.

HYBRIDISM IN THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE

Not long after the intrusion of the first French words in Eng-
lish we begin to see the first traces of a phenomenon which was
to

attain very great proportions and which must now be termed one of
the most prominent features of the English language, namely
hybridism.
A hybrid is a composite word formed of clements from different
languages. "As a general rule Teutonic affixes are added to Teutonic
stems, Romanic ( Lat. and Fr.) to Romanic stems, and Greek to
Greek". But all these prefixes and sufrixes have now beeome natura
lized in English, and hence many derivative words in English are of
mixed origin. Such words are called hybrids or half-breeds.
Hybrids are words of heterogeneous elements, such as Teutonic
with Romanic (hindr+ance), Teutonic with Greek (heathen+ism),
Rowanic with Greek (glossary). We have a hybrid when an English
inflectional ending is added to a foreign word or a foreign ending
is added to an English word.
I. Let us first consider hybrids composed partly of English and
partly of French words. Such hybrids were formed in the following
way

(a) French word+ English suffix (F+E)

Strictly speaking we have a hybrid as soon as an English inflec-

tional ending is added to a French word, c.g,
 Duke (Fr.)+'s(Eng. genitive ending)-Duke's (children)
Noble (Fr.)+ -est (Eng. superlative ending)=noblest.
From the very first, verbal nouns were tormed by adding he
suffix'-ing or -ung'to French words, e g,

Preach (Fr. )+ -ing (Eng. )=preaching;

Riwle (rule) (Fr. )+ -ung (Eng. )==riwlung, etc.
There are numerous hybrids of this kind. Other examples are :
Sweet, faint (Fr. )+ -ness (Eng.)=sweetness, faintness ;
Prince, easy, noble (Fr. )+ -ly (Eng- )=princely, easily, nobly;
Beauty, power, art (Fr. )+ -ful (Eng. )=beautiful, powerfnl
artful
Art, colour (Fr. )+ -less (Eng. )=artless, colourless;
Court (Fr.)+ -ship (Eng. )=courtship:
Duke (Fr. )+ -dom (Eag.)=dukedom.
(b)Eagish word+French suffix (E+F)

God, shepherd (E) + -ess (F)=goddess, shepherdess

Endear, enlighten (E)-+ -ment (F)=endearment, enlightenment;
Mile, leak, break (E)+ -age (F)=mileage, leakage, breakage;
Hinder, forbear (E)+ -ance (F)=hindrance, forbearance;
Murdes, thunder (E)+ -ous (F)=murderous, thunderous;
Fish, bake (E)+Ty (F)=fishery, bakery;
Fish, speech (E)+ -fy (F)-fishify, speechify;
Odd, woman (E)+ ty (F)=oddity, womanity
Ugly (E)+ -ication (F)=uglification.
N.B. This second kind of hybrids is in no other languages so
abundant as in English.

(c) English prefix +French word (E+

(E) + round (F) ==around;

be (E) + cause (F) =because;
fore (E) + front (F) =forefront;
over (E)+ power (F) = overpower
out (E)+ cry (F)=outcry;
un (E)+ able (F) unable;
(d) Englsh derlvative adjective ending in -able' (F)
One of the most fertile English derivative
has been
endings ia -able' (F)
which used in a great number of words besides the French
words, to make adjectives. Examples of such hybrids are
serviceable' marriageable', 'reasonable', etc
There are various ways in which
adjectives are formed with
able, cg
) In a
comparatively few cases it is added to nouns to form
adjectives, e.g,
Service + able serviceable ;
Reason + able = reasonable;
Marriage + able = marriageable.

ci) It is more generally added to verbs in the passive sense, e.g.,

bear+able =bearable (that which can be borne-passive sense) ;
drink+able =drinkable (that which can be drunk-" ))
eat+able eatable (that which can be eaten
(ii) In rare cases it is added to verbs in the active sense, e.g.,
suit+able=suitable (that which suits--active sense)
shrink+able=shrinkable (that which 'shrinks" ).
Everybody is now free to form a new adjective of this kind if
there is any need forit
Nobody now-objects to the formation of corresponding nounsin
ability from these adjectives in able'.
iv) The adjectives in able' have become so indispensable that
they are formed, if required, even from composite verbal expres
sions, e-g
get at able from 'get at (composite verbal expression);
smokable with' from 'smoke with' ("*
R e l i a b l e ' f r o m ' t h a t c a n b e relied on' (" * , etc.

II. As there are hybrids in which one of the component parts is

French and the other native English, so also there is a similar
phenomenon with Latin and Greek clements, one part being native
English and the other Greck or Latin. A large number of Latin
prefixes and suffixes entered the English language with the Renais-
sance. The following are a few examples of hybrids formed with
Latin or Grek suffixs and prcfixes
(a) English word +Lat. or Grcek suffix

Starve (E) -ation (Lat.) starvation;

Talk (E) +ative(Lat.) = talkative;
Turf (E) + -ite (Lat.) = turfite;
Heathen (E) + ism (Greck)=heathenism;
London (E) + -ize (Greek) = Londonize;

Walk (E) +-ist (Greek) = walkist, etc.

(b) Greek & Latin prefix + English word

Ex (Lat +king (E) = ex-king

Pre (Lat) +historic (E) = pre-historic;
Anti- (Gk.) +taxation (E) =anti-taxation;
Pro (Gk.) +king (E) pro-king, etc.

(c) Latin prefix "re

The Latin prefix re- is freely used to form compounds like "re
collect, 're-cover', 're mark', etc. The words with re-' are to be
distinguished from older words with 're' like recollect, recover.
remark, etc. This latter set of "re" words like Tecover", recollect
and 'remark' are different in meaning from the first set as in 're-

cover, 're-collect', 're-mark', etc.

The difference between the two sets is as follows:
Recover =regain;
Re-cover = cover again;
Recollect =remember;
Re-collect = collect again;

Remark = take notice of, comment;

Re-mark mark again, etc.

in the
Conclusion, occupy a very important place
"Hybrids
and writers
English vocabulary, and they are used by the speakers
without in the least that they are hybrids or half-breeds
feeling
They have contributed much to the enrichment of the English lang
 and have given us the ffeedom to form words to meet our
an

nerd
 MONOSYLLABISM1

Monosyllabism is one of the most characteristic features of

It has rendered many words of two syllables or
Modern English".
words of one syllable. It is generally seen that there is
more into
force in uttering a word of one syllable than in
always a greater
the latter the force
uttering a word of two syllables or more, for in
as the second syliable which
of utterance loses its intensity as soon
after the utterance of
is generally unaccented is uttered immediately
the first which is acçented. This is clearly borne out by a compari-

son of the
utterance of simple thanks' with the utterance of thank
one syllable carries with it
you'. For "thanks which is a word of
a greater force
in utterance than the expression "thank you' which
accented and the second
consists of two syllables, the first being
with one syllable
unacccented. This force of utterance of a word
masculine character of the English language.
shows, of course, the
The increased monosyllabism in
Modern English has led to a
like het and set, laid and
general use of single rime of one syllable
better and more forceful than rimes of two
shade, etc., which sounds
and shady, etc., where the second
syllables like better and setter, lady
their utterance, after the strongly
syllables are weakly stressed and
is why single rimes are
stressed first syllables, becomes softer. That
called male rimes and the rimes with two syllables or more, female
rimes.
the condensed power of the
Many English sentences possess
Chinese. Bigger sentences are condens
monosyllabism found in Old
towards monosyllabism. By
ed in many cases through this tendency
normal Engish expression
way of an example we maysay that the
like "If you waste your things unneces
would require a big sentence
want or something like this. But the
sarily, you will always be in
has rendered it easy for the language to
manly power of English
the brief expression like 'Waste
condense itself by simply using are First come fîrst
makes want. Other examples of this kind
'Haste makes waste,
Served, 'Live and learn", "No cure no pay',
etc.
 In cases like the above we find that every word is a monosyllabie
word Only monosyllabic words have becn retaincd by condensine
fuller sentences w hich if not condenscd, might have contained
words of more than one syllable
The placing together of many monosyllabic words one after
another does not always produce an effect of strength, for a great
many short monosyllabic words, most frequcrtly employed, are not
stressed at all, with the result that such sentences with a series of
unstressed words do not sound happy and efective. There is a sense
of weakness felt in the placing together of so many monosyllabic
words.
This weakness resulting from many such short connective words
is, to some extent, compensated in English by the business-like
omission of the definite article the' in many cases where other
languages would insist on its use, e.g., Heaven and Earth; Life is
short: Dinner is rcady; School is over; I saw him at church, etc.,
As a result of this tendeacy to make sentences shorter with
monosyllabic words only as far as possible, we find in English, that
there are very frequent syntactical abbreviations (abbreviations in

sentence construction), eg, "While ke was fighting he was taken

prisoner has been abbreviated ino While fighling he 0as taken
prisoner
When the dinner was over he left the house' has been abbrevia-
ted into Dinner over he left the house;
We had no idea as to what we should do' has been abbreviated
into We had no idca vhat to do;
Did they work? Yes, I made them work' has been
abbreviated
into Did they work ? Yes, I made them.
This tendency towards, busines-like abbreviations also leads to
morphological shortenings, reducing in many cases, words of more
than one syllable to monosyllables. These morphological shorten-
ings are of frequent occurrence in English. It has increased its
stock of monosyllables by
morphological
abbreviations in the
following way
 By shortening long words through rcgular phonetic development,
E.
from O. E
cg., ight fron
right eahta: foul from O.E. ugol: lord from O.
hlaford: nought from O. E. nowhit; Miss from missis, etc.

h By clipping words, e.g., teck from detective; Inus

of long foreign
cah
frem omnibus phone from telephme; photofrom photograph;
sor irom sorereign; Jap from Japanese : like from
from eaolet;
cyele moh
Irom
1 ohile vulgas, etc.
has also ncreased its old stock of monosyllabic words
English
that is, by forming new words
by other morphological processes,
at all
nouns from verbs or verbs from nouns--by adding nothing
II (b)
(This formation has been dealt with in detail under Section
these
(d)(e) () (g) and () of Chapter VIII of this book), Some of
processes are
i) Formation of nouns from verbs which had
no corresponding
nouns, e.g, glance, bend, out, go, find, etc.

(i) Formation of doublets e.g,

bath (N)-bathe (N); bath (V)-athe (V); lood (N-bleed (N);
Hood (V)-bleed (V), etc.
of the existence of
(ii) Formation of a noun from a verb inspite
another noun derived from the same verb, e-g., more (V)>move (N)
inspite ofthe already existing motion: laugh (V)>laugh (N) inspite
of the already existing lughier, etc.
the alternation of 'ch
(iv) Formation of nouns and verbs by
and *', e.g, speak (V)->speech (N); bake (V)>bateh (N), ctc.
oscillation between a
(v) Formation of new nouns and verbs by
noun and a verb (N->VN or V>N>V), e.g.,
somewhat different mean-
smoke (N)>smoke (V)>smoke (N) with
a

ning from the first noun.

different
frrme (V)->frame (N)>frame (V) with a somewhat mean-

ing from the first noun.

vi) Formation of new words in the shape of homonym verbs, by
using the names of difernt parts of the body as verbs, c.g,
hand, foot, head, eye, face, nose, etc
 Then again, English has added to its old stock of monosyllables
by another process called Back-formation. New words have been
formed by subtracting some thing from the back of the old existing
words, e.8
greed from greedy, gloom from gloomy, bant from banting, beg from
beggor, haok from hawker, etc.
All the above shortenings and abbreviations and condensation of
big
big sentences go to show thee English tendency towards
monosyliabism.
A last group of monosyllables comprises a certain number of
words which, at a certain moment, have come into the language,
nobody knowing from where, the etymology of which cannot be
explaincd. Jespersen says that the origin of some of these words
may be due to children's playfulness, while the origin of others may
be due to the linguistic playfulness of grown-up people (which forms
the fundamental essence of the phenomenon called slang). It should
be noted that all these are monosyllabic words some of which are
big, lad, lass, dad, jump, job. fun, chum, fuss, jam, hoar, slum, stunt,
etc.

PRE-CHRISTIAN LATIN LOANS IN ENGLISH

Continental borrowings by the Germanic peoples during the

Pre-Christian period-1st stratum of Latin loans

Contact with the Roman empire during several centuries had

introduced the Germanic tribes to a number of Latin words before
the Angles, Saxons and Jutes invaded England. To this
early period,
while the English were living on the continent with their
Germanic
brethren, belongs the first class of Latin loans. This period may be
calied the pagan or pre-Christian period. That is, this was before the
introduction of Christianity in England. These Latin loans
may
therefore, be called pre-Christian Latin loans. Some of these loan
words the Angles, Saxons and Jutes seemed to
have brought wit
them. These were
mostly words pertaining to the kinds of thing
which were familiar to the Germanic
the Roman civilization.
peoples through contact wit
These words were military, Governmental
 w*

h./COMPOSITION (FORMATION OF NEW WORDS

Anotber very simple method of
BY
COMPOSITION
two
forming a new words is to join
or more
existing elements, each ofwhich is a separate word.
This method of forming new words is called
new words thus formed are
called compounds,
Compo8ition; and the
The English language has
been enriched
compounds and these compounds have beenby thousands of such
periods its growth, and new ones are
of formed at various
even to-day.
Compounds can be formed continually being formed
by joining together almost
aw part of speech,
 (1) Free Compounds y
are formed in various ways.
Compounds in the English language
are those in which
two
The commonest of the English compounds
second element
nouns are joined together.
In such compounds the
the
meaning, which is modified or limited by
expresses a general "Way
is a way formed by rails.
first. Thus rail4oay=railway
the word 'rail'
which carries the general meaning is limited by
etc. These are
pocket-money,
anp, apple-tree, atean-ship, weekend, each
can be isolated, and
free compounds in which the two parts
of equal weight with the other.
part is felt as independent and
are free in the sense that
whenever the need arises
These compounds
form new compound by placing two indipendent
anybody can a

Words of nearly any part of speech side.

we may have long strings of words
Even with free compounds
like railuway refrashment room, daste-paper baskes, Nvo Yoar Eve,
ctaa
Fancy dree bal1, Repwblic-day parade,
(2) Fixed Compounds
some fixcd compounds have been formed in which the two parts
of the compunds have been fixed, and one part cannot be separated

from the other, e.g..

two words.
Daiay was originally formed by joining togcther
day'e and eye (dayes-eys). This later became fixed as daiey.
Nostril was originally formed by joiuing together two words,
fixed as nostril,
O.E. nomu and thyrd (hole). This later became
So no one now-a-days thinks of daisy and nostril as compounds
of day's eye and »osu thyrel. So the ona part cannot be separated
from the other. These compounds are felt as independent
units,
isolated from the component parts both in sound and meaning.

These compounds are called "fixed compounds"

14 MALAPROPISM
The English language hasbeen very much enriched
by the in-
troduction of words, phrases and expressions taken from
new.
different works of literature and names of
different persons, places,
animals and things, all these borrowed
elements being conveniently
used to designate various things, ideas and qualities.
A great many words are undemocratic and are rot
to the people without intelligible
any classical education. These words
association of ideas between them and the have no
These words are
ordinary
those which have been used
stock of words.

created in
by some characters
English litereture.
These characters have been
created
ridiculous by the authors by being made to
words and thus rendered guilty of
misapply distort "big
or

'mispronunciation' or what is
generally known as "malapropism.' The word
abstract noun derived from Mrs. 'malapropism' is an
dan's
Malaprop, a character in
Sheri-
play
'The Rivals', who is noted for her aptitude for
and misapplying "big' words. distorting
These words are known
learned few and not to all classes of only to the
people.
 A few instances of malapropism are given below:

(a) Mrs. Malaprop-Oh, it gives me the hydrostatics to such a

degree. I thought she had persisted from corresponding with him;
degree.
hut, behold, this very dày, I have interceded another letter from
the fellow.
Here hydrostatics is misapplied for kysterics;
persisted *desisted
interceded "

interce pted.
(b) As headstrong as an allegory on the banks of the Nile'. Here
allegory is misapplied for alligator
It is the use of oracular tongue, and a nice derangement of
(c)
epitaphs'. Here oracular is misapplied for vernacular;
derangement "
arrangement;
epitaphs epithets.
Mrs. Malaprop not only uses incorrect words but uses them with
a gusto and self-confidence which are the essential elements of her
stupidity.
Such distortion of "big' words is also found in Shakespeare,
Fielding and Dickens and otherTs.
The term malapropism has entered into the órdinary language
and is now "the recognized appellation for a species of blunder
which is very commonly met with
 FORMSIN-ING W
the forms in ing' is certainly very interesting.
(The history of
it ( in the formof
Originally -ing' was not a verbal ending at all;
from certàin
ung') began as a pure noun ending used to form nouns
wea verbs. From the very first when the French vwords were intro
we find
duced giving rise to the phenomenon known as "hybridism',
Verbal nouns in-ing or-ung formed from French verbs, e.g.,

; servinge. Gradually it extended

preachinge; riwlunge ; scornunge
to all verbs and replaced the original present participle ending
be formed unhesitatingly from any verb except
ende'. It can now

can', 'may', 'shall', 'must', etc.

which have
The 'ing' forms are really present participles
come

to discharge various functions in the English language.

it serves all the functions of
Noun function: As a substantive
a noun, e.g,
of a great soul is really a loss.
(i) Subject to a verb-The passing
i) Object to a verb-I hate lying.
for reading's sake.
() Used as a possessive-Reading
 gosngs.
and
comings

(iv) Used a s a
plural-H1s
adjective--The
t h i c f got
a

no
give n o oni
eating.
good beati.

opini om
can
an
Qualified by pronoun-
(v) possessive
Qualified by a
(vi) the questio
questi.
ansvering
his wridings. p r e p o s i t i o n - B e f o r e

beginning; a
beai.
(vii)
Governed

definite
by
article
before
it-The

compound-Sightseeing.
inninq.
(viii) Has a
intoa can be used
can be
as an
uscd as an adie.
adjective
(ix) Has entered 'ing'
form
The
Adjective funetion:
predicatively:
both attributively
and (attributive use)
show
is a passing
The world (predicative use).
The picture is
fascinating aual
While keeping all
the substantive
alities
Ferbal function: acquired the verbal
functions.
gradually
the ing' form has intransitive, e.g.,
be transitive or
It can
I (i) In using them-transitive;
I n going there-intransitive.

be joined to it, e.g,

i) Any kind of adverb may
(i) a bottle together.
He proposed our immediately drinking
(ii) It can be used in absolute construction, e.g.,
The sun having set we returned home.
II.
II. The ing' forms have been exploited to a very large extent
in the English language and many constructions have evolved which
are quite easy to understand.
) Composite perfect tensewith the ing' form has developed
to show indication of time, e.g.,
We take no notice of his
heing absent ( refers to present time )
We take notice of his
no
having heen absent (refers to past time
(ii) Beside the side of the active
sense, a passive voice in mg
has also developed to indicate the
He loves
passive sense, e.g.,
teasing=ie loves to tease (active sense) :
He loves being teased
=he loves to be
III. A further teased (passive
sense).
taken instep
the was
ing'. The subject of
the "ing' form is development of the uuse
e.g In spite of
eg, John's saying so. generally in the genitiv case
native and objective) can also be used Butbefore
now
now the
aa common
ing', «.£» e (nom-
of John common case
saying so".) Inspite
15 JOHNSONESE
(There is no denying the fact that the Latin infuence on English
has encouraged an infated turgidity of style. The worst thing about
the Latin words is their difficulty and the undemocratic character
which is a natural outcome of their difficulty. A great many of them
will never be used or understood by any body that has not a classical
education. Different authors vary greatly with regard to the extent
to which they make use of such 'choice' words, and measured
phrases above the reach of ordinary men.(The use of learned words
and phrases became a fashion in the eighteenth century. The
culmination with regard to the use of learned words in ordinary
literary style was reached at the time of Dr. Samuel Johnson who
was the foremost among those who developed this turgid style. A
ponderous style full of antitheses and learned words of
classical
orngin is called Johnsone se after Dr. Samuel
inanition into nonentity' in
Johnson.) "To sink from
place of to be starved to death" is a
sample of Johnsonese style. (Other examples are 'disastrous
tion' in place of
conflagra
'great fire; the conflagration extended its devasta
ing career in place of "the fire No better illustration of
spread".)
ctfect of extreme Johnsonese can be found than the
the
following
The proverbial oracles of our
parsimonious anccstors have infor.
med us, that the fatal waste of our fortune is small by expenses, by
the profusion of sums too little alarm
singly to caution, and
our
which we never suffer ourselves to consider
kind 1s the
together. Of the same
prodigality of life; he that hopes to look back hereafter
with satisfaction upon past years, must learn to know the
present
value of single minutes and
endeavour to let no particle of time fall
useless to the
ground.
The above passage in the
Johnsonese style, when translated into a
simple language would mean -
Take care of the pennies'
says the thrifty old proverb, 'and the
pounds will take care of themselves'. In the
like manner we might
say "take care of the minutes and the
years will take care of them-
selves'.
(Johnson's style influenced the writings of Macaulay, Sheridan,
Newton and others.
In the
nineteenth century many writers reacted
and against Johnsonese
preferred native words and simple expressions. But
today the malady of using learned words is found still even
educated who want to show off among the half-
their education and
culture by writing in a stilted superior
A young lady who
language.)
poses to be educated was
an egg and make a explaining: "Take
perforation in the base and a
in the apex. Then
apply the lips to the aperture, and
corresponding
one
inhaling the breath the shell is entirely by forcibly
An old lady in discharged of its contehts".
reply exclaimed : "It beats all how
things now-a-days. When I
folks do
end and sucked".
was a gal (girl) they made a hole in
(Adapted from each
Jespersen).
 (Some people are in the habit of using learned words in imitation
of the best authors to show off their learning. Instead of writing 'he
died poor they would write "he expired in indigent circumstances'.
These learned words are also used by some newspaper writers
according to what is called the new style of newspaper writing
A vast concourse was assembled to witnes the great confagra-
tion" instead of a big crowd came to see the great fire".
With regard to the effect of classical studies on English style,
Jespersen quotes Huxley's observations in The Times, Aug. 5, 1890
"My impression has been that the Genius of the English language
is widely different from that of
Latin; and that the worst and the
most debased kinds of
English style are those which are Latinity".)