The Investigative Learning Process

Peter Sellwood
Former Director. SCSST/DTI NatiolUll Project: Practical Problem Solving 5-13

A commitment to an investigative pleasure in satisfying it and that it is and the child to be involved in asking
learning approach by"a school demands therefore self-perpetuating. questions that help identify problems and
upon both teachers and pupils to adopt a find appropriate solutions.
More recently other educationalists have
different role to traditional practice. It is a
substantiated these ideas and While children are exploring, discovering
more collaborative process with the
recommendations and investigating the world around them,
teacher helping the pupil to acquire such
knowledge, skills and concepts as are they are inevitably involved in
I am not sure I understand anymore
problem-solving of various kinds. The
needed in a particular situation, rather what discovery is and I don't think it
than prescribing them through text or development of skills that can recognise,
matters very much - but a few things
exercise. Moreover, the pupils are analyse and then solve problems are
can be said about how people can be
encouraged to talk to one another, fundamental to intellectual development
helped to discover things for
discussing and sharing ideas and working and are, when suitably planned, exercised
themselves. Bruner, (1970).
as a team rather than individually. and monitored the vital skills of 'learning
how to learn'. Problem-solving is a
Active Learning
Investigative learning concerns itself with structured element within a general
Active learning is a means by which
the process by which learning takes investigative approach to learning having
pupils gain knowledge and understanding
place. It is child centred and places a defined methodology. It's value is in
through 'active' investigation, it is a
importance upon the learner having a structuring and organising thinking and
largely experiential form of investigative
greater responsibility for their own doing skills throughout the process of
learning. It involves problem-solving and
learning. It embraces active learning and coming to a solution. Ideally, pupils
is considered to be an important
problem-solving principles. should be provided with a programme of
component of study within all subjects.
learning that consistently and
The past fifty years have produced a An active learning practitioner would
progressively develops the use of these
number of educational reports stating the hold the view that learning retention is
skills from early childhood, they should
importance of discovery within the dependent upon:
then become second nature by the time
learning process. Although the Plowden
• the 'reality' of the learning experience. they reach secondary schooling.
report (1967) was largely responsible for
changing the way primary schools • the directness of the experience and As a learning strategy problem-solving
operate, a need for more active and the number of senses involved. can operate at all levels and in all
experiential methods of learning was situations when an objective needs to be
sought by the Hadow report (1931): • the degree of uncertainty for the reached. It applies across the whole
learner.
curriculum and as much to teachers in
The curriculum is to be thought of in
• the learner presenting their own their work as it does to children. The
terms of activity and experience rather
statements and evaluations. posing of open-ended questions, or tasks
than knowledge to be acquired and
are the tools of the problem-solving ideal.
facts to be stored. • teachers being 'clarifiers' rather than The failing of many who profess to be
The actual implication of this statement leaders. problem-solving practitioners is that they
being, that activity and experience, both • specific educational outcomes not are blind to the real value of its approach.
physical and mental, are the best means always predictable. The degree of open-endedness employed
of gaining knowledge and acquiring facts. is critical to the outcome. Questions or
The Plowden report some thirty-six years Active learning is more efficient than tasks can, on the one hand guide pupils to
later, came at a far more receptive time in passive learning ... pupils who use the discovery of specific concepts;
education and was more immediately information that they are trying to whereas on the other hand they can be
accepted. learn, who challenge and grapple with broadly planned in order to place them in
their new knowledge, or who use it to situations that are more complex. A
There is, therefore, good reason for solve new problems, tend to learn successful approach must include stages
allowing young children to choose more effectively. Jerstedt, (1980). of progression which will require
within a carefully prepared
planning and record keeping on the part
environment in which choices and Problem-solving of the teacher and the pupil. The whole
interest are supported by their Problem-solving is central to an thing will fail if it is insufficiently
teachers, who will have in mind the investigative approach to learning. It rigorous in its preparation. It is vital for
potentialities for further learning. assists in the development of thinking the approach to be adopted and practiced
Piaget's observations support the skills and is a means by which children throughout the school and
belief that children have a natural urge form important learning patterns. It is an developmentally through the age groups
to explore and discover, that they find approach that requires both the teacher and levels of ability. A lack of
Figure 1: The Practical Problem Solving
Model: Graphic Interpretation.
© Sellwood (1989)

consistency will result in confusion. In

fact, to be truly successful it should be
made a school policy for all. Marland
(1981) complains:
Learning to learn is rarely specified as
2. What possible solutions are type of thinking associated with
a curriculum aim. It seems to be
there? structuring, predicting, measuring,
presumed by those planning school
Problem solvers must resort to estimating, assembling, trial and
syllabuses that the processes will be
'creative' or 'lateral' thinking, adjustment until the solution has
assimilated while subjects are being
extending their thoughts to all been carried out.
studied' .
ways in which a solution might be 6. Test your solution
found. There are no wrong This stage necessitates accurate
The Practical Problem-solving Model
solutions. In the process of observation, recording and fair
The following problem-solving model
choosing those ideas most likely testing, to decide whether the
was constructed by the author,
to achieve the desired result,
'Development of Design Departments in solution meets the specification.
brainstorming, particularly in
Secondary Schools' (1970), for the 7. Evaluate the results.
groups of young children,
purposes of developing practical The problem solvers should
generates frenzied interaction.
problem-solving skills in design reflect upon their outcomes and
Thinking is active and qUick. To
education; it was used by SATRO's ask themselves the following
be used to its greatest effect, it
(Science and Technology Regional questions:
must be managed through phases
Organisations) in their in-service
of both broad and focused - Have we been successful?
initiatives 1984/5, and was, more recently
attention. It is a stage the teacher
adopted by the 'National Project: - Could we have done better?
must prolong, so as to draw out all
Practical Problem Solving 5-13'
possible ideas. It is important that - What have we learned?
(1987/90) for use in both primary and
these ideas are recorded. 8. Modify, if necessary.
secondary schools. It is not totally unique
as it closely resembles other models, 3. Choose 'possible' solutions -Does the solution need to be
however, it was the first model Analytical thinking is employed modified?
constructed for practical learning at at this stage, breaking down each
idea and discussing its feasibility. - Does it need to be changed to
school level. The national curriculum
The number of ideas advanced meet the specified criteria?
attainment targets for design and
technology follow a similar pattern, as do during the brainstorming session The process is iterative in its interaction
many other design models. This, again, is must be reduced to the ones that between the active and the reflective
not exclusive to design; other learning can be achieved with the modes. Progression takes place as .
models preceded the 'design loop' by resources available. Are there concepts are established, relevances are
some time. It is, nonetheless, a necessary sufficient materials? What time is made clear and skills learned. This is
model in guiding teachers in the available? Have we the expertise, illustrated as spiralling upwards within
development of practical learning skills and knowledge? the double helix throughout the
strategies and questioning procedures. It 4. What solution is the most developmental stages (see Figure 1).
also describes the importance of appropriate? The process employs many forms of
managing the development of a task. This stage involves decision- thinking and communication, both verbal
making, negotiation and and visual: words and diagrams can be
The Thinking, Sharing and Interactive comparison, employing a thinking used in explaining the problem to others,
Stages process that is judgmental; it discussing solutions and trying them out.
At each stage different thinking skills are consists of weighing up one idea This structures thinking at all levels and
exercised against the other, discussing its at each stage. During the process there
1. What is the problem? merits and drawbacks, until one will always be the problem of the
The problem must be defined; this solution is agreed upon. moment, and the overall problem - the
stage involves coming to a clear main objective. However, the teacher
understanding of the final The Making and Doing Stages should not insist upon a slavish adherence
objective, or analysing the true 5. Tryout your chosen solution to the method stage by stage, pupils who
nature of what is required. We now arrive at an active, have had the opportunity to develop
'making' stage. It employs the creative thinking processes could well
'short circuit' one or more stages and achieved by the same fundamental is used, as in making a comparison with
arrive at a good solution. To insist on intellectual processes. the Indian rope trick in the process of
stage by stage development could be seen 3. that the individual creative process is designing a hydraulic jack. And, finally,
as replacing one set of didactic principles as much like the creative process in a 'Fantasy' is encouraged - the free and
for another. group. capricious use of imagination. In synectic
training efforts are made to go beyond the
It is often said that the main purpose of The advocates of synectics theory believe traditional or 'expert' way of viewing the
adopting a problem-solving approach is that people who understand what world to a 'fresh' view of things. This
to develop lateral or creative thinking psychological processes are required can approach goes considerably beyond basic
skills. If these were the only thinking markedly increase their own creative 'brainstorming' methods, it is an
skills it developed we could be justifiably efficiency. In the creative process the approach quite foreign to the usual
accused of producing an eccentric emotional aspects of a task are seen as concept of the scientific method, but it
population with wild ideas and little more important than the rational aspects. seems most logical when compared to the
structure to their thinking processes. A Understanding these emotional aspects of processes remembered by inventors.
majority of 'learning how to learn' the task is considered most necessary if
approaches, however, do stress the success in problem-solving is to be The structured development of creative
importance of developing creative increased. thinking is an area that must be worked
thinking as an important component upon during in-service programmes with
within their models: 'Brainstorming' The theory is that there are four teachers. The present situation in schools
Osborn, (1957), 'Lateral Thinking' De psychological states that characterise the is such, that little information or advice is
Bono, (1970) and 'Synectics' Gordon, creative process. The first of these is available to teachers, therefore, it is not
(1961), contain within their methodology called 'detachmellt-involvement'; in this surprising to find teachers encouraging
the objective of freeing a person from the state a person tries to remove a problem the pupil who has reached a sticking
usual inhibitions that operate to block the from its usual context, in order to see it point in their work to 'brainstorm'-
creative process. differently, and then to become 'Brainstorm how?' the pupil might
sufficiently involved with it to develop respond, for there are numberous ways in
The primary aim of the brainstorming new insights. The second mental stage is which this might be directed. A page full
approach is to free the individual, 'deferment' which is resistance to the first of halfbearted comments is hardly the
whether working alone or as a member solution that comes to mind in favour of answer to every problem. Pupils lacking
of a group, from the effect of using waiting to see if a better one comes along. proper guidance will be unsure and
critical judgement prematurely.' The third state is 'speculation' or frustrated and will produce low quality
(Osborn). permitting the mind to run free. The work as a result. In all fairness much has
Lateral thinking is concerned with fourth mental state is called 'autonomy of been done in recent years to develop an
changing patterns. Instead of taking a the object'which is what happens when awareness of the value of investigative
pattern and developing it as is done in ideas about the solution of the problem learning; now is the time to build in a
vertical thinking, lateral thinking tries seem to crystallise and develop a life of structure and a means of progression.
to restructure the pattern by putting their own.
If learning to learn is to be achieved, the
things together in a different way'. The members of the synectics group were basic patterns must be laid down early in
De Bono, 'Lateral Thinking' (1970). wise in their recognition of the futility of schooling, certainly at first school level.
Alternatively, 'Synectics' means the merely recommending to people that they Teachers wishing to develop sound
joining together of different and become involved, or speculate, or detach investigative learning processes within
apparently irrelevant elements. Synectics themselves. Accordingly they have their school need to structure their own
theory is based on three assumptions: developed what are called 'operational thoughts and be considered in their
mechanisms' to help produce each of approach, otherwise the outcome will be
1. that the creative process in human these mental states. Making the familiar unsound. Nisbet and Shucksmith (1986),
beings can be concretely described strange and the strange familiar are recommend teachers to develop:
and that this description can be used synectic goals. Four mechanisms are used
to develop teaching methods that will to help make the familiar strange. 'Cognitive Goals' Establish clearer
increase the creative output of both 'Personal analogy' is used, as in cognitive goals for yourself and for the
individuals and groups. imagining how one would react if one children you teach. Distinguish between
were a molecule. 'Direct analogy' is outcomes and processes of learning.
2. that invention in the arts and in
used, as in studying the way a clam opens Divide tasks into constituent parts. Relate
sciences are much alike and are
and shuts in the process of designing a goals to pre-planning and subsequent
self-closing dispenser. 'Symbolic analogy' reflection sessions with the pupils.
'Metacognitive Knowledge' Explore open-ended to require considered make assumptions about what a child
how your own knowledge of your answers. has understood and force a premature
learning, the task and the learning context outcome.
'The National Project: Practical Problem
influence performance, and share this
Solving 5-13' confirmed these findings - To analyse a problem:
with pupils by 'modelling'. Allow them
when observing teachers in the initial Questioning of oneself or others is a
to explore their own metacognitive
stages of the project. Even more worrying valuable thinking skill. It is vital that
knowledge by discussion and by
was their observation that as pupils children acquire the ability to
exposure to a variety of contexts or
progressed through schooling less breakdown a problem into parts,
circumstances.
open-ended questions were asked of exclude irrelevances and recognise its
'Leaming st.-ategies' Attempt to discern them. This was found to be particularly true nature.
general strategies used across tasks. true in secondary schools, many subject
Distinguish these from skills. In teaching, - To develop creative thinking:
specialists seemed reluctant to place
Most children rush into early decisions
stress these common strategic elements themselves in the position where they
and reinforce their successful use where appeared not to know an answer. This as to what they are going to do. They
treat a project as if it were a
possible. Identify how strategies change was thought to happen because teachers
in line with goals, knowledge and believed their status and subject 'know competition and want to be the first
context. Encourage the children to ones to start making and doing. They
how' would be threatened if they
generate search procedures or 'Trigger' need to learn that exploring the widest
appeared to be ignorant of basic facts
routines that enable them to scan and concerning their own subject. range of outcomes is a necessary
make full use of their available strategic stage. It provides a greater choice of
The way a question is asked, its structure alternatives, and is a discipline
repertoire.
and emphasis, indicates to a pupil the essential to the problem-solving
kind of response that is required. The process. This is a stage when the
The Role of Questioning Within
Leaming simple question 'what are you doing?' 'Synectic' theory applies.
~an be a reprimand or alternatively, show
It will take time, expertise and patience to It may be worth considering what kind of
mterest. A changed structure can place a
ef~ectively develop investigative learning lead the teacher can give to pupils when
skills, there are no short cuts and it is not stronger emphasis. The question 'and
what do you think you are doing?', talking to them about their ideas. Neutral
possible to merely introduce them as a questions can be developed which allow
demonstrates strong disapproval, whereas
'magic' formula. This may have results pupils the scope to think about these
'tell me what you are doing?' indicates
with older students when introduced as a ideas without being influenced by the
approval and interest. Most questions
remedial action but a different strategy is teacher. Examples:
asked by teachers are closed questions, to
necessary for those new to schooling. The
which there is only one correct answer. • tell me what you have been working
model can, for instance, be used as an
aide memoire, to be used by the teacher Open-ended questions are the most on?
productive when learning is required.
as a guide to the way they structure • did you have any difficulties?
They require the pupil to weigh
children's thinking through a questioning
alternatives against each other and make • which do you think is better?
technique. An ability to stimulate
thinking through questioning is an a considered response, however, they
should not be seen as exclusive. A • what do you mean by better?
important aspect of a problem-solving
approach, however, research shows that number of different types of questions Other strategies that help to develop
teachers receive little instruction in may be asked in order to reach an effective thinking skills:
objective.
questioning techniques, either in their
• responding to pupils questions with
initial training or through in-service - To draw out information: further questions which prompt them
education. 'The Oracle Report' Scarth Teachers use a particular form of to think for themselves.
(1986), found that during a school day, questioning to patiently draw out
information from a child or group of • encourage them to pose questions to
45.8 percent of teachers'
children. It often consists of a number each other rather than the teacher.
communications with the class took
the form of statements. Only 11 of sequential questions that help
• encourage pairs or groups to 'build'
children to reach an understanding.
percent of the communications took answers and solutions between them
The teacher needs to carefully listen to
the form of questions, and of these by discussing problems and pooling
the child's own ideas so that they can knowledge and experience.
only 0.6 percent were sufficiently
be guided towards their goal. The
danger is that teachers sometimes
Brown and Campione (1979), suggest a structured by the teacher asking her own ideas, and should be capable of
'Socratic teaching method' to be a way of challenging questions; the children following a project through from its
transferring appropriate learning consequently become more familiar with initial concept to final conclusion.
strategies from teacher to pupils. In this the new object or idea, and their
At this stage, the student will be able to
method the teacher constantly questions confidence increases.
discuss with the teacher how to turn their
the student's basic assumptions and
Children should be encouraged to play ideas into action. Group work will still
premises, plays the devils advocate and
with a variety of shapes, educational kits develop and become more successful,
probes weak areas. The aim of the
and building materials and be provided particularly when it is properly planned.
exercise, they say,
with stimuli with the aim of achieving Work should stem from broader
is not just to get the child to know on specific objectives. Through structured open-ended tasks, drawing not only on
one occasion that he is wrong or play they will come to understand that previous experience, but also on the
mistaken and therefore needs to they can control things: they can arrange strengths and interests of the students.
re-Iearn and rethink, but that through flat shapes into simple compositions, They should be capable of identifying
this form of interrogation the teacher place objects on top of one another to projects for themselves, organising team
is 'modelling' for the pupil the sort of make tall structures and make models by strategies and setting a criteria by which
self-questioning, diagnosing and joining materials, boxes, tubes and other the task can be evaluated.
correction strategies that most adult forms together with glue, sellotape or
learners perform internally and string. They will also find that they can Language and Vocabulary
intuitively when working on their own. make things move by pushing, pulling or Language is thought to playa crucial role
throwing, they will learn to guide moving in the development of the young child's
Planning For Progression objects such as balls, rollers, or wheeled thinking. The work of Jean Piaget has
The 'National Project: Practical Problem toys by means of tunnels, paths and suggested that children are surprisingly
Solving 5-13' (1987/90) worked with slopes. weak at logical thinking, being far below
teachers planning a framework for adult standards up to at least the age of
2. Guided Discovery
progression in practical learning activities eight when language is virtually fully
using a cross-curricular approach. They At this stage, teachers can supply developed; although doubt has been cast
matched the development of children to a starting-points for investigations, and upon some of Piaget's work, the
problem-solving philosophy using three guide the children, again through 'National Project: Practical Problem
broad stages. open-ended questioning, towards a range Solving 5-13' were convinced that
of possible solutions. The period of conceptual understanding was unravelled
1. Structured Play.
guided discovery is most effective during and more readily realised when described
2. Guided Discovery. the late infancy and junior phase. They verbally by children. It was also seen to
3. Independent Learner. usually enjoy the responsibility of become substantiated and made concrete
working in groups, although they need when the childs vocabulary was
Although these stages correspond to developed in association with an activity.
guidance, particularly in how they can
age/ability-related development, they What-is-more, it was found that gender
plan and discuss the direction of their
should be familiar to all of us as a natural bias was largely eliminated when the
investigations and possible solutions; this
reaction to something new. When, for prime words associated with a learning
type of activity leads them towards a
example, we unpack a new activity were identified by the pupils
more independent way of working. The
microcomputer, the first stage is to 'play' rather than by the teacher. It was seen to
best tasks are those that expand and
with it - pressing various keys to see be particularly divisive when prime
concepts previously introduced and
what happens, and moving the cursor words were introduced at the beginning
extend and build on the skills acquired
across the screen. Guided by the of a new exercise; for example. 'Today
through structured play.
instruction manual, we gradually learn we are going to learn about levers. 'This
what the machine can do. As our 3. Independent Learner type of introduction appeared to establish
confidence increases we learn how to the exercise as a masculine activity and
The result of a well-planned and
produce sophisticated documents without consequently alienated many students.
consistent investigative programme of
continually looking at the instruction Many national project schools developed
manual. learning needs to progress from
structured play in early infancy, through class dictionaries, pupils added new
1. Structured Play guided discovery at junior school, to the words together with their meaning as they
more self-assured and more independ~nt were learned. They were also illustrated
On encountering something new, children by the pupils.
student at middle and early secondary
will engage in free play. This can be
school levels. The student will have his or
 Figure 2: The 'mapped' content of an

/'
.-....-. integrated scheme of work incorporating:
Art, CDT, Home Economics and Business
,/ HOME Studies.
/ ECONOMICS
/
/ \
I \
I \

\
\ / become gender-biased, particularly if the
/ teacher sees 'constructing things' as a
\ masculine activity. A careful balancing of
\ / tasks will help to develop a broad and
/ comprehensive view on the part of the
"- "- BUSINESS children.

--
-.........
.....• _-STUDIES
Cross-Curricular Learning
Primary teaching, is considered by many
teachers, to function more effectively
when it works across the curriculum.
A problem-solving activity that had been even our hopes and fears (and moral After a number of failed 'kick-starts' it
carefully constructed to develop the commitments, for they are set by has now become more of a feature in
concept without the initial introduction of possibilities of achievement) are secondary schooling, where it is most
a technical vocabulary usually succeeded largely set by existing technology. commonly found as a grouping of related
with all pupils. Furthermore, when the subject areas, rarely across the whole
The ability to ask the right questions, curriculum. It has shown to bring greater
opportunity was provided for children to
using suitable language, is a skill that relevance and meaning when delivered
discuss their outcomes and they were
asked such questions as: 'What do you needs constant practice and review. The through a topic or theme, however, it is
language used by the teacher can, if essential for these to be carefully
think this is called?' they learned to
inappropriate, be counter-productive and balanced and meticulously planned. A
surmise, reflect and, with luck, eventually
destroy a child's confidence. The criticism of the topic approach has been
correctly name the action, part or
curriculum areas of science and that some teachers have planned too
principle that they had discovered. They
technology present particular problems as much work around their own strengths
had, as a result gained ownership of their
a result of their specialist words and and special interests. On investigation, a
discovery and were also able to put a
name to it. This is a powerful learning phrases. For example, teachers should try school used its LEA as an exemplar in
not to use a terminology that the child is this way of working was found to have
tool at any age. An important discovery
unlikely to understand; the wording of the over 80% of its topics biased towards the
made when developing this approach in
instruction 'construct a mechanism that natural world.
schools was that girls consistently out
will...' is appropriate at one level, but
performed boys in problem solving Accurate recording, assessment and
inappropriate at another. It is important
exercises and they were also found to be evaluation procedures are vital in
more imaginative in their solutions. that the child is confident and
understands the words used. Words can, ensuring a balanced progression. All
Childrens language can be extended and in themselves, either limit or extend the topics will have a bias in one direction or
enriched by a creative and questioning scope of a question or problem. For another and it is important that each is
approach, and they will gain in example, instructing the child to 'make a planned to compliment previous studies.
confidence and understanding when vehicle that will...' is likely to limit their Progression in individual subject areas
encouraged to experiment with words and thinking because the word 'vehicle' will can be 'evened-out' over a period of two
descriptions. Gregory, 'Mind in Science' be interpreted by most children as or three topics. (see Fig. 3.)
(1981) suggested that something that has wheels, such as a lorry Most good teachers are aware of the
or a car. The question ~can you make dangers of becoming' topic bound', there
language structure had the power to
something that will ...?' is more will be many times when it will be more
direct (and sometimes mislead)
open-ended and is likely to lead to a relevant to develop important skills and
thought: It is surely true of all tools,
wider range of solutions. Some caution is concepts in isolation. Tasks set for
that by making some things easier they
also necessary in devising open-ended children must match their learning
direct activity and thinking from
challenges. The challenges must not be so requirements. When specific skills need
things that are difficult; but what is
open-ended that they have no boundaries to be taught it is probably best that they
easy and what is difficult are partly set
- there is no useful purpose in saying, are learned by instruction, at other times a
by the available tools, and so we are
for example, 'make anything you like!' It more open-ended task will be
carried along by a sequence of largely
is important to define the task so that just appropriate. These can be reinserted back
arbitrary and sometimes unfortunate
enough guidance is given to help, but into a contextual framework when greater
features of our technology, including
without unduly limiting their ideas. As relevance is needed.
our language. Human intelligence is
stated earlier, the language used in
very largely Artificial Intelligence, and
practical problem-solving can easily
Figure 3: The 'mapped' content of three
consecutive schemes of work. This shows
how well planned topics will compliment
one another over a period of a term.

Whenever pupils are engaged in practical

activity they will be involved in
cross-curricular work of one sort of Curriculum content
another; making a model will require covered in each
measuring skills, marking and cutting to integrated scheme
scale and being aware of proportion - of work. Over one
term.
skills associated with mathematics. If the
model is of a boat or a house it is likely to
fit a style or age - History. Language is
constantly being used, exercised and Curriculum content
developed. The properties of materials, to be covered in
their structure and potential can be the term.
identified as science. Relationships across
the curriculum are numerous and
genuine, these cross-curricular aspects of The group, dependent upon age and not supported by a wide range of the
practical work are often referred to as one ability, should be able to record their own necessary resources. Even if there is not
of it's major contributions in unifying the achievements and be encouraged to make enough room to have a permanent
curriculum. However, one disturbing honest assessment of each others collection of books, it is necessary to
outcome is that a number of contributions. have a range of relevant reading materials
educationalists when speaking to to support the needs of the current
non-specialist teachers often refer to how Organisations and Management scheme of work.
these important concepts are 'implicit' To maxi mise the potential of learning
within a practical activity - 'You are through an investigative approach, Assessment
doing it already, all the basic discoveries careful consideration must be given to Many teachers experience difficulties
are being made while they are making classroom organisation and management. when required to make assessments of
these wonderful models.' It is important Efficient, structured and well planned individual pupils who have been working
to guard teachers against this patronising organisation is the key to providing a in groups for an activity. Pupils and
approach by emphasising the fact that stimulating environment that inspires teachers need to be clear on what is to be
unless these 'implicit' concepts can be quality learning. The following factors assessed. Is assessment being made of the
identified, drawn out and made 'explicit' need to be considered: performance and quality of the
they will remain undeveloped within the group-work? In which case it may be that
1. Organisation of the working
child. What is being referred to here is the individual performance is seen by pupils
environment.
identification of transferable skills and as less important so long as they are
understandings, not the more complicated A classroom, studio or workshop must be doing something purposeful within the
issues related to 'latent learning' arranged to meet the needs of a variety of group. Or is assessment being made on an
illustrated in Figure 4. teaching strategies and classroom individual performance within the setting
situations. It will need to be stimulating of group work? If this is the case then
Co-operative Learning with relevant displays, resources and careful management may be required to
An investigative approach to learning is materials. The space will need to be avoid uncooperative or unduly
most successful when students work in organised to cater for: group work, competitive behaviour. It will become
co-operative learning groups. In the early individual work, practical work, quiet necessary for pupils to play an important
stages groups are most efficient when work and study. Areas need to be clearly role in assessing their own contributions
engineered by the teacher who has a defined so that pupils know how to work towards the group project, the part they
sound knowledge of the qualities of each in each section, and how to care for and played, their ideas and the things they
individual within the class, and is able to tidy each area. produced.
balance skills, knowledge, temperaments,
2. Organisation of resources. Pupils will need to make sure that their
and personalities. Later, after some
individual work and group work
experience, pupils should be allowed to It is important to note that when looking
contribution is being evidenced. Activity
construct their own teams and balance to build on the qualities of an
investigative learning approach, it is vital time should be structured so that they do
skills against the demands of the task.
not lose sight of themselves as
The benefits of the approach are that resources for learning are readily
accessible to the students. An individuals within the group. The
manifold, it develops positive attitudes
following staging could help to determine
towards others, co-operation and respect. investigative approach will flounder if
the individuals role and contribution:
 Figure 4: Comparable content
achievements in:
/ I1ATHEMATICS 1. subject based learning programmes.
"'~
/ /:/= -- ~
ZONE 3. 2. Integrated (cross-curricular) schemes
of work.
/ / ""-""\\
ARTS! TECHNOLOGY
3. Integrated schemes of work taught
through an investigative learning process.

/ I I(
context. Example: colour harmony taught
) SC,IENCE within art recognised as camouflage
when studying wild life and habitats in an
/ I) ) integrated scheme linking art and
environmental studies.
Zone Three The outer areas beyond the
second circle represents the 'larder'. This
is where pupils store half-held concepts,
-;////j insights and information. At a later stage
further connections will substantiate them
- /// and make them 'concrete'. It is the bonus
HUMANITIES. ~ ~ gained from a well-planned investigative

--= ----
~ leaming programme. This domain is the
key to self-motivation as it provides the
evidence to the pupil of how it is learning
'how to learn'.
• regular points when pupils it is unnecessary; of course it is. Pupils
individually review the progress they leaming investigatively will have learned Skills Supporting An Investigative
are making. far more than the direct requirements set Learning Process
out by the teacher in a programme of It is important that before embarking
• regular points when pupils upon any programme of work to list and
work. Some of this 'extra' knowledge and
individually plan what they still need categorise the essential skills required.
half-formed concepts will not
to do, think about or find out. Most skills can be developed
immediately make sense, or be relevant,
• a regular point when pupils nonetheless it will lie dormant until other sequentially, which provides a means of
individually modify their plans and strands of learning make the vital assessing the quality of pupils
proposals in relation to what they are connections that bring enlightenment. performance at all times. The skills of
doing and finding out; and in relation This was referred to as 'latent learning' observing, recording, collecting evidence
to what others in their team are doing. by the 'National Project: Practical and using evidence are all skills that are
Problem Solving 5-13' team, who noted developmental, yet it is rare to find
As well as being asked to appraise their that for some pupils there was a teachers who have constructed a means of
own work, pupils may be asked to considerable incubation period following grading these skills.
appraise the work of others. One group
broad open-ended projects. Children
could make an appraisal of another In conclusion
regularly confounded their teachers, and
group's work. The group can then address It is clear that the ways practical activities
members of the project team with the
the comments which others have made of have been approached in the best primary
amount of understanding that appeared,
them to see if this helps them to recognise schools may in the future form a model
as if by magic at a much later stage.
their own strengths and weaknesses. for all schools. The topic approach when
When working investigatively, it is vital Interpretation of Figure 4 carefully structured offers an open
that pupils decide upon the criteria by Zone One The inner segmented circle educational environment where
which they will make their assessment. represents the content of learning gained investigative methods thrive. Such an
This will prompt them to focus on through a subject based learning approach will answer the challenge posed
particular aspects of their work rather programme when taught didactically. The by Hicks (1983):
than making vague generalisations content is restricted by the boundaries set
Teaching facts is one thing; teaching
without addressing any specifics, or just by the teacher. It can effectively reach the pupils in such a way that can apply
for the sake of criticising others. These set objectives but no more. facts is another, but providing learning
points also exist when they are involved opportunities which encourage pupils
Zone Two The second circle represents
in the critical study of a work of art, a to use information naturally when
the extra knowledge gained by teaching
piece of architecture or the design of a handling uncertainty, in a manner
through integrated programmes of work.
product. which results in capability, is a
This further understanding is cumulative
No form of assessment will accurately and is gained through recognising the challenge of a different kind.
reflect what a pupil has learned, it is, at relevance of one subject to another, The National Project: Practical Problem
best a rough guide. That is not to say that particularly when learned within a Solving 5-13 stated that
 There is a wide spread confusion we must be concerned to probe and guide Davenport, G.W. and Sellwood, P. (1990)
'Orgallisation and Management' The SCSST/DTI
amongst school over what is required the quality and development of a pupil's
National Project: Practical Problem Solving 5-13.
of them for assessment, recording and thinking. This will involve teachers in
De Bono, E. (1967) The Use of Lateral Thinking,
evaluation for practical activities. asking more varied questions. We must Penguin.
Some have already made their own have evidence to evaluate both the
De Bono, E. (1970) 'Lateral Thinking. 'Penguin,
attempts to gather information - process and the product. The evidence England.
often resulting in large quantities of will naturally be in the form of sketches,
De Bono, E. (1972) Children Solve Problems,
work, tick charts, annotated files, notes, photographs, models and written Penguin.
audio and video tapes. The collection work.
Flavell, 1.H. (1981) 'Cognitive Monitoring', in w.P.
of such large quantities of data is Dickson (Ed.) Childrens Orals Communication
The conclusions drawn by the National
almost always self-defeating. Skills, New York, Academic Press.
Project: Practical Problem Solving 5-13
The non-statutory guidelines for was that the assessment of investigative Galton, M. Simon, B. and Cross, P. (1980) 'Inside
the Primary Classroom' London. Routledge &
Technology contains the following points: learning must include contributions from Keegan Paul.
both pupils and teachers, it must be clear
Record keeping will need to be Garrett, R.M. (1986) 'Problem·solving in science
in its intentions and consistent: education', Studies in Science Education, Vol.l3,
efficient: in technology unlike other
pp.70·95.
subjects, pupils will be choosing their What is required is an approach that is
own solutions to develop, and will efficient and contains information Garrett, R.M. (1989) 'Promoting creativity through
a problem·solving science curriculum', School
cover different parts of the programme about the processes and products of Science Review, Vol.70, pp.127.l31.
of study. It is difficult to envisage a the educational experience, and takes
Gordon, WJ. (1961) 'Synectics: The Development of
class record system which could account of the principle of pupil Creative Capacity' Harper, New York.
record that one child made a product self-accounting. If assessment and
Gregory, RL. (1981) 'Mind in Science'
from wood, another used card and a recording is to fulfil its promise, then Weindenfeld & Nicholson.
third used both materials. the quality of the approaches taken Hadow, H. (1931) 'The Primary School' London,
needs to be optimised, whether it be HMSO.
... recording Pupil Progress - Good
simply a matter of ensuring lerstedt, (1980) 'Journal of Experiential Education'
record keeping is essential if
consistency of photographic records or VoI.3, No.2, pp.12·13.
progression, continuity and balance
the right approach to observing and Marland, M. (1981) 'Information Skills in the
are to be maintained for all pupils. For
recording the processes of young _ Secondary Curriculum' Schools Council Curriculum
each class, or group of pupils, records
peoples' attempts to deal with practical Bulletin 9 London, Methuen.
will need to indicate:
problems. Nisbet, 1. and Shucksmith, 1. (1986) Learning
Strategies, Routledge.
• Topics/themes covered, and
contexts introduced for design and References and Further Reading Osborn, AF. (1957) 'Applied Imagination' Scribner,
Brown, AL. Palincsa, A.S. and Reeve, R A (1987). New York.
technology activity: 'Everyday and academic thinking: implications for
Piaget, 1. (1928), 'Judgement and Reasoning in the
learning and problem- solving', Journal of
• Design and technology products - Child', New York, Harcourt Press.
Curriculum Studies, VoI.l9, pp.123·133.
Plowden Report (1967) 'Children and Their
• In addition, individual records of Brown, AL. and Reeve R.A (1989) Brandwidths of
Schools'London. HMSO.
each pupil's experience will be Competence in Development and Learning:
Conflicts or Congruence?, Lawrence Erlbaum. Scarth, 1. et. aI. (1986) 'Questioning ORACLE: an
needed. Each record will require assessment of ORACLE's analysis of teacher's
Brown, A.L. and Campoine, 1.C. (1979), 'Inducing
updating every half-term and questions and a comment on questioning ORACLE',
Flexible Thinking: The Problem of Access', in M.P.
should include: Educational Research, VoI.28, pp.174- 189.
Friedman, (Eds) Intelligence and Learning. New
York, Plenum. Sellwood, P. (1970) 'The Development of Design
• Brief information about the product Departments in Secondary Schools' Dissertation;
developed, with an indication of Bruner, 1.S. (1978) 'The role of dialogue in
University of Wales.
language acquisition', in Sinclair, A larvella, R.l.
whether it is an artefact, system or and Lovelt, 1.M. (Ed.) The Child's Conception of Sellwood, P. (1989) 'Progression and Development
environment; Language, Springer. for the Practical Curriculum' The SCSST/DTI
National Project: Practical Problem Solving 5·13.
• Brief information about the Bruner, 1.S. (1966) 'Towards a Theory of
Instruction '. Belknap Press Harvard. Sellwood, P. (1990) 'Practical Problem Solving'
materials used. The SCSST/DTI National Project: Practical
Bruner, 1.S. (1965) The Process of Education
When considering cross-curricular Problem Solving 5-13.
Cambridge, Harvard University Press.
practical activities it is of paramount Bruner, 1.S. (1971) 'The Relevance of Education ,
Sellwood, P. and Adams, R. (1990) 'Recording
importance to remember that evaluation Assessment and Evaluation The SCSST/DTI
W.W. Norton & Co. New York.
National Project: Practical Problem Solving 5·13.
of such activities involves more than
West, RW. (1981) 'The case against the core',
simply the evaluation of the end product,
School Science Review, Vol.63.