PNW 637

Cattle Vaccine Handling

and Management Guidelines
D. Gunn, K. S. Jensen, S. Williams, C. Parsons, T. Hudson, J. England

vaccination practices. Vaccines stimulate the body’s

Introduction immune system to build immunity or resistance against
STUDIES FROM the University of Arkansas1, the disease-causing organisms. Most vaccines are
University of Nevada2, and the University of Idaho3 manufactured by growing a particular organism that is
have indicated that veterinary vaccine product efficacy later weakened or killed.
is at risk due to improper handling and storage by
When a vaccine is introduced to the body, the immune
vaccine retailers and livestock producers. Most animal
system must first recognize it as a foreign antigen or
vaccines require maintenance at refrigeration
protein, such as a virus, bacterium, toxin, or parasite.
temperatures of 35–45oF. Yet these studies showed that
An immune response is then produced in which the
anywhere from 25% to 76% of refrigerators used for
body develops specific antibodies and immune cells to
vaccine storage in the livestock industry failed to
remove or kill the infectious agent. Memory cells are
maintain these temperatures.
then developed for each antigen.
In addition, other improper handling and storage
When the body is later re-exposed to the same antigen,
procedures, including exposing vaccine to ultraviolet
the memory cells will recognize the infectious agent
light from the sun or to temperature extremes and using
and remember the most effective way to protect the
improper injection techniques, can render vaccine less
body. It generally takes 7 to 14 days after primary
efficacious or even useless. Livestock do not gain
exposure for the body to develop immunity to an
immunity from vaccines that are damaged, destroyed, or
antigen and as little as 48 hours to mount an immune
altered through improper handling and storage practices.
response to that same antigen in a vaccinated animal.
Furthermore, vaccines can be costly and average
anywhere from $0.25 per head to $3.50 per head It is important to understand that some animals’
depending upon the vaccine utilized. These costs, although immune systems fail to develop an immune response
necessary, can be very expensive long term if vaccines are sufficient to create immunity to a disease. Factors
not effective in protecting your animals’ health. contributing to this failure are inadequate nutrition,
poor health, stress, and environmental conditions.
This publication gives best management practices to
Healthy animals on a sound nutrition program
help producers, distributors, and retailers ensure
should develop the best immune response. However,
vaccine use results in effective disease immunity in
remember that vaccinating your animals is not a 100%
livestock. Its guidelines cover vaccine purchasing,
guarantee all vaccinated animals will gain immunity to
storage in refrigerators and in coolers at chute-side,
that particular pathogen. The degree of protection is
handling, injection techniques, and disposal.
dependent upon animal health and vaccine efficacy at
the time of administration.
Vaccines and How They Work
Killed vaccines
INFECTIOUS DISEASE in beef cattle can cost Two common types of vaccine are killed and modified-
producers a significant loss of production and profit. live. Killed vaccines are made by growing an organism
One way to reduce these losses is to increase the in a growth medium. The organism is then inactivated
animal’s ability to fight disease through good

A Pacific Northwest Extension Publication

University of Idaho • Oregon State University • Washington State University
or killed by utilizing chemicals or heat. A killed vaccine structure (figures 1 and 2). This change affects vaccine
can be produced for viruses, bacteria, or toxins. efficacy by altering the immune response to the
Adjuvants, which are specific chemical materials that antigen. Refrigerators that freeze vaccine are the worst!
help stimulate immunity and hold the organism at the Frozen killed vaccines may have deadly consequences
injection site to strengthen the immune response, are due to the release of bound toxins from the adjuvant.
regularly added to killed or inactivated vaccines. Take precautions to avoid freezing your vaccines and
monitor their expiration dates. Do NOT use vaccines
Killed vaccines often require two separate inoculations that are or have been frozen.
over 2–4 weeks to obtain a full immune response.
Therefore, it is very important to administer both
inoculations. An example of a killed vaccine is
Triangle® 5 by Boehringer Ingelheim. Triangle® 5
protects against infectious bovine rhinotracheitis
(IBR), bovine virus diarrhea (BVD types 1 and 2),
parainfluenza 3 (PI3), and bovine respiratory syncytial
(BRSV) viruses. These and other killed vaccines are
already constituted and ready to use when purchased.

Modified-live vaccines
Modified-live vaccines (MLV) are made with a virus
or bacterium that is attenuated, or weakened, so the
organism will not cause disease in most healthy
animals but will still stimulate immunity. These types
of vaccine are not stable in solution so the isolates are
Figure 1. Vaccine stored properly between 35° and 45°F has a
freeze-dried to a cake in a vaccine bottle. To use a
fine-grained, uniform structure. Photo by Dr. Umit Kartoglu, World
MLV, a special sterile liquid or a specified killed liquid Health Organization.
vaccine is added to the “cake” to make a vaccine
solution ready for injection.

Modified-live vaccines are very unstable and have a

short efficacy life once they are reconstituted, often as
short as 1–2 hours. Therefore, reconstitute MLVs only as
needed. These vaccines should be mixed gently when
reconstituted as some constituents in the vaccine may
be damaged or destroyed when mixed too vigorously.
Discard any MLV that is not used within 2 hours. An
example of a MLV is Vista® Once SQ by Merck.
Vista® Once SQ protects against IBR, BVD type 2,
PI3, BRSV, bovine virus diarrhea virus (BVDV) type 1,
Mannheimia haemolytica, and Pasteurella multocida.

Temperature Effects on Vaccine

Figure 2. Vaccine that has been frozen has a conglomerated
MOST ANIMAL HEALTH PRODUCTS require structure, demonstrating broken bonds between adsorbent
refrigeration at 35–45oF. University of Idaho3 research and antigen. Photo by Dr. Umit Kartoglu, World Health
conducted in 2010 found that 67% of tested producer Organization.
refrigerators and 66% of tested retailer refrigerators
were unacceptable. Temperature adjustment,
monitoring, and improved record-keeping practices Modified-live vaccines
were some of the study’s recommendations for For MLVs, temperatures below 35oF or above 45oF
producers. Monitoring and improved employee do not necessarily destroy the active ingredient.
training at the retail level were also recommended. In the freeze-dried state (cake), these vaccines are
remarkably stable. However, over time, repeated
Killed vaccines cycles above or below the recommended holding
Storing animal health products at temperatures below temperatures will inactivate MLVs. High ambient
35oF is the most damaging to killed vaccine products. temperatures (higher than 75oF) will reduce the
Freezing temperatures will change the adjuvant efficacy of MLVs even in the dried state.

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Once MLVs are activated (made into a solution through
the addition of the appropriate liquid), they need to be
used within 2 hours and kept cool at temperatures
between 35o and 45oF. To accomplish this while
vaccinating animals, keep vaccine in a cooler next to
the chute. Keep the cooler out of direct sunlight to
prevent premature warming and keep the vaccine out
of the sun to avoid both warming and UV damage.

Refrigerator Monitoring
REFRIGERATOR TEMPERATURES can be monitored
through the use of minimum/maximum thermometers
(figure 3). Monitoring refrigerator temperature on a
weekly or even daily basis will help you determine if
the refrigerator is functioning properly. Monitor and Figure 3. Refrigerator temperatures can be monitored with
minimum/maximum thermometers. Photo by K. Scott Jensen.
record temperatures at least weekly.

Also consider the age, type, and location (barn, porch, material is adequately packaged. Community take-back
or other storage areas) of the refrigerator. Refrigerator events or household hazardous waste collection
location can have a substantial impact on how facilities may also accept unused and expired animal
efficiently the refrigerator operates. For example, vaccine.
a refrigerator kept in a noninsulated barn may be
adversely affected by high and low ambient Although many live and killed vaccines can be
temperature extremes. These temperature extremes disposed as household waste in trash receptacles
can damage products stored inside the refrigerator. and/or incinerated, vaccines containing thimerosal
(an ingredient containing mercury) should be disposed
of in a lined landfill.
Vaccine Disposal
PROPER DISPOSAL of animal health products at the
farm and ranch level is as important as proper use.
Environmental contamination, particularly of water,
with hazardous or potentially hazardous biological
wastes is one of the top 30 environmental public
concerns. Consequently, questions arise as to the
proper disposal of these materials and the associated
syringes, needles, empty vials and bottles, and expired
products.

As of 2012, federal and state laws, as well as the Idaho

State Department of Agriculture, Washington State
Department of Agriculture, and Oregon State
Department of Agriculture, do not specify how animal
vaccine should be disposed of. These states allow
animal vaccine to be discarded in household trash
receptacles. Additionally, animal vaccines containing
live attenuated virus may enter a municipal solid waste
landfill without being autoclaved or otherwise treated
to inactivate the virus. However, some landfills may
have special treatment requirements and policies for
discarded live and attenuated animal vaccines.

It is recommended that you contact your state

veterinarian’s office, state department of agriculture,
or landfill manager to find out possible requirements
for accepting animal vaccine. Many county landfills
accept veterinary waste as non hazardous provided the

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Vaccine Best Management Practices

Purchasing vaccine Storing vaccine

• Consult your local veterinarian prior to purchasing • Read and follow label instructions.
vaccine to determine what vaccinations are
necessary for your operation and area. • Use a minimum/maximum temperature thermometer
to monitor temperatures in the refrigerator where
• Only purchase vaccines you can use in a timely you store vaccine.
manner.
• Check and log temperatures at least weekly.
• Check expiration dates when you purchase and/or
receive vaccine. If vaccine is expired do not • Discard any vaccine that freezes.
purchase it or return the product immediately.
• Check expiration dates and discard expired vaccine.
• If you order vaccine by mail, order on Mondays to (Federal code states that biological products shall be
prevent weekend delays at unknown storage considered worthless after the expiration date has
temperatures and to ensure the vaccine does not sit passed.)
in a warehouse or on a truck over the weekend.
• Store vaccine that will expire first near the front of
Vaccines handled and stored by shipping personnel
the refrigerator and use it first.
may not be maintained at adequate temperatures,
reducing vaccine efficacy. • Do not overstock vaccine because it was a “good
deal” if you cannot use it by the expiration date.
• Check the shipping cooler as soon as it arrives and
refrigerate the vaccine immediately. • Train employees, family members, and others on
proper vaccine handling.
• If you have any concerns regarding vaccine handling
before and during shipping, contact your distributor Using chute-side coolers
immediately.
• Pre-cool the cooler for at least 1 hour prior to placing
• If you purchase vaccine locally request multiple ice the vaccine inside.
packs for keeping vaccine cool on the way home or
bring ice packs with you to the store. • Use enough ice or cold packs to maintain a steady
temperature, 35–45oF.
• Purchase vaccine in small-dose vials to minimize
waste. • Take enough vaccine for the morning or for
afternoon, not for both.
• Ask the retailer the following questions. If you are
not satisfied with the retailer’s answers, locate • Keep the cooler out of sunlight.
another distributor.
• Identify any leftover unopened bottles of vaccine
Is there a thermometer in your vaccine and use them first the next time.
refrigerator?
Handling vaccine
Are minimum and maximum temperatures • Read and follow all label directions prior to using
monitored and recorded on a regular basis? animal health products.
Is the temperature maintained within the • Refrigerate all vaccines at 35–45oF unless otherwise
recommended range? specified on the label.
Did you immediately check and store the vaccine • Mix vaccine gently and thoroughly prior to filling
when it arrived? vaccine guns or syringes. Remember that excessive
agitation can diminish vaccine efficacy.
How do you handle the vaccine after you receive it?
• Dispose of all expired and unused animal health
products according to the label.

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• Do not mix products or combine different vaccine Disposing of vaccine
products in the same bottle or syringe.
• Always read the vaccine label or package insert and
• Do not use the same vaccine gun for different follow any disposal instructions that are provided.
vaccines.
• Unused vaccines are recommended for incineration
• Keep vaccine cool in a dark environment and out of or sterilization via autoclave, chemically, or by other
sunlight when storing and using it. approved means.

• Do not mix modified live vaccines if you won't be able • If disposal instructions are not provided or you are
to use them within 1–2 hours of reconstituting them. unable to incinerate or sterilize vaccine, discard
vaccine in the household trash.
• Use transfer needles for mixing modified live vaccine
to prevent contamination and accidents. • State departments of environmental quality and the
United States Department of Agriculture Veterinary
• Discard bottles of killed vaccine that have been opened Services recommend that expired or unused vaccine
for more than 2 days because vaccines can be contam- be placed into a rigid plastic container with cat litter,
inated by repeated introduction of air and needles. coffee grounds, or compost, sealed and placed into a
trash receptacle.
Injecting vaccine
• Follow your state’s beef quality assurance guidelines. • Remove any personal information that may be listed
on the packaging.
• Read and follow all label instructions.
• DO NOT place vaccine into sewer or septic systems or
• Give injections in front of the shoulder in the middle water sources by flushing down the toilet or draining
neck region. in a sink unless the label instructs you to do so.

• Avoid giving injections in the nuchal ligament of the • Burn unused and empty vaccine containers in burn
neck region. barrels or incinerators. Any remaining glass can be
recycled or discarded with household waste.
• As indicated by state beef quality assurance
guidelines, give injections subcutaneously unless
otherwise specified on the label. General Recommendations for
• Remove air from syringes and/or guns prior to
all Injectable Drugs
injecting vaccine. • Read and follow label instructions.
• Use the correct gauge and length of needle as • Practice good sanitation of equipment and the
specified by the label. working environment.
• Change needles every time you fill a syringe or • Clean syringes with hot water only and dry them
vaccine gun. completely.
• Change needles that become burred, bent, or broken. • Never use soap or disinfectant to clean internal parts
of syringes and vaccine guns. They will leave a
• Never straighten and reuse a broken needle.
residue that can affect vaccine efficacy.
• Space multiple injections 4 inches apart on the
• Use a minimum/maximum refrigerator thermometer.
animal to avoid mixing different products.
• Record product lot numbers of animal health
• Most vaccines have 21-day withdrawal periods; those
products, administration dates, and withdrawal
with oil-based adjuvants generally have 60-day
times.
withdrawal periods. Always read the label to
determine withdrawal times and follow them • Maintain vaccination records for a minimum of
appropriately. 3 years.
• A major problem is contamination from repeated • Have all members of your operation complete beef
entry into bottles with used needles. Use a new quality assurance (BQA) certification and routinely
needle each time syringes are filled. follow its guidelines.

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Notes About the Authors:
1
Troxel, T. R., and B. L. Barham. 2009. Case Study: The Danielle Gunn, Extension Educator, University of Idaho Extension,
Temperature Variability of Refrigerators Storing Animal Fort Hall; K. Scott Jensen, Extension Educator, University of Idaho
Health Products. The Professional Animal Scientist Extension, Owyhee County; Shannon Williams Extension
25:202-206. Educator, University of Idaho Extension, Lemhi County;
Cory Parsons, Livestock Agent, Oregon State University,
2
Torell, R. 2006. Back to Basics: Frozen Vaccines. Angus Beef Baker County; Tipton Hudson, Extension Educator, Washington
Bulletin Oct.: 72, 74.
State University, Kittitas County; James England, Professor of
3
Fife, T. E., J. B. Glaze, Jr., K. S. Jensen, N. Rimbey, S.L. Kane, Veterinary Medicine and Virologist, Caine Veterinary Teaching
S. D. Baker, J. Church, S. J. Etter, D. Gunn, G. Keetch, Center, University of Idaho
S. Nash, S. Williams, and R. L. Wilson. 2013. Animal Health
Product Handling and Management by Idaho Producers
and Retailers. The Professional Animal Scientist (in press).

Resources
England, J. J., 2010. Immunology: Maximizing the Immune
Response of the Cow to Increase Profits and Production.
In Western Beef Resource Committee, editor, Cow-Calf
Management Guide and Cattle Producer’s Library,
Second Edition. University of Idaho Department of
Animal and Veterinary Science, Moscow.

Idaho Beef Quality Assurance Certification Manual, version 3.

December 2005. University of Idaho Extension. Available
from Idaho Beef Quality Assurance Program, 16952
South 10th Avenue, Caldwell, ID 83607, telephone (208)
459-6365.

Department of Immunization, Vaccines, and Biologicals,

World Health Organization. 2006. Temperature Sensitivity
of Vaccines. Ordering code WHO/IVB/06.10, World Health
Organization, Geneva, Switzerland.

ALWAYS read and follow the instructions printed on the animal health product label. The recommendations in this publication do not
substitute for instructions on the label. Use animal health products with care in conjunction with a licensed veterinarian consultation.

Trade Names—To simplify information, trade names have been used. No endorsement of named products is intended nor is criticism
implied of similar products not mentioned.

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Published March 2013 © 2013 by the University of Idaho