Kherby B.

Tabilang
11-STEM A
General Chemistry
Discovery Learning
1. Obtain two clear plastic cups. Place a few drops of household ammonia in
one cup
and a few drops of vinegar in the second cup.
2. Add a drop of grape juice to each cup. Observe what happens to the color of
the
grape juice in each cup.
3. Now add ammonia drop by drop to the cup with the vinegar. Observe what
happens
to the color of the grape juice as you add the ammonia.
• What happened to the color of the grape juice in ammonia? in vinegar?
The color of the grape juice turned into green with ammonia. And it
turned into color red using vinegar.
• What happened to the color of the grape juice when you added ammonia
to the vinegar?
The color turned into red.
• How can you explain your observations?
Grape juice will turn into green when ammonia is added into it and
grape juice will turn into red when vinegar is added.

Additional Activities
1.Describe the properties of Acids and Bases in terms of:
Taste – Acid taste sour due to the sour H+ion; bases taste bitter due to the
OH- ion.
Touch – Acids were not slippery and bases were slippery.
Reactions with metals – Acids react with metals to give salt and release
hydrogen gas; bases do not react with metals and release
hydrogen gas.
 Electrical conductivity - Acids and bases in aqueous solutions will
conduct electricity because they contain dissolved ions. Therefore, acids and
bases are electrolytes. Strong acids and bases will be strong electrolytes. Weak
acids and bases will be weak electrolytes.
Indicators – The most common indicator are litmus, methyl orange and
phenolphthalein.
Neutralization – A neutralization reaction is when an acid and a base react
to form water and a salt and involves the combination of H+ ions and OH- ions
to generate water. The neutralization of a strong acid and strong base has a
pH equal to 7. The neutralization of a strong acid and weak base will have a
pH of less than 7, and conversely, the resulting pH when a strong base
neutralizes a weak acid will be greater than 7.

2.Compare and collate the Arrhenius vs. Bronsted-Lowry definition.

An Arrhenius acid is a compound that increases the H+ ion
concentration in aqueous solution. The H+ ion is just a bare proton, and
it is rather clear that bare protons are not floating around in an aqueous
solution. Instead, chemistry has defined the hydronium ion (H3O+) as the
actual chemical species that represents an H+ ion. H+ ions and H3O+ ions
are often considered interchangeable when writing chemical equations
(although a properly balanced chemical equation should also include the
additional H2O). Classic Arrhenius acids can be considered ionic
compounds in which H+ is the cation.. A Bronsted-Lowry acid is any
species that can donate a proton (H+) to another molecule. A Bonsted-
Lowry base is any species that can accept a proton from another
molecule. In short, a Bronsted-Lowry acid is a proton donor (PD), while a
Brønsted-Lowry base is a proton acceptor (PA).
3. Give some common names of Arrhenius acids and bases and the
formula as well.
Nitric Acid (HNO3), Hydrochloric acid (HCl), Sodium hydroxide (NaOH),
Potassium hydroxide (KOH)
4.Identify the five properties of acid and five properties of base.

Acids are chemical substances which are characterized by a sour taste in

an aqueous medium. They have the tendency to turn blue litmus red. On the
other hand, bases are chemical substances which are characterized by a bitter
taste and are slippery to the touch. Some bases are soluble in water while
others are not. Water soluble bases are known as alkalis. They have the
tendency to turn red litmus blue. Acids and bases react with a wide range of
chemical compounds to form salts. Some chemical reactions of acids and
bases. The physical properties of acids and bases are color, taste, touch, and
solubility. The chemical properties of bases change the color of litmus from red
to blue. They are bitter in taste. Bases lose their basicity when mixed with
acids. Bases react with acids to form salt and water. This process is
called neutralization reaction. They can conduct electricity. Bases feel slippery
or soapy. Some bases are great conductors of electricity. Bases like sodium
hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, etc. are used as electrolytes.

5. How can we determine the strengths of acids and bases?

All acids and bases do not ionize or dissociate to the same extent. This
leads to the statement that acids and bases are not all of equal strength in
producing H+ and OH- ions in solution. The terms "strong" and "weak" give an
indication of the strength of an acid or base. The terms strong and weak
describe the ability of acid and base solutions to conduct electricity. If the acid
or base conducts electricity strongly, it is a strong acid or base. If the acid or
base conducts electricity weakly, it is a weak acid or base.

6. Give examples of weak and strong acids.

1. The example of weak acids are Formic acid (HCOOH), Acetic acid
(CH3COOH), Benzoic acid(C6H5COOH), Oxalic acid(C2H2O4),
Hydrofluoric Acid (HF). The example of strong acids are
Hydrobromic acid (HBr), Hydrochloric acid (HCl), Hydroiodic (HI),
Nitric acid (HNO3), Perchloric acid (HClO4)
Week 6: Acids and Bases

1. Define the following acids:

• Binary Acids- a binary compound where one element is hydrogen and
the other is a nonmetal. Binary acids are also known as hydracids.
• Oxy Acids- an acid that contains an oxygen atom bonded to
a hydrogen atom and at least one other element. An oxyacid
dissociates in water to form the H+ cation and the anion of the acid. An
oxyacid has the general structure X-O-H.
• Carboxylic Acids- an organic compound containing a carboxyl
functional group. They occur widely in nature and are also
synthetically manufactured by humans. Upon deprotonation,
carboxylic acids yield a carboxylate anion with the general formula R-
COO–, which can form a variety of useful salts such as soaps.
2.Enumerate the general rules in naming acid.

Since all acids contain hydrogen, the name pf an acid is based on the
anion that goes with it. These onions can either be monatomic or
polyatomic. The name of all monatomic ends in -ide. The majority of
polyatomic ions in either -ate or -ite, though there are few exceptions such
as cyanide ion. When the anion ends in –ide, the acid name begins with the
prefix hydro-. The root of the anion name goes in the blank (chlor for
chloride), followed by the suffix –ic. HCl is hydrochloric acid because Cl- is
the chloride ion. HCN is hydrocyanic acid because CN- is the cyanide ion.
When the anion ends in –ate, the name of the acid is the root of the anion
followed by the suffix –ic. There is no prefix. H2SO4 is sulfuric acid (not
sulfic) because SO42- is the sulfate ion. When the anion ends in –ite, the
name of the acid is the root of the anion followed by the suffix –ous. Again,
there is no prefix. HNO2 is nitrous acid because NO2- is the nitrite ion.

3. What is acid rain? What is the surest way of stopping acid rain?
Acid rain is a broad term that includes any form of precipitation with acidic
components, such as sulfuric or nitric acid that fall to the ground from the
atmosphere in wet or dry forms. This can include rain, snow, fog, hail or even
dust that is acidic. Acid rain is caused by a chemical reaction that begins
when compounds like sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides are released into the
air. These substances can rise very high into the atmosphere, where they mix
and react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form more acidic
pollutants, known as acid rain. A great way to reduce acid rain is to produce
energy without fossil fuels. Instead, people can use renewable energy sources,
such as solar and wind power.
4. What is buffer?
A buffer is a solution that can resist pH change upon the addition of an
acidic or basic component. It is able to neutralize small amounts of added acid
or base, thus maintaining the pH of the solution relatively stable. This is
important for processes and/or reactions which require specific and stable pH
ranges. Buffer solutions have a working pH range and capacity which dictate
how much acid/base can be neutralized before pH changes, and the amount
by which it will change.

5. Describe how buffer works?

Buffers work by neutralizing any added acid (H+ ions) or base (OH- ions) to
maintain the moderate pH, making them a weaker acid or base. To effectively
maintain a pH range, a buffer must consist of a weak conjugate acid-base
pair, meaning either a. a weak acid and its conjugate base, or b. a weak base
and its conjugate acid. The use of one or the other will simply depend upon
the desired pH when preparing the buffer.
6. What is an acid-base titration?
Acid-Base titrations are usually used to find the amount of a known acidic
or basic substance through acid base reactions. The analyte (tetrad) is the
solution with an unknown molarity. The reagent (titrant) is the solution with a
known molarity that will react with the analyte.
7. Describe the difference between the equivalence point and the end point of
a titration.
Titration is used in analytical chemistry to determine acid, bases,
reductants, oxidants and other species. Titrations can usually occur in
reactions such as redox reactions and acid-base reactions. During the
process, two important stages known as endpoint and equivalence point are
reached. A point of equivalence in a titration refers to a point at which the
added titrant is chemically equivalent to the sample analyte. On the other
side, Endpoint is a point where the solution changes color. The main
difference between equivalence and endpoint is that the equivalence point is a
point where the chemical reaction comes to an end while the endpoint is the
point where the color change occurs in a system.

Week 7: Redox Chemistry

1.Define oxidation and reduction.
• Oxidation- a process which involves the addition of oxygen or any
electronegative element or the removal of hydrogen or any
electropositive element. It is defined as the process in which an atom
or ion loses one or more electron.
• Reduction- a process which involves the addition of oxygen or any
electronegative element or the removal of hydrogen or any
electropositive element. It is defined is defined as the process in which
an atom or ion gains one or more electrons.
2.Compare oxidation and reduction. Why must they occur simultaneously?

Oxidation and reduction are two types of chemical reactions that

often work together. Oxidation and reduction reactions involve an exchange
of electrons between reactants. Reduction and oxidation occur
simultaneously in a type of chemical reaction called a reduction-oxidation
or redox reaction. The oxidized species loses electrons, while the reduced
species gains electrons. Despite the name, oxygen need not be present in an
oxidation reaction.

3. How are oxidation numbers different from ionic charges?

The key difference between oxidation number and charge is that we

can determine the oxidation number of an atom considering the number of
electrons that is either removed or gained by that atom whereas the charge is
determined considering the total number of electrons and protons in the atom.

4. Enumerate the types of Redox Reactions and give 3 examples for each type.

• Decomposition Reaction - 2NaH → 2Na + H2

2H2O → 2H2 + O2

Na2CO3 → Na2O + CO2

• Combination Reaction- H2 + Cl2 → 2HClC+O2→CO2

 4Fe+ 3O2→2Fe2O3

Fe + S→ FeS

• Displacement Reaction Cl2(aq) + 2NaBr(aq) → 2NaCl(aq) + Br2(aq)

Cu(s) + 2AgNo3(aq) → 2Ag(s) + Cu(NO3)2(aq)

Fe + CuSO4 → FeSO4 + Cu

• Disproportionation Reactions- 2H2O2 → 2H2O + O2

3H3PO2 → PH3 + 2H3PO3

Hg2Cl2 → Hg + HgCl2

5. List some everyday applications of oxidation-reduction reactions.

• Photosynthesis in plants
• Respiration
• Combustion
• Corrosion
• Bleaching
• Decomposition

6. What specific measures can be taken to prevent the destruction of iron due

to corrosion?

One way to keep iron from corroding is to keep it painted. The layer of
paint prevents the water and oxygen necessary for rust formation from coming
into contact with the iron. As long as the paint remains intact, the iron is
protected from corrosion.

7. Explain what a bleach is and how it works.

Bleach is a chemical that is diluted and sold for household use. It is a

mixture of water and the chemical sodium hypochlorite. For uses in the home
and many workplaces, it is usually sold with concentrations of sodium
hypochlorite present at a range from about 3 to 9 percent. Bleach can
disinfect which means it is effective at killing most bacteria, fungus and
viruses. It is also used to whiten fabric and other items. Bleach can disinfect
which means it is effective at killing most bacteria, fungus and viruses. It is
also used to whiten fabric and other items.
8. Upon reviewing the redox reactions, you came well across with the
balancing of equations as well, can you explain the main principle used to
balance complex redox equations.

The first step in balancing any redox reaction is determining whether or

not it is even an oxidation-reduction reaction. This requires that one and
typically more species changing oxidation states during the reaction. To
maintain charge neutrality in the sample, the redox reaction will entail both a
reduction component and an oxidation component.

9. Can an element undergo oxidation as well as reduction in the same

reactions? Explain your answer.

In terms of electron transfer, oxidation is defined as the loss of

electron(s) by an atom while reduction is the gain of electron by an atom. So,
when an atom loses electrons (or is oxidized), another atom quite often
simultaneously picks up (gains) the lost/released electron and is said to
reduced.

Week 8

Thermodynamics

1.What is meant by spontaneous process?

A spontaneous process is one that occurs naturally under certain

conditions. A nonspontaneous process, on the other hand, will not take place
unless it is “driven” by the continual input of energy from an external source.
A process that is spontaneous in one direction under a particular set of
conditions is nonspontaneous in the reverse direction. At room temperature
and typical atmospheric pressure, for example, ice will spontaneously melt,
but water will not spontaneously freeze.

2. Upon knowing the enthalpy, what is the connection between a spontaneous

process and its enthalpy change?
 All spontaneous physical and chemical changes take place in the
direction of a decrease in free energy. A spontaneous reaction may involve an
increase or decrease in enthalpy, it may involve an increase or decrease in
entropy, but it will always involve a decrease in free energy that is a negative
ΔG. When ΔG is negative, the reaction would go in the direction of reactants
forming products.

3. How are enthalpy changes of reactions determined?

We can measure an enthalpy change by determining the amount of heat

involved in a reaction when the only work done is P V work.

4. Is the enthalpy change for a reaction a good indicator of its spontaneity?

Explain why or why not?

5. Explain the concept of Entropy.

Entropy is a state function that is often erroneously referred to as the

'state of disorder' of a system. Qualitatively, entropy is simply a measure how
much the energy of atoms and molecules become more spread out in a
process and can be defined in terms of statistical probabilities of a system or
in terms of the other thermodynamic quantities. Entropy is also the subject of
the Second and Third laws of thermodynamics, which describe the changes in
entropy of the universe with respect to the system and surroundings, and the
entropy of substances, respectively.

6.Explain how entropy change of the surroundings is related to the enthalpy

change of the reaction.

If you only calculate the entropy change of the reaction (the entropy
changes of the system), you are leaving out an important factor. Suppose your
reaction is exothermic. Heat is given off to the surroundings, and that extra
heat increases the entropy of the surroundings. If you add more energy to the
surroundings, the number of different possibilities for arranging the energy
over the molecules increases. And so, increasing the temperature increases
the entropy of the surroundings. The reverse is true for an endothermic
change. An endothermic reaction will cool the surroundings, and so the
entropy of the surroundings decreases. What matters is the total entropy
change, which is the sum of the entropy changes of the system and the
surroundings.
OBSERVING ENTROPY

1. Obtain 3 glasses. Place ice water in one glass, warm water in second

glass and water that is at room temperature in the third glass.

2. Put 3 drops of red food coloring in each glass (any food coloring of your

choice will do)

3. Observe what happens in the glasses. How is entropy influenced by the

temperature?

A small amount of food coloring was dispersed in cold water, in warm

water, the food coloring was simply spread around it, and in room
temperature water, it was slowly spreading