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The Investigative Learning Process: Former Director. Scsst/Dti Natiolull Project: Practical Problem Solving 5-13
The Investigative Learning Process: Former Director. Scsst/Dti Natiolull Project: Practical Problem Solving 5-13
Peter Sellwood
Former Director. SCSST/DTI NatiolUll Project: Practical Problem Solving 5-13
A commitment to an investigative pleasure in satisfying it and that it is and the child to be involved in asking
learning approach by"a school demands therefore self-perpetuating. questions that help identify problems and
upon both teachers and pupils to adopt a find appropriate solutions.
More recently other educationalists have
different role to traditional practice. It is a
substantiated these ideas and While children are exploring, discovering
more collaborative process with the
recommendations and investigating the world around them,
teacher helping the pupil to acquire such
knowledge, skills and concepts as are they are inevitably involved in
I am not sure I understand anymore
problem-solving of various kinds. The
needed in a particular situation, rather what discovery is and I don't think it
than prescribing them through text or development of skills that can recognise,
matters very much - but a few things
exercise. Moreover, the pupils are analyse and then solve problems are
can be said about how people can be
encouraged to talk to one another, fundamental to intellectual development
helped to discover things for
discussing and sharing ideas and working and are, when suitably planned, exercised
themselves. Bruner, (1970).
as a team rather than individually. and monitored the vital skills of 'learning
how to learn'. Problem-solving is a
Active Learning
Investigative learning concerns itself with structured element within a general
Active learning is a means by which
the process by which learning takes investigative approach to learning having
pupils gain knowledge and understanding
place. It is child centred and places a defined methodology. It's value is in
through 'active' investigation, it is a
importance upon the learner having a structuring and organising thinking and
largely experiential form of investigative
greater responsibility for their own doing skills throughout the process of
learning. It involves problem-solving and
learning. It embraces active learning and coming to a solution. Ideally, pupils
is considered to be an important
problem-solving principles. should be provided with a programme of
component of study within all subjects.
learning that consistently and
The past fifty years have produced a An active learning practitioner would
progressively develops the use of these
number of educational reports stating the hold the view that learning retention is
skills from early childhood, they should
importance of discovery within the dependent upon:
then become second nature by the time
learning process. Although the Plowden
• the 'reality' of the learning experience. they reach secondary schooling.
report (1967) was largely responsible for
changing the way primary schools • the directness of the experience and As a learning strategy problem-solving
operate, a need for more active and the number of senses involved. can operate at all levels and in all
experiential methods of learning was situations when an objective needs to be
sought by the Hadow report (1931): • the degree of uncertainty for the reached. It applies across the whole
learner.
curriculum and as much to teachers in
The curriculum is to be thought of in
• the learner presenting their own their work as it does to children. The
terms of activity and experience rather
statements and evaluations. posing of open-ended questions, or tasks
than knowledge to be acquired and
are the tools of the problem-solving ideal.
facts to be stored. • teachers being 'clarifiers' rather than The failing of many who profess to be
The actual implication of this statement leaders. problem-solving practitioners is that they
being, that activity and experience, both • specific educational outcomes not are blind to the real value of its approach.
physical and mental, are the best means always predictable. The degree of open-endedness employed
of gaining knowledge and acquiring facts. is critical to the outcome. Questions or
The Plowden report some thirty-six years Active learning is more efficient than tasks can, on the one hand guide pupils to
later, came at a far more receptive time in passive learning ... pupils who use the discovery of specific concepts;
education and was more immediately information that they are trying to whereas on the other hand they can be
accepted. learn, who challenge and grapple with broadly planned in order to place them in
their new knowledge, or who use it to situations that are more complex. A
There is, therefore, good reason for solve new problems, tend to learn successful approach must include stages
allowing young children to choose more effectively. Jerstedt, (1980). of progression which will require
within a carefully prepared
planning and record keeping on the part
environment in which choices and Problem-solving of the teacher and the pupil. The whole
interest are supported by their Problem-solving is central to an thing will fail if it is insufficiently
teachers, who will have in mind the investigative approach to learning. It rigorous in its preparation. It is vital for
potentialities for further learning. assists in the development of thinking the approach to be adopted and practiced
Piaget's observations support the skills and is a means by which children throughout the school and
belief that children have a natural urge form important learning patterns. It is an developmentally through the age groups
to explore and discover, that they find approach that requires both the teacher and levels of ability. A lack of
Figure 1: The Practical Problem Solving
Model: Graphic Interpretation.
© Sellwood (1989)
/'
.-....-. integrated scheme of work incorporating:
Art, CDT, Home Economics and Business
,/ HOME Studies.
/ ECONOMICS
/
/ \
I \
I \
\
\ / become gender-biased, particularly if the
/ teacher sees 'constructing things' as a
\ masculine activity. A careful balancing of
\ / tasks will help to develop a broad and
/ comprehensive view on the part of the
"- "- BUSINESS children.
--
-.........
.....• _-STUDIES
Cross-Curricular Learning
Primary teaching, is considered by many
teachers, to function more effectively
when it works across the curriculum.
A problem-solving activity that had been even our hopes and fears (and moral After a number of failed 'kick-starts' it
carefully constructed to develop the commitments, for they are set by has now become more of a feature in
concept without the initial introduction of possibilities of achievement) are secondary schooling, where it is most
a technical vocabulary usually succeeded largely set by existing technology. commonly found as a grouping of related
with all pupils. Furthermore, when the subject areas, rarely across the whole
The ability to ask the right questions, curriculum. It has shown to bring greater
opportunity was provided for children to
using suitable language, is a skill that relevance and meaning when delivered
discuss their outcomes and they were
asked such questions as: 'What do you needs constant practice and review. The through a topic or theme, however, it is
language used by the teacher can, if essential for these to be carefully
think this is called?' they learned to
inappropriate, be counter-productive and balanced and meticulously planned. A
surmise, reflect and, with luck, eventually
destroy a child's confidence. The criticism of the topic approach has been
correctly name the action, part or
curriculum areas of science and that some teachers have planned too
principle that they had discovered. They
technology present particular problems as much work around their own strengths
had, as a result gained ownership of their
a result of their specialist words and and special interests. On investigation, a
discovery and were also able to put a
name to it. This is a powerful learning phrases. For example, teachers should try school used its LEA as an exemplar in
not to use a terminology that the child is this way of working was found to have
tool at any age. An important discovery
unlikely to understand; the wording of the over 80% of its topics biased towards the
made when developing this approach in
instruction 'construct a mechanism that natural world.
schools was that girls consistently out
will...' is appropriate at one level, but
performed boys in problem solving Accurate recording, assessment and
inappropriate at another. It is important
exercises and they were also found to be evaluation procedures are vital in
more imaginative in their solutions. that the child is confident and
understands the words used. Words can, ensuring a balanced progression. All
Childrens language can be extended and in themselves, either limit or extend the topics will have a bias in one direction or
enriched by a creative and questioning scope of a question or problem. For another and it is important that each is
approach, and they will gain in example, instructing the child to 'make a planned to compliment previous studies.
confidence and understanding when vehicle that will...' is likely to limit their Progression in individual subject areas
encouraged to experiment with words and thinking because the word 'vehicle' will can be 'evened-out' over a period of two
descriptions. Gregory, 'Mind in Science' be interpreted by most children as or three topics. (see Fig. 3.)
(1981) suggested that something that has wheels, such as a lorry Most good teachers are aware of the
or a car. The question ~can you make dangers of becoming' topic bound', there
language structure had the power to
something that will ...?' is more will be many times when it will be more
direct (and sometimes mislead)
open-ended and is likely to lead to a relevant to develop important skills and
thought: It is surely true of all tools,
wider range of solutions. Some caution is concepts in isolation. Tasks set for
that by making some things easier they
also necessary in devising open-ended children must match their learning
direct activity and thinking from
challenges. The challenges must not be so requirements. When specific skills need
things that are difficult; but what is
open-ended that they have no boundaries to be taught it is probably best that they
easy and what is difficult are partly set
- there is no useful purpose in saying, are learned by instruction, at other times a
by the available tools, and so we are
for example, 'make anything you like!' It more open-ended task will be
carried along by a sequence of largely
is important to define the task so that just appropriate. These can be reinserted back
arbitrary and sometimes unfortunate
enough guidance is given to help, but into a contextual framework when greater
features of our technology, including
without unduly limiting their ideas. As relevance is needed.
our language. Human intelligence is
stated earlier, the language used in
very largely Artificial Intelligence, and
practical problem-solving can easily
Figure 3: The 'mapped' content of three
consecutive schemes of work. This shows
how well planned topics will compliment
one another over a period of a term.
/ I I(
context. Example: colour harmony taught
) SC,IENCE within art recognised as camouflage
when studying wild life and habitats in an
/ I) ) integrated scheme linking art and
environmental studies.
Zone Three The outer areas beyond the
second circle represents the 'larder'. This
is where pupils store half-held concepts,
-;////j insights and information. At a later stage
further connections will substantiate them
- /// and make them 'concrete'. It is the bonus
HUMANITIES. ~ ~ gained from a well-planned investigative
--= ----
~ leaming programme. This domain is the
key to self-motivation as it provides the
evidence to the pupil of how it is learning
'how to learn'.
• regular points when pupils it is unnecessary; of course it is. Pupils
individually review the progress they leaming investigatively will have learned Skills Supporting An Investigative
are making. far more than the direct requirements set Learning Process
out by the teacher in a programme of It is important that before embarking
• regular points when pupils upon any programme of work to list and
work. Some of this 'extra' knowledge and
individually plan what they still need categorise the essential skills required.
half-formed concepts will not
to do, think about or find out. Most skills can be developed
immediately make sense, or be relevant,
• a regular point when pupils nonetheless it will lie dormant until other sequentially, which provides a means of
individually modify their plans and strands of learning make the vital assessing the quality of pupils
proposals in relation to what they are connections that bring enlightenment. performance at all times. The skills of
doing and finding out; and in relation This was referred to as 'latent learning' observing, recording, collecting evidence
to what others in their team are doing. by the 'National Project: Practical and using evidence are all skills that are
Problem Solving 5-13' team, who noted developmental, yet it is rare to find
As well as being asked to appraise their that for some pupils there was a teachers who have constructed a means of
own work, pupils may be asked to considerable incubation period following grading these skills.
appraise the work of others. One group
broad open-ended projects. Children
could make an appraisal of another In conclusion
regularly confounded their teachers, and
group's work. The group can then address It is clear that the ways practical activities
members of the project team with the
the comments which others have made of have been approached in the best primary
amount of understanding that appeared,
them to see if this helps them to recognise schools may in the future form a model
as if by magic at a much later stage.
their own strengths and weaknesses. for all schools. The topic approach when
When working investigatively, it is vital Interpretation of Figure 4 carefully structured offers an open
that pupils decide upon the criteria by Zone One The inner segmented circle educational environment where
which they will make their assessment. represents the content of learning gained investigative methods thrive. Such an
This will prompt them to focus on through a subject based learning approach will answer the challenge posed
particular aspects of their work rather programme when taught didactically. The by Hicks (1983):
than making vague generalisations content is restricted by the boundaries set
Teaching facts is one thing; teaching
without addressing any specifics, or just by the teacher. It can effectively reach the pupils in such a way that can apply
for the sake of criticising others. These set objectives but no more. facts is another, but providing learning
points also exist when they are involved opportunities which encourage pupils
Zone Two The second circle represents
in the critical study of a work of art, a to use information naturally when
the extra knowledge gained by teaching
piece of architecture or the design of a handling uncertainty, in a manner
through integrated programmes of work.
product. which results in capability, is a
This further understanding is cumulative
No form of assessment will accurately and is gained through recognising the challenge of a different kind.
reflect what a pupil has learned, it is, at relevance of one subject to another, The National Project: Practical Problem
best a rough guide. That is not to say that particularly when learned within a Solving 5-13 stated that
There is a wide spread confusion we must be concerned to probe and guide Davenport, G.W. and Sellwood, P. (1990)
'Orgallisation and Management' The SCSST/DTI
amongst school over what is required the quality and development of a pupil's
National Project: Practical Problem Solving 5-13.
of them for assessment, recording and thinking. This will involve teachers in
De Bono, E. (1967) The Use of Lateral Thinking,
evaluation for practical activities. asking more varied questions. We must Penguin.
Some have already made their own have evidence to evaluate both the
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often resulting in large quantities of will naturally be in the form of sketches,
De Bono, E. (1972) Children Solve Problems,
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Flavell, 1.H. (1981) 'Cognitive Monitoring', in w.P.
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The conclusions drawn by the National
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Project: Practical Problem Solving 5-13
The non-statutory guidelines for was that the assessment of investigative Galton, M. Simon, B. and Cross, P. (1980) 'Inside
the Primary Classroom' London. Routledge &
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efficient: in technology unlike other
pp.70·95.
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own solutions to develop, and will efficient and contains information Garrett, R.M. (1989) 'Promoting creativity through
a problem·solving science curriculum', School
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Gregory, RL. (1981) 'Mind in Science'
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needs to be optimised, whether it be HMSO.
... recording Pupil Progress - Good
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will need to indicate:
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• Topics/themes covered, and
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Brown, AL. Palincsa, A.S. and Reeve, R A (1987). New York.
technology activity: 'Everyday and academic thinking: implications for
Piaget, 1. (1928), 'Judgement and Reasoning in the
learning and problem- solving', Journal of
• Design and technology products - Child', New York, Harcourt Press.
Curriculum Studies, VoI.l9, pp.123·133.
Plowden Report (1967) 'Children and Their
• In addition, individual records of Brown, AL. and Reeve R.A (1989) Brandwidths of
Schools'London. HMSO.
each pupil's experience will be Competence in Development and Learning:
Conflicts or Congruence?, Lawrence Erlbaum. Scarth, 1. et. aI. (1986) 'Questioning ORACLE: an
needed. Each record will require assessment of ORACLE's analysis of teacher's
Brown, A.L. and Campoine, 1.C. (1979), 'Inducing
updating every half-term and questions and a comment on questioning ORACLE',
Flexible Thinking: The Problem of Access', in M.P.
should include: Educational Research, VoI.28, pp.174- 189.
Friedman, (Eds) Intelligence and Learning. New
York, Plenum. Sellwood, P. (1970) 'The Development of Design
• Brief information about the product Departments in Secondary Schools' Dissertation;
developed, with an indication of Bruner, 1.S. (1978) 'The role of dialogue in
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whether it is an artefact, system or and Lovelt, 1.M. (Ed.) The Child's Conception of Sellwood, P. (1989) 'Progression and Development
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Bruner, 1.S. (1965) The Process of Education
When considering cross-curricular Problem Solving 5-13.
Cambridge, Harvard University Press.
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Sellwood, P. and Adams, R. (1990) 'Recording
importance to remember that evaluation Assessment and Evaluation The SCSST/DTI
W.W. Norton & Co. New York.
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of such activities involves more than
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