's critical role as a
designer of student learning

3. Understanding by Design® is based on

• A primary goal of education: development and deepening of student understanding

• Student’s understanding increase with opportunities to explain, interpret, apply, shift perspective,
empathize, and self-assess

• Effective curriculum development: a three- stage design process called "backward design"

advantages of backward design include:

 Students are not as likely to become so lost in the factual detail of a unit that they miss the
point of studying the original topic.
 Instruction looks toward global understandings and not just daily activities; daily lessons are
constructed with a focus on what the overall "gain" from the unit is to be.

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  Assessment is designed before lesson planning, so that instruction drives students toward
exactly what they need to know.

The importance of assessment

The primary starting point for backward design is to become familiar with the standards/outcomes
for the grade level and curriculum being taught. The second part of curriculum planning with
backward design is finding appropriate assessments. It can be difficult for "traditional" educators to
switch to this model because it is hard to conceptualize an assessment before deciding on lessons
and instruction. The idea is that the assessments (formative or summative) should meet the initial
goals identified.

Wiggins and McTighe (2008) also utilize the "WHERE" approach during the assessment stage of the
process.[11]

W stands for students knowing where they are heading, why they are heading there, what they
know, where they might go wrong in the process, and what is required of them.

H stands for hooking the students on the topic of study.

E stands for students exploring and experiencing ideas and being equipped with the necessary
understanding to master the standard or outcome being taught.

R stands for providing opportunities for students to rehearse, revise, and refine their work.

E stands for student evaluation.

PPBS

Identification of goals and objectives for each major area of activity - Planning

Analysis of the programs proposed to obtain organizational objectives - programming

Estimation of the total costs for each project.

Cost/benefit analyses are performed for each program - a portfolio of projects is selected for
funding. - Budgeting

3.Planning,Programming & Budgeting System (PPBS):  The system focuses on funding those
projects that will bring the greatest progress toward organisational goals for the least cost  Basically
a Program and Planning Budgeting System  It is a link between planning and programming covering
it into annual budget format.

4. STAGES OF PPBS: Stage 1: Specifications of objective. Stage 2: Systematic analysis. Stage 3:

Functional classification. Stage 4: Organization. Stage 5: Evaluation.

5. z Stages of PPBS:  Specification of Objectives - The objectives of the programes are to be

specified in consistence with the long term goals in quantitative terms as far as possible.

 Systemic Analysis - The possible alternative projects to achieve the programes objectives are
analyzed in a systematic way with the use of cost-benefit and cost-effectiveness analysis.

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 Functional Classification - The budget is classified on a functional basis like functions, programes,
projects and activities.

 Organization - Budget formulation addresses the organizational structure, managerial and

administrative procedures of the programs/ projects/ activities.W

 Evaluation - The mechanism for evaluation of performance on the basis of financial and physical
performances to monitor, and take corrective actions, if necessary.

 Advantages of PPBS:

 It integrates the process of program/ project formulation, budget allocation and evaluation in a
systematic way. o

It helps in the choice of programs/ projects, allocation of resources on them and performance
evaluation for the executive and legislature.

 It integrates the decision makings regarding the choice of program/ projects to achieve the
intended objectives.

 It attempts to promote maximum social advantage with the prudent (wise-full) use of scarce
resources.

 It incorporates the future budgetary repercussion (may be 3,5,10 years) as per the nature and size
of the projects.

Project Evaluation and Review Technique

(PERT) is a procedure through which activities of a project are represented in its appropriate
sequence and timing. It is a scheduling technique used to schedule, organize and integrate tasks
within a project. PERT is basically a mechanism for management planning and control which
provides blueprint for a particular project. All of the primary elements or events of a project have
been finally identified by the PERT.

In this technique, a PERT Chart is made which represent a schedule for all the specified tasks in the
project. The reporting levels of the tasks or events in the PERT Charts is somewhat same as defined
in the work breakdown structure (WBS).

 Characteristics of PERT

It serves as a base for obtaining the important facts for implementing the decision-making.

It forms the basis for all the planning activities.

PERT helps management in deciding the best possible resource utilization method.

PERT take advantage by using time network analysis technique.

PERT presents the structure for reporting information.

It helps the management in identifying the essential elements for the completion of the project
within time.

 Advantages of PERT:

Estimation of completion time of project is given by the PERT.

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It supports the identification of the activities with slack time. The start and dates of the activities of a
specific project is determined.

It helps project manager in identifying the critical path activities.

PERT makes well organized diagram for the representation of large amount of data.

 Disadvantages of PERT:

The complexity of PERT is more which leads to the problem in implementation.

The estimation of activity time are subjective in PERT which is a major disadvantage.

Maintenance of PERT is also expensive and complex.

The actual distribution of may be different from the PERT beta distribution which causes wrong
assumptions.

It under estimates the expected project completion time as there is chances that other paths can
become the critical path if their related activities are deferred.

.non scientific approach

NON-TECHNICAL OR NON- SCIENTIFIC APPROACH

 SUBJECTIVE, PERSONAL, AESTHETIC, HEURISTIC, TRANSACTIONAL

 CURRICULUM EVOLVES  STUDENTS ARE SEEN AS ALWAYS EVOLVING.

 ASSERT THAT MUCH OF WHAT A CURRICULUM ACCOMPLISHED IS IMMEASURABLE (E.G., NOT

FULLY REFLECTED BY TEST SCORES).

SUBJECT MATTERS HAVE IMPORTANCE ONLY IF STUDENT CAN FIND MEANING IN IT FOR HIMSELF

 WORLD AS LIVING ORGANISM, NOT A MACHINE

 VIEW LEARNING AS HOLISTIC, STUDENT-CENTERED, AND ITS MODEL IS THE DELIBERATION MODEL
 SIGNIFIES AN APPROACH TO LEARNING WHICH IS PREDOMINANTLY 'WHOLE PERSON’ i.e. it seeks
to engage fully all aspects of the learner - mind, body and spirit.

Holistic Learning  THE UNDERLYING HOLISTIC PRINCIPLE IS THAT A COMPLEX ORGANISM

FUNCTIONS MOST EFFECTIVELY WHEN ALL ITS COMPONENT PARTS ARE THEMSELVES FUNCTIONING
AND CO-OPERATING EFFECTIVELY

Student-Centered Approach

 BUILT UPON THE LEARNER’S KNOWLEDGE, SKILLS, LEARNING, AND POTENTIALS.

 THIS IS BASED ON THE UNDERLYING PHILOSOPHY THAT THE CHILD IS THE CENTER OF THE
EDUCATIONAL PROCESS. (CURRICULUM IS CONSTRUCTED BASED ON THE NEEDS, INTEREST,
PURPOSES, AND ABILITIES OF THE LEARNERS)

Deliberation  Deliberation – Move away from individual beliefs to assessing possible points of
action- Feelings can run high and the process can seem chaotic  This is the practical stage- they
identify possible problems about the situation in which the curriculum is to be implemented and
how it could mitigate problems

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44. Deliberation cont…  The process includes;  Identifying relevant facts, generating alternative
courses of action in light of precedents  Considering the costs and consequences of all alternatives

45.  Choosing the most defensible alternatives  The emphasis is to clear away clashes between
alternatives

46. Design  Design – Group achieves consensus so that a course of action is accepted  During this
phase curriculum development contains both implicit and explicit considerations  Decisions may
still be influenced bypersonal preferences  The design phase is the creation of the curriculum,
which includes; specific subjects, instructions,, teaching materials the group believes advisable

In the deliberation model of nontechnical curriculum development, educators communicate

theirviews to their colleagues and sometimes to students regarding education’s goals and what
shouldbe taught. However, curriculum development is nonlinear. A blend of modernism and
postmodernism, the deliberation approach draws on systems thinking and on feedback and
adjustmentsbut also takes into account that reality is somewhat subjective.

Dillon notes that deliberation essentially proceeds from problem to proposals to solution. This
process occurs within a recognized socially constructed context. People are aware of the participants
in the process and of their views, ideas, and agendas.

Curriculum development through deliberation occurs within cultural contexts. Currently,this is one
of the challenges confronting curriculum creators. How can one generate solid curricula while taking
diverse cultures, customs, and values into account?

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ii) Making a pedagogically sound sequence of content in accordance with the Meaning and Concept

of Curriculum changing levels of instruction; and

iii) Making the cumculum a balanced fare for the overall growth of the learner.

(Caswell: 1966

Curriculum: Indian Perspective

The Latin root explains 'Curriculum' as a comprehensive course of study to be undertaken by an

educational institution and the Sanskrit equivalent emphasises the sequence of content and
processes to be followed. The term "National Cumculum" conveys two different meanings (Dewal,
2004). It could mean a carefully designed curriculum that is implemented, practiced and evaluated
by the country as a whole. In another sense, it could mean a National Curricular framework, which
would provide the guidelines for developing and designing the curriculum across the different states
and provinces of the country, This framework will provide the directions in which the educational
system of the country has to move vis-a-vis the educational policies. The framework would also
provide the basis for effecting cumcular changes, based on local conditions and needs within
different states. In India, education is a subject both of the state list and the concurrent list. Hence,
the mechanism of curriculum development becomes slightly complex, being designed and
developed both at the central and the state levels. We shall now examine the historical development
of the curriculum in India. After Independence the educational system of the country was critically

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examined by the University Education Commission, set up in 1948, under the chairmanship of Dr. S.
Radhakrishnan. The Commission revealed that secondary education is the weakest link in the chain
of the educational system of the country. Subsequently, the Secondary Education Commission was
set up in 1953 to examine the weaknesses of secondary education system. Prior to 1947, the
educational system in India'was of ten years consisting of middle and high school or matriculation.
Subjects taught were English, Vernacular languages, Mathematics, History, Geography and Science.
The Secondary Education Commission found the curriculum bookish, and examination-centred with
an over-emphasis on memorizing by learners. The Commission recommended the following changes
in the curricular designs: i) five subjects (two languages, mathematics, social sciences and general
sciences) be studied upto class VIII; ii) specific stream of studies from class IX to XI; iii) duration of
schooling to be eleven years; and iv) establishment of multipurpose schools to provide education in
several academic and vocational streams. The Government of India appointed the ducat ion
Commission in 1964-66 under the chairmanship of Dr. D.S. Kothari. The recommendations of this
Commission formed the basis of the National Policy on Education announced in 1968. For the first
time, in independent India, the role of education was examined in the context of national
development by the Education Commission. The commission recommended a uniform pattern of
education comprising five years of primary education, eight years of elementary education (including
primary and upper primary stages), two years of secondary education followed by two years of
higher secondary education. Science and mathematics were made compulsory upto grade ten. At +2
stage, academic and vocational courses were recommended. The policy statement of NPE - 1968,
highlighted certain aspects of higher education. The postgraduate programmes and research
activities were given high priority. At the school level, it emphasized the close relational
opportunities and qualitative improvement of education. In 1986, the Curriculum and its .
Parliament adopted a policy resolution called the National Policy on Education, 1986. Various
Aspects The major objective was to prepare the Indian masses to take on the challenges of the
twenty-first century. The policy suggested new initiatives in the area of autonomy of universities and
colleges, decentralized planning and management. The role of open learning systems in increasing
access to education was also emphasized. A detailed plan for implementation of the policy
recommendations was prepared and approved by the Parliament as 'Programme of Action' (1986).

The major issues dealt with were reforms in examinations, restructuring of degree courses, linking
education with research and employment. Subsequently in 1988, the NCERT brought out the
'National Curriculum for Elementary and Secondary Education - A Framework', whose twofold
objectives were to facilitate curricular changes and institutional reforms. Its major recommendations
were government interventions pertaining to schools, teachers and local education authorities,
child- centred teaching, orientation and training of teachers and examination reforms. It emphasized
the participation of local communities in school management. This was followed by the Programme
of Action (1992), which proposed several measures in the light of experience gained during
implementation of the NPE (1986) and POA (1986). Among other issues, POA (1992) emphasized
redesign and restructuring of many undergraduate curriculum and courses and organizing teacher's
training in academic staff colleges, in a planned manner. Besides, it focused on research in
universities, promotion of science education in universities and improving efficiency of universities. A
reiteration of the NPE-1986, 1992 and National Curriculum framework 1988 is a National Curriculum
Framework for School Education brought out by nCERT in 2000. The framework has strongly
emphasized the need for a curriculum to be responsive to the need and aspirations of the people of
a country. Stressing on the relevance of religious education, it also recommended teaching' of social
sciences and promotion of Sanskrit through non-formal means. Hence we find that curriculum in the
Indian context has evolved in response to the changing needs and demands of society as well as

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different policy initiatives emerging out of the various committees and commissions set up by the
national government from time to time.

CURRICULUM CHANGE

From the earlier discussions it is evident that curriculum in our country has evolved and caused
socio-educational changes. It has been in tune with the changing aims and priorities of education
since the turn of the century. For example, the aim of education the early twentieth century was
rigorous intellectual training. However towards the second and third decades of the twentieth
century, the scope of school curriculum, which was purely academic in nature, was broadened by
incorporating non –academic and vocational aspects in the curriculum. Even now, at the beginning
of the twenty- Meaning and Concept of Curriculum first century, the scope has been further
widened by incorporating newer areas of study.

Hence curricular inputs should be in consonance with the changing social needs and should be
relevant to the times. They should keep in focus the vision of the future. Curriculum changes must
strengthen gender equality, promote special education, harness the potential of ICT and make
learners aware of global trends and issues. Dewal(2004) has elaborated on the prerequisites of
cumculum change. These are:

Teacher training for suitable transaction of the curriculum;

Development of support materials for teachers;

Provision of instructional facilities which enables every school to function for

180 days 5 hours each day;

Teachers should ensure learner participation during classroom instruction; I

Evaluation should be continuous and learner friendly;

Involvement of NGO's along with the government agencies for management of

curriculum change; and Fcr a complete implementation of the cumculh, education administrators
and curriculum designers have to function as change agents.

A socially relevant curriculum can be ensured if the panels and commissions, which formulate
educational priorities, include the following representative groups -

i) Students -

Post secondary students are mature and capable enough to provide input in

developing educational aims.

ii) Parents -

Since they are concerned with the overall development of their children, parental

inputs can be useful.

iii) Educators -

Teachers, administrators and public leaders must take on the responsibility of

fixing educational aims and priorities.

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iv) Researchers -

A researcher or a social scientist can contribute to the cumcular change by providing objective data
concerning social issues and trends.

v) Community members -

Irrespective of whether they have school-going children or not, the citizens have a civic responsibility
towards the schools. Their support in formulating educational priorities will be significant as they
decide matters pertaining to school or college, directly or indirectly.

vi) Business community -

They have a stake in the outcomes of schooling in the context of manpower technology and
industrial output. This community also exerts economic and political influence. Hence they must be
enlisted in school matters.

vii) Political officials -

Policies and educational policy go hand in hand, hence this group should also be enlisted.

viii) Pressure groups -

People can have impact by organizin5 into groups that promote special interests.

Such an activity is valid within a democratic set up

CURRICULUM AND THE ROLE OF TEACHERS –

Teachers determine to a large extent the manner in which the curriculum is executed in the
classroom. Their role is defined in respect of curriculum transaction and evaluation. It is also
believed that teaching-learning would be more effective if the teacher is involved in the process of
the curriculum development. Their role could be instrumental in the overall improvement of the
curriculum.

Doll (1 996) highlights three reasons why teachers could be effective improvers of the curriculum:

i) Work in close proximate with the learners

ii) Engaged in individual study and
iii) Interact with other teachers and share their curricular experiences.

These three factors enable them to develop insights and skills and can thus improve the quality
of learning experiences, which they provide to the learners. Teachers strive to fulfill educational
objectives by fostering understanding and tolerance among students, awaken curiosity and
stimulate independent thinking. The style of teaching also greatly influences the manner of
cumculum transaction. Hence teachers must be involved in the process of curriculum planning,
development, delivery, evaluation and review (Dewal, 2004). A teacher's style can either
promote role learning, or, alternatively, it can awaken a child's curiosity. Teacher's involvement
and familiarization with cumculum construction can make the teaching-learning process more
relevant and authentic. Once the basis and the instructional role of curriculum are understood,
the teacher can think in terms of alternatives. The evaluation mode and techniques shall, as a
result, be more in agreement with the aims and objectives of curriculum.

NCERT (2005) in its National Curriculum Framework for School Education has provided

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 curriculum schemes for different stages of education. Let us discuss these briefly.

 Early childhood Education

The curriculum framework and pedagogy for Early Childhood Education and Care

(ECCE) must be based on the objective of achieving all round development of children

-physical, mental, social, emotional and school readiness. Learning during this period need to be
based on child's interests and priorities and contextualised in her experiences rather than
formally structured. Play, music, rhyme, art and other activities along with

opportunities for speaking, listening and expression are essential components of learning

at this stage. Language that a child is familiar with need to be used in early education.

 Elementary School

The period of elementary school ranges from Class I to Class VIII, which is also the

period of compulsory schooling vide the Constitutional amendment making education

a fundamental right. During this period the child is introduced td reading, writing and

arithmetic. At the later part of elementary school she is introduced to formal disciplines

such as sciences and social sciences. The school should emphasize the development

of language competence, using language to create, think and communicate with others.

Opportunities need to be provided to the students to study in their mother tongue,

including tribal languages. English may be taught during this period but not at the

expense of learning Indian languages. The development of mathematical thinking

through teaching numeracy and mathematics should be emphasized. The development 2 0 . - -

of aesthetic sensibility, attitudes and skills essential for work through the study of arts

and crafts need to be stressed upon. During this period, emphasis must also be given

on physical development through sports activities.

 Secondary School

Secondary school is a period of intense physical change and formation of identity and

it 1s also a period of intense vibrancy and energy. The courses at this level generally

aim at creating the awareness of disciplines and introduce students to the possibilities

and scope of study in them. For a large number of children, this is also a terminal stage

as they leave school and join the workforce. Apart from usual courses at this level

such as two languages (one of which is English), mathematics, sciences and social

sciences, the Boards of School must encourage students to choose an optional course

from a range, which includes economics, music and cookery. Vocational options like

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 auto maintenance in garages, tailoring and paramedical services could also be introduced.

 Higher Secondary Stage

Highel- secondary stage comprises two years of schooling where students make choices

based on their interests, aptitudes and needs regarding their future life. This stage

must offer studeqts possibilities of choosing optional courses of study as per their

interest and future career. Instead of restricting the combination of courses in the

form of 'sc~ence stream', 'arts stream', and 'commerce stream', it is essential to

keep all optlons open for students. For example, new meaningful combinations of

study such as, physics, mathematics and philosophy or literature, biology and history

may be encouraged. The courses offered in +2 stage need to be alive to developments

in the disciplines. Even in a discipline, optional modules can be provided. For example,

history can have optional modules of archeology or world history. Academic and

vocational stream can also be merged. Facility of guidance and counselling services

and continued opportunities for sports and cultural activities need to be provided.

13.8.5 Curriculum Framework

A curriculum framework provides guidelines for translating into practice the scheme

of education at various stages of learning. For example, the National Curriculum

Framework, (1 988) provided the objectives of education, enlisted the scheme of studies

at various stages ranging from primary to secondary and outlined the instructional

strategies to be employed, medium of instruction and time allocation. The concept of

flexibility in time allocation was introduced by the National Curriculum Framework

(2000). The basis of this departure from the earlier framework was based on the

premise that subject-wise allocation-of instructional time should be left to the discretion

of the individual institutions. It followed the principle of decentralization. However the

NCFSE (2000) did spell out that the time to be spent for instructional purposes should

be 180 days. The number of school hours and duration of each period was also provided.

For example, it mentioned that a school period engages students for only three hours.

DETERMINANTS OF CURRICULUM

Curriculum for any level is determined by many factors. It is important that these factors must
be understood as they help in providing direction to curriculum development. Let us have a
discussion about these determinants and understand their implications. 6.4.1 Philosophical
Orientations Smith Stanley and Shores (1957) have asserted that philosophy is essesntial when

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 formulating and justifying educational purposes, selecting and organizing knowledge,
formulating learning activities. The aims are the statements of value which are derived from the
philosophy; means represents the processes and methods reflect the philosophical choices and
the end connote the facts, concepts and principles of knowledge or behavior learnt by the
learners. According to Ornstein and Hunkins (1988), the function of philosophy could be either
to serve as the base or starting point of curriculum development or as an interdependent
function with other functions in curriculum development. It involves an understanding of the
cause and effect relationships, questioning one’s point of view and that of others, clarifying
one’s beliefs and values, and formulating a framework for making decisions and acting on these
decisions

According to idealism, Knowledge consists of rethinking of the latest ideas present in the mind.
Hence, it is the teacher’s job to bring out this latent knowledge into the consciousness of the
child, which would imply that teachers would act as role models of enduring values. The school
must be highly structured, advocating only those ideas that demonstrate those enduring values.
The choice of instructional materials would depend on the subjects, which constitute the
cultural heritage of mankind. According to Ornstein, three essential skills (three Rs) and
essential subjects (like English, arithmetic, science, history, and foreign language) must be the
part of curriculum.

According to realists, curriculum follows a hierarchical order with the abstract subjects at the
top and the transitory subjects at the bottom. They stress that a curriculum consists of
organized body of knowledge pertaining to specific areas. For example, the history curriculum
comprises experiences of mankind. Details related to animals can be studied in zoology. Like the
idealist, the realist also stresses logic and lessons and exercise the mind that cultivate rational
thought. It is the responsibility of the teacher then, to impart to the learners the knowledge
about the world they live in. Logic and the experiences that cultivate human mind are
emphasized in curriculum

Curriculum, according to pragmatists, should be so planned that it induces

teachers and the learners to think critically, rather than what to think. Teaching

should, therefore, be more exploratory than explanatory. Learning takes places

in an active way as learners solve problems, which help them widen the horizons

of their knowledge and reconstruct their experiences in consonance with the

changing world. Therefore, the teacher should provide learners learning opportunities

to construct their own learning experiences. They stress more on problem-solving

using scientific method than acquiring an organized body of knowledge

According to the existentialist philosophy, learners are thrust into a number of

choice making situations. Learners should be given the freedom to choose what

to study, and also to determine what criteria to determine these truths. It

emphasizes that education must centre on the perceptions and feeling of the

individual in order to facilitate understanding of personal reactions or responses

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 to life situations: Of primary concern in this process is the individual. Since,

life is based upon personal meanings, the nature of education, the existentialists

would argue, should be largely determined by the learner. Ornstein and Hunkins (1988) are of
the view that an existentialist curriculum

would focus on experiences and subjects that lend themselves to philosophical

dialogue and acts of choice making. It would enable activities of self-expression

and experimentation. The teacher becomes a partner in the process of teachinglearning,

assuming a non- directive role. The teacher is a more of a facilitator

enabling the learner to explore and search to develop insights rather than one

who imposes predetermined values.

Reconstructionism laid more emphasis on society-centred education which took

care of the needs of society (not the individual) and all classes (not only the

middle class). They believe that as the school/college is attended by virtually

all the youth, it must be used as a means to shape the attitudes and values

of each generation. As a result, when the youth become adults they will share

certain common values, and thus the society will have reshaped itself.

The reconstructionist curriculum consists of subjects which promote new social,

economic and political education. The subject matter is to be used as a vehicle

for studying social problems, which must serve as the focus of the curriculum.

Views of some recent reconstructionist have been put forth by Ornstein and

Hunkins, (1988) who have given a reconstructionist programme of education

which emphasize the following:

 critical-examination of the culture heritage of a society as well as the entire

civilization;

 scrutiny of controversial issues;

 commitment to bring about social and constructive changes;

 cultivation of a planning-in-advance attitude that considers the realities of

the world we live in; and

 enhancement of culture renewal and internationalism

What we as curriculum specialists need to do is to adopt an eclectic approach,

the middle road, where there is no emphasis on extremes of subject matter

or socio- psychological development, excellence or equality. We must understand

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 Understanding Curriculum that curricularists have to continuously reflect on their curricular
decisions, and

these should be based on the changing needs of the students and society. Hence

a curriculum philosophy should be one that is politically and economically feasible

and serves the needs of students and society.

Psychological Considerations

While deciding curriculum, various factors related to growth and development

of learners, their Psychological needs, interests and problems are to be kept

in mind. Each area of growth and development (such as physical development,

emotional development, social development, and intellectual or cognitive

development) are marked by distinguished characteristics. The interaction

between these four areas are represented in the figure below.

It is clear from the figure above that environment around the learner, manipulation

of learning experiences to enhance capacity ability to learn, etc.. are other factors

which influence the child’s readiness to learn. The readiness principle suggests

that for learning a particular task or unit, the learner has to achieve a minimum

level of maturity. It implies that learning should not be too early, too much or

too fast. However, it must also be noted that readiness to learn does not depend

solely on the age and maturity of the child but also on the learning experiences,

school environment etc. Hence, what the curriculum has to offer and to whom

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 should be decided by taking into account all these factors and their influence

social constrains

A good curriculum ensures that the unique character and integrity of the society

is preserved and the quality of life of social groups is also improved. The social

forces influence the decisions regarding what is to be taught, and how it is to

be taught. What is to be added to or deleted from the existing curriculum to

accommodate the change(s) in society is also decided by social forces. Social

forces exert their influence on curriculum through different organisations and

groups of people operating at regional, national and local/community levels. These

forces are discussed under four categories: governmental forces, quasi-legal

forces, professional organisations, and special interest groups operating in a

community.

i) Governmental forces

The government makes policies on education and its curriculum. Direct

governmental controls are based on constitutional and statute laws. For example,

RTE has given right to children between 6-14 yearss to have free and compulsory

26

Understanding Curriculum education. For this, government has to make provisions for physical
facilities

and engagement of teachers. It has develop curriculum and textbooks for the

children. Similarly through Acts of Parliament in 1969 and 1986, the Government

approved some new education policies which included components of vocational

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 education, moral education, and extended general education upto class X. All

these and several similar policy decisions affect curriculum planning. These

decisions have led to reformulation of objectives of education and reconstruction

of curriculum at different levels of education: primary, secondary and higher

education. Another example is the constitution of India enshrines the principles

of democracy and secularism which are reflected in the school curriculum and

the textbooks based on them.

Another means through which the government influences the school curriculum

and in fact, most parts of the school education is the financial support extended

by the Central, State and Local governments to educational enterprise in the

country. Thus the government is in a position to enforce its rules, regulations

and policies regarding curricular activities and experiences to be provided to

the students.

ii) Quasi-legal Forces

These forces are not necessarily created by law. These may be created by

voluntary organisations, professional bodies and autonomous institutions. These

may include universities and colleges, parent-teacher associations (PTAs),

textbook writers, publishers, philanthropic organisations, mass media, etc. For

example, universities and colleges not only influence the curriculum through

teacher education, but also play a significant role in determining the school

curriculum. PTAs are the pressure groups through which community views on

curriculum and textbooks are. channelled to school, its board and curriculum

planners.

Big publishers greatly influence the type of content to be included in the textbooks

and the curriculum. Textbooks with sound psychological organisation, stimulating

format, appropriate learning activities and relevant and powerful illustrations

determine the content and the teaching procedures to be followed in schools.

Curriculum makers sometimes pattern the course of study in particular fields

according to these well organised textbooks.

iii) Professional Organisations

The professional organisations which influence the curriculum to a great extent

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 include teachers’ and teacher educators’ associations. For example, National

Council of Teacher Education (NCTE) is empowered by the Government of

India to design curriculum for teacher education. The teachers organisations not

only work for improving the welfare and working conditions of the teachers

but also disseminate information about the profession, give suggestions for

improving instruction and support research in education and in-service training

of the teachers. All these activities affect school curricula. While planning the

curriculum, the curriculum planner has to consider the views and suggestions

of educational organisations and their well-informed members. Beside teachers’

professional organisations. the curriculum planner considers the suggestions and

concerns of other related professions

iv) Special Interest Groups in the Community

In every society there are groups or organizations which promote a particular

school of thought or areas of special interest. These organisations may include

patriotic groups, cultural and religious organisations, civic groups and others

representing various interests in the community. The curriculum planner should

be interested in having an insight into the beliefs, aspirations and expectations

of various groups in the society.

The local education committee which represents the community, governs the

schools and caters to the educational interest of the community, usually approves

the course proposals and authorises the development of curriculum materials.

Through these committees the aspirations, expectations and values of the

interested groups are reflected in the curriculum, of course, within the broad

frame of state and central education policy. These groups attempt to impress

upon the curriculum planner

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 Educationists define the systems approach as an approach which aims at finding the most
efficient and economically cost-effective methods for solving educational problems
scientifically. The systems approach provides a frame work for all the factors that influence the
solution of educational problems or the achievement of objectives. In the teaching-learning
process, the systems approach takes into consideration all available leaming resources, content,
learning experiences, methods and media to achieve the given set of leaming objectives. Thus
the systems approach focuses on the student and the performance required by Him/her.

stages:

5.5.1 Specifying the Output

If we consider a macro level example (e.g. implementation of new curriculums of Grade IX). .
the broad and specific objectives of the curriculum become the stated expected outputs. These
may have been expressed in terms of cognitive, affective as well as psychomotor development.

While formulating these objectives, the learners' entry behaviour has to be taken into
consideration .The specific instructional objectives are stated in terms of observable and
measurable terminal behaviours. These terminal behaviours which are expected from the
students after going through the instructional system are the output specifications of the
system. These output specifications help design the instructional system of course
implementation for Grade IX. Then the whole process of system development gets geared to
achieve these objectives. The first step in the development of an instructional system,
therefore, is to specify the expected terminal behaviours.

5.5.2 Preparation of Evaluation Procedure

How does a system designer know that the learners have achieved the expected terminal
behaviours after going through the instructional process? Obviously. some evaluationprocedure
has to be developed for this.

The performance of the students is tested at the end of the process. For this purpose, the
system designer has to prepare test items representing the expected terminal behaviour. As
these items in the test form the criteria for understanding whether all expected terminal
behaviours have been achieved or not, the test can,be called a "criterion test". Results on the
criterion test provide feedback to the system designer at the end of the process.

As an instructional system designer, you should be interested in getting feedback, not only at
the end of the instructional process but also during the process. For this one has to develop
tests with items representing behaviours expected at various stages of the process. These tests
are called "formative tests". Results on formative tests provide feedback to the system designer
even during the process and hence desired changes can be made in the process to make it more
effective and efficient. Annual school examinations can be termed "terminal tests" whereas the
unit-end tests can be termed as "formative tests".

5.5.3 Identifying Input Specifications

In order to achieve the specified outcomes, the students are expected to have certain entry
behaviours (pre-requisite knowledge). The system designer may like to specify the same and
prepare a test to ensure that the student possesses the necessary input specifications. The
same can be stated in terms of knowledge, skills as well as attitudes.

5.5.4 Designing the process Alternatives

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 Once the expected objectives (terminal behaviours) have been specified and the required entry
behaviour ensured, the system designer can plan the process necessary for'achieving those
objectives. In the case of an instructional system, the teacher-designer of a system should think
of a variety of teaching-learning methods and media which can be employed for achieving the
desired objectives.

the selection methods may vary according to the type of objectives e.g. if our objective

is that the student will be able to state reasons for the spread of a disease, a set of

lectues and some supplmentary charts could be used and the terminal objective achieved. But

If the objective is that the student will be able to classify the animals on the basis of their

characteristics, the use of lectures alone will not be adequate. The teacher needs to show actual

specimen using questioning technique and group assignment, etc., for this objective. Thus if the
educational objectives differ, the method and media used for achieving them will also differ..
This show that various process alternatives can be identified and used depending upon the
objectives.

5.5.5 Selection of the Best Alternative

After preparing various alternative processes, the best among them or the most suitable

alternative(s) should be selected. Criteria for selection of the same can be as follows:

i) Nature of the subject (discipline) : Every discipline has its own characteristics and

methods of study e.g. the natural sciences, such as Physics, Chemistry, Biology, etc.,

demand experimentation, demonstration, field visits and observations to be used as

instructional techniques to achieve the desired objectives whereas objective> m

disciplines such as History can be achieved through lecture, narration, debates, group

discussion, etc. The methods and the appropriate media have, therefore, to be selected

keeping in mind the nature of the discipline and the topic being taught.

ii) Availability of resources : For using any particular set of method and media certain

infrastructural facilities such as space, electricity, seating arrangement, furniture, etc., are

needed. One can select a process keeping in mind the availability of necessary resources.

Availability of time and financial resources are two other criteria which determine the

selection of the most suitable process.

iii) Size of the class : Generally the class size ranges from 40 to 80. If there are 80 students

in the class, using a 21" TV is not advisable. Media such as slides, OHP transparencies

(can be used very effectively in such a situation. One

may use question-answer session or a panel discussion for a large class whereas small

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 group discussion can be used for a smaller class. Hence, the size of the group of students

in a class also determines the selection of suitable techniques and alternatives.

iv) Human resources : Most of the methods and media demand certain types of skills from their
users, the teachers in this case. If the teacher lacks the necessary skill of using an

OHP or the skills of conducting group discussion, s/he may hesitate to select and use
thesetechniques. And in such a case she may not succeed at achieving the objectives.

In order to use team teaching, the teacher must possess different sets of skills, and also must
get co-operation from the colleagues.Teachers trgined in various skills are the resources for an
instructional system. The availability

of such resources is also a very important determinent of the selection of the best alternative.

5.5.6 Planning for Learning Experiences

Once a suitable alternative has been selected, the next step is to prepare the material needed
for providing appropriate learning experiences. For example, one may decide to use the lecture

method supplemented by other media, like chalkboard, charts, models and techniques such as

questioning. One then has to preparelselect the charts needed for giving the intended
messages, prepare a modcl or a chalkboard summary (points to be written on the chalkboard),
and also list questions to be asked. These activities then can be logically arranged in order to
facililate effective learning.

5.5.7 Tryout

Now we have decided about the components of the system and prepared the necessary
material. But how do we know that it would work? After the development of the instructional

system, one should find out whether the system is effective in terms of attainment of

objectives. For this we have to test the system on a small group of students in a controlled

situation.

After the tryout on a small sample and its subsequent revisions, the system should be tried out

on a large sample. We are now taking the instructional system from the laboratory situation lo

the field. This is known as field tryout. It is possible that a few mistakes may be identified

through the tryout. These mistakes or the weaknesses of the instructional system have to be

rectified and thus the system has to be improved.

5.5.8 Revision and Implementation of the System

The task of revision takes us to the final stage of an instructional system. But this does not mean

that the system is now perfect. As far as the developmental process is concerned, the revision

based on the field tryout, leads to the final form of the instructional system. However, during

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 and after every implementation of the system, we collect some information about
itsfunctioning; this help us modify and improve the instructional system. Revision is thus
continuous process.

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 The term "systems" is derived from the Greek word "synistanai," which means "to bring
together or combine."

Group of items or objects forming a unified whole – System

A system is “a collection of elements, interacting with each other to achieve a common goal”.-
Crunkilton and Finch A regularly interacting or independent group of items forming a unified
whole”

It integrates analytic and synthetic method

It encompasses both holism and reductionism

It was first proposed under the name of "General System Theory" by the biologist Ludwig von
Bertalanffy.

i) the existence of a whole on its own merit;

ii) the whole consisting of parts;

iii) the whole existing apart from the other wholes;

iv) each whole influencing tlie other and in turn, being influenced itself;

v) the parts of the whole are not only inter-related, but they interact with one

another and in the process creating a self-evolving work;

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 vi) the parts relate themselves into a patterned relationship, while the whole

exists, and keeps existing.

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