Connectors and Splices

Presented by
Asst. Prof. Hamidullah Riaz
Introduction
• A significant factor in any fiber optic system installation is the requirement to interconnect fibers in a low-loss
manner.
• These interconnections occur at the optical source, at the photodetector, at intermediate points within a cable
where two fibers join, and at intermediate points in a link where two cables are connected. • The particular
technique selected for joining the fibers depends on whether a permanent bond or an easily demountable connection
is desired.
• A permanent bond (usually within a cable) is referred to as a splice, whereas a demountable joint at the end of a
cable is known as a connector.
• Every joining technique is subject to certain conditions that can cause varying degrees of optical power loss at the
joint.
• These losses depend on factors such as the mechanical alignments of the two fibers, differences in the geometric
and waveguide characteristics of the two fiber ends at the joint, and the fiber end-face qualities.
Mechanical Misalignments
• The core of a standard multimode fiber nominally is 50 to 100μm in diameter, which is equivalent to the thickness of a human
hair.
• Single-mode fibers have core diameters on the order of 9μm, that is about the size of the soft underbelly down hair of
Himalayan mountain goats, which is used to make fashionable pashmina fabrics.
• Owing to this microscopic size, mechanical misalignment is a major challenge in joining two fibers. • Power losses result from
misalignments because the radiation cone of the emitting fiber does not match the acceptance cone of the receiving fiber.
• The magnitude of the power loss depends on the degree of misalignment.
There are three fundamental types of misalignment between two fibers:
1. Axial displacement (also called lateral displacement) results when the axes of the two fibers are offset by a distance. 2.
Longitudinal separation occurs when the fibers have the same axis but have a gap between their end faces. 3. Angular
misalignment results when the two axes form an angle so that the fiber end faces are no longer parallel.

Misalignment Effects
• The most common misalignment occurring in practice, which also causes the greatest power loss, is axial
displacement.
• This axial offset reduces the overlap area of the two fiber-core end faces and consequently reduces the amount of
optical power that can be coupled from one fiber into another.
• In practice, axial offsets of less than 1 μm are achievable, which result in losses of less than 0.1 dB for multimode
fibers and 0.3 dB for single-mode fibers.

Axial Offset Loss

• The calculation of an expression for the axial offset loss for both step-index and graded-index fibers is
straightforward but somewhat mathematically involved.
• When the axial misalignment d is small compared to the core radius a, an approximate expression for the total power
���� accepted by the receiving fiber is as below:
 ���� ≈ �� 1 −8��
3����
where P is the power emerging from the emitting fiber.
• The coupling loss for fiber offsets then is given by:
�������������� = −10 log(����/��)

Separation Loss
• If the emitting and receiving fibers are identical step-index fibers, the loss resulting from a gap s between them
is:
2
= − 10 log��
�������� = −10 log�� �� + �� tan ���� �� + �� arcsin(����/��)
2
where �� is the fiber radius, ���� is the critical angle, ���� is the numerical aperture of the fiber, and �� is the
refractive index the material between the fiber ends (usually either air or index-matching gel).

• When the axes of two joined fibers have an angular misalignment at the joint, the optical power that leaves the
emitting fiber outside the solid acceptance angle of the receiving fiber will be lost.
• Obviously, the larger the angle, the greater the loss will be.
• Typical angular misalignments in a standard mated connector are less than 1°, for which the associated loss is
less than 0.5 dB.
 Fiber-Related Losses
• In addition to mechanical misalignments, differences in the geometric and waveguide characteristics of any two
mated fibers can have a profound effect on the joint loss.
• The differences include variations in core diameter, core-area ellipticity, numerical aperture, and core-cladding
concentricity of each fiber.
• Since these are manufacturer-related variations, the user has little control over them, except to specify certain
tolerances in these parameters when purchasing the fiber.
• For a given percentage mismatch between fiber parameters, differences in core sizes and numerical apertures have
a significantly larger effect on joint losses than mismatches in the refractive-index profile or core ellipticity.

Core Area Mismatches

• For simplicity let the subscripts E and R refer to the emitting and receiving fibers, respectively. • If the axial
numerical apertures and the core index profiles are equal [������ = ������ ������ ���� =
����], but the fiber diameters ���� and ���� are not equal, then the coupling loss is:
2
���� �� = −10 log���� ����
������ ���� < ����
0 ������ ���� ≥ ����
 • Core area mismatches can occur when one is trying to connect a 62.5-um fiber to one with a 50-um core, for
example.
• In this case, going from the larger to the smaller fiber results in a 1.9-dB loss, or 36 percent of the power. • A much
more serious loss occurs when one inadvertently tries to couple light from a multimode to a single-mode fiber.
• For example, if one connects a 62.5-um multimode fiber to a 9-um single-mode fiber, the loss from the area
mismatch will be 17 dB, or almost 98 percent of the light.

Numerical Aperture Mismatches

• In the case of multimode fibers, if the diameters and the index profiles of two coupled fibers are identical but
their axial numerical apertures are different, then the joint loss from this effect is:

2
���� ���� = −10 log������ ������
������ ������ < NA��

0 ������ ������ ≥ ������

Core Index Mismatches

• If the fiber diameters and the axial numerical apertures are the same but the core refractive-index profiles differ
in the joined fibers, then the joint loss is:
 ���� ���� = −10 log���� ���� + 2
���� ���� + 2������ ���� < �
0 ������ ���� ≥ ����

• This relationship comes about because for ���� < α�� the number of modes that the receiving fiber can
support is less than the number of modes in the emitting fiber.
• If ���� < α�� then the receiving fiber captures all modes from the emitting fiber.

End-Face Preparation
• One of the first steps that must be followed before fibers are connected or spliced is to prepare the fiber end
faces properly.
• In order not to have light deflected or scattered at the joint, the fiber ends must be flat and smooth and must have
the proper angle relative to the.
• Common end preparation techniques include a grinding and polishing method and a controlled-fracture
procedure.
Grinding and Polishing
• Conventional grinding and polishing techniques can produce a very smooth surface.
• Normally this is done in a controlled environment such as a laboratory or a factory, but polishing machines also are available
for use in the field to attach connectors and to perform emergency repairs.
• The procedure employed is to use successively finer abrasives to polish the fiber end face. • The end face is polished with each
successive abrasive until the scratches created by the previous abrasive are replaced by the finer scratches of the present
abrasive.
• The number of abrasives used in this step-down approach depends on the degree of smoothness that is desired. • Fiber
inspection and cleanliness are important during each step of fiber polishing.

• This inspection is done visually by the use of a standard microscope at 200 to 400 times magnification.

Controlled Fracture
• The controlled-fracture techniques are based on score-and-break methods for cleaving fibers. • In this
operation, the fiber to be cleaved is first scratched to create a stress concentration at the surface. • The
fiber is then bent over a curved surface while tension is applied simultaneously.
• This action produces a stress distribution across the fiber.
• The maximum stress occurs at the scratch point so that a crack starts to propagate through the fiber, resulting in
a highly smooth and perpendicular end face.
• A number of different tools based on the controlled-fracture technique are available commercially for both
factory and field uses.

End-Face Quality
• The controlled-fracture method requires careful control of the curvature of the fiber and of the amount of tension
applied.
• If the stress distribution across the crack is not controlled properly, the fracture propagating across the fiber can
fork into several cracks.
• This forking produces defects such as a lip or a hackled portion on the fiber end.

Optical Connector Features

• A wide variety of optical fiber connectors are available for numerous different applications. • Their uses range
from simple single-channel fiber-to-fiber connectors in a benign location to rugged multichannel connectors used
under the ocean or for harsh military field environments.

Design Requirements
Some principal requirements of good connector design are as follows:
▪ Coupling loss. The connector assembly must maintain stringent alignment tolerances to ensure low mating
losses.
– The losses should be around 0.1 to 0.2 dB and must not change significantly during operation and after
numerous connects and disconnects.
• Interchangeability. Connectors of the same type must be compatible from one manufacturer to another. • Ease
of assembly. A service technician should be able to install the connector in a field environment, that is, in a
location other than the connector attachment factory.
• Low environmental sensitivity. Conditions such as temperature, dust, and moisture should have a small effect
on connector loss variations.
• Low cost and reliable construction. The connector must have a precision suitable to the application, but it must
be reliable and its cost must not be a major factor in the system.
• Ease of connection. Except for certain unique applications, one should be able to mate and disconnect the
connector simply and by hand.

Connector Components
• Connectors are available in designs that screw on, twist on, or snap in place.
• The twist-on and snap-on designs are the ones used most commonly.
• The designs include both single-channel and multichannel assemblies for cable-to-cable and cable-to-circuit card
connections.
• The majority of connectors use a butt-joint coupling mechanism.
• The key components are a long, thin stainless steel, glass, ceramic, or plastic cylinder, known as a ferrule, and a
precision sleeve into which the ferrule fits.
• This sleeve is known variably as an alignment sleeve, an adapter, or a coupling receptacle. • The
center of the ferrule has a hole that precisely matches the size of the fiber cladding diameter. •
Typically, the hole size is 125.0 ± 1.0 ����.

Optical Connector Types

• Since it is taking some time to establish standards in the optical connector industry, several large companies
developed their own particular design.
• This has resulted in numerous connector styles and configurations.
• Typically, the different connector types are designated by combinations of two or three letters.
• The main ones are ST, SC, FC, LC, MU, MT-RJ, MPO, and variations on MPO.
• Therefore the vendors refer to these connectors as, for example, SC-type connectors or simply SC connectors.
▪ ST is derived from the words straight tip, which refers to the ferrule configuration.
▪ The letters SC were coined to mean subscriber connector, standard connector or square connector. ▪ A connector
designed specifically for Fiber Channel applications was designated by the letters FC. – Sometimes it is called
Field Assembly Connector, Ferrule Connector or Fixed connector. ▪ Since Lucent developed a specific connector
type, they obviously nicknamed it the LC connector; that is, LC can be considered an acronym for Lucent
Connector.
▪ The letters MU were selected by NTT to indicate a Miniature Unit.
▪ The designation MT-RJ is an acronym for Media Termination—Recommended Jack. ▪ The letters
MPO were selected to indicate a Multiple-fiber, Push-On/Pull-Off connecting function.

ST Connector
• The ST connector, which is very popular for both data communication and telecommunication applications.
• It utilizes a precision zirconia (zirconium dioxide) ceramic ferrule.
• For multimode fibers this yields a typical insertion loss of 0.4 dB when using a manual polishing method or 0.2
dB when using an automated fiber polisher.
• Single-mode connectors typically achieve a 0.3-dB insertion loss and a 40-dB return loss using a simple manual
polishing method.
SC Connector
• The SC connector was developed by NTT (Nippon Telegraph and Telephone) of Japan. • The connector is
mated by a simple snap-in method and can be disconnected by pushing in on a tab and then pulling the connector
off.
• SC connectors are available in either simplex or duplex configurations.
• Analogous to the ST connector, the SC connector uses a ceramic ferrule and has similar loss characteristics. •
The mating and loss features allow the connector to be used in tight spaces where turning an outer connector
housing, such as on an ST connector, is not practical.
• An example of such spaces is a patch panel where there is a high packing density of connections.
• SC simplex connectors have an outer plastic housing that is color-coded.
• This specifies beige for multimode fibers and blue for single-mode fibers.
• SC connectors are used widely on two-fiber patch cords and have been designed with a keying mechanism to
 maintain fiber optic cabling polarity.
• The word polarity means that the ends of a cable are matched properly for
transmit and receive functions.
• Basically the duplex configuration combines two standard SC connectors in a
common duplex plastic housing.
• This housing is keyed to maintain fiber polarity and provides smooth insertion
and removal of the connector pairs.

FC Connector
• The FC was the first optical fiber connector to use a ceramic ferrule.
• It utilizes a round screw-type fitment made from nickel-plated or stainless steel.
• Nominal insertion losses are less than 0.15 dB with single-mode fibers and less than 0.34 dB for multimode
fibers.
SMA Optical Connector
• The SMA 905 or 906 series of light-wave connectors were among the original optical fiber connectors designed for multimode
data communication applications.
• Their applications include local-area networks, data processing networks, active device termination, premise installations, and
connections for instrumentation.
• The SMA connectors have typical insertion losses of less than 0.25 dB for multimode fibers. • SMA 905 connectors have a
straight ferrule while the SMA 906 connectors have a stepped design which uses a plastic sleeve for alignment.

LC Connector
• Lucent developed the LC connector to meet the growing demand for small, high-density fiber optic connectivity
 on equipment bays, in distribution panels, and on wall plates.
• The LC connectors are available in both simplex and duplex configurations.

MU Connector
• Basically it can be considered as a smaller version of the SC-type connector.
• It has a plastic housing and uses a push-pull latching mechanism.
• It is available in simplex, duplex, and higher-count-channel styles.
• The MU connector is suitable both for board-mounted applications and for distribution-cable assemblies to
allow connections in simplex networks.
MT-RJ Connector
• MT-RJ connectors are very small in size and hence are particularly useful in small-sized devices. • They are
very efficient, high-density, low-cost, and lightweight optical fiber connector that has become widely used in
network hardware.
Multiple-Fiber Connectors
• The MPO connector is one of several variations of compact multiple-fiber connectors. • They all use a simple push/pull
latching mechanism for easy and intuitive insertion and removal. • The end of the MPO connector may be polished flat or at an
8° angle.
• The MTO connector is the same size as the SC; but since it can accommodate a maximum of 24 fibers, it provides up to 24
times the density, thereby offering savings in circuit card and rack space.
Multiple-Fiber Connectors (Con.)
Optical Splices
• A fiber splice is a permanent or temporary low-loss bond between two fibers.
• Such a bond can be made by using either fusion splicing or mechanical splicing.
• Most splices are permanent and typically are used to create long optical links or in situations where frequent
connection and disconnection is not needed.
• Temporary splices may be necessary or convenient when one is making emergency cable repairs or doing testing
during installation or troubleshooting.

Splicing Issues
• In making and evaluating optical fiber splices, one must take into account the physical differences in the two
fibers, fiber misalignments at the joint, and the mechanical strength of the splice.
• The physical differences in fibers that lead to splice losses are the same as those discussed above for connectors
and result in what is called intrinsic loss.
• These fiber-related differences include variations in core diameter, core-area ellipticity, numerical aperture, and
core-cladding concentricity of each fiber.
• Extrinsic losses depend on how well the fibers are prepared and the care taken to make the splice. • The factors
here include fiber misalignments at the joint, the smoothness and cleanliness of the fiber end faces, and the skill
of the splice equipment operator.
• When the fiber bonding is done properly using high-quality equipment, the total splice loss typically is 0.05 to
0.10 dB for fusion splicing and around 0.5 dB for mechanical splices.
Splicing Methods
• Fusion splices are made by thermally bonding prepared fiber ends.
• In this method the fiber ends are first aligned and then butted together.
• This is done either in a grooved fiber holder or under a microscope with a micromanipulator. • The butt joint
then is heated with an electric arc or a laser pulse so that the fiber ends are melted momentarily and hence bonded.
• This technique can produce very low splice losses (typically averaging less than 0.1 dB). • Care must be taken in
this technique, since defect growth and residual stress induced near the bonded joint can produce a weak splice.
• However, skilled operators using modern automated splicers usually alleviate these concerns. • In mechanical
splicing the assembly process involves stripping and cleaving the fibers, inserting them into a splice mechanism
until they touch, and then securing them in place.
• The securing process is done by either clamping the fibers or gluing them to
the
splicing structure.
• To prevent light reflections within the splice, a special gel that has a
refractive
index close to that of glass can be injected into the space between the
spliced
fibers.
• This material is referred to as index-matching gel.